Sampling Techniques

& Samples Types

The process of selecting a number of individuals
for a study in such a way that the individuals
represent the larger group from which they were
selected
 STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

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A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully
representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)

 Thesampling frame: A list of all elements or

other units containing the elements in a
population.

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Population…

…the larger group from which

individuals are selected to
participate in a study
Target population
A set of elements larger than or different
from the population sampled and to which
the researcher would
like to generalize
study findings.
 To gather data about the population in order
to make an inference that can be generalized
to the population
Stages in the
Define the target population
Selection
of a Sample
Select a sampling frame

Determine if a probability or nonprobability

sampling method will be chosen

Plan procedure for selecting

sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork
 Purpose – to identify participants from
whom to seek some information
 Issues
◦ Size of the sample
◦ Method of selecting the sample
 Important issues
◦ Representation – the extent to which the
sample is representative of the population
◦ Generalization – the extent to which the
results of the study can be reasonably
extended from the sample to the population
◦ Sampling error
The chance occurrence that a randomly selected
sample is not representative of the population
due to errors inherent in the sampling technique
 Important issues (continued)
◦ Sampling bias
 Some aspect of the researcher’s sampling
design creates bias in the data.
◦ Three fundamental steps
 Identify a population
 Define the sample size
 Select the sample
 Non-
Probability
samples probability
samples
 Known as probability sampling
 Best method to achieve a representative
sample
 Four techniques
1. Random
2. Stratified random
3. Cluster
4. Systematic
1. Random sampling
Selecting subjects so that all members of a population have an
equal and independent chance of being selected
 Advantages
1. Easy to conduct
2. High probability of achieving a representative sample
3. Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures
 Disadvantages
1. Identification of all members of the population can be
difficult
2. Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult
 Random sampling (continued)
◦ Selection process
 Identify and define the population
 Determine the desired sample size
 List all members of the population
 Assign all members on the list a consecutive number
 Select an arbitrary starting point from a table of
random numbers and read the appropriate number of
digits
2. Stratified random sampling
◦ The population is divided into two or
more groups called strata, according to
some criterion, such as geographic
location, grade level, age, or income,
and subsamples are randomly selected
from each strata.
 Stratified random sampling (continued)
◦ Advantages
 More accurate sample
 Can be used for both proportional and non-
proportional samples
 Representation of subgroups in the sample
◦ Disadvantages
 Identification of all members of the population can
be difficult
 Identifying members of all subgroups can be
difficult
 Stratified random sampling (continued)
◦ Selection process
 Identify and define the population
 Determine the desired sample size
 Identify the variable and subgroups (i.e., strata) for
which you want to guarantee appropriate
representation
 Classify all members of the population as members
of one of the identified subgroups
3. Cluster sampling
 The process of randomly selecting intact groups, not
individuals, within the defined population sharing similar
characteristics
 Clusters are locations within which an intact group of
members of the population can be found
 Examples
 Neighborhoods
 School districts
 Schools
 Classrooms
 Cluster sampling (continued)
◦ Advantages
 Very useful when populations are large and spread over a
large geographic region
 Convenient and expedient
 Do not need the names of everyone in the population
◦ Disadvantages
 Representation is likely to become an issue
 Cluster sampling (continued)
◦ Selection process
 Identify and define the population
 Determine the desired sample size
 Identify and define a logical cluster
 List all clusters that make up the population of
clusters
 Estimate the average number of population members
per cluster
 Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing
the sample size by the estimated size of a cluster
 Randomly select the needed numbers of clusters
 Include in the study all individuals in each selected
cluster
4. Systematic sampling
◦ Selecting every Kth subject from a list of the
members of the population
◦ Advantage
 Very easily done
◦ Disadvantages
 subgroups
 Some members of the population don’t have an equal
chance of being included
 Systematic sampling (continued)
◦ Selection process
 Identify and define the population
 Determine the desired sample size
 Obtain a list of the population
 Determine what K is equal to by dividing the size of
the population by the desired sample size
 Start at some random place in the population list
 Take every Kth individual on the list
 According to Uma Sekaran in Research Method for
Business 4th Edition, Roscoe (1975) proposed the rules of
thumb for determining sample size where sample size
larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most
research, and the minimum size of sample should be 30%
of the population.
 The size of the sample depends on a number of factors and
the researchers have to give the statistically information
before they can get an answer. For example, these
information like (confidence level, standard deviation,
margin of error and population size) to determine the
sample size.
Non-probability samples

(Random): allows a
procedure governed by chance
to select the sample; controls
for sampling bias.
1. Convenience sampling

2. Purposive sampling

3. Quota sampling
1. Convenience sampling:
the process of including whoever happens to
be available at the time
…called “accidental” or “haphazard”
sampling
disadvantages…

…difficulty in determining how much

of the effect (dependent variable)
results from the cause (independent
variable)
 2. Purposive sampling:
the process whereby the researcher selects a
sample based on experience or knowledge of
the group to be sampled
…called “judgment” sampling
disadvantages…

…potential for inaccuracy in the researcher’s

criteria and resulting sample selections

3. Quota sampling

the process whereby a researcher

gathers data from individuals possessing
identified characteristics and quotas
disadvantages…

…people who are less accessible (more

difficult to contact, more reluctant to

participate) are under-represented

It is when you don't know the best people to
study because of the unfamiliarity of the topic
or the complexity of events. So you ask
participants during interviews to suggest other
individuals to be sampled.
 It is the researcher’s ethical responsibility to
safeguard the story teller by maintaining the
understood purpose of the research…
 The relationship should be based on trust between
the researcher and participants.
 Inform participants of the purpose of the study.
 Being respectful of the research site, reciprocity,
using ethical interview practices, maintaining
privacy, and cooperating with participants.

Patton (2002) offered a checklist of general ethical

issues to consider, such as:
 reciprocity
 assessment of risk
 confidentiality,
 informed consent
 and data access and ownership.