People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University M’Hamed BOUGARA – Boumerdes

Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Department of Power and Control

Final Year Project Report Presented in Partial Fulfilment of

the Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER
In Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Option: Power

Title:
Design a Protection Scheme Using ETAP

Presented by:
- CHEBOUB Mohamed Elbachir

Supervisor:

Pr.BOUCHAHDANE Mohamed

Registration Number:…..…../2023
 Abstract
This master report focuses on the design of a comprehensive protection scheme for industrial
distribution systems, with a specific emphasis on the SCMI “GICA” factory. Using ETAP software,
the report aims to develop and simulate an efficient protection scheme. The primary objective is to
improve selectivity by replacing the definite time curve with the Inverse Definite Minimum Time
(IDMT) curve, combining time selectivity and current-based methods. This approach effectively
addresses challenges related to transient response and undesired tripping during high-current faults,
particularly between successive short lines. Furthermore, the thesis proposes innovative solutions to
mitigate the motor contribution during short circuits. The protection scheme design includes the
meticulous selection and calibration of protective relays and current transformers (CTs) for various
electrical elements such as transformers, motors, and busbars. Through extensive testing and validation
using ETAP simulation, the proposed protection scheme and solutions demonstrate their effectiveness
and reliability. This research significantly contributes to the field of industrial distribution system
protection scheme design, particularly in terms of selectivity improvement, transient response
handling, and motor contribution mitigation. The successful implementation and simulation of the
proposed protection scheme highlight its practicality and efficiency in real-world applications. The
findings provide valuable insights for professionals involved in designing protection schemes for
similar industrial distribution systems.

I
 Dedication
Every challenging work needs self-efforts as
well as
guidance of Elders those who were very close to
our
heart.
My humble effort I dedicate to my sweet and loving
Mother and my family members,
Whose affection, love, encouragement and prays of day
and
night made me able to get such success and honor.
Along with all my friends, hardworking and respected
Teachers.

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious and the Most
Merciful
Alhamdulillah, all praises to Allah for the strengths
and the blessings he gave us to
complete this project.

I would like to express our deepest and sincere

gratitude to our project Supervisor Dr. M.BOUCHAHDANE,
We have been very fortunate and honored to work and
study under your supervision, I would like also to thank
engineer Mr. S.NAYEB and PHD student Mr. O.MERABET and
other teachers for their precious help during our work.
Thank you very much.

Last but not least, we are infinitely grateful to our

family members, particularly our parents for their
patience, unwavering support, continuous
encouragement, and belief in us throughout our whole
lives. We would have never made it this far without them
beside us every step of the way.

III
 List of figure
Figure 1-REF615 protective relay from ABB ................................................................................................. 3
Figure 2-standard ratios of multi-ratio current Transformers ........................................................................... 4
Figure 3-single line diagram of a generic protection system ........................................................................... 4
Figure 4-TCC characteristics for Fuse ............................................................................................................ 7
Figure 5-TCC characteristics for Definite-time relay ...................................................................................... 7
Figure 6-TCC characteristics for Inverse-time relay ....................................................................................... 8
Figure 7-operation principle of the directional element ................................................................................... 9
Figure 8-diffrential protection principle ....................................................................................................... 10
Figure 9-percentage differential relay characteristics .................................................................................... 12
Figure 10-power transformer differential protection scheme ......................................................................... 13
Figure 11-conventional under voltage protection curve ................................................................................ 14
Figure 12-concept of selectivity ................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 13-Illustrative example of a) absence and b) presence of actual ......................................................... 15
Figure 14-Illustrative example of “Overload” and “Short-circuit” zones ....................................................... 16
Figure 15- Time current curves .................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 16 –TCCs of current selectivity ......................................................................................................... 19
Figure 17– TCCs of time selectivity ............................................................................................................. 20
Figure 18-transformer protection scheme ..................................................................................................... 22
Figure 19-radial feeder protection coordination ............................................................................................ 24
Figure 20-parallel feeder protection ............................................................................................................. 25
Figure 21-ring feeder protection coordination .............................................................................................. 25
Figure 22 distrubtion system topology ......................................................................................................... 28
Figure 23 MV/LV substation ....................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 24 -medium voltage switchgear ......................................................................................................... 30
Figure 25-26MVA distribution transformer .................................................................................................. 36
Figure 26-radial distribution system topology .............................................................................................. 39
Figure 27-ring main distribution system topology ........................................................................................ 39
Figure 28-interconnected distribution system topology ................................................................................. 40
Figure 29-60Kv substation of SCMI factory................................................................................................. 44
Figure 30-protection scheme of secondary side of 60/5.5Kv transformer ...................................................... 45
Figure 31- protection scheme of medium voltage feeder ............................................................................... 46
Figure 32-single diagram of SCMI factory ................................................................................................... 47
Figure 33-“cru” zone single diagram ............................................................................................................ 48
Figure 34-4Mw motor protection scheme ..................................................................................................... 49
Figure 35-protection scheme of 5.5/0.4Kv transformer ................................................................................. 50
Figure 36-damage curve of transformer........................................................................................................ 52
Figure 37-excel sheet of overcurrent / earth fault relay ................................................................................. 56
Figure 38-control circuit of MV CB ............................................................................................................ 59
Figure 39-edit mode..................................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 40-modify tools bar........................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 41-study tools bar ............................................................................................................................. 64
Figure 42-transmission line info section ....................................................................................................... 65
Figure 43-library of transmission line........................................................................................................... 66
Figure 44-impedance section ....................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 45-power grid rating section ............................................................................................................. 67

IV
Figure 46-rating section of busbar ................................................................................................................ 68
Figure 47-transformer rating section ............................................................................................................ 69
Figure 48-transformer sizing ........................................................................................................................ 69
Figure 49-induction motor section................................................................................................................ 70
Figure 50-single diagram of SCMI ............................................................................................................... 71
Figure 51-load flow analysis ........................................................................................................................ 71
Figure 52-short circuit summary .................................................................................................................. 72
Figure 53-short circuit report ....................................................................................................................... 72
Figure 54-Short circuit characteristics .......................................................................................................... 73
Figure 55-potential transformer parameters .................................................................................................. 74
Figure 56-current transformer parameters .................................................................................................... 74
Figure 57-MiCOM P446 input/output devices .............................................................................................. 75
Figure 58-MiCOM P446 phase overcurrent setting ...................................................................................... 76
Figure 59-MiCOM P446 ground overcurrent setting .................................................................................... 76
Figure 60-MiCOM P446 negative sequence overcurrent setting .................................................................. 77
Figure 61-relay curve versus damage curve of TL ........................................................................................ 77
Figure 62-under/overvoltage relay setting .................................................................................................... 78
Figure 63-protection scheme of TL .............................................................................................................. 79
Figure 64-relay protection of 63/5.5Kv transformer...................................................................................... 80
Figure 65-RET615 overcurrent setting ......................................................................................................... 81
Figure 66-RET615 overcurrent setting ......................................................................................................... 82
Figure 67-transformer protection scheme ..................................................................................................... 83
Figure 68-sizing of low voltage CB .............................................................................................................. 84
Figure 69-relay protection of 5.5Kv busbar .................................................................................................. 85
Figure 70-SEPAM S10 overcurrent setting .................................................................................................. 86
Figure 71-relay protection of 5.5Kv induction motor .................................................................................... 87
Figure 72-protection scheme of MV motor................................................................................................... 87
Figure 73-fuse-thermal relay selection for LV motor .................................................................................... 88
Figure 74-Low/low voltage selectivity ......................................................................................................... 89
Figure 75-meduim/low voltage selectivity .................................................................................................... 90
Figure 76-medium/medium voltage selectivity ............................................................................................. 91
Figure 77-earth fault selectivity.................................................................................................................... 92
Figure 78-time selectivity ............................................................................................................................ 92
Figure 79-current selectivity ........................................................................................................................ 93
Figure 80-Star Auto Evaluation.................................................................................................................... 93
Figure 81-apply three phase fault on TL ....................................................................................................... 95
Figure 82-sequence of operation of faulted TL ............................................................................................. 95
Figure 83-sequence of operation of phase to ground fault of TL .................................................................. 96
Figure 84-fault inside protection zone of transformer ................................................................................... 97
Figure 85-sequence of operation of fault inside protection zone of transformer............................................. 97
Figure 86-fault outside protection zone of transformer ................................................................................. 98
Figure 87-sequence of operation Figure5.4 fault inside protection zone of transformer ................................. 98
Figure 88-sequence of operation of line to line fault ..................................................................................... 99
Figure 89-three phase fault in LV motor .................................................................................................... 100
Figure 90-sequence of operation of three phase fault in LV motor .............................................................. 100
Figure 91-sequence of operation of phase to ground fault in LV motor ...................................................... 101
Figure 92-three phase fault in 5.5/0.4Kv transformer .................................................................................. 101
Figure 93-sequence of operation three phase fault in 5.5/0.4Kv transformer ............................................... 102
Figure 94-sequence of operation three phase fault in 5.5/0.4Kv transformer ............................................... 102
Figure 95-phase to ground fault in MV motor ............................................................................................ 103
Figure 96-sequence of operation of phase to ground fault in MV motor ..................................................... 104
Figure 97-sequence of operation of three phase fault in MV motor ............................................................ 105

V
Figure 98-sequence of operation before adding current limiter ................................................................... 105
Figure 99-short circuit analysis with the effect of motor contribution ......................................................... 106
Figure 100-series reactor parameters .......................................................................................................... 107
Figure 101-sequence of operation after adding series reactor ................................................................... 107
Figure 102-VFD parameters....................................................................................................................... 109
Figure 103-sequence of operation after VFD .............................................................................................. 109
Figure 104-short circuit analysis after adding VFD .................................................................................... 110

VI
 List of abbreviation

ANSI-American National Standards Institute

CB-Circuit Breaker
CT-Current Transformer
CTI-Coordination Time Interval
DPZ-Differentiel Protection Zone
IDMT-Inverse Definite Minimum Time
IEC-International Electrotechnical Commission
OFAF -Oil Forced Air Forced
OFWF -Oil Forced Water Forced
ONAF- Oil Natural Air Forced
ONAN- Oil Natural Air Natural
ONWF -Oil Natural Water Forced
TDS- Time Dial Setting
VT-Voltage Transformer

VII
 Table of content

Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................... I
Dedication ................................................................................................................................................ II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................................... III
List of figure .......................................................................................................................................... VII
List of abbreviation .............................................................................................................................. VIII
Table of content ................................................................................................................................... VIII
General introduction ............................................................................................................................. XII
Chapter one:Theoretical background ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 2
1.2Definition : ......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3Characteristics of Distribution system protection ............................................................................ 2
1.4Structure of Distribution system protection .................................................................................... 2
1.5Overcurrent protection ....................................................................................................................... 5
1.5.1Conventional overcurrent protection : ........................................................................................... 5
1.5.2Directional overcurrent protection ................................................................................................. 8
1.6Differential protection ....................................................................................................................... 9
1.7Undervoltage protection .................................................................................................................. 12
1.7Selectivity(discrimination) .............................................................................................................. 13
1.7.1Overview ....................................................................................................................................... 13
1.7.2Overload and short-circuit zone :................................................................................................. 15
1.7.3Time-current selectivity technique .............................................................................................. 15
1.7.4Current selectivity technique ........................................................................................................ 17
1.7.5Time selectivity technique ........................................................................................................... 18
1.8Protection scheme for power transformer ...................................................................................... 19
1.9Motor protection scheme ................................................................................................................. 20
1.10Feeder protection scheme: ............................................................................................................. 22
1.11Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 24
Chapter two : Generality on distribution system................................................................................. 25
2.1inroduction........................................................................................................................................ 26
2.2Definition: ........................................................................................................................................ 26

VIII
2.3Components of Distribution System : ............................................................................................ 27
2.3.1Substation ...................................................................................................................................... 27
2.3.2Feeders ........................................................................................................................................... 34
1.3.3Distributor ..................................................................................................................................... 34
2.3.4Distribution Transformers : .......................................................................................................... 34
2.4Type of connections in Distribution System : ................................................................................ 37
2.5conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 39
Chapter three : Presenting SCMI factory network & philosophy of protection scheme .................. 40
3.1Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 41
3.2High voltage substation ................................................................................................................... 41
3.3Medium/Low voltage substation ..................................................................................................... 43
3.4Importance Damage curve............................................................................................................... 49
3.5Overcurrent relay setting ................................................................................................................. 50
3.5.1CT selection .................................................................................................................................. 50
3.5.2Pickup value .................................................................................................................................. 51
3.5.3TDS selection ................................................................................................................................ 51
3.5.4Advantages of inverse curve over definite time curve ............................................................... 52
3.4.5Instantaneous overcurrent relay ................................................................................................... 52
3.5Undervoltage /Overvoltage relay setting ........................................................................................ 54
3.6Motor contribution ........................................................................................................................... 54
3.7relays communication and control circuit of CB ........................................................................... 56
3.8Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 57
Chapter four : Implementing the protection scheme in ETAP softwar .............................................. 57
4.1Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 58
4.2Consideration ................................................................................................................................... 58
4.3Presentation of the ETAP software ................................................................................................. 58
4.4Replicating the data ......................................................................................................................... 61
4.5Short Circuit analysis ....................................................................................................................... 68
4.6Protection scheme ............................................................................................................................ 70
4.6.1Transmission line protection ........................................................................................................ 70
4.6.2Transformer protection ................................................................................................................. 76
4.6.3Feeder protection .......................................................................................................................... 81
4.6.4Motor protection ........................................................................................................................... 82
4.65Selectivity ....................................................................................................................................... 86
4.6.1Low/medium voltage selectivity .................................................................................................. 86
4.6.2 Medium/medium voltage selectivity .......................................................................................... 87
4.6.3Medium/high voltage selectivity ................................................................................................. 88

IX
4.7Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 90
Chapter five : Results & discussion ..................................................................................................... 91
5.1Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 92
5.2Protection results .............................................................................................................................. 92
5.3Selectivity results ............................................................................................................................. 96
5.4Motor contribution ......................................................................................................................... 102
5.4Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 107
General conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 108
Refrences ............................................................................................................................................. 110

X
 General introduction

Since the inception of electrical grids, power system protection has played an indispensable role as a
vigilant watchdog, guarding against any abnormal conditions that may occur within the system. It is
widely recognized as the most critical aspect of the entire power system, as failures in other subsystems
can be mitigated if the protection system operates effectively. Conversely, a failure in the protection
system itself can lead to severe losses, making it crucial to design and implement a robust protection
scheme.
The protection system consists of three key components: instrument transformers for accurate
measurement of current and voltage, circuit breakers as actuators to open circuits, and the protective
relay, which serves as the heart of the system. Protective relays are fundamental to the power protection
system, and designing and applying a proper protection scheme relies heavily on their selection,
coordination, and configuration, along with the associated current transformer (CT) class and circuit
breaker (CB) sizing.
This master report focuses on explaining the process of designing a proper and robust protection
scheme for the SCMI factory. It is organized into five chapters, each serving a specific purpose to
achieve the research objectives.
Chapter one provides a theoretical background on various protection functions, such as overcurrent
and differential protection, and introduces the concept of selectivity. It explores different selectivity
techniques and methodologies, which play a crucial role in designing an effective protection scheme.
Chapter two presents a general overview of the distribution system, discussing its components,
structure, and characteristics. Understanding the system's architecture is essential for developing a
protection scheme that caters to its specific requirements and challenges.
Chapter three delves into the methods employed for designing the protection scheme. It explores
different protection philosophies, coordination techniques, and relay settings, with a focus on
addressing the SCMI factory's unique needs.
Chapter four focuses on the implementation of the designed protection scheme using ETAP software.
It allows for comprehensive simulation and analysis to validate the scheme's performance and
effectiveness in various fault scenarios.
Lastly, chapter five presents and discusses the results obtained from the implementation and
simulation of the protection scheme. It evaluates the scheme's performance in mitigating faults and
abnormal conditions, highlighting its strengths and areas for potential improvement.

XI
Chapter one:Theoretical background

1
 Distribution system protection :
1.1introduction

In this chapter we will talk about distribution system protection and it’s characteristics ,
components and structure After that we see main protections function like overcurrent
protection and differential protection and philosophy after each function.
In second part of chapter we will talk about selectivity and how to set protective relay in
order to achieve relays coordination.

1.2Definition :

Distribution system protection are essential to ensure the safety and reliability of power
delivery to customers. They are designed to detect and isolate faults, prevent equipment
damage, minimize service interruptions, and coordinate with other protection devices

1.3Characteristics of Distribution system protection

The following requirements define a protective system:

- Reliability: The capacity of a security system to function properly. Dependability—the ability
of a protection system to unquestionably operate during failures for which it is responsible—
and security—the capacity of a protection system to avoid erroneous operation during faults for
which it is not responsible—are the two components of reliability [8] [9].
Speed: The capacity of a protection system to eliminate a fault as quickly as feasible in order
to reduce through-fault damage to the apparatus.
-Selectivity: A protection system's capacity to only disconnect the smallest portion of the
network required for fault clearing in order to maintain service continuity for the greatest
number of customers.
Low cost is preferred.

1.4Structure of Distribution system protection

A transmission or distribution network's primary protection system component is a
safeguarding relay. The protective relay is described by IEEE as "a device whose job is to detect
to identify any abnormal or dangerous power system situations, such as broken lines or
equipment, and to start the necessary management measures. Considering how they were built,
the relays
categorized as being used for power system protection include:
- Electromechanical Relays: These relays, which have electrical, magnetic, and mechanical
components, were the first to be widely used in industry. They function by producing a
mechanical force that moves the relay contacts.
- Digital relays: These relays sample the analog input signals and generate digital signals using
an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Incorporating digital impulses into a

microprocessor, which contains the protection algorithm(s) and processes the input data to
produce a digital output.
2
Numerical relays: Actually, these are modern digital relays with enhanced processing and
communication capabilities. It is possible to classify numerical relays as intelligent electronic
devices (IEDs).

Increased reliability, the capability of self-diagnosis for internal failures, the support of multiple
protection functions, the adaptive protection feature (modification of protection settings
depending on the system conditions), and the capacity to create records of events are some of
the standout features of digital and numerical relays.

Figure 1-REF615 protective relay from ABB

A protection system also contains a current transformer (CT) and/or a voltage transformer
(VT), in addition to the protective relay. It turns out that they are step-down protection
transformers, which are necessary to shield the protection equipment from the high AC currents
and voltages of the power system and provide the relay with suitable (lower-magnitude)
analogue inputs. Since current measurements are frequently required in a protective system, a
CT is frequently necessary. On the other hand, a VT is required when the protection principle
being used calls for voltage measurements (such as in undervoltage, distance, or directed
overcurrent protection). The protected system's conditions determine whether to use a CT or
VT ratio.First of all, the current rating of the CT’s primary winding is chosen so that [1]:
i) The primary winding of the CT is being used at a higher current than the maximum load
current.
ii) in order to prevent measurement inaccuracies, the short-circuit current flowing through the
CT's primary winding cannot cause the transformer's core to become saturated.
The secondary winding of a CT has a specified current rating of 1 A or 5 A. It should be noted
that the CT ratios are uniformed in accordance with the pertinent IEEE [26] and International

3
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards. Assuming a secondary rating of 5 A, a few
standard ratios of multi-ratio CTs (MRCTs) are described in Table.
The nominal voltage of the protected network is used to determine the voltage rating for the
primary winding of the VT. The secondary of the VT has a standard voltage rating of 100

Figure 2-standard ratios of multi-ratio current Transformers

A protective relay can decide when and whether it needs to activate to fix a defect, but it cannot
isolate the problematic area of the network. A circuit breaker (CB) in a protective system is
now necessary in this situation. The CB is placed in a way that allows it to influence the primary
circuit under protection. The CB opens and breaks the circuit after receiving a trip signal from
a relay that identifies a failure. Depending on the technology used by the CB, the interruption
normally happens between 2 and 5 cycles [9].
A CB can trip the three phases simultaneously (three-pole tripping) or only one phase.
Depending on the type of fault occurring (for example, for single-pole tripping), the protected
circuit may trip.The general structure of a protection system including all the above-described
elements (relay, CT/VT and CB) is illustrated in the single-line diagram of Fig11 [2]

Figure 3-single line diagram of a generic protection system

Last but not least, we need to talk about the idea of primary and secondary protection.

4
 The security strategy that is primarily in charge of securing a portion or component of the
network is referred to as primary protection. In other words, the primary protection mechanism
should be activated first to fix the fault if it occurs in this section or element.
The protection measure [9] that is programmed to take effect if the primary protection measure
fails for any reason is referred to as secondary or backup protection.

Security used as a backup can be local or remote. Local backup protection would be possible
by implementing a second protection system inside the same substation. This approach is
frequently employed, although it obviously increases the cost of the protection program.
Breaker-failure (BF) protection, which opens the appropriate nearby CB(s) to isolate a defective
network portion in the event that the primary CB fails to open, is another form of local backup
protection.

1.5Overcurrent protection

1.5.1Conventional overcurrent protection :

Fuse, overcurrent relays (OCRs), and overcurrent reclosers/reclosing relays are the most
popular types of protection for MV power distribution networks under the conventional
overcurrent protection theory.
OCRs (Overcurrent Relays) or reclosers are used to protect the main distribution feeder as
well as occasionally provide lateral protection. In contrast, because of their affordability, fuses
are frequently utilized for lateral protection in medium-voltage (MV) distribution networks.
The element that makes up a fuse is heated by the short-circuit current (ISC) that passes across
it. The element melts when the current exceeds a certain value for a predetermined period of
time. It is anticipated that choosing the right fuse will quickly cut off the protected circuit by
melting the element and getting rid of the accompanying arc. The inverse time-overcurrent
characteristic can be used to describe how a fuse operates. The operating time decreases (and
vice versa) as the current flowing through the fuse increases. The minimum melting (MM) and
total clearing (TC) curves make up the fuse characteristic. The fuse melts after the amount of
time corresponding to the point where the MM curve intersects the root-mean-square (RMS)
value of the current when it reaches a certain level.
the arc is extinguished, and the fault is completely cleared after the time indicated by the
intersection point with the TC curve. [1]

The type of the fuse and its current rating, which sets its minimum intersecting current, both
affect the precise form of that feature. Fast-blow (K-type) or slow-blow (T-type) fuses are
frequently utilized in MV distribution networks [10].In comparison to T-type fuses of the same
rating, K-type fuses typically have shorter clearing periods. How two succeeding fuses
communicate with one another is depicted in Fig. 1.8a. For this reason, taking a proper CTI into
account, the TC curve of the downstream fuse must be lower than the MM curve of the upstream
fuse (at least for the projected short-circuit current range). In general, a fuse is selected to work
in harmony with the downstream protective measures and not melt under normal load levels.
The most popular method for safeguarding primary feeders in MV distribution networks is
OCRs. If the RMS current detected by these relays exceeds a certain value for a certain time
delay, they are meant to send a trip order to their companion CB. The protection engineer sets
both of these thresholds in advance. OCRs' operational characteristics can be divided into
definite-time and inverse-time categories. [8]
A definite-time overcurrent element (applying a definite-time characteristic) operates
based on two programmable settings: a pickup current setting Ipickup and a time delay setting td.

5
Once the current measured by the relay exceeds Ipickup (which is set greater than the maximum
normal load current) a trip command is issued after a time duration equal to td expires. If td is
set equal to zero, the relay operates instantaneously, as only the inherent response time of the
relay (less than 50 ms [2] ) must expire in order for a trip command to be issued. The basic
drawback of definite-time overcurrent elements is that a single fixed time delay setting is only
applicable. For this reason, they are not flexible in achieving a good compromise between
selectivity and speed. To put it another way, if a fairly long time delay is specified for
coordinating with the protection mechanisms of surrounding protection zones, the same time
delay will also be used when faults occur in the relay's primary protection zone. the coordination
of two definite-time overcurrent properties while taking into account a suitable CTI. [8]
OCRs employ inverse time features to produce a more controllable coordination with adjacent
protection measures. Although a single curve is used in this instance, the fundamental theory
behind these qualities is still quite similar to that of a fuse. [3]:
with dashed line, an inverse-time overcurrent element is often combined with a definite
time (instantaneous) overcurrent element, in order to achieve definite-time-delayed
(instantaneous) fault clearance in case of severe faults close to the relay (resulting in high For
significant short-circuit currents, it is possible to quickly coordinate with an upstream relay.
Two coordinated inverse time-overcurrent characteristics are shown in Fig.
In the time-current diagram, the characteristic of the former (either definite-time or inverse-
time) must be set above the TC characteristic of the latter, at least during the expected short-
circuit current range during lateral faults, in order to coordinate an OCR with a downstream
lateral fuse.
Given that CB-interruption or other relay-related delays do not occur when the fault is cleared
by a fuse, it should be noted that the CTI considered in this scenario may be lower than the CTI
considered for relay-relay coordination. [11]
All of the information above will be summed up in the following numbers:
features of overcurrent protection for:
(a)TCC characteristics for Fuse :

6
 Figure 4-TCC characteristics for Fuse

Figure 5-TCC characteristics for Definite-time relay

7
 Figure 6-TCC characteristics for Inverse-time relay

Commercial OCRs frequently have separate overcurrent components (either definite-time or

inverse-time) for phase and ground faults, it should be highlighted. These components'
functional differences include the former's monitoring of phase currents and the latter's
monitoring of residual current 3I0 or zero-sequence current I0. [2]
The major feeder of an overhead distribution network is often protected by one or more
reclosing relays and/or pole-mounted reclosers, as opposed to a standard OCR. These reclosing
relays and pole-mounted reclosers shall be collectively referred to as overcurrent reclosers or
just reclosers from now on. Reclosers are functionally equivalent to OCRs, but they additionally
have the capacity to carry out automatic reclosing operations. To put it another way, a recloser
starts a set series of interruptions and re-energizations in the protected circuit when it detects a
defect, and it keeps doing so until the fault is no longer there. After performing these steps, if
the fault still exists, the recloser enters a "lockout" condition, permanently cutting off the circuit.
Reclosers are used in classic overhead distribution networks because the vast majority of
failures there (80–95%) are transient, lasting only a few cycles or seconds. As a result, the
opening-reclosing process avoids the needless permanent disconnect of customers. [8]

1.5.2Directional overcurrent protection

By using traditional (non-directional) overcurrent protection, network segments may be
disconnected needlessly since directional overcurrent protection is only implemented when
bidirectional short-circuit-current flow is detected in the protected network. This could occur
in networks with various power sources, including meshed and ring-type networks.
The same functional features as traditional OCRs are present in directional overcurrent relays
(DOCRs). The distinction in this instance is because the relay additionally has a directing
element that controls the short-circuit current's direction. Whenever the overcurrent component
and the directional element asserts, then a trip command is issued for the CB. The directional
element determines the fault direction by examining the phase angle of an operating
quantity,with respect to a polarizing quantity [4]. The operating quantity is the measured short-
circuit current Iop, whereas the measured voltage Vpol is usually set as the polarizing quantity. In

8
phase directional overcurrent elements, it is common to use the short-circuit current phasor of
the faulted phase as Iop and a proper phase-phase voltage phasor as Vpol. Specifically, the phase-
phase voltage phasor which does not involve the faulted phase is used in each case For example,
if the phase-a current phasor is used as Iop, the b-c voltage phasor is used as Vpol. This practice
reduces the possibility of a considerably low Vpol magnitude during phase faults, which would
be insufficient for reliable fault direction determination. In case of ground faults, ground
directional overcurrent elements can be applied, using the opposite residual voltage phasor -
3V0 and the residual current phasor 3I0, or the respective zero-sequence phasors -V0 and I0, as
Vpol and Iop, respectively. [2]
First, an operate and a non-operate zone are defined, each corresponding to half of the plane,
to demonstrate the operation concept of the directional element. The line separating these two
areas is known as the zero-torque line, and the line parallel to the zero-torque line is known as
the maximum-torque line. However, next-generation relays have also embraced this phrase,
which was originally used for electromechanical relays.
When Iop is in the operate zone, the directional element decides a forward fault; however,
when Iop is in the non-operate zone, it determines a reverse fault. We must be noted that Vpol
determines the position of Iop. The maximum-torque line is moved with regard to Vpol, in
order to accurately define the operational zone of the directional element. Maximum-torque
angle (MTA) is the term used to describe the shift angle. The moment Iop departs from Vpol
by MTA, the operational torque reaches its maximum. Here is where the directional element's
minimum pickup is defined. The maximum-torque line leading Vpol, common values for MTA
in phase directed overcurrent elements are 30o and 45o. An MTA of 60o Vpol, on the other
hand [2] .
For determining the direction of ground faults, current polarization can be also applied. In
that case, 3I0 or I0 is used as the polarizing quantity. The MTA typically applied in this case is
zero, which means that maximum operating torque occurs when the residual current is in phase
with the short-circuit current Iop of the faulted phase. [2]

Figure 7-operation principle of the directional element

In general, correctly defining the operate zone of the directional element depends on the

9
fault/system conditions. Hence all the possible fault cases in the protected network must be
considered, in order to identify the expected range of short-circuit current phase angles. Based
on this information, the best possible compromise should be made when determining MTA,
so as for the direction of all the expected faults to be determined correctly. It is noted that,
besides MTA, the angle limits of the operate zone can be also modified in modern DOCRs, by
properly adjusting the zero-torque lines. [5, 2]

1.6Differential protection
Fig. 16 illustrates the basic operation principle of current differential protection, assum-
ing a two-terminal differential protection zone (DPZ). CTs (CT1 and CT2) are installed at both
terminals of the protected element (e.g. generator/motor, transformer, bus, or line), accompa
nied by CBs (not depicted for illustration simplicity). A current differential relay continuously
measures the currents flowing at the terminals of the DPZ (Idiff,1 and Idiff,2) and calculates their
vectorial sum. Since the currents at the two terminals would flow in the same direction under
normal system conditions or external faults (i.e. faults outside of the DPZ), the aforementioned
vectorial sum should be zero (or nearly zero) according to Kirchhoff's laws. In contrast, because
the currents at the two terminals would flow in the opposite directions during internal faults
(i.e., faults within the DPZ), this vectorial sum should be higher than zero. The differential relay
detects an internal failure in the latter scenario and trips the CBs at the DPZ terminals.
According to the convention used here, the current entering the DPZ is positive whereas the
current leaving the DPZ is negative. This is practically accomplished by making the right
choice.
Based on the above, a differential protection element in its simplest form should operate
when [6]:

where Idiff,op is the operating differential current and Idiff,p is the pickup differential current.

Figure 8-diffrential protection principle

The pickup differential current Idiff,p cannot be practically set equal to zero. This is because,

10
a differential current might appear even during normal system conditions, or during an external
fault, due to the following reasons [6] :
-Current measuring errors: Due to CT transformation, false differential current may arise.
errors, whether they occur under normal or fault conditions. CT saturation may result in an
incorrect differential, particularly when failures are accompanied by a significant short-circuit
current. operation of the relay under external faults.

-Intermediate outfeed/infeed: The presence of intermediate loads or generators inside a DPZ

may result in a differential current during normal system conditions or external faults.
-Line charging current: The capacitance of a line results in the flow of charging current,
which appears as an erroneous differential current in the differential protection scheme
protecting this line.
-Excitation current: The current flowing into the excitation branch of a power transformer
produces an erroneous differential current for the differential relay protecting the trans-
former.
Actual differential relays do not operate solely based onInstead, they operate based
on a characteristic, which is formed by Idiff,op and restraint current Idiff,res. Referring to the ex-
ample of Fig., modern numerical differential relays commonly define Idiff,res as:

The differential relays that operate according to the aforementioned theory are known as
"percentage or biased differential relays." In Fig. 1.12a, the applied characteristic is depicted.
On the Idiff,op - Idiff,res plane, this characteristic defines an operational zone and a restraint
region as indicated. As long as the measured Idiff,op is followed by an Idiff,res, a fault within
the operational region is detected, and the differential relay trips. It is evident that as through
current (represented by Idiff,res) grows, the differential relay's pickup threshold rises as well.
This offers excellent security against significant short-circuit currents that could result in CT
saturation and erroneous relay operation, as well as high sensitivity during normal system

11
conditions and internal defects accompanied by modest short-circuit currents. [14]

Figure 9-percentage differential relay characteristics

Based on the above-described characteristic, the differential relay operates when [6]:

where kbias is a bias factor which determines the slope of the characteristic. In this case, the
Idiff,p setting determines the starting point of the characteristic, and is typically set greater than
the expected differential current during normal system conditions. It is noted that several
percentage differential relays examine the pickup differential current and restraint current
conditions separately, i.e. they operate when the next two conditions are simultaneously true
[6]:

The origin of the Idiff,op - Idiff,res plane serves as the starting point for this feature, whereas
Idiff,p is a separate pickup setting. Fig. 1.12b shows this trait. Additionally, the scenario of a
dual-slope characteristic is shown in this image (dotted line). This feature allows for more
freedom when determining the operating and constraint regions and is present in a number of
differential relays. In that situation, there should be two bias factors defined, one for each slope.
Given that it exclusively reacts to internal faults (i.e. problems within the specific DPZ),
differential protection's key benefits are its great dependability and quickness. Therefore, there
is no requirement for time grading with additional protection methods, at least not in ordinary
differential protection applications. As opposed to that, issue,commercial differential relays
must include additional time-graded protection functions, such as overcurrent or distance
protection functions [6].
The single-line diagrams of Fig. 2.9 depict how differential protection is ap-plied to a
transformer.
12
 Figure 10-power transformer differential protection scheme

1.7Undervoltage protection
If the measured voltage drops below a set threshold, an undervoltage relay triggers.
It is frequently employed to offer protection in the event of unusual low-voltage conditions (i.e.,
when voltage falls below the lowest permitted system operation voltage). Along with this
Given that a voltage decrease is anticipated in such instances, undervoltage protection is used
against abnormal events brought on by short-circuit defects. In particular, it is taken into
account for interconnection protection and short-circuit fault detection in a multifunctional
distribution network protection scheme.
As regards interconnection protection in particular, undervoltage protection trips a unit as soon
as the measured voltage at PCC drops at a specific level, for a predetermined time duration.
This is mainly to prevent unintentional islanding conditions in the hosting network, after the
line protection trips. Voltage drop can be used as a tripping criterion in this case, since
unbalance between the generated power and the served load inside the formed island may result
in low-voltage conditions (as well as in high-voltage and low-/high-frequency conditions,
which are supervised by dedicated protection functions). Moreover, undervoltage protection is
used to trip a DG unit during network short-circuit faults, in the case where the short-circuit
current contribution of the generator is low (e.g. as regards IIDG units) and overcurrent
protection is not reliable . Conventional DG undervoltage protection is typically applied with
the use of two definite time undervoltage elements. [7]
It should be mentioned that in addition to undervoltage protection, various other protective
functions are frequently used for DG protection. However, the reason for concentrating on the
latter protection principle in this thesis is that it is directly related to both the LVRT
requirements, which are crucial for the involvement of DG units in fault events, as well as
network short-circuit faults (which regard the scope of this thesis). [15]

13
 Figure 11-conventional under voltage protection curve

1.7Selectivity(discrimination)

1.7.1Overview: Discrimination, is the practice of selecting protective devices and adjusting

their settings in order to limit interruption to electrical installations under fault conditions. When
the devices in a distribution path are ‘coordinated’ it reduces nuisance tripping and makes it
easier to identify where a fault has occurred. Hence, why it is also referred to as Selective Co-
ordination.
In a nutshell, selective coordination is an electrical system design practice that improves
reliability. The methodology increases uptime by limiting power outages to the branch of an
electrical system where a fault appears without knocking out other areas of the grids. When a
problem occurs, the closest overcurrent protective unit opens, either a or a fuse, circuit breaker,
ensuring that any faults do not cascade upstream
Very important terms such as partial and total selectivity must be addressed for thorough
investigation. The definitions of the total selectivity and partial selectivity are given in the same
Standard IEC 60947-2 “Low voltage Equipment – Part 2: Circuit-breakers”. Basically, total
protection discrimination preserved when there is selectivity for any overcurrent possible value
in the installation.

14
 Figure 12-concept of selectivity
Proper discriminating tripping, besides limiting an outage to the shorted or
overloaded branch circuit, facilitate investigation causes of faults, identification of underrated
or overloaded equipment, and applying corrections. Power can typically be restored faster than
when upstream breakers are tripped, mainly if a panel board has been taken down.
Most common challenge is to capacity to discriminate between untypical but tolerable
situations and fault conditions within its competence zone in favor of avoiding unneeded trips
which result unjustified outage of a sound part of the installation. Such cases are depicted in the
Figure. 1.1. At the same time, circuit breakers must trigger as fast as possible to curb harm for
the apparatus. [8]

Figure 13-Illustrative example of a) absence and b) presence of actual

15
Selectivity.

1.7.2Overload and short-circuit zone :

First, the terms "overload zone" and "short-circuit zone" must be introduced in order to
understand the discriminating protection system. Figure 22 depicts the key characteristics of
these sectors.
The conventional method for determining selected coordination involves comparing the
time-current properties of two or more overcurrent protection devices on a single graph. The
degree of coordination can be demonstrated by the relative placement of each device tolerance
bands on a time-current curve, and it is typical for the instantaneous trip characteristics to
overlap.
The phrase "overload zone" describes the range of current values where the circuit breaker
tripping curves gradually approach the circuit breaker's rated current, but not by more than 8 to
10 times the magnitude of the C-type protection curve. In this area, the protection device
responds with a delay because it is not instantaneous. The long-time and short-time segments
of the breaker's time-current curve make up this component. Thermomagnetic releases and L
protection are frequently used for electronic releases to handle the "overload zone." Reliable
non-instantaneous coordination is achieved by achieving a separate ampere rating or long-time
pick-up between connected breakers. Working with electronic trip devices, which have tighter
tolerance bands than thermal-magnetic automated, makes non-instantaneous coordination
easier. [9]
By “short-circuit zone” one means the ranges of current values, and therefore
the relative part of the trip curves of the protection device, which are more than 8-10 times of
the rated current .In this case, circuit breaker opening is initiated without any intentional delay.
In this section a protective response provides the desired fastest protection in the presence of
higher-level fault currents. [9]

Figure 14-Illustrative example of “Overload” and “Short-circuit” zones

16
1.7.3Time-current selectivity technique
In general, the protection against overload have a definite time characteristic, whether they
are made by means of a thermal-magnetic releaseor by means of function L of an electronic
release.
A typical tripping coordination between upstream (A) and downstream (B) circuit breakers
is shown in Figure 23. Due to its inexpensive cost and comparatively high dependability, this
type of protective coordination is primarily used. Time-current curves (TCC) for over-current
protective devices are well known to indicate how long the device will take to operate under
overcurrent situations. Typically, these curves are created by running interruption tests on test
devices at different overcurrent levels, including overload and fault currents.. [10]
To reduce the total working time of primary relays, the protection coordination problem can
also be stated as a restricted non-linear programming problem (NLP). The time multiplier
setting (TMS) and plug setting (PS), which are the two decision-making factors for the
overcurrent relay. Relay operation time depends on TMS, PS, and current sensed by the relay.
Equation 2 provides the operating duration of. [8]

where  , the constants representing the overcurrent relay characteristic in a mathematical

form
Ia is actual current and Is are setting current.
It is assumed that inverse-definite minimum time (IDMT) type overcurrent
relays are used.
According to IEC standards, the,, constants are taken to be :

respectively, for the usual IDMT characteristic. However, time-current curves are more easily
used and visually appealing from a practical standpoint. [16]

17
 Figure 15- Time current curves

The time-current protection method has a number of serious shortcomings. In most

circumstances, increasing the size of the circuit breaker frame and switching from a molded
case to an electronic trip type with higher short time settings are necessary to achieve selected
coordination.
Both techniques may lengthen the time protective devices take to clear an arcing fault,
increasing the incidence energy from arc flash.To make matters worse, the TCC ignores the
dynamic nature of the impedance imposed by arc and transient components. [8]
Also instantaneous coordination performance of two breakers in series is not necessarily
determined by evaluating the relationship between their time current curves . In many cases,
the time current curve analysis under-predicts the actual instantaneous coordination capability.
The dynamic operation of the downstream breaker, however, affects the fault current
experienced by the upstream breaker as the load-side breaker starts to open when two breakers
are connected in series. When the downstream breaker's instantaneous trip is quicker than the
upstream breaker's, this interaction tends to be more noticeable. Manufacturers' published time-
current curves frequently fail to reflect the true current limiting nature of breakers with this
attribute, which furthers the difference between instantaneous coordination predicted by time-
current curve analysis and actual performance.

1.7.4Current selectivity technique

This kind of selection is based on the observation that the short-circuit current increases with
the distance between the problem spot and the installation's power source.
As a result, by altering the instantaneous protections' current values, it is feasible to distinguish
the zone in which the fault occurred.
Total selectivity is typically only possible in rare circumstances when the fault current is low,
a component with high impedance (such as a transformer, a very long cable, a cable with a
small cross-section, etc.) is placed between the two protections, and there is a significant
difference in the short-circuit current values.
Because of the low rated current and short-circuit current levels as well as the high impedance
of the connection cables, this form of coordination is consequently most frequently utilized in

18
distribution

Figure 16 –TCCs of current selectivity

The Advantages of the current selectivity technique are [8] :

-Simplicity in realization
-Low cost implementation

The Drawbacks of the current selectivity technique are [8]:

-Relatively low level of ultimate selectivity current, which often make selectivity only partial

-Rapid increase of overcurrent setting level for the protection devices

1.7.5Time selectivity technique

The earlier form of selectivity evolved into this one. In this kind of coordination, in addition
to the trip threshold in terms of current, there is also a trip time defined: at a given current value,
the safeguards trip after a specified amount of time, allowing any protections installed closer to
the fault to trip.
Therefore, the setting technique is to gradually raise the current thresholds and trip delays as
one approaches the power supply sources. In other words, the hierarchical level closely
correlates with the setting level. The tolerances of the two protective devices and the effective
currents that flow through them must be taken into account when determining the delayed trip
thresholds.
The difference between the delays specified for the protections in series must take into account
the device's load-side fault detection and elimination durations as well as the supply-side
device's supply-side inertia time or overshoot.

19
 As in the case of current selectivity, the study is made by comparing the time-current trip curves
of the protection devices. It is a type of selectivity which can also be made between circuit-
breakers of the same size, equipped with electronic releases with delayed protection against
short-circuit. [8]

Figure 17– TCCs of time selectivity

The Advantages of the current selectivity technique are [8] :

-Simplicity in realization
-Low cost implementation
-Possibility of achieving high selectivity current limits
-Redundancy of supplying functions

The Drawbacks of the current selectivity technique are [8]:

-High level of trip times and energy levels let through by protection devices which are close
to the source.

It worth to mention that There are an other techniques such as zone selectivity and energy
selectivity but it will not discuss in this thesis.

1.8Protection scheme for power transformer

20
Overview: Transformer Protection's main goal is to both be immune to faults that are external
to the transformer, or through faults, and to detect internal faults in the transformer with a high
degree of sensitivity and induce a subsequent de-energization. Limiting fault damage and
consequently required repairs is made possible by sensitive detection and deenergization.
However, it should be able to offer backup protection in case of system through faults, as these
could cause deterioration and accelerated aging, as well as failure of the insulation on the
transformer windings due to overheating and high impact forces caused in the windings as a
result of high fault currents. In addition to internal errors, unusual system circumstances include
excessive excitation, excessive voltage, and loss of.
Transformer protection can be broadly categorized as electrical protection implemented by
sensing mainly the current through it, but also voltage and frequency and, as mechanical
protection implemented by sensing operational parameters like oil pressure/ level, gas evolved,
oil & winding temperature.
Transformer protection basically divided into two types. One is Electrical Protection and it is
designed based on Electrical parameters like Current, Voltage, Frequency, and Impedance. The
second type of protection is Mechanical Protection and it is designed based on Mechanical
parameters like Temperature, Pressure, Density, etc [11].
1-Transformer-Electrical Protection Types [11]:

-Over Current/Earth Fault-50/51Protection

-Under Impedance/Distance relay Protection-21

-Differential Current Protection-87

-Restricted Earth fault Protection-64H

-Three Phase Overload Protection-49

-Over Fluxing Protection-24

-Over Voltage-59/Under Voltage-27 Protection

2-Transformer-Machanical Protection Types [11]:

-Oil Temperature Indicator-26

-Winding Temperature Indicator-49

-Oil Pressure Relief-PRV-63PRD

-Gas Accumulation using Gas Accumulation Relay (Buchholz Relay)-63

21
 Figure 18-transformer protection scheme

1.9Motor protection scheme

Overview: Motor Protection There is a wide range of motors in existence for various
purposes. However, the fundamental problems affecting the choice of protection are
independent of the type of motor and the type of load to which it is connected. The motors
under discussion here are a.c. motors which include synchronous motors and induction
motors.
Types of Faults: Types of electrical faults in motors are similar to those of generators.
Motors therefore in general are protected against the following faults:
-Stator Protection: The stator can experience short circuits to the earth or between phases.
Thermal or dash, pot type overcurrent tripping devices that have an inverse time-current
characteristic and typically give instantaneous tripping at high current are used to protect the
motor from these failures. For motors with higher ratings (often more than 50 HP),
instantaneous overcurrent relays are supplied from CTs. Two high-set instantaneous relay
elements that are configured so that they are substantially over the maximum beginning
current provide phase-fault prevention. A straightforward instantaneous relay with a setting of
roughly 30% of the motor's full load current in the residual circuit of three CTs provides
earth-fault protection for a motor operating on an earthed neutral system. Operation [12]
-Rotor Protection: Any type of imbalance, whether it be in the loading pattern or the supply
voltage, will result in negative sequence currents flowing in the stator, which will produce
high frequency currents in the rotor. These rotor currents have a frequency that is (2 - S) times
higher than the supply's nominal frequency. While the heating impact on the rotor windings of
the negative sequence component of the stator current is proportional to (2 - S) f (about 100
22
Hz) a.c. resistance value, the rotor heating caused by the positive sequence component of the
stator current is proportional to d.c. resistance value. Positive phase sequence current
obviously has a stronger heating impact than negative phase sequence current. This is
something that Motor Protection must consider if it wants to [12]
Overload protection: It is exceedingly challenging to cover all types and ratings of motor
with a given characteristic curve due to the huge variety of motor duties and motor designs.
The overload protection is made to mirror the heating curve of the majority of motors as
closely as feasible. The motor protection characteristic should be located directly below the
motor's heating curve. The protection should ideally have configurable features so that it may
be applied to various motor types and tasks. In order to avoid potentially disastrous outcomes,
the protection should not permit the motor to be restarted after tripping while the winding
temperature is still high. Therefore, for a protection to be successful, it needs not only match
the thermal characteristic of. [12]
For these uses, induction overcurrent relays with the appropriate type characteristics are best,
For overload protection, a typical setting is 120% of the full load current. The present setting
is 120% of full load, yet tripping won't occur with a beginning current of 6 times full load for
30 seconds. Without changing the current setting, the operating time at high overcurrent
values can be modified to meet the motor starting characteristic with the aid of the time
multiplier setting. Overload protection can be achieved with just one phase-connected relay
element, but two can also offer single phasing protection.. [12]

Under voltage protection: Undervoltage operation of a motor will typically result in

overcurrent, which can be prevented by overload or temperature-sensitive devices. To guard
against a three-phase voltage drop or an attempt to start with low voltage on all phases, a
separate single-element under voltage relay that is powered by phase-earth or phase-phase
voltage can be provided. Typically, a time delay is added to prevent tripping due to a brief
voltage decrease.. [12]

1.10Feeder protection scheme:

Overview: Feeder protection is defined as the protection of the feeder from the fault so that
the power grid continue supply the energy. The feeder injects the electrical energy from the
substation to the load end. So it is essential to protect the feeder from the various type of fault.
The main requirement of the feeder protection are;

-During the short circuit, the circuit breaker nearest to the fault should open and all other
circuit breakers remain in a closed position.
-If the breaker nearest to the fault fails to open then, backup protection should be provided by
the adjacent circuit breaker.
-The relay operating time should be small to maintain the system stability without necessary
tripping of a circuit.
Time Graded Protection :
This is a scheme in which the time setting of relays is so consecutive that in the event of a
fault, the smallest possible part of the system is isolated. The applications of time graded are
explained below. :

23
Protection of Radial Feeders: A radial system's defining feature is that electricity only flows
in one direction, from the generator or supply end to the load end. Its disadvantage is that, in
the event of a problem, supply continuity cannot be managed at the load end.
When the number of feeders are connected in series as shown in the picture, a radial system
is used. The least amount of the system should be off, if at all possible. By using time-graded
protection, this is easily accomplished. The over current system should be set up so that the
amount of time it is in operation decreases with the distance of the relay from the producing
station.
The relay OC5 should operate when a fault on the SS4 occurs, not any other relays; in other
words, the time needed to run the relay OC4 must be shorter than the time needed to operate
the relay OC3, and so on. This demonstrates the need for appropriately graded time setting for
these relays. The smallest space of time that can be permitted between two adjacent circuit
breakers is determined by their own clearance times, plus a little extra time for a safety margin.
[13]
The discriminating time between adjustment breakers should be at least 0.4 seconds with a
regular circuit breaker in operation. The time parameters will be 0.2 seconds, 1.5 seconds, 1.5
seconds, 1.0 seconds, 0.5 seconds, and instantaneous for relays OC1, OC2, OC3, OC4, and
OC5. It is crucial that the time of operation for the severe fault should be shorter in addition to
the grading system. Utilizing a time-limiting fuse in tandem with the trip coils will accomplish
this. [13]

Figure 19-radial feeder protection coordination

Protection of Parallel Feeders: In order to share the load and ensure supply continuity,
the supply is connected in parallel. When the protective feeder develops a malfunction, the
protective device will choose and isolate the problematic feeder while immediately assuming
the increased load on the other.The time graded overload relay, as shown in the picture below,
is one of the most straightforward ways to protect the relay. It has an instantaneous reverse
power or directional relay at the receiving end and an inverse time characteristic at the
transmitting end.Both the transmitting end and the receiving end of the line feed electricity into
the heavy fault F when it occurs on either one of the lines. The flow of power will be determined
by. [13]

24
 Figure 20-parallel feeder protection

Protection of Ring Main :The ring main is a method of connecting many power plants by
taking a different path. When the interconnection is used, the main ring system allows for
flexible power direction changes. The system's basic diagram is depicted in the image below,
where G represents the generating station and A, B, C, and D represent the substations. Because
there is just one direction of power flow at the generating station, time lag overload relays are
not necessary. At the end of the substation, a time-grade overload relay is installed, and it will
only trip if overload flows away from the substation it is meant to safeguard.

The relay is established with decreasing time lags on the farther side of each station as you go
around the ring in the direction of GABCD. At the generating station, the time taken is 2 seconds
at stations A, B, and C, as well as 1.5 seconds, 1.0 second, 0.5 second, and instantaneous. The
relay would be set up similarly on the outgoing sides when moving around the ring in the other
way. [21]

The power F is injected into the fault by two pathways, ABF and DCF, if the fault happens at
point F. The relay that must be in operation is the one between substations B and C and fault
point F. The relay on that portion will therefore activate if there is a failure in that segment,
whereas the healthy section will not. [13]

Figure 21-ring feeder protection coordination

25
1.11Conclusion

This chapter provides a comprehensive exploration of the theoretical foundations for

designing protection schemes that cover a wide range of electrical equipment and scenarios.
The main objective is to protect individual components from faults, failures, and abnormal
operating conditions. The chapter emphasizes the importance of selectivity and relay
coordination in achieving this goal. Selectivity ensures that only the affected portion of the
system is disconnected, minimizing overall system impact and enabling quick fault location
and restoration. By understanding these theoretical principles, engineers can develop robust
protection schemes that ensure reliable and efficient operation of electrical systems.

26
Chapter two : Generality on distribution
system

27
 Distribution system
2.1inroduction

In this chapter I will talk about electrical network focusing more on private one and it’s
component how we can distrusted power to loads and how to protect it in case of fault occurs
after that we will get into the concept of selectivity how to apply into any networks.

2.2Definition:

The component of an electric system that is responsible for providing electric energy to a
final user comes after the transmission system.
Electricity is delivered from the transmission system to individual consumers at the electric
power distribution stage, which is the last in the process. Distribution lines are the system of
lines that transport electricity from distribution substations to customer dwellings. The
consumer then uses the dispersed electricity.

Figure 22 distrubtion system topology

2.3Components of Distribution System :

the distribution system components are:

28
2.3.1Substation
2.3.1.1Difintion:
The electrical substation is the part of a power system in which the voltage is transformed from
high to low or low to high for transmission, distribution, transformation and switching.

Figure 23 MV/LV substation

2.3.1.2Componenns of substation:
substation has a lots of component, I mentioned the main ones only which are:
1-Switchgear:
Definition :is a collective word for switching and interrupting equipment. Switchgear
equipment has two distinct purposes:
Switchgear equipment makes it possible for common switching activities to take place under
normal circumstances.
- To reduce damage when there are abnormalities, switchgear equipment immediately
disconnects faulty equipment from the rest of the power system. Switchgear equipment serves
a protective purpose in these circumstances.
Electric conductors (contacts) are pulled apart by every switchgear to work. An arc develops
between the contacts when electricity is applied to the device and the contacts are driven

29
apart. The length of the arc increases as the contacts expand. The arc must be put out with a
dielectric substance, such as air, oil, or sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), in order to stop the flow of
current. [14]

Figure 24 -medium voltage switchgear

equipment of switchgear: Switchgear essentially consists of :
1-Power-conducting components : Switches, circuit breakers, fuses, lightning arrestors,
insulators, and other parts of a system that conduct power are examples. These switchgear
parts are necessary to stop and restart the system's electric current flow. When necessary, they
turn a circuit on or off.
2-Control-system components : To identify the malfunctioning system components, the
control system components of HV switchgear are crucial. Along with the rest of the system,
the control-system components monitor, detect, and protect the power conducting parts of the
system. Relays, current or potential transformers, control panels, and other components make
up the switchgear.
3-Bushings : When a conductor of a high-voltage current level passes through a metal sheet
placed within an earthing substance, bushing insulators are the switchgear component
employed. When required, they have the capability to safeguard the system.

Note:We will talk about this components in details in another section.

Classification: fundamentally SW is classified according to :

30
Depending on the Voltage Level
1-Low voltage switchgear: Power electronic circuits that deal with voltage levels up to 1KV
require low voltage switchgear. Air circuit breakers, oil circuit breakers, earth leakage circuit
breakers, miniature circuit breakers, molded case circuit breakers, switch fuse units, HRC fuses,
and small circuit breakers are some of the most often used low voltage devices needed to protect
the low voltage systems. etc. [15]
2-Low medium switchgear: Medium voltage electrical systems are those that operate up to 36
kV. Medium voltage switchgear is used by the systems operating at this specific voltage level.
Equipment like minimum oil circuit breakers and bulk oil circuit breakers are examples of
medium voltage switchgear. A particular non-toxic, inert, and insulating gas, like as SF6, may
be employed by medium voltage switchgear in place of oil, vacuum, or another interruption
medium. The medium voltage switchgear can be divided into air, vacuum, and gas-insulated
switchgear depending on the type of interruption medium utilized. Similar to this, there are
many varieties of medium voltage switchgear based on casing and installation, including indoor
type metal-enclosed, outdoor type metal-enclosed, and outdoor type medium voltage
switchgear without metal casing., etc. [15]
3-High medium switchgear: Electrical systems running at voltages more than 36 kV need high
voltage switchgear. The main piece of equipment utilized in the construction of high voltage
switchgear is the high voltage circuit breaker. The interruption medium for high voltage
switchgear is typically SF6 gas, vacuum, etc. Due to their propensity to generate substantial
arcing while switching, high-level voltage systems and devices must be carefully designed.
These devices need to be extremely trustworthy. It is important to note that high voltage
switchgear tripping and switching operations are: [15]
Depending on the Voltage to be Handled
Outdoor type Switchgear : Switchgear of the outdoor type is utilized for voltages more than
66 kV. This is due to the equipment needed by the system, such as transformers, switches,
circuit breakers, etc., needing a sizeable surface area and a broad electrical clearance between
the conductors at such high magnitude voltages. Such a device cannot be installed indoors at
all economically.. [15]
Indoor type Switchgear Indoor type switchgear is preferred for voltages under 66kV. Indoor
type switchgear is often made of a metal-clad type of construction. All of the system's
components are gathered in this location and housed in an earthed metal box. As a result of its
greater compactness and affordability, this sort of system can be readily put indoors.. [15]

Functions of switchgear:
switchgear has several functions:
- The prime function of switchgear is similar to that of a switch. It is mainly used to carry,
make, and break the flow of current between the source and the load.
- Switchgear is used in a variety of power electronics applications and is crucial because it
shields the linked devices from high magnitude current, also referred to as surge current. The

31
device becomes destroyed if the switchgear is missing. As a result, the system that contains the
damaged device experiences service intrusion.
Transformers, generators, and other electrical circuits and devices are generally protected from
short circuits by switchgear.
- Devices connected to the load side are isolated from the primary power source via switchgear.
- It works by preventing damage to the transmission lines, extending the life of the cables, and
reducing the frequency of maintenance.
-It is utilized to increase the system's availability. Here is
- One of the main functions of switchgear is to detect the overload conditions and trip off
immediately in case of an excessive flow of power to the load.
- A switchgear aids in switching currents that are both inductive and capacitive.
Switchgear stops the flow of current during a short circuit, preventing property damage and
accidents. [16]

2-Capacitors:
Definition: is equipment used for compensation reactive power in network, in most cases it is
aimed at saving during operation of distribution networks and at the same time at improving
voltage quality.
Type of connection: In substation is either connected in
𝑉2
1-delta connection: give more reactive power according to equation 𝑄 = 𝑋𝑐 but cause problem
when we have unbalanced load
2-star connection: commonly used because it does not any problem in case of unbalanced load

3-Reactors: Reactors are coils that are primarily used to protect other devices, such as power
transformers, from reactive currents produced during transmission fault conditions. Inductive
materials make up the majority of the reactor. Reactors are utilized when needed, but their
primary purpose is to restrict reactive currents that could harm the power transformer during
transmission or distribution in the substation.
Depending on how they are used, the reactors perform a variety of different tasks within the
electrical power system. Such types of operations require the reactor to be used, such as the
elimination of harmonics, reactive currents, and fault rectification [4]. The various reactor types
used in the electrical power system include:
-Shunt reactor
-Series reactor
-Damping reactor
-Tuning reactor
-Arc suspension reactor

32
4-UPS
definition: Uninterruptable power supply, or UPS, is a device that provides backup power
when utility power fails, either long enough for critical equipment to shut down gracefully so
that no data is lost, or long enough to keep required loads operational until a generator comes
online. It also conditions incoming power so that often-occurring sags and surges don't harm
sensitive electronic equipment.

Types of UPS:UPS can be classified into three types which is :

Single-conversion systems : These supply IT equipment with incoming utility AC power
during typical operations. The UPS uses its inverter to draw electricity from the battery if the
AC input supply exceeds predetermined limitations, and it also disconnects the AC input supply
to prevent backfeed from the inverter to the utility. Until the AC input recovers to normal
tolerances or the battery runs out of power, whichever occurs first, the UPS functions on battery
power. The two single-conversion designs that are most widely used are standby and line-
interactive:
-IT equipment can use grid power when connected to a standby UPS while waiting for an issue
to be detected before switching to battery power. Transformers or other components are used
in some standby UPS configurations to provide some limited power conditioning.
-Line-interactive UPSs regulate input utility voltage up or down as necessary before allowing
it to pass through to protected equipment. However, like standby UPSs, they use their battery
to guard against frequency abnormalities.
Double-conversion systems : These gadgets double the power conversion, as their name
implies. An output inverter receives AC power from an input rectifier, which first converts it to
DC. The electricity is then converted back to AC by the output inverter before being used by
IT devices. By totally separating essential loads from raw utility power during this double
conversion process, IT equipment is guaranteed to only receive safe, dependable electricity.
A double-conversion UPS continuously splits power in half during typical use. However, if the
AC input supply exceeds predetermined thresholds, the input rectifier turns off and the output
inverter starts pulling power from the battery. Until either the battery runs out of power or the
AC input returns to normal tolerances, whichever comes first, the UPS uses battery power. The
static switch bypass circuit is promptly turned on to support the output loads in the event of a
severe inverter overload or failure of the rectifier or inverter.
Multi-mode systems : These offer significant gains in efficiency and reliability while
combining aspects of single- and double-conversion technologies.
Multi-mode UPSs are made to dynamically strike the perfect balance between protection and
efficiency. When things are normal, they work at their highest capacity. But when issues arise,
they automatically give up some effectiveness in order to provide the highest levels of security.
As a result, data centers can save tens of thousands of dollars annually on energy without
sacrificing the performance or reliability of the facility.

5-Motor control center

Definition: is an assembly of one or multiple enclosed sections that have a common power
bus that primarily contains motor control units.
MCCs are provided with Class I or Class II wiring. With any of the classes, the user can specify
the physical arrangement of the units within the motor control center (subject to design
parameters).

33
 Figure 25- low voltage switchgear
functions of Motor Control Center : MCCs are used as a link between generation equipment
and end consumers such as engines, air conditioning equipment, etc.
The MCCs offer the advantage of integrating within the same cabinet the motor starter systems
of different areas of a plant as well as the distribution system of the same.When using this
equipment costs are reduced since the power lines reach a single place (the MCC). From MCC
the power and control cables go to the final loads.
Starters : Starters are the simplest control devices that can be used to start motors and to protect
them against overloads. There are several types of starters which are:

-Direct-On-Line starter.
-Rotor Resistance starter.
-Stator Resistance starter.
-Auto Transformer starter.
-Star Delta starter
-soft starter
-Variable frequency drive starter

MCC wiring Classification : The following are various NEMA classifications and their
description. Wiring of MCC conforms to two NEMA classes (1, and 2) and three types (A, B,
C).
-Class 1 : Bus bar systems, protection equipment, overload relays, and contactors are all
organized for ease of use. However, the manufacturer doesn't offer any wiring or interlocking
between the devices. Only compartment drawings, not wiring between the center's sections, are
provided by the manufacturer. For small applications with a constrained number of motors,
Class 1 type MCCs are advised.

34
-Class 2 : Required to providing by the manufacturer, with interlocking and their control wiring
completed between compartments of the center.
With Type A: No terminal blocks (TBs) are provided.
With Type B: All connections within individual compartments are made to the terminal blocks.
With Type C: All connections are made to the master terminal block located in the horizontal
wiring through at the top bottom of the center. [17]

2.3.1.3Classification of substation: discuss substations based on insulation:

1-Gas-insulated Substation: A high voltage substation with sealed principal structures is
referred to as a gas insulated substation. It belongs to the class of switchgear that is removable.
As the insulating medium, it is made up of dielectric gases like SF6 or sulfur hexafluoride gas.
Electric bus bars, electric isolators or disconnectors, circuit breakers, voltage converters, earth
switches, surge arresters, and lightning arrestors are some of the parts.
2-Air-insulated Substation: The main circuit of an air-insulated substation is one that is
isolated from the ground using insulators like porcelain. The most typical kind of substation is
the air-insulated substation. When the area is large, this sort of substation performs best for low
voltage and is very effective. Additionally, the erection takes less time to complete.
2.3.2Feeders: A feeder is a conductor which connects the distribution sub-station to the area
where power is to be distributed. The current in a feeder remains the same throughout its length
because no tapings are taken from it. The main consideration in the design of a feeder being its
current carrying capacity.

1.3.3Distributor :A distributor is a conductor from which tapings are taken for supply to
the consumers. Due to the taping is done at various places in a distributor, the current being not
same throughout its length. The main design consideration of a distributor is the voltage drop
across its length because the statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 5 % of rated voltage at the
consumer’s terminals.

2.3.4Distribution Transformers :

Definition : In the first and final stages of the grid, distribution transformers are a crucial
component. They are used in conventional electrical networks to transform high voltage
delivered into medium voltage or medium voltage into low voltage that can be used in
infrastructure, industry, and homes. They are now also in charge of supplying electricity to the
grid due to the growth of decentralized generated electricity.These transformers are often
offered in a variety of sizes, efficiency, and insulating oil types. These transformers come in a
range of sizes and efficiency levels. The user's needs and budget have a major role in the
transformer's selection. Distribution transformer connections come in four different varieties:
star-star, delta-star, star-delta, delta-star, and zigzag/delta zigzag.

35
 Figure 25-26MVA distribution transformer

Types of Distribution Transformer : Based on the application or requirement,

these transformers are categorized into different types:
- Single Phase: These transformers are specially used for networks wherever a three-phase
supply is not required. Usually, these are used for repairing overhead distribution loads in
residential. These are also applicable in industrial lighting, light commercial loads & power
applications.

-Three Phase : This kind of transformer is used to hold electrical energy from the main
distribution circuit to a minor distribution circuit. This type of transformer transmits the current
to a secondary distribution circuit and also reduces the voltage of the primary distribution
circuit. These transformers reduce the voltage supply for the primary circuit based on the
consumer requirement.
This voltage is constantly fluctuating and may be different for users in light industries,
residential, and commercial applications. Depending on the national standards in use, these
transformers operate at various voltage and frequency levels. These transformers come in
single-phase and three-phase versions. Residential uses employ single-phase, while
underground primary circuits use 3-phase with a pad.
- Pad-Mounted : This particular transformer has a locked steel cabinet placed on a concrete
pad. When there isn't enough room for a gated enclosure, this sort of transformer is built. This
transformer is used with overhead electrical wires that distribute electricity to reduce the
primary voltage needed to give power to the customers. A large structure or numerous
residences can be served by a single transformer of this kind. This transformer has fixed
switches and fuses and has a power rating of 75 kVA to 5000 kVA.

36
Transformer can also classified into two type
-dry transformer

-oil immersed transformer

Type of cooling system: Oil and air are the primary cooling materials used in a transformer.
Dry-type transformers, are normally cooled by air. The following two transformer cooling
methods are adopted in dry-type transformers.
Air Natural (AN) cooling – Cooled by surrounding air. Heat transfer by natural air convection.
Air Force (AF) cooling – Forced air circulation using fans and blowers.
Oil-type transformers are cooled using oil-air cooling or oil-water cooling method. There is a
wider range of cooling methods for oil-type transformers.
(Mineral) Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN) :The core and coils are cooled by surrounding in
oil. Heat transfer of oil by natural air convection.
(Non-Mineral) Oil Natural Air Natural (KNAN) :The core and coils are cooled by
surrounding in synthetic oil. Heat transfer of oil by natural air convection.
Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) :Cooled by surrounding in oil. Forced air circulation using
pumps, fans and blowers.
Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF) : Forced oil and air circulation using fans and blowers.
Oil Natural Water Forced (ONWF) :Cooled by surrounding in oil. Forced water circulation
using heat exchanges.
Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF) :Forced oil and water circulation using oil-to-water heat
exchanges [18]
Transformer parts: facilitate the delivery of electrical energy with minimal power loss. The
basic parts of a transformer are the core, primary and secondary windings. In addition to these
components, there are many other components such as insulation, transformer oil, cooling
arrangements, protective relays, enclosures, etc., available in larger transformers.
1-Core: The windings are supported by the transformer's core. Its soft iron construction lowers
hysteresis and eddy current losses and gives flux current a low-reluctance channel. The width
of the transformer core is inversely correlated with the iron loss and directly correlated with the
copper loss.
2- Winding: The winding consists of many turns of copper coils bundled together, each bundle
being joined together to form a complete winding. The coils can be based on an input-output
supply or on a voltage range. Power supply-based windings are classified as primary and
secondary, that is, the coil to which the input and output voltages are applied, respectively. On
the other hand, coils based on voltage range can be classified into high voltage coils and low
voltage coils.
3-Insulating materials: Insulating materials like paper and cardboard are used to separate the
primary and secondary coils from the transformer core. These coils are made of copper due of

37
its superior conductivity and ductility. The amount of copper required is reduced by the high
conductivity and minimal loss. Along with decreasing the weight of the copper and windings,
the great ductility of the conductor makes it simple to bend it into small coils around the core.
4-Transformer oil: Transformer oil insulates as well as cools the core assembly and windings.
The core and windings of the transformer shall be completely immersed in an oil usually
containing hydrocarbon mineral oil.
5- Conservator: The conservator is an airtight metal cylindrical drum mounted above the
transformer to store transformer oil. It is vented at the top and is only half filled with oil to
allow expansion and contraction during temperature changes. However, the transformer's main
tank is connected to the storage unit, which is completely filled with oil through a pipe.
6-Breather: he breather is a cylindrical container filled with silica gel, which is used to keep the
air entering the vessel from becoming damp. This is because insulating oil reacts with moisture
which can affect the insulation and cause internal failures, so it is important to keep the air free
of moisture. As the air passes through the silica gel in a breathing tube, the moisture components
are absorbed by the silica crystals.
7-Tap changer-transformer parts: A tap changer is used to balance voltage variations in the
transformer. There are two types of tap changers - on load and off load. In a loaded tap changer,
tapping can be changed without isolating the transformer from the supply, while at no load the
transformer needs to be disconnected from the supply.
8-Cooling tube: As the name suggests, the cooling tube is used to cool the transformer oil. The
circulation of oil in the transformer can be natural or forced. In the case of natural circulation,
when the oil temperature rises, the hot oil naturally moves upward and the cold oil moves
downward, while in the case of forced circulation, a permanent pump is used.
9-Buchholz Relay: Placed on the connecting pipe that runs from the main storage tank to the
storage tank, the Buchholz Relay senses faults in the transformer. It operates on the gases
emitted by the breakdown of transformer oil during internal faults. So this device is used to
sense and in turn protect the transformer from internal faults.
10- Explosion vent: The boiling hot oil from the transformer is drained out in case of internal
fault through the vent of the generator to avoid explosion of the transformer. This is generally
placed above the level of the conservatory tank.

2.4Type of connections in Distribution System :

The distribution system is classified into three types according to the method of connection:
-Radial System : Each location in a radial system receives power from the substation via a
different feeder. Additionally, this feeder only supplies electricity in one direction to a
distributor. The radial system's design is straightforward and easy to integrate in the system.
When compared to other systems, this system has a lower startup cost. [19]
But the reliability of this system is very low. If one feeder is out of step condition, the entire
system will stop. This type of system is only used for a short-distance distribution system.

38
The consumer far from the feeder may suffer poor voltage regulation and voltage fluctuation
with a variation of load. Due to this advantage, this type of system is only used to supply the
load which is near to the feeder.

Figure 26-radial distribution system topology

-Ring Main System:In the ring main system, the distribution transformer is connected in a loop
and supplied by a substation from one end. It means each distribution transformer has two
different ways to connect with the substation

Figure 27-ring main distribution system topology

39
This configuration is comparable to two feeds that are connected in parallel. Assume a fault
develops between points B and C. The region between B and C will isolate from the system in
this scenario. Power is supplied via substations in two different methods.It increases the
system's dependability. At the consumer's end, there is also reduced voltage fluctuation. Less
current flows through each ring component. Therefore, compared to a radial system, less
conductor material is needed. [19]

Interconnected Distribution System :In an interconnected distribution system, a loop is

supplied by more than one substation at different points. This system is also known as a grid
distribution system

Figure 28-interconnected distribution system topology

The loop ABCDEFGHA is fed by two substations at positions A and E, as seen in the following
diagram. Comparing the system to the ring main and radial system, this sort of layout boosts
system reliability.
As more substations are needed in a system, the design of the connected system is
particularly challenging, and the system's initial cost is likewise significant. However, this
method has the benefit of having better power quality and being more effective. This system
lowers the capability for reserve power.. [19]

2.5conclusion

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the distribution system's structure and
introduces the key elements that will be discussed in upcoming chapters. Understanding the

40
terminology and concepts presented in this chapter is vital for comprehending the content of
the subsequent chapters. It establishes the necessary foundation for delving deeper into the
subject matter.

41
Chapter three : Presenting SCMI
factory network & philosophy of
protection scheme

42
 SCMI distribution system
3.1Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the SCMI factory distribution network, including its
overall structure, zones, and the progression from high voltage to low voltage. The chapter also
discusses the methodology and design procedures for implementing protection schemes in each
voltage level. It is important to note that all the information and schemes presented in this
chapter are derived from the SCMI factory.

3.2High voltage substation

SCMI factory has two transmission line one of them is main and used to feed the factory and
other is backup in case that first one had fallen down. The power which curry on by the lines
is coming Arabaa power station.
Transmission line characteristics are :
-has length of 22km
-has height of 20m
-it operate with 63kV
-type of high voltage alternative current HVAC
-cross section of the cable is 331mm2AAAC
At The end Transmission line there is substation. Consisting of instrument transformer CT
and VT which divided into transformer used for measurement and others used for protection.
It must be mention the differences between instrument transformer used for measurement and
one used for protection first has better accuracy but enter the saturation zone after 1.25 times
of nominal secondary current and it connected with control room where DCS and PLC are there
while protection instrument transformer has less accuracy and wider saturation zone because it
enter it after 20 times of nominal current and it connected to protective relays through special
communication channels.
After CT and VT there is high voltage circuit breaker HVCB this circuit breaker can operate
up to 72kV and used SF6 gas as extinction on series with disconnector .
There are component except what mention above like switch earth, lightning arrestor ,insulator
which exist in each section and special transformer which used to create neutral.
The power line go through CB to couple with 63KV bus bar ,feeding two 63/5.5kV
transformer one with full power of 37MVA and second with full power of 26MVA they have
same characteristics like vector group(DYN11)same voltage(63/5.5) ,tap changer(5%)

43
frequency but there is coupler in 5.5kV bus bar in secondary side which is on open state so that
the two transformer are not in parallel and each on feeding own section that due two reasons:
-absence of synchronoscope in case of voltage fluctuation in one or two of sides ,that will
cause of circulating current inside the transformers.
-danger that if two transformers are loaded with over 50% of total nominal power in case that
one of them did go out of service the others will be loaded over 100% of full capacity which
will lead to overheat or ever damage to the transformer.
Beside that we find ring main unit RMU which feed an other consumer out of factory, following
figure represent the schematics of HV system of factory.

Figure 29-60Kv substation of SCMI factory

The transmission lines are safeguarded by the REL 615 relay manufactured by ABB, which
incorporates two active protection functions. The primary and highest priority is assigned to
distance protection (function 21), while the secondary priority is allocated to overcurrent
protection (function 50/51).
The RET615 relay provides protection for the two transformers, offering differential protection
(function 87T) for faults occurring within the transformer zone. Additionally, it includes
overcurrent protection for the transformers as a secondary measure if the differential protection
(87T) fails to operate.
44
If a fault occurs outside the transformer zone, the overcurrent protection is activated as follows:
-If the fault is on the primary side, the RET615 relay will open the primary circuit breaker.
-If the fault is on the secondary side, the REF615 relay will open both the primary and secondary
circuit breakers.
Furthermore, the RET615 relay features an additional protection function for the primary side,
which is ground fault protection (functions 50N/51N). This protection mechanism is designed
to detect and respond to ground faults in the transformer's primary circuit.
In summary, the RET615 relay provides differential protection, overcurrent protection, and
ground fault protection for the two transformers, ensuring reliable and comprehensive
protection coverage, while REF615 protect bus bar and incoming 5.5KV from short circuit and
undervoltage and overvoltage protection

Figure 30-protection scheme of secondary side of 60/5.5Kv transformer

3.3Medium/Low voltage substation

The 5.5 kV busbar is linked to the incoming medium voltage switchgear manufactured by
Schneider Electric. The outgoing connections from the busbar serve various purposes, including
supplying power to individual zones, multiple zones, or compensation panels used for power
factor correction.
Phase-to-ground faults, specifically faults occurring in the phases (50N/51N), are detected in
the system. Additionally, there is an additional protective function known as negative
sequence/unbalanced protection (function 46). This function serves to detect and respond to

45
 imbalances or negative sequence currents in the system. In the switchgear that supplies power
to capacitor banks, an extra protective function for overvoltage protection is present, and time
delay overcurrent protection for phase faults (51) and ground faults (51N) is not implemented.
Instead, instantaneous protection (50/50N) is utilized for these faults. The switchgear is
protected by the SEPAM S40 protective relay from Schneider Electric, which is a multifunction
relay providing active overcurrent protection (51/50) as the primary protective measure for
faults.

Figure 31- protection scheme of medium voltage feeder

There are two capacitor banks connected in a delta configuration with a total capacity of 400
kVA. These capacitor banks are linked to the 5.5 kV bus bar, forming part of the electrical
distribution system. The delta connection ensures a balanced distribution of reactive power and
helps improve the power factor of the system by compensating for any lagging reactive power. The
capacitor banks play a crucial role in maintaining a more efficient and stable electrical system by
reducing losses and improving voltage regulation.
In the SCMI factory, there are five main production zones that are presented as follows:
1.-Quarry Area: This area is dedicated to the extraction of raw materials, such as stones or minerals,
needed for the production process.
2.-Flood Area: The flood area is involved in the preparation and treatment of materials before they
proceed to the next stages of production.
3.-Cooking Area: In the cooking area, the raw materials are processed and transformed into the
desired products through specific heating or cooking processes.

46
4-.Cement Area: This area focuses on the production and handling of cement, which is a vital
component in various construction and manufacturing processes.
5.-Shipping Area: The shipping area is responsible for the packaging, storage, and transportation
of the finished products to their respective destinations.
Additionally, some of these main areas may consist of subareas, which are specific sections
within each zone that serve distinct purposes or carry out specialized tasks related to the overall
production process.

Figure 32-single diagram of SCMI factory

In ETAP (Electrical Transient Analyzer Program), when designing a protection scheme that
addresses selectivity issues, it is important to focus on specific zones or areas of the electrical
system. Selectivity refers to the ability of the protection devices to isolate only the faulty section of
the system while leaving the rest of the system operational. This ensures that disruptions are
minimized and power supply is maintained to unaffected areas.
For example, let's consider a protection scheme involving cooking equipment and a subarea called
APS (Assumed Power Supply) Pre Crushing. The objective is to design a protection scheme that
allows the detection and isolation of faults in these specific zones while maintaining selectivity.

47
 To achieve this, you would typically analyze the electrical system, considering factors such as
fault currents, protective device characteristics, and coordination requirements. The following steps
can be followed:
Define the protection zones: Identify the specific areas or zones within the electrical system that
require protection, such as the cooking equipment zone and the APS Pre Crushing subarea.
Determine fault characteristics: Analyze the fault currents and other fault parameters within each
zone. This information helps in selecting appropriate protective devices and settings.
Select protective devices: Choose protective devices such as circuit breakers, relays, fuses, or other
protective elements suitable for each zone. Consider the characteristics of these devices, including
their time-current curves, trip settings, and coordination capabilities.
Coordinate protective devices: Ensure that the protective devices in each zone are coordinated
properly. Coordination involves setting the trip times and current thresholds of the protective
devices to create a time-current grading scheme. This allows the device nearest to the fault to
operate first, while minimizing unnecessary tripping of upstream devices.
Conduct simulation and analysis: Utilize ETAP or similar software to simulate fault scenarios
and verify the selectivity and coordination of the protection scheme. This step helps identify any
selectivity problems and allows adjustments to be made to settings or device selection if required.
Iterate and optimize: Fine-tune the protection scheme based on the simulation results and analysis.
Make adjustments to settings, device ratings, or coordination parameters as needed to achieve the
desired level of selectivity and fault isolation.
By following these steps and utilizing ETAP or other similar software, you can design a
protection scheme that addresses selectivity problems and ensures reliable and selective operation
in specific zones like cooking equipment and subareas such as APS Pre Crushing.

Figure 33-“cru” zone single diagram

48
 Switchgear that feeds medium voltage motors can be protected by SEPAM S40, which provides
various functions for motor protection. One of the primary functions is the overcurrent protection
(50/51) that activates in the case of phase faults. Additionally, there are specific overcurrent
protection functions for ground faults, such as 50G/51G or 50N/51N, depending on the CT's (Current
Transformer) connection.
In addition to overcurrent protection, SEPAM S40 also offers other protections like under and
overvoltage (27/59) to safeguard the motor against voltage abnormalities. However, these additional
protections are often disabled unless there is a specific requirement or concern.
For larger motors exceeding 1000kW, an extra protection feature called motor differential
protection (87M) is commonly employed. Motor differential protection (87M) is a sensitive
protection scheme that detects internal faults within the motor windings by comparing the currents
entering and leaving the motor. It helps prevent damage to the motor due to internal faults and ensures
the motor's safe operation.

Furthermore, the SEPAM S40 may include other advanced protection functions like negative
sequence/unbalanced protection (46) and negative sequence overvoltage (47)..etc. These
functions provide enhanced protection against unbalanced conditions and negative sequence
voltages, which can occur due to system faults or abnormalities.It is important to note that the
specific configuration and functionalities of protection devices can vary based on the
application, motor type, and the requirements of the electrical system. Consulting the product
documentation and working with qualified professionals is essential to ensure the appropriate

Figure 34-4Mw motor protection scheme

49
 Switchgear that supplies medium voltage/low voltage transformers are safeguarded by the
SEPAM S40 relay, which incorporates various features to ensure protection. These features
include the ability to detect overcurrent faults in the phases (50/51 function) and ground faults
(50N/51N function). Additionally, the SEPAM S40 relay can offer supplementary protections
tailored to specific application requirements.

Figure 35-protection scheme of 5.5/0.4Kv transformer

In a low voltage system, which typically comprises various loads such as Motor Control
Centers (MCCs), lighting, and resistive loads, the protection is typically provided by a
combination of three devices: Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs), thermal relays, and fuses.
These devices work together to ensure the safety and proper functioning of the system.
Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs): MCBs are commonly used in low voltage systems to
protect against overcurrents and short circuits. They are designed to trip and interrupt the
current flow when the current exceeds a certain threshold. MCBs are adjustable and provide
convenient manual operation for circuit isolation.
Thermal Relays: Thermal relays, also known as overload relays, are designed to protect the
system against excessive current over an extended period. They monitor the current flowing
through the circuit and, if it exceeds a predetermined level for a specified time, they trip and
disconnect the circuit. Thermal relays provide protection against sustained overloads that could
damage the equipment.

50
 Fuses: Fuses are another common protection device in low voltage systems. They consist of a
metal wire or strip that melts when exposed to excessive current. When a fault occurs, the
excessive current causes the fuse element to melt, opening the circuit and protecting the
connected equipment. Fuses are generally one-time use devices and need to be replaced after
they operate.

The combination of MCBs, thermal relays, and fuses allows for comprehensive protection in
low voltage systems. MCBs offer quick and adjustable protection against short circuits, while
thermal relays protect against sustained overloads, and fuses provide an additional layer of fault
protection. The specific choice and arrangement of these devices depend on the load
characteristics, system requirements, and safety standards applicable to the installation.

3.4Importance Damage curve

The damage curve, also known as a time-current characteristic curve or trip curve, plays a
crucial role in setting protective relays in electrical power systems. It helps ensure that the relays
are properly coordinated and provide effective protection against faults and overloads. Here are
some key reasons why the damage curve is important in protective relay setting [20]:
-Selective Coordination: Selective coordination is the ability to selectively isolate faults in a
power system, ensuring that only the closest protective device to the fault operates while
minimizing the impact on the rest of the system. The damage curve allows engineers to set the
time-current characteristics of protective relays at different locations within the system,
ensuring proper coordination. By analyzing the damage curves of relays and their respective
settings, engineers can determine the appropriate time delays and current thresholds to achieve
selective coordination.
Fault Detection and Clearance: The damage curve helps in setting the relay's trip
characteristics for fault detection and clearance. By analyzing the curve, engineers can
determine the appropriate settings to ensure that the relay operates within a specific time frame
when a fault occurs. The curve provides valuable information about the relay's response to fault
currents of different magnitudes, helping to detect and clear faults efficiently.
Overload Protection: In addition to fault protection, protective relays also play a crucial role
in protecting the system against overloads. The damage curve helps in setting the relay's time-
current characteristics to ensure effective overload protection. By analyzing the curve,
engineers can determine the appropriate time delays and current thresholds to prevent sustained
overloads that could damage the equipment or lead to system instability.
Equipment Protection: Setting the protective relay based on the damage curve helps in
protecting critical equipment within the power system. By ensuring that the relay operates
within the specified time frame, faults and overloads can be cleared promptly, preventing
excessive damage to transformers, motors, generators, and other components. This helps in
reducing downtime, minimizing repair costs, and extending the equipment's operational
lifespan.

51
Safety: The damage curve also contributes to ensuring the safety of personnel working in and
around the power system. By setting the protective relay with appropriate trip characteristics, it
helps in quickly isolating faults, minimizing the risk of electrical hazards, and enhancing overall
system safety.
In summary, the damage curve is vital in protective relay setting as it enables selective
coordination, facilitates fault detection and clearance, provides overload protection, safeguards
critical equipment, and enhances system safety. It allows engineers to determine the optimal
relay settings to achieve reliable and efficient protection for electrical power systems.

Figure 36-damage curve of transformer

3.5Overcurrent relay setting

The process of setting overcurrent relays involves several steps to ensure effective and
coordinated protection. Here is a general outline of the steps involved in overcurrent relay
setting:
3.5.1CT selection:

52
 CT selection for a power system primarily depends on two key factors: the maximum load
current and the CT class. [21]
1-Maximum Load Current: The CT should be selected to accurately measure the maximum
load current in the system. This involves considering the expected normal operating current
levels of the power system. The maximum load current helps determine the appropriate current
rating of the CT. The CT's primary current rating should be higher than the maximum load
current to ensure accurate measurement and avoid saturation of the CT core.
2-CT Class: The CT class refers to the accuracy class of the CT and specifies the allowable
error in current measurement. CT classes are defined by standards such as IEEE C57.13 and
IEC 60044. The selection of the CT class depends on the specific application requirements.
Common CT classes include Class 0.1, Class 0.2, Class 0.5, Class 1.0, and Class 3.0, among
others. The accuracy class determines the maximum deviation allowed between the CT's
measured current and the actual current flowing through the primary circuit. Higher accuracy
classes are typically used for more critical applications, such as protective relaying, revenue
metering, or power quality monitoring.
While maximum load current and CT class are important factors, other considerations may
also come into play when selecting CTs, including:
-Saturation Characteristics: CTs should be selected to operate within their linear range to
avoid distortion and inaccuracies. Consider the expected fault currents and potential transient
currents to ensure that the selected CT can handle such conditions without saturation.
That can calculated by compare between VS and VK where:
VS=If*(RCT + RL + Rr)
rated VA
VK= ∗ 𝐴𝐿𝐹 + 𝐼𝑛 ∗ 𝑅𝑐𝑡 ∗ 𝐴𝐿𝐹
In

It must be that :VK>VS in order to say that CT is suitable for realy

-Burden: Consider the burden requirements of the connected devices (e.g., protective relays,
meters) that the CT will supply current to. Ensure that the CT can deliver the necessary
secondary current while meeting the burden and accuracy requirements of the connected
devices.

3.5.2Pickup value:
The pickup value for an overcurrent relay is indeed dependent on various factors such as the
type of loads, sources, and feeders being protected. Here are some common considerations for
determining the pickup value:
Motor Loads: For motor loads, it is generally recommended to set the pickup value of the
overcurrent relay between 125% to 150% of the maximum load current. This range provides an
appropriate margin for motor starting currents and transient overloads. [21]
Sources and Feeders: When protecting sources such as transformers or power cables, the
pickup value can be determined using the following guideline:

53
Minimum pickup value: 1.25 times the full load current of the equipment being protected.
[22]
Maximum pickup value: 2/3 of the minimum short circuit current available at the relay
location. This ensures proper coordination with downstream protective devices and avoids
nuisance tripping. [22]
ETAP can assist in identifying both the minimum and maximum pickup values for
overcurrent relays.

3.5.3TDS selection
The selection of the Time Dial Setting (TDS) for overcurrent relays should take into
consideration a coordination study, which involves setting a time gap between relays to
ensure proper coordination. This time gap is known as the relay time grading margin and
depends on four factors [22]:
-tCB=operating time for circuit breaker =40:100ms
-tReset=Reset time for relay=40:70ms
-tInacc=the sum of inaccuracy in time measurement=50:70ms
-tmargin=safety magin=30:100ms
Considering these factors, practical experience has shown that a suitable time gap between
relays is often around 400 ms. This allows for adequate coordination and ensures that the
downstream relay operates within its time margin after the upstream relay has cleared the
fault.
Once the coordination time interval is determined, select the appropriate TDS multiplier for
each relay involved in the coordination. The TDS multiplier is typically chosen to achieve the
desired coordination time interval. [22]

3.5.4Advantages of inverse curve over definite time curve

Inverse curve relays offer several advantages over definite time curve relays in protective
relay applications. Here are some of the advantages of using inverse curve relays:
-Selectivity and Coordination: Inverse curve relays allow for better selectivity and
coordination in protective systems. The inverse characteristic provides a time delay that
decreases as the fault current increases. This allows relays closer to the fault to operate faster,
ensuring that only the nearest relay trips while other downstream relays remain unaffected.
Selectivity and coordination are crucial in preventing unnecessary tripping of healthy sections
of the system and minimizing power interruptions.
-Flexibility and Adaptability: Inverse curve relays offer greater flexibility in adjusting the
time delay based on the magnitude of the fault current. The inverse characteristic allows for
customization of the relay settings to match the specific requirements of the system. This
flexibility is particularly useful when dealing with different types of loads, fault levels, and
system configurations.
54
-Improved Sensitivity: Inverse curve relays are more sensitive to low-level fault currents
compared to definite time curve relays. The inverse characteristic allows for faster response to
smaller fault currents, enabling earlier detection and quicker isolation of faults. This improved
sensitivity enhances the overall reliability and performance of the protective system.
-Fault Discrimination: Inverse curve relays can discriminate between different types of
faults more effectively. The varying time delay with fault current magnitude allows the relay
to distinguish between low-level faults, such as transient or temporary faults, and high-level
faults, such as sustained faults. This discrimination capability helps in minimizing
unnecessary tripping during transient fault conditions, thereby improving system reliability.
-Industry Standards: Inverse curve relays are widely accepted and recommended by
industry standards such as ANSI/IEEE or IEC. These standards have established curve shapes
and settings for different types of inverse curves (e.g., standard inverse, very inverse,
extremely inverse). Adhering to these standards ensures compatibility, interoperability, and
consistency in protective relay applications across different systems and manufacturers.

3.4.5Instantaneous overcurrent relay

Instantaneous overcurrent relays are ideal for detecting severe high-current faults because
they trip instantly without any time delay when the fault current exceeds the set value.
However, coordinating the timing between different relays, especially when there are
successive lines of different lengths, can be challenging. When determining the settings for an
instantaneous overcurrent relay, several factors should be considered:
-Coordination with Consecutive Lines: If the relay is used to protect consecutive lines, the
pickup value should be set higher than 125% to 150% of the symmetrical fault current value
at the next substation. This ensures that the closest relay to the fault operates first while
allowing coordination with downstream relays. [22]
-Last Relay in the System: The final relay in the system, which does not coordinate with any
other relays, should be set to trip at half of the short circuit current value. This setting enables
prompt detection of faults at the end of the line without unnecessary tripping for lower-level
faults.
-Setting Adjustment Steps: When adjusting the settings of instantaneous overcurrent relays,
it is advisable to start from the furthest point from the power source and gradually work
towards the source. This approach facilitates proper coordination and sequential operation of
the relays along the power distribution system.
Calculating the settings for instantaneous overcurrent relays requires a comprehensive
understanding of the system, fault currents, and protective relay settings. Conducting
coordination studies, including fault analysis and load flow calculations, is crucial for achieving
the desired coordination and selectivity in the protective system. Adhering to industry standards
and best practices is essential for effective relay coordination, ensuring reliable fault detection,
and efficient fault isolation
here actual excel sheet of real configuration of protective relay

55
 Figure 37-excel sheet of overcurrent / earth fault relay

3.5Undervoltage /Overvoltage relay setting

Undervoltage and overvoltage relay settings typically include a margin and a time delay to
ensure reliable and stable operation. Here's a breakdown of these settings:
Undervoltage Setting Margin: The undervoltage setting margin is a percentage above or
below the nominal voltage level at which the relay is designed to operate. This margin provides
a buffer to prevent unnecessary tripping or alarming for minor voltage variations or transient
conditions. The specific margin value depends on the application and system requirements.
Typically, the undervoltage setting margin can range from 5% to 10% above or below the
nominal voltage.
Overvoltage Setting Margin: Similar to undervoltage, the overvoltage setting margin is a
percentage above the nominal voltage level. It serves as a buffer to prevent false tripping due
to minor voltage surges or transient conditions. The overvoltage setting margin also varies
based on the application and system requirements. Typically, it can range from 5% to 10%
above the nominal voltage. [22]
The time delay settings for undervoltage relays vary depending on the specific application,
equipment being protected, and the desired response time. The purpose of the time delay is to
allow for temporary voltage fluctuations or dips without tripping the relay, while still providing
adequate protection against sustained low voltage conditions. Here are some typical time delay
settings for undervoltage relays:
Instantaneous: Some undervoltage relays may have an instantaneous trip feature, which means
they will trip immediately when the monitored voltage falls below the set threshold. This setting
is typically used for critical equipment or applications where any voltage drop is considered
unacceptable.

56
Short Time Delay: For less critical loads or systems, a short time delay is often applied to
allow for momentary voltage dips or fluctuations. Common short time delay settings range
from 0.1 to 1 second. [22]
Long Time Delay: In certain cases, a longer time delay may be used to avoid unnecessary
tripping for temporary low voltage conditions. This setting allows for sustained low voltage
conditions, such as during a brownout or voltage stabilization period. Common long time
delay settings range from 1 to 10 seconds or more. [22]
In Chapter 4 of our ETAP simulation for protection schemes, we will provide a brief
overview of additional protections, including differential protection.
Finally we talk about section which can not implemented in ETAP but it exist in industry
which is relay communication and control circuit of circuit breaker

3.6Motor contribution

Motor contribution refers to the current produced by one or more motors when a short circuit
occurs. Although this value is relatively small, it plays a crucial role in determining the
maximum available short circuit current and establishing the short circuit rating of electrical
equipment. Whether the motor is large or small, and regardless of its voltage rating, it is evident
that motor contribution is present during a fault situation.
In the event of a short circuit, the system voltage experiences a decay, resulting in the absence
of a stable voltage supply. At this point, the rotor's rotating magnetic field strives to compensate
for the reduced voltage by acting as a power source. As a result, the motor starts supplying
additional current to the faulty electrical system. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as
"motor contribution." [23]
The current magnitude is determined by the impedance of the motor. Initially, there is an
asymmetrical current comprising both AC and DC components. As the rotor flux starts to
decrease due to the absence of a stable voltage supply, the AC component of the current decays.
Similarly, without a stable voltage supply, the transient DC component also diminishes over
time.
Initially, the current provided by the motor has a frequency different from the system
frequency due to motor slip. The rate of decay is influenced by the inertia of the motor and the
load. It is important to note that this frequency difference does not impact the calculation of the
short circuit.
The AC component of the motor's current is determined by the motor impedance, which
consists of a resistive component (Rm) and a reactive component (Xm). The resistive
component is significantly smaller than the reactive component. Hence, when calculating motor
contribution, the inductive component (Xm) is considered to provide a conservative value. [23]
Induction motor contribution typically lasts from one to four cycles from time equal zero
during a short circuit condition. Some may this interval very small but it may cause unnecessary
tripping and increase the short circuit above maximum short circuit current.

57
 When detailed motor data is unavailable, approximations can serve as a valuable tool. In the
case of large motors or groups of large motors, the lock rotor current, which is typically 5 to 7
times the full load current, can be used as a substitute for the actual motor impedance. This
approach ensures a highly conservative value for calculations. [23]
For small motors or groups of small motors, it is recommended to use a value of 0.20 to 0.28
per unit instead of relying on actual motor impedance data. This approximation provides a
practical estimate for the motor contribution in such cases. [23]

To mitigate or avoid motor contribution during a short circuit condition, there are a few
possible solutions:

-Variable Speed Drives (VSD): Using a VSD or VFD (Variable Frequency Drive) for motor
control can help reduce motor contribution during a short circuit. VSDs have built-in protection
features that can detect fault conditions and quickly disconnect the motor from the system. This
helps minimize the contribution of the motor to the short circuit current. [24]

-Reactors: Installing reactors in the motor circuit can limit the magnitude of motor contribution
during a short circuit. Reactors introduce impedance into the motor circuit, which reduces the
fault current and limits the contribution of the motor to the overall short circuit current. [25]

-Current Limiters: Current limiters, such as fuses or circuit breakers with adjustable current
limiting features, can be employed to restrict the amount of current that the motor can contribute
during a short circuit. These devices are designed to limit the fault current to a specific level,
preventing excessive motor contribution [25]

3.7relays communication and control circuit of CB

Communication between relays and the control circuit of a circuit breaker is essential for
coordinated and efficient protection of the electrical system. It enables relays to send signals
to the circuit breaker, instructing it to open or close based on the detected fault or abnormal
condition. Here are the key aspects of communication between relays and the control circuit
of a circuit breaker: [26]
Trip Signals: When a relay detects a fault, it sends a trip signal to the control circuit of the
circuit breaker. This signal instructs the circuit breaker to open and disconnect the faulty
section of the electrical system.
-Communication Protocols: Communication between relays and the circuit breaker control
circuit is typically established using standardized communication protocols, such as IEC
61850, Modbus, or DNP3. These protocols define the format and rules for data exchange and
ensure compatibility and interoperability between devices from different manufacturers.
Communication Medium: The communication medium used for relay-circuit breaker
communication can vary. It can be wired communication using Ethernet cables or serial
communication, or it can be wireless communication using technologies like radio frequency
(RF) or Wi-Fi.

58
-Protection Coordination: Communication between relays and the circuit breaker control
circuit allows for coordinated protection schemes. Through proper communication and
coordination, relays can exchange information, coordinate trip signals, and ensure selective
tripping of circuit breakers to isolate faults while minimizing disruption to the rest of the system.
Status Feedback: In addition to trip signals, relays can receive status feedback from the circuit
breaker control circuit. This feedback includes information about the circuit breaker's position
(open or closed), status (tripped or reset), and any alarms or faults detected by the circuit
breaker.

Figure 38-control circuit of MV CB

3.8Conclusion

This chapter presents an in-depth analysis of the distribution system in the SCMI factory. It
explores various protection schemes, relays, and the underlying philosophy employed within
the factory. Furthermore, the chapter outlines the methodology and procedures involved in
designing an effective protection scheme for the system.

59
 Chapter four :
implementing the protection scheme in
ETAP software

60
 Design protection scheme
4.1Introduction

This chapter introduces the ETAP software, its tools, and libraries. The focus is on replicating
the SCMI factory schematic and transferring data for transformers, motors, cables, busbars, and
other loads. The chapter also covers the inclusion of protection functions for each element, as
well as the configuration of protective relays for HV/MV and MV/LV substations. Furthermore,
a step-by-step procedure is provided to guide the process of setting up the protective relays.

4.2Consideration

When designing a protection scheme for a factory, several considerations should be taken into
account. These include:
-Comprehensive transfer: The majority of the factory should be transferred into the protection
scheme. However, there might be some elements, particularly in the low voltage zones and
motor control centers (MCCs), that have been neglected. This is because certain MV/LV
transformers may not be connected to any loads.
-Relay selection: The selection of relays is based on the existing relays present in the factory.
The goal is to maintain consistency and compatibility with the existing setup.
-Lack of data: In some cases, there may be a lack of data for certain elements. In such
situations, load flow analysis is necessary to approximate the required information, especially
for LV cables and loads. However, it's important to note that due to this approximation, the
results obtained may not be 100% accurate.
It is essential to exercise caution and consider these factors during the design process to ensure
the protection scheme is as reliable and effective as possible.

4.3Presentation of the ETAP software

ETAP (Electrical Transient Analysis Program) is the most comprehensive analysis platform
for the design, simulation, operation, and automation of industrial power production,
distribution, and energy systems. ETAP is developed within an established quality assurance
program and is globally recognized as a high-impact software. It is fully localized in four
languages, with output reports translated into six languages. As a fully integrated enterprise
solution, ETAP extends to a real-time intelligent energy management system for monitoring,
controlling, automating, simulating, and optimizing power systems.
ETAP is a full-spectrum engineering software company specializing in the analysis,
simulation, monitoring, control, optimization, and automation of electrical power systems. The
ETAP software offers the most comprehensive suite of integrated power system enterprise
solutions

61
 Figure 39-edit mode

Menu bar
The menu bar consists of a comprehensive list of menu options. Each option activates a
dropdown list of commands, such as File Operations, Printing, Database Conversions, Data
Exchange, OLE Objects, Project Standards, Project Settings and Options, Libraries, Default
Values, Annotation Fonts, Base, and Revision.

Project toolbar
The Project toolbar consists of buttons that provide shortcuts to commonly used functions.
These functions include creating projects, opening projects, saving projects, printing, print
preview, cut, copy, paste, pan zoom, undo, redo, text box, grid view, continuity check,
themes, obtaining a model, adding to the OLV model, hyperlink, power calculator, search,
and help.
To access the Power Grid feature, simply click on the Power Grid button in the toolbar. As
you hover over the OLV (One-Line View), the cursor will transform into a Power Grid icon.
Click anywhere on the OLV to place a utility on your single-line diagram.

62
Modify toolbars
The Modify toolbars are active when you are in Edit mode. You can click or double-click to
select, drag and drop AC, DC, and instrument elements onto single-line diagrams.
Additionally, you can perform the following functions:
• View and print customizable output reports (Text and Crystal Reports)
• Modify display options
• Access Schedule Report Manager
• Add new ground grid systems
• Add composite networks and composite motors
The data contained within an element of the OLV can be accessed by opening its editor.
Double-click on Cable1 to open the cable editor. You can click on any tab within the editor to
open its respective page. The data can be entered manually into the fields with a white
background only."
Note: "OLV" and "Cable1" are kept as acronyms/identifiers since they represent specific
elements in the software.

Figure 40-modify tools bar

63
Study mode
study modes are designed to simulate and analyze various operating conditions and scenarios
to assess the performance, reliability, and safety of the power system.
Some common study modes in ETAP include:
Load Flow Analysis: This mode calculates the steady-state voltage, current, and power flow
throughout the power system under normal operating conditions.
-Short Circuit Analysis: This mode simulates fault conditions and calculates the fault currents
that occur during a short circuit event. It helps determine the ratings and settings of protective
devices.
-Transient Stability Analysis: This mode assesses the dynamic behavior of the power system
under transient conditions, such as during faults or disturbances, to ensure system stability and
prevent cascading failures.
Harmonic Analysis: This mode examines the presence and impact of harmonic distortion in
the power system, helping to identify harmonic sources, evaluate equipment compatibility, and
mitigate potential issues.
Motor Starting Analysis: This mode evaluates the starting behavior of electric motors,
considering factors such as voltage drop, motor acceleration, and impact on the power system
during motor startup.
Relay Coordination Analysis: This mode focuses on coordinating the settings of protective
relays throughout the power system to ensure selective and reliable fault detection and
clearance.
beside that we found starZ and Arc flash

Figure 41-study tools bar

4.4Replicating the data

In this section, we describe the methodological process of transferring data for the different
elements present in the factory (such as transformers, cables, motors, etc.) from manufacturer
documents and data sheets to the ETAP software. We provide a step-by-step guide on how to
accurately enter the data for each specific element within the ETAP platform.

64
Transmission line/cables
We enter Transmission line from modify tools we choose transmission line symbol from info
choice we enter the length and connection which is three phase

Figure 42-transmission line info section

After that we go to parameters we enter to library to chose the cable characteristics(sizing,

number of cores , frequency ..)

65
 Figure 43-library of transmission line
Beside that it must add extra information like height ,GMD ,GMR is there lighting arrestor
or not space between phase, weather condition …etc. or that so model can operate as real one
in different condition could calculate right impendences which is importance in short circuit
evaluation and approximate damage curve .

Figure 44-impedance section

66
Same apply on cable except cable does not have GMD and GMR
Power grid
Entering power grid modify tools from info and rating we choose operating voltage
magnitude and angle , type of connection, operating power and operating mode

Figure 45-power grid rating section

Concerning faults study we choose to short circuit to enter the parameters of short circuit
rating and impedance

All this parameters has been provided by GRTE of Arabaa.

67
Busbar
Entering power grid modify tools from info and rating we enter the nominal operating voltage,
continuous current ,load diversity factor and limit voltage beside that we can add parameters
like peak short circuit current and physical dimension of busbar

Figure 46-rating section of busbar

Transformer
Transformer consider most important element in distribution system that why data which
been entering must be accurate such as rated MVA operating voltage for both primary and
secondary side and vector group.

68
 Figure 47-transformer rating section
In addition, when performing the short circuit calculation, it is essential to input the Z%
value to accurately determine the maximum symmetrical short circuit. This information enables
the system to generate the appropriate damage curve and account for magnetized inrush current.
By including these factors in the analysis, we can obtain more precise results and effectively
assess the impact of short circuit events on the electrical components and overall system
performance.

Figure 48-transformer sizing

69
Motor
Next, let's shift our focus towards the utilization of 90% of the loads in the industrial setting
which are motors.it enter basics data like power rating, power factor operating voltage and
demand factor.

Figure 49-induction motor section

Beside that we have to not overlook the impedances type of motors starter since it defined
the motor conurbation in short circuit .

Single-line diagrams
Single-line diagrams serve as primary reference plans for substations and require special
attention. These references should be the first drawings prepared. Switching and functional
relay information can appear on the same single-line diagram if the presentation is not too
detailed or complicated. It is recommended to prepare single-line diagrams using the 'Typical
Substation' procedure.

70
 Figure 50-single diagram of SCMI

Power flow
Flow analysis provides valuable insights into our network, including power consumption,
power factor, operational voltage, , voltage drop an power loss. It also assesses the condition of
each electrical component, indicating whether they are overloaded, normally loaded,
underloaded, or damaged.
Additionally, flow analysis determines the maximum load current, which aids in selecting the
appropriate current transformer (CT) ratio and pickup value for relays. This information is
crucial for ensuring accurate and reliable protection of the electrical system.
In summary, flow analysis serves as a comprehensive tool that not only reveals important
network parameters but also assists in making informed decisions regarding equipment
selection and protective relay settings.

Figure 51-load flow analysis

71
4.5Short Circuit analysis

To grasp the significance of conducting a short circuit analysis, we will simulate a three-
phase fault at the 63Kv busbar level, setting the simulation time to 0.1 seconds.

Figure 52-short circuit summary

Figure 53-short circuit report

The following curve in question displays the waveform of the fault current. We observe an
asymmetry in the waveform due to the angle alpha of the sinusoidal voltage. This causes a
temporary transient state in the network. It can be said that there is a certain speed of the current
over time, in other words, the current propagates very quickly over time.
Translation and rephrasing: "The depicted curve shows the fault current's waveform. We
notice an asymmetry in the waveform, attributed to the phase angle of the sinusoidal voltage.
This leads to a temporary transient state within the network. It can even be described as a rapid
progression of the current over time, indicating its swift propagation

72
 Figure 54-Short circuit characteristics

4.6Protection scheme
Next, we will delve into the most significant part, which entails the practical implementation
of a protection scheme using the ETAP software. Our first step involves visualizing the scheme
for each component (e.g., transmission lines, transformers, motors, feeders) within different
substations. It is crucial to highlight that we have carefully considered the parameters for
overcurrent protection relays, fuses, or MCBs based on the results of a thorough conducting
selectivity study. Moving on to the second part, we will explain the step-by-step procedure for
conducting the selectivity study, utilizing various techniques.

4.6.1Transmission line protection

The MiCOM P446 protection relay is responsible for ensuring the protection of the
transmission lines. We will enable the following protection functions on it: 50/51, 50G/51G,
and 46 for overcurrent protection, and 27/59 for under/over voltage protection. These functions
are specifically designed to detect and mitigate the majority of faults that may occur in the
transmission lines.
After performing a load flow analysis, we determined that the total load current is 312A.
Based on this information, we will select a current transformer (CT) ratio of 400:5. To ensure
accurate protection, we will choose a CT class with a tolerance of 5%. To prevent saturation,
we will select a burden that is 20 times the expected load current. Considering the presence of
low current detection protection functions such as 51G and 46, which impose significant
burden, we will opt for a CT with a high burden rating, such as 30VA or a value close to it.
Same goes for VT selection.

73
 Figure 55-potential transformer parameters

Figure 56-current transformer parameters

For phase overcurrent protection 51/50 the relay 83 setting will be:
-pickup value=312*1.25=390
-type of curve: for long distance we choose inverse curve
-time dial:1 choosing according to selectivity study
-for instantaneous value we choose 15 times and delay 20ms
For earth fault protection the setting will be :
-pickup value=around 20% of phase current

74
-type of curve: inverse curve
-time dial:1.2 choosing according to selectivity study
-for instantaneous value we choose approximately 80% of phase current pickup delay 0.02s
-pickup value=312*1.25=390
-type of curve: for long distance we choose inverse curve
-time dial:1 choosing according to selectivity study
-for instantaneous value we choose 15 times and delay 20ms
Some faults, particularly imbalanced faults, cannot be detected by conventional overcurrent
(OC) and earth fault (EF) protections. To address this limitation, an additional protective
measure known as relay 46 is employed. This specific relay is designed to detect negative
currents and is utilized to enhance fault detection capabilities in such scenarios. The settings for
relay 46 will need to be configured as follows:
-pickup value=5-10% of phase current
-type of curve: definite time
-time dial:1 choosing according to selectivity study
Before enter the setting to relay 83 we define the input and the output of the relay

Figure 57-MiCOM P446 input/output devices

75
The MiCOM setting for above protections functions are :
-Phase overcurrent protection

Figure 58-MiCOM P446 phase overcurrent setting

-ground overcurrent protection

Figure 59-MiCOM P446 ground overcurrent setting

76
-negative sequence protection

Figure 60-MiCOM P446 negative sequence overcurrent setting

In order to ensure proper protection of the transmission line, it is crucial to set the relay
settings in a way that the relay operates within the damage curve of the line. This means that
the relay should be able to trip the circuit breaker (CB) before the line itself sustains any
damage.

Figure 61-relay curve versus damage curve of TL

77
 It is important to highlight that a second stage was incorporated into the relay curve to
ensure that it remains below the damage curve, particularly after a current level of 373,635A.
However, since this current level is considered impossible to reach, it can be safely omitted
from the relay settings. This approach helps maintain the relay's operation within a safe range,
avoiding the risk of false tripping or unnecessary system interruption.
To provide protection against under/overvoltage conditions, the following settings are
applied: The undervoltage threshold is set to 90%, while the overvoltage threshold is set to
110%. A time delay of 10 seconds is incorporated to ensure stability and avoid false
triggering.
Under/overvoltage setting relay:

Figure 62-under/overvoltage relay setting

So the overall protection scheme will be :

78
 Figure 63-protection scheme of TL

4.6.2Transformer protection

63/5.5Kv transformer protection

The delta-connected primary side of the transformer is safeguarded by the RET615 protective
relay. The following functions have been enabled for this relay: 50/51, 46, 87T, and
under/overcurrent protection 27/59. On the secondary side, the REF615 relay is employed,
which offers phase overcurrent protection 50/51, earth fault protection 50N/51N, and
directional protection 67.
The transformer protection scheme follows a specific philosophy to address faults occurring
on either the primary or secondary side.
-Differential Protection Philosophy: If a fault occurs within the differential protection zone
(which encompasses both primary and secondary sides), the primary response is provided by
the 87T relay. It initiates by opening both the primary and secondary circuit breakers (CB). If
the fault is not cleared by the 87T relay, backup protection is implemented using overcurrent
protection based on the type of fault detected.
-Faults Outside the Differential Protection Zone: a. Unbalanced Faults on the Primary Side: In
case of unbalanced faults occurring on the primary side, the 46 relay responds first and opens
the primary CB. The primary 51 relay acts as the first backup, followed by the secondary 51
relay, both of which open the secondary CB.
- Earth Faults on the Secondary Side: For earth faults occurring on the secondary side, the
secondary protections respond first. Once the fault is detected, the secondary protection relays
initiate, opening the secondary CB. The same backup protection sequence of primary 51 and
secondary 51 relays is followed.

79
-LLL (Line-to-Line-to-Line) Faults: In the case of LLL faults, the 50 instantaneous overcurrent
protection relay responds first, sending a blocking signal to the 51 relay. In certain scenarios,
both the secondary and primary instantaneous overcurrent protection relays may activate
simultaneously, irrespective of the fault's location.
-Directional Protection: The directional protection serves the purpose of preventing the parallel
transformer from being affected or going out of service in the event of a fault in the transformer
being protected.
Following a load flow analysis, the results indicate that the maximum load current on the
primary side of the transformer is 144A, while on the secondary side it is 1953A. Considering
these values, the current transformer (CT) current ratio has been set to 200 for the primary side
and 2000 for the secondary side. Additionally, the CTs are specified with a class rating of 5P20.
It is necessary to configure the relays in a manner that ensures the curve remains below the
damage curve. Additionally, the setting for instantaneous overcurrent should be above the
inrush current, which is typically around 8 times the primary rated current

Figure 64-relay protection of 63/5.5Kv transformer

80
So the setting of RET615 are

Figure 65-RET615 overcurrent setting

The setting for REF615 are

81
 Figure 66-RET615 overcurrent setting
For under/overvoltage relay parameters will be the same as the one in transmission line
So the overall protection scheme will be:

82
 Figure 67-transformer protection scheme

5.5/0.4Kv transformer protection

the primary side of the transformer is protected by the SEPAM S40 protective relay, which is
configured to enable functions such as 50/51 for phase overcurrent protection and 50N/51N for
earth fault protection. On the low voltage side, protection is provided by the Micrologic MCB.
When selecting and sizing the MCB for the low voltage side, the following factors should be
considered:
-Rated Current: The rated current of the MCB should be chosen based on the maximum load
current determined through load flow analysis. This ensures that the MCB can handle the
expected current without tripping during normal operating conditions.
-Rated Short Circuit Capacity (Peak kA): The MCB should have a rated short circuit capacity
that can handle the peak fault current expected in the system. This is important to ensure that
the MCB can safely interrupt the fault current without damage.
-Rated Short Circuit Ultimate Breaking Capacity (Icu): This parameter represents the maximum
short circuit current that the MCB can safely interrupt without causing harm or excessive wear
to the device.
-Rated Short Circuit Service Breaking Capacity (Ics): The rated short circuit service breaking
capacity indicates the maximum short circuit current that the MCB can repeatedly handle
without damage or significant performance degradation.
-Rated Voltage: The MCB should have a rated voltage compatible with the system voltage on
the low voltage side of the transformer.

83
 By carefully considering these factors and selecting an MCB that meets the specified
requirements, you can ensure effective protection and safe operation on the low voltage side
of the transformer.

Figure 68-sizing of low voltage CB

Note: HV/MV circuit breaker are also sized in same method.

Note2:we have another transformer like 5.5/3.3kV this special transformer has another
protection philosophy
4.6.3Feeder protection
SEPAM S40 protective relays are employed to safeguard various feeders. These relays are
equipped with 50/50 and 50N/51N functions to ensure comprehensive protection for both the
cable and incoming busbar. To achieve this, the relay settings must be carefully adjusted to
ensure that the relay curve remains below the damage curves of the cable and arc energy/damge
point of busbar. By setting the relay curve in this manner, optimal protection can be provided
for the feeders, effectively mitigating the risk of damage to the cable and busbar components
as demonstrate it in following figure

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 Figure 69-relay protection of 5.5Kv busbar

4.6.4Motor protection
Medium voltage motor protection
The protection of medium-voltage (MV) motors is facilitated by the implementation of
SEPAM S40 protective relays. These relays incorporate essential functions such as 50/51 for
phase overcurrent protection and 50N/51N for earth fault protection. In this particular
application, the SEPAM S40 relays are employed to ensure the safety and reliability of both the
MV motor and the associated cable that supplies power to it. This integrated protection scheme
effectively safeguards the motor and the cable against potential faults and abnormal operating
conditions, enhancing the overall performance and longevity of the MV motor system.Beside
motor is protected from voltage fluctuation by 27/59.
When setting we have to consider that relay should the one which response first since it
consider downstream load so we expected TDS to be smaller as possible .
Here the SEPAM S40 setting

85
 Figure 70-SEPAM S10 overcurrent setting
The relay curve is intentionally set to be higher than the inrush current curve, particularly for
motors connected to the line, while still remaining below the damage curve.

86
 Figure 71-relay protection of 5.5kV induction motor
So the overall protection scheme will be:

Figure 72-protection scheme of MV motor

Low voltage motor protection
87
 The low voltage motor is safeguarded by an overload relay, which serves to protect against
excessive loads and overloads. Additionally, fuses and miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are
employed to provide protection against overcurrent conditions. It is important to note that these
protective devices are carefully selected and configured to ensure that they operate within the
safe operating range, remaining under the damage curve while effectively handling inrush
currents. This comprehensive protection scheme helps to maintain the motor's longevity and
prevent any potential damage due to excessive currents or overloads.

Figure 73-fuse-thermal relay selection for LV motor

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4.65Selectivity
4.6.1Low/medium voltage selectivity
The selectivity primarily focuses on achieving coordination between the fuse and MCB within
the Motor Control Center (MCC), as well as between both of them and the MCB responsible
for protecting the low voltage (LV) busbar. This selectivity is determined using protection and
coordination tools, specifically by analyzing the curve section view.
It is important to note that the curves of the MCB, fuse, and relay differ from each other.
These variations in curves must be taken into account when establishing the selectivity and
coordination between the protective devices. By carefully analyzing the curve section view and
considering the distinct characteristics of each protective device, an optimized selectivity
scheme can be developed to ensure proper discrimination and efficient protection of the LV
system.
The following figure display how the selectivity LV-LV are done form downstream to
upstream

Figure 74-Low/low voltage selectivity

In the selectivity approach employed, the first level of response is given to the Motor Control
Center (MCC) MCB. If the fault is not cleared by the MCC MCB, the next level of response is
provided by the motor fuse downstream. If the fault still persists, the MCB protecting the LV
busbar upstream is activated. This selectivity method primarily focuses on achieving current
discrimination and is known as time-current selectivity.

Following the selectivity between the motor protection devices and LV busbar protection
devices, the next step involves establishing selectivity between the MCB on the secondary side
and the relay on the primary side of the transformer. In this case, if a fault occurs on the low
voltage side of the busbar, the primary objective is for the MCB to respond first. The MCB acts
as the initial line of defense, promptly detecting and isolating the fault.

89
 However, if the fault is beyond the capabilities of the MCB to handle, the relay on the primary
side of the transformer serves as a backup protection measure. The relay is designed to activate
in such instances, providing additional protection and ensuring the fault is promptly cleared to
prevent further damage or complications.

Figure 75-meduim/low voltage selectivity

We notice that time gap in not the same and it getting smaller by the current in this type of
devices we can not keep CTI fixed.
Selectivity does not overlook the matter that both curve should be below damage curve in this
case of cable and transformer.

4.6.2 Medium/medium voltage selectivity

The coordination between protective relays is accomplished using a time-current technique,
typically employing an Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) curve. This curve combines
an inverse curve and an instantaneous curve to determine the operating time of the relays.
According to this coordination principle, the relay located closest to the fault should respond
first, providing primary protection. The relays located further upstream serve as backup
protection, with each relay responding consecutively based on their distance from the fault.
By coordinating the relays in this manner, the system ensures that faults are cleared efficiently
and rapidly, minimizing potential damage and maintaining the reliability of the power
distribution network.

90
 Figure 76-medium/medium voltage selectivity

4.6.3Medium/high voltage selectivity

In this particular level of coordination, the secondary side relay is designed to be the first to
respond in the event of a fault. It provides the initial protection for the system. If the fault is not
cleared by the secondary side relay, the primary side relay comes into action as the next line of
defense. It serves as a backup protection measure to ensure that the fault is isolated and cleared.
Lastly, the relay responsible for protecting the transmission line is the last in line to respond to
the fault. This sequential coordination of relays ensures an efficient and reliable response to
faults, prioritizing the protection of the system components and minimizing potential
disruptions.

The coordination approach is not limited to just phase overcurrent relays, but it also extends
to earth fault relays, which are specifically designed to provide high sensitivity for detecting

91
earth faults. The coordination of these relays ensures effective detection and response to earth
faults in the system as shown in figure

Figure 77-earth fault selectivity

Not only that but we can do a relay coordination using definite time relays in order to apply
time selectivity method and it must combined with current selectivity method it easier to
perform since we can ensure a constant CTI among all relay, however in some cases it can
inapplicable as we seen in chapter5.

Figure 78-time selectivity

Another drawback is intersection of relay with damage curve it can be tolerated if intersection
point is beyond maximum symmetrical fault current
As it said before it should combined with current selectivity method depending on current
magnitude

92
 Figure 79-current selectivity

We can check the validity of relay coordination using star auto evaluation which gives
information about coordination in certain zone

Figure 80-Star Auto Evaluation

4.7Conclusion
This chapter primarily centers around the process of entering SCMI factory data into ETAP
software and subsequently implementing a comprehensive protection scheme. The chapter
covers various aspects, including CT selection, relay setting, and circuit breaker sizing.
Additionally, the chapter emphasizes the implementation of selectivity using the Time Current
Characteristic (TCC) curve. By utilizing ETAP software and following the outlined procedures,
engineers can design an effective protection scheme that ensures selectivity and coordination
among protective devices in the SCMI factory.

93
Chapter five : Results & discussion

94
 Results&discussion
5.1Introduction

In this chapter we will talk about the results of the protection scheme so we will try to simulate
different types of faults and see how our system respond correspond to the case then discuss
the possible problems give as suggestion solution for it.

5.2Protection results

For protection results we will see the results of our protection scheme in each electrical
equipment relative to faults type with interpretation for the results
It been create a three phase symmetrical faults in transmission line :

Figure 81-apply three phase fault on TL

The sequence events will :

Figure 82-sequence of operation of faulted TL

95
 The initial response to an instantaneous phase overcurrent is triggered by relay 91, with a
response time of 50ms. This is followed by an additional 50ms of operating time for the circuit
breaker (CB), resulting in a total clearing time of 100ms. The operation of the instantaneous
overcurrent relay (51) is blocked by the faster response of the instantaneous phase overcurrent
relay (91).
As a backup protection measure, relay 48 is responsible for protecting the primary side of
transformer 1 and operates after a delay of 7.650ms. Additionally, relay 15 operates after the
same delay of 7.650ms.
The relays 41 and 49, which are responsible for protecting the secondary transformers, have
been restrained from tripping, despite the current flowing on both sides being above the pick
value. This is due to the presence of directional protection relay 67.
The distance between the relay and the fault location plays a significant role in determining the
magnitude of the fault current detected by the relay. A greater distance results in a larger
impedance, leading to a smaller fault current detected by the relay.
It is important to note that phase faults can result in a voltage drop, which explains the response
from undervoltage relays.
It been encountered a problem with earth faults where relays 41 and 49 do not respond to the
faults because they are not equipped with earth fault protection functionality, as indicated .

Figure 83-sequence of operation of phase to ground fault of TL

The absence of earth fault protection in relays 41 and 49 does not pose a problem, as
overcurrent protection is typically considered a secondary measure following distance
protection (relay 21).

96
 Now, let's discuss the protection of the 63/5.5kV transformer. In the event of faults occurring
within the differential zone, the protection is determined by CT expansion. The initial response
comes from the 87 protection, followed by other protective functions.
We will disable under/overvoltage for sake of seeing all relays events.
Applying three phase symmetrical faults in primary side of transformer inside differential
protection zone

Figure 84-fault inside protection zone of transformer

The results will be

Figure 85-sequence of operation of fault inside protection zone of transformer

If the same faults applied out of protection zone 87 relay will not respond as this case

97
 Figure 86-fault outside protection zone of transformer
The sequence of events will be

Figure 87-sequence of operation Figure5.4 fault inside protection zone of transformer

Referring that relay 41 are designated mainly to protect main 5.5kV bus bar.
it can exhibit the effectiveness of negative sequence protection in imbalanced faults by
applying the line to line faults to primary side of power transformer the first which detect the
faults will be 46 protection as shown :

98
 Figure 88-sequence of operation of line to line fault
So rather than clearing the faults within 7451ms using phase overcurrent we clear it only in
750ms using negative sequence protection since it is very sensitive to unbalanced faults

5.3Selectivity results

To obtain selectivity results, simulations have been conducted and tested to validate the
selectivity under various conditions. During these tests, we specifically focused on identifying
any problems that could arise during faults, as they have the potential to cause significant issues.
By analyzing and displaying the problems encountered during fault scenarios, we aimed to
ensure the effectiveness and reliability of the selectivity scheme.
Starting with LV we create faults at it to see the sequence of operation we applied three phase
faults on 3kW/380V motor in crusher zone

99
 Figure 89-three phase fault in LV motor
The event sequence operation of faults will be:

Figure 90-sequence of operation of three phase fault in LV motor

It observed that both the circuit breaker (CB) and fuse protecting the motor took action almost
simultaneously. This can be attributed to the magnitude of the fault, which was significant.
Subsequently, a short time later, we noticed that the CB protecting the low voltage (LV) busbar
tripped. The reason behind the small time margin between the three devices is the substantial
fault current. In cases where the fault current is much smaller, we would expect to observe
differences in the time of action between these devices.
Regarding the LV devices, we observed that relay 74, responsible for protecting the primary
side of the 5.5/0.4kV system, sends a trip signal to CB333 (located in the primary side) in the
event of a problem. If CB333 fails to trip, relay 68, designed to protect the concasseur zone
feeder, takes action. Similarly, if relay 68 fails to respond, relay 66, responsible for protecting
the multi-zone feeder, comes into play.
In this scenario, the faults occur in areas with insignificant power loads, resulting in a lower
fault current that may not be sufficient to trigger the upper-level distribution system relays
(relay 41, relay 15, relay 91). However, the faults can still activate these relays, as observed in
the case of large motors.

100
 the overload relay responds relatively slowly, but it is specifically designed to protect against
overload faults, including phase-to-ground faults.

Figure 91-sequence of operation of phase to ground fault in LV motor

Staying with concasseur zone I went to give a spot to an issue that concern current selectivity
(instantaneous overcurrent) when it come to relays coordination in case there are two short and
consecutive lines because the difference between the fault current on both lines is not significant
so the relay can not distinguish .is this fault on my line or on the other line.
To clarify the situation, let's consider the application of a three-phase fault on the primary side
of the 5.5/0.4kV transformer. There is a zone in which this transformer exists, with each busbar
connected by a short conductor length of approximately 25 to 30 meters.

Figure 92-three phase fault in 5.5/0.4Kv transformer

The sequence of event operation will be

101
 Figure 93-sequence of operation three phase fault in 5.5/0.4Kv transformer
Disregarding the tripping of CB339 and other LV circuit breakers due to the effects of motor
contributions, we observe that relay66, relay68, and relay74 have activated the 50 protection
function. This activation is a result of the large fault current present, with relay74 being the
closest relay to the fault and the one expected to intervene in such a scenario.
That why it is not advisable to use instantaneous overcurrent even in the protection of the power
transformer for the same previous reason. The difficulty of coordination between transformer
protection and feeder protection or set the value of short circuit above maximum value in case
faults happen in nearest feeder.
So it more suitable in this case to use time-current curve (IDMT) instead of time curve without
instantaneous overcurrent with using extremely inverse for simulating the 50 protection in large
current fault the result for same fault will be :

Figure 94-sequence of operation three phase fault in 5.5/0.4Kv transformer

102
 Ignoring other tripping due to motor contribution it seen that there selectivity and time gap
between each upstream and downsteam is around 250ms
That why for small factories where the conductor length is short it preferable to use IDMT
curve instead of definite time curve even that coordination in first method is harder then second
one.
We can use another effective solution yet difficult one which is differential line protection
which will apply the term of zone protection. But it required skillful protection engineers to
apply it
Now let talk about selectivity in MV motor we same procedure as LV motor. First by
applying phase to ground fault in 4MW MV motor.
We apply phase to ground fault to it

Figure 95-phase to ground fault in MV motor

The sequence event will be :

103
 Figure 96-sequence of operation of phase to ground fault in MV motor

During a phase-to-ground fault, an overvoltage condition can occur due to a phenomenon

known as Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV). When a fault is detected in an electrical
system, protective devices like circuit breakers are activated to isolate the faulty section. As
part of this process, the fault current flow is swiftly interrupted. However, this interruption of
current can give rise to a temporary overvoltage called TRV. TRV emerges as a result of the
sudden release of energy stored in the system's inductance and capacitance components. It is
characterized by high voltages that surpass the normal operating levels. It is important to
address TRV during phase-to-ground fault scenarios to prevent potential damage to the
system. Protective measures such as surge arresters and voltage limiters are commonly
employed to mitigate the effects of transient recovery voltage.
There are another effect which can triggered the overcurrent protection faults in case of
current fault like system imbalanced can lead to increased voltages on the remaining healthy
phases.
Now applying three phase faults on the same motor the results will be:

104
 Figure 97-sequence of operation of three phase fault in MV motor
Now we do protection scheme for the rest parallel motors and it will be appear an issue the
effect it clear which is motor contribution.

5.4Motor contribution

We have previously discussed the impact of motor contribution during a fault, which includes
consequences such as the amplification of fault current magnitude and voltage dip.
Additionally, the potential issues of miscoordination and undesired tripping were also
highlighted. Now, let's delve into the specific case we are about to discuss, focusing on these
aspects.After setting relays in parallel busbar let create three phase fault in 4000Kw the results
will be:

Figure 98-sequence of operation before adding current limiter

105
 During our observation, we noticed that in addition to the tripping of the relay (designated as
59) responsible for protecting the 4MW motor, the relays safeguarding the parallel motors on
the same busbar also trip, albeit with a slight delay. The relay (designated as 58), which is
closest to the fault, trips almost simultaneously with relay 59. This indicates that each motor
contributes differently to the fault current, ranging from 0.22kA to 0.79kA. The specific
contribution depends on factors such as the locked rotor current, reactance percentage, and
transient time of each motor.The analysis of the short circuit in the feeding busbar confirms that
larger motors have a higher current contribution and generally exhibit longer transient times
compared to smaller motors.

Figure 99-short circuit analysis with the effect of motor contribution

The motor contribution is influenced by several parameters, including the rotor locked current,
transient time, and reactance impedance. These parameters play a crucial role in controlling the
behavior and characteristics of the motor.
As the motor size increases, the magnitude of both the transient current and the contributed
current also grows larger.
To address this issue, a proposed solution involves implementing a series reactance in the
motor circuit. The principle behind this proposal is to increase the total reactance of the motor,
which effectively limits the magnitude of the contributed current. By introducing additional
reactance in the circuit, the impedance is increased, thereby reducing the flow of current and
mitigating the impact of the larger motor size. This solution helps maintain the stability and
proper functioning of the electrical system by managing the current levels associated with larger
motors.

106
 Figure 100-series reactor parameters

And the results will be :

Figure 101-sequence of operation after adding series reactor

It been noticed that the motor contribution for each parallel motor has been reduced beside
that we find that the total current from6.522kA to 5.831kA .

107
And cause an attenuation in transient and subtrasient phases according to circuit analysis results
:

Figure5.18short circuit analysis after adding series reactor

Trying another solution more effective yet more expensive which using a variable frequency
drive(VFD) by
-Current Limiting: VFDs have the capability to set maximum current limits for the motor. In
the event of a short circuit, the VFD will regulate the motor current to stay within the predefined
limits, effectively limiting the amount of contributed current.
-Fast Fault Detection: VFDs are equipped with advanced fault detection mechanisms. They can
detect short circuit conditions rapidly and activate protective measures without delay. By
quickly interrupting the power supply to the motor, the VFD prevents excessive current
contribution.
-Active Current Control: VFDs utilize active current control techniques to manage and
regulate the motor current. This enables them to respond swiftly to changes in system
conditions, such as a short circuit, and adjust the motor current accordingly, minimizing the
contributed current.

108
 Figure 102-VFD parameters
One of draw back of this solution beside high cost is the that VFD has it own short circuit
contribution.
The results of adding the VFD in each motor will :

Figure 103-sequence of operation after VFD

It not clear hear but contribution of each motor has decreased to zero so no undesirable
trapping and total fault has deduced to current coming from incoming bus bar from 6522A to
5044A.
In addition to the absence of transient or subtransient phases, during a short circuit, only the
steady-state fault current will be present. This means that the fault current will reach a stable
level without any significant oscillations or transients. The steady-state fault current is typically
the maximum current that flows through the system during the fault condition. By considering
and analyzing only the steady-state fault current, engineers can accurately assess and design the

109
protection and coordination of protective devices to effectively handle the fault and ensure the
safety of the electrical system.
According to the short circuit analysis

Figure 104-short circuit analysis after adding VFD

Ultimately, a combination of two solutions can be employed to address the motor contribution
issue. For small low-voltage (LV) motors located away from capacitor banks, a series reactor
can be utilized. The series reactor increases the total reactance of the motor circuit, limiting the
contributed current and mitigating the impact of larger motors.
On the other hand, for large medium-voltage (MV) motors, Variable Frequency Drives
(VFDs) can be implemented. VFDs offer precise control over motor operation and provide
features like current limiting and fast fault detection. These capabilities allow VFDs to
effectively reduce the motor's contribution to short-circuit currents.
By employing series reactors for LV motors and VFDs for MV motors, the combined solution
addresses the motor contribution issue across different voltage levels. This approach ensures
efficient and optimized protection while managing the impact of motor currents during short-
circuit conditions.

5.4Conclusion
In this chapter, the results of the protection scheme are presented through the application of
various faults and scenarios. The analysis includes an examination of potential problems that
may arise during these situations. Furthermore, the rationale behind choosing the Inverse
Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) curve over the definite time curve is discussed. The chapter
also proposes a potential solution to address the motor contribution during short circuits. By
evaluating these results and offering solutions, this chapter provides valuable insights into the
effectiveness and optimization of the implemented protection scheme.

110
 General conclusion

In conclusion, this master report has presented a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of the
implemented protection scheme for power systems. Through the application of various faults
and scenarios, the thesis has provided a detailed examination of the system's response and the
effectiveness of the protection measures.
By investigating potential problems that may arise during fault conditions, the thesis has
identified vulnerabilities and highlighted the critical importance of robust protection strategies.
The findings underscore the significance of implementing reliable and efficient protection
schemes to safeguard the power system and prevent potential damage or disruptions.
The discussion on the choice of the Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) curve over the
definite time curve has demonstrated a deep understanding of protection scheme design. The
rationale behind this decision, considering factors such as speed and accuracy, reveals the
meticulous consideration given to optimizing the protection scheme's performance.
Furthermore, the report has addressed a specific challenge in protection scheme
implementation—the motor contribution during short circuits. By proposing a potential
solution, the research has shown a commitment to overcoming practical obstacles and
enhancing the overall effectiveness of the protection scheme.
The evaluation of results and the provision of practical solutions in this thesis offer valuable
insights for power system engineers, researchers, and practitioners. The analysis conducted
throughout the thesis contributes to the body of knowledge in power system protection and
serves as a foundation for further advancements in this critical field.
Overall, this master report has not only provided a comprehensive understanding of the
implemented protection scheme's performance but also demonstrated the potential for
optimization and enhancement. The research findings underscore the importance of continuous
improvement in power system protection, ensuring the reliability, security, and stability of
electrical grids. By contributing to the field's knowledge and offering practical solutions, this
thesis contributes to the broader goal of advancing power system protection practices and
technologies.
For further work, enhancing the protection scheme with more advanced and sophisticated
features can be a valuable direction. Some potential areas of improvement to consider include
incorporating Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection (64) to enhance sensitivity and ground
fault detection. Additionally, implementing Circuit Breaker Failure Protection ensures prompt
fault clearance and minimizes system downtime in case of breaker failures.
Considering the implementation of differential protection for motors and busbars can enhance
the reliability and selectivity of the overall protection system. Relay pilot systems can be
explored for improved protection coordination by enabling communication and data exchange
between relays in different locations.

111
 Furthermore, adding protection for phase fluctuation, such as monitoring voltage or frequency
variations, can help prevent equipment damage and maintain system stability. Conducting
thorough studies, simulations, and feasibility assessments while adhering to industry standards
and guidelines are essential for incorporating these advanced protection features.
By integrating these advancements, the protection scheme can become more sensitive, faster,
and better coordinated, ultimately enhancing the overall reliability, security, and performance
of the power system.

112
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