Module 10.

Reproductive Behaviors
___________________________________________________________________
In this module the students overview about the entire concepts of reproductive
behaviors and how reproductive hormones affect human behavior. The students also
learn about sexual differentiation and how gender influences sexuality, the difference
between organizing and activating effects. Sex differences in play are also included in
this module, variation in sexual behavior, sexual dysfunction and their categories, and
sexual disorders among males and females and other conditions that sometimes overlap
sexual dysfunction.

Objectives: After the completion of the chapter, students should be able to:
1. describe the role of the SRY gene in mammalian sexual development.
2. identify effects of reproductive hormones in the human body.
3. discuss the possible biological influences on the development of sexual orientation.
Lectures:
1. Sex and Hormones
2. Variations in Sexual Behavior

References

Kalat, J., (2018). Biological psychology

Reading Supplement:
Endocrine Society (2022). Reproductive Hormones. https://www.endocrine.org/patient-
engagement/endocrine-library/hormones-and-endocrine-function/reproductive-
hormones#:~:text=The%20main%20reproductive%20hormones%20estrogen,and%20te
Snoeren. F;, (2019). Female Reproductive Behavior.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30779050/#:~:text=Reproductive%20behavior%20is%2
0the%20behavior,to%20the%20care%20of%20young.
 Reproductive Behaviour

Reproductive behavior is a comprehensive term used for seeking

behaviors and encompassing solicitation that attracts and finds a mate, copulation for
the exchange of gametes,offspring, and to care and nurture the offspring after giving
birth.( Snoeren, 2019). According to evolutionary psychologists, human reproductive
behaviors describe the different behaviors that increase their reproductive success .It is
maximized through matching the physiology and behavior.
Sex and Hormones
Sexual differentiation refers to the
development of the sex differences from the
undifferentiated zygote between the males and females.
Gender influences sexuality through the effect of
sexual differentiation. Our life as human beings and
other mammals starts with genes. The SRY genes ( the
blue band ) among Y chromosomes among males
regulate the sex determination among mammals.
According to biologists, chromosomes determine
sexual differentiation between males and females.
Females have XX chromosomes while males have XY
chromosomes. The difference between the males and
female hormones is the level of their specific hormones
For males The major sex hormone among males is
testosterone mainly produced by the testes controlled by
the pituitary gland which is controlled by the
hypothalamus. The pituitary and hypothalamus are found
in the brain. Androgen is important for the development
of secondary sexual characteristics among males.
Estrogen and progesterone hormones are female sex
hormones produced mainly by the ovaries. The female
and male reproductive hormones are instruments for
sexuality and fertility used during puberty,
pregnancy( women) , menopause, sex drive, and
production ( Endocrine Society, 2022).
Male and female mammals begin with the same
anatomy during the early prenatal stage development.
They have both a set of Mullerian ducts ( precursors to
female structures) and wolffian ducts ( precursors to
male structures) same with undifferentiated gonads for
the development to become ovaries or testes. The male
Y chromosomes include the SRY, sex determining
region of the Y chromosome which is responsible for the development of the primitive
gonads of testes, the sperm- producing organ among males. The developing testes
produce androgens, an androgenic hormone which is present among males,increase the
growth of the testes, make them produce more androgens and so forth. Androgens
make the Wolffian ducts for the development of the seminal vesicles ( saclike
structures store the semen) and the vas deferens ( a duct from the testis into the penis).
The sertoli cells of the testes make Mullerian- inhibiting hormone (MIH) or anti-
Mullerian hormone, a hormone that plays an important role in sexual differentiation,
regressing the mullerian- ducts, fallopian tubes, and uterus. The females without the
presence of the SRY gene, their gonads develop into the ovaries instead of the testes
and their Wolffian ducts deteriorate. Because the ovaries do not produce MIH, the
Mullerian ducts among females develop and mature into oviducts, uterus, and the upper
vagina.
From then on, male testes produce more androgens compared to estrogens
( hormone which are present among females. The ovaries of females make more
estrogens than androgens . Both androgen and estrogen are steroid hormones made
up of four carbon rings, which come from cholesterol. We are often alert about the
excessive amount of cholesterol. It needs a moderate amount to generate these
necessary hormones. Androgens and estrogens are categorized as chemical
messengers. Testosterone hormone as the most widely known androgen and
estradiol as the most prominent type of estrogen. Progesterone hormone is another
female predominant hormone. Progesterone hormone prepares the uterus for the
implantation of the implant fertilized ovum and maintains pregnancy.
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone produced during
pregnancy. It is a hormone that stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone.
This hormone is only present during pregnancy. The human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG) test or pregnancy test measures the amount of hCG in female urine or blood.
The function of this hormone is both to confirm and monitor pregnancy.
Organizing the Effects of Sex Hormones
If adult males are injected with estrogens and androgen among adult females it
makes male acts like females and females make acts like male? Apparently, short - term
exposure has no apparent effect but if exposure is prolonged produces only limited
changes in behavior. Hormones which are injected earlier in life have much stronger
effects.
Biologists compare organizing and activating effects of sex hormones.
Organizing effects make long lasting structural effects. During the sensitive period in
the early development for example in the first trimester of pregnancy among humans,
sex hormones identify if the body develops either female or male genitals.and it alters
the brain development. At puberty the sex hormones create additional organizing effects.
These hormones at puberty stage are used for the breast development among women,
facial hair, and growth of the penis among men that makes changes in voice, and the
male and female differences on the structures at the certain parts of the hypothalamus.
Activating effects are more temporary, which is continuously present if the
hormone is present or it takes shortly. Example, current hormones influence sex drive.
Hormones which are present during pregnancy creates a temporary effect on emotional
arousal, aggressive behavior, learning, and cognition. Women experience mood
changes during the menstrual cycle. The organizing effects set the activating effect
stage. Example, the female hypothalamus sets up the organizing effects like the later
hormones that activate the menstrual cycle.
Focusing the organizing effects during the early sensitive period in determining
the embryo if it develops a male or female structure
Sex Differences in the Brain
The brain between the male and female differ in many ways. There are several
areas of the brain that form a larger percentage of the male than female brain and there
are other areas that constitute the larger portion of the female brain. Males and females
differ on the average in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, parts of the spinal cord,
and elsewhere. Example, the female parts of the hypothalamus cause a cyclic pattern of
the release of the hormone as in the menstrual cycle whereas the release of the
hormone among males are steady.
The differences between the male and female according to Margaret McCarthy
and her colleagues are the mechanism from one brain area to the other. The
hypothalamus is the one that controls some of the basic functions of life that includes
hormonal activity via the pituitary gland. At the early development ( shortly before birth
and a few days afterward) the blood is made up of high levels of alpha- fetoprotein to
circulate estradiol and control it to enter the cells. Therefore, the female brain is not
exposed to estradiol at this time. The testosterone among males are free to enter the
hypothalamus and exerts masculinity.
The estradiol, an estrogen steroid hormone, takes through different routes in
different parts of the hypothalamus. The medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus both
the testosterone and estradiol increase the production of prostaglandin E. that leads to
increase in the microglia, dendritic spines, and synapses.
Sex Differences in Play
What aspects of behavior might influence prenatal hormones? Usually there are
many boys who play toy cars, trains, balls, guns, and roughhouse activities while girls
are more likely to play dolls, and cooperative play. Children that show at the age of 3 for
boy typical activities usually show the greatest amount at the age of 13 of boy - typical
activities. And those who show for girl- typical activities at the age of 3, have a greatest
amount at the age of 13 of girl- typical activities.
This pattern results from socialization. Parents give their children a set of toys to
give to their sons and daughters. In one study , infants at the age 3 to 8 months old ( too
young to walk, crawl, or do much with the toy) sit in front of pairs of toys where the
researchers monitor the eye movement. The girls looked more at dolls than toy trucks.
Researchers took blood samples from a pregnant woman and they measured
the blood testosterone.and as the daughters reached the age of 3 ½ the girls who have
been exposed to higher testosterone levels during prenatal they showed slightly
elevated levels of preference to play toys for the boys. Another study showed
testosterone levels among infants over the age of six months compared to the toys of
choice at the age of 14 months. The girls with higher levels of testosterone in the early
infancy spent more time than average wanting to play toy trains compared to the other
girls. And those boys with higher levels of testosterone compared to other boys spent a
little time playing with dolls.
 Another study, the researchers measured the phthalate levels among pregnant
women. Phthalate inhibits the production of testosterone levels . These phthalates were
found in children's toys the reason it was banned in U.S. law. But pregnant women were
exposed from other sources with phthalate like perfumes, hairspray, food packaging,
and others. Researchers measured the phthalate levels among pregnant women
through urine samples and the results compared to the sons who use toys at the age of
3 to 6 years old. On average the sons of women with high levels of phthalate during
pregnancy showed less interest in playing boy toys and more interest in playing with girl
toys. Through these studies, it was suggested that prenatal hormones, mostly
testosterone , change the brain, which influence the differences with their activities and
interests between the boys and girls.
Do these studies show their prenatal hormones determine the toy preference
regardless of rearing? No, prenatal hormones and rearing are related to their interests..
It is possible that girls developed a case of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to high
levels of testosterone before they were giving birth.
Activating Effects of Sex Hormones
At any time in life,not only during a sensitive period, levels of testosterone or
estradiol exert activating effects, it modifies temporary behavior. Hormonal secretions
also influence behaviors. In addition to the sex hormones the pituitary hormone
oxytocin is necessary for reproductive behavior. Oxytocin is used for the contraction of
the uterus during delivery of the baby and it stimulates the mammary gland in order to
release milk. Sexual pleasure also releases oxytocin especially during orgasm.
Typically, people experience a state of relaxation shortly after orgasm because the
oxytocin is released. Oxytocin is responsible for making you calm and lacking anxiety
after orgasm.
Males
During sexual arousal, testosterone is necessary among males.increases the
touch sensitivity in the penis. Sex hormones bind to receptors' increased responses in
the parts of the hypothalamus that includes the ventromedial nucleus,the medial preoptic
area (MPOA), and the anterior hypothalamus.
The MPOA primes the testosterone and several other brain areas to release
dopamine. The MPOA neurons during sexual arousal release dopamine. The more
dopamine released, the more the males copulate. Castrated male rats produced normal
dopamine in the MPOA but not released in the presence of receptor females, and are
not attempting to copulate.
Females
The hypothalamus of the woman and the pituitary interact with the ovaries so that
a menstrual cycle is produced. Menstrual cycle is a periodic variation in hormones and
fertility in 28 days.After the end of menstrual cycle the follicle - stimulating hormone
(FSH) to promote the growth of the follicle in the ovary which is the follicle nurtures the
ovum (egg cell) and produce several types of estrogen that includes estradiol. At the
middle of the menstrual cycle, the follicle builds up more and more receptors to FSH.
increases the release of estradiol. Due to the increased level of estradiol increases the
release of FSH and the sudden surge in the luteinizing hormone (LH) from the
anterior pituitary. Through the combination of the FSH and LH causes the follicle to
release an ovum.
The remnant of the follicle ( now called the corpus luteum) releases the
progesterone hormone, preparing the uterus to implant the fertilized ovum.
Progesterone also controls the further release of LH. If a woman is pregnant the
estradiol and progesterone increase. If a woman is not pregnant these two hormones
decrease, the lining of the uterus .And due to increased levels of estradiol and
progesterone the lining of the uterus is cast off (menstruation) and the cycle starts again.
High levels of estradiol and progesterone during pregnancy fluctuates the activity of
serotonin receptors, triggering nausea .
Birth control pills prevent pregnancy because it interferes with the usual
feedback between the ovaries and pituitary The most widely used birth control, the
combination pill, made up of estrogen and progesterone prevents the large increase of
FSH and LH otherwise release an ovum. The combination of estradiol and progesterone
thickens the mucus of the cervix, unable the sperm to reach the ovum. The pill controls
pregnancy with the combination of two hormones. But it does not protect against
sexually transmitted diseases like AIDS or syphilis. “ Safe sex” is necessary to prevent
pregnancy.
In females through the combination of estradiol and progesterone enhances
sexual behavior. Most women decrease sexual drive after menopause because the
estradiol level decreases. Or after the surgery of removing ovaries, the level of estradiol
decreases. Administering estradiol
Parental Behavior
Changes of hormones during pregnancy makes female mammals to give milk
and care for their young ones. She eats and drinks more than usual to care for her
youngs and becomes less afraid and more aggressive to defend her youngs. If she
delivered her babies the oxytocin( stimulating to eject milk) and prolactin (stimulating to
produce milk) secretions to provide milk to her young and these are several aspects of
maternal behaviors. Prolactin also controls the sensitivity to leptin, enabling the mother
to eat more than the usual diet.
To secrete hormones , females change her pattern of hormone secretions. In the
late stages of pregnancy, they are sensitive to estradiol that increases in the brain for
maternal behavior and attention to their young that includes the medial preoptic area,
anterior hypothalamus, and nucleus accumbens (NAc). We experienced the
preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus or POA/AH because it is necessary for the
regulation of the temperature, thirst, and sexual behaviors and the nucleus
accumbens( for pleasure, reward, and addiction) for feeding.
Vasopressin is another hormone used to synthesize hypothalamus and secreted
by the posterior pituitary gland . Vasopressin is used for social behavior and many
species facilitate partly olfactory recognition of the other individuals. Males with the
highest level of vasopressin show a highest level of sexual fidelity with their partners and
with low level of vasopressin ignore the female and their young.
Variations in Sexual Behavior
 According to Charles Darwin theory of evolution and natural selection individuals
who have genes help them to survive and reproduce more offspring. Therefore the next
generation is similar to those with these favorable genes. Based on this theory which is
not acceptable at first , is sexual selection. Genes who have individuals who are
appealing in terms of sex will increase the probability to reproduce and therefore the
next generation will be similar to such genes. Sexual selection is a special case in which
an organism has the ability to obtain or successfully to have sex with a mate.
Sexuality refers to the inherent capacity to undergo pleasure from sexual
activity that includes but is not limited to sexual intercourse. Sexuality holds human
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Sexual behavior refers to the different activities which individuals engage with
on how they express their sexuality. Abstinence and celibacy terms used for those
individuals who do not engage in certain or any sexual behaviors. Kissing or touching
are sexual behaviors that arouse the erogenous zones of a person's partner.
Masturbation is a sexual behavior that stimulates his/her own genitals to create
satisfaction.
Sexual Dysfunction if you are experiencing challenges in relation to your ability
to experience pleasure or sexual response. A person with sexual dysfunction
experienced difficulty in sexual activity, to get arousal, or pleasure during sexual activity.

Four categories of sexual dysfunction:

1. Desire disorders - low level of sex desire or interest.
2. Arousal disorders - inability to experience physical arousal.
3. Orgasm disorders- experience delay or absence of orgasms.
4. Pain disorders - presence of pain and physical discomfort during sexual
activity.
Sexual disorders only affect males:
1. Premature or early ejaculation -also known as rapid ejaculation,
premature climax, or early ejaculation. The ejaculation when a man has
an orgasm and releases sooner than a man or his partner during sex
2. Erectile disorder- unable to keep or maintain erection enough for sex.
3. Male hypoactive sexual desire disorder (MHSDD)- a persistent or
recurrent deficiency in sexual or erotic thoughts, fantasies, and sexual
activity desire.
Sexual disorders only affect females:
1. Female orgasmic disorder ( anorgasmia) - a woman experiences any
of the following (1) delayed orgasm (2) absence of orgasm (3) fewer/ less -
intense orgasms.
2. Female sexual interest / arousal disorder - decrease/ absence of
sexual interest, pleasure, thoughts, and fantasies.
3. Genito- pelvic pain/ penetration disorder -if there is pain during sexual
intercourse or sexual activity that requires penetration and muscle involuntary
contraction of the vagina.
Other conditions that sometimes overlap with sexual dysfunction:
1. Paraphilia - it is a behavior of a person which is an individual who has
recurrent intense sexual arousal fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors
that involves (1) nonhuman objects (2) children or other non- consenting
persons, or (3) suffering or humiliation of self or partner.
2. Exhibitionistic disorder - pleasure came from exposing genitals to an
unsuspecting person.
3. Transvestic disorder - engages in cross- dressing associated with
distress or impairment.
4. Fatishistic disorder ( Fetihsim) - sexual arousal from an object.
5. Partialism is sexual arousal from a part of the body
6. Sexual Masochism - arousal came by being made to suffer ( beaten,
humiliated, bound).
7. Frotteuristic disorder - sexual urges and sexually arousing fantasies of
rubbing up against or fondling unsuspecting persons.
8. Sexual sadism - is being aroused by inflicting suffering on another
person.
9. Voyeuristic disorder - sexual pleasure from observing an unsuspecting
person who is naked, disrobing, or engaged in intimate behavior.
10. Pedophilia - sexual attraction to pre- pubertal children.