3.

10pt

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 1 / 75
 BMAT201L - COMPLEX VARIABLES AND
LINEAR ALGEBRA

Dr. M. Sivakumar

Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, SAS,

Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, TN, INDIA.

March 29, 2025

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 1 / 75
Outline
. 3.10pt
1 Linear Transformations (Module - 05)
Learning Outcomes
2 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries
Linear Transformation: Introduction
Linear Transformation: Examples
Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Introduction
Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples
Properties of L.T.: Introduction
Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples
3 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation
Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Introduction
Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples
4 Invertible Linear Transformation
Invertible L.T.: Introduction
Invertible L.T.: Examples
5 Matrices of Linear Transformations
Matrices of L.T.: Introduction
Matrices of L.T.: Examples
6 Change of Basis
Change of Basis: Introduction
Change of Basis: Examples
7 Similarity Transformations
Similarity Transformations: Introduction
Similarity Transformations: Examples

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 2 / 75
 Linear Transformations (Module - 05) Learning Outcomes

Linear Transformation.
Basic Properties of Linear Transformation.
Invertible Linear Transformations.
Matrices of Linear Transformations.
Vector Spaces of Linear Transformations.
Change of Basis.
Similarity.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 3 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

Linear Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are two vector spaces then a mapping T from V to
W . That is,
T :V →W
is said to be a linear transformation(vector space homomorphism or
linear mapping),

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 4 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

Linear Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are two vector spaces then a mapping T from V to
W . That is,
T :V →W
is said to be a linear transformation(vector space homomorphism or
linear mapping), provided it preserves operations of a vector space
Additive Property: T (v + w) = T (v) + T (w), ∀ v, w ∈ V .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 4 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

Linear Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are two vector spaces then a mapping T from V to
W . That is,
T :V →W
is said to be a linear transformation(vector space homomorphism or
linear mapping), provided it preserves operations of a vector space
Additive Property: T (v + w) = T (v) + T (w), ∀ v, w ∈ V .
Scalar Multiplication: T (αv) = αT (v), ∀ v ∈ V and α ∈ F .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 4 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

Linear Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are two vector spaces then a mapping T from V to
W . That is,
T :V →W
is said to be a linear transformation(vector space homomorphism or
linear mapping), provided it preserves operations of a vector space
Additive Property: T (v + w) = T (v) + T (w), ∀ v, w ∈ V .
Scalar Multiplication: T (αv) = αT (v), ∀ v ∈ V and α ∈ F .

Note:
If V (F ) is a vector space.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 4 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

Linear Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are two vector spaces then a mapping T from V to
W . That is,
T :V →W
is said to be a linear transformation(vector space homomorphism or
linear mapping), provided it preserves operations of a vector space
Additive Property: T (v + w) = T (v) + T (w), ∀ v, w ∈ V .
Scalar Multiplication: T (αv) = αT (v), ∀ v ∈ V and α ∈ F .

Note:
If V (F ) is a vector space. Then,
the linear transformation T : V → V is called a Linear Operator.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 4 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

Linear Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are two vector spaces then a mapping T from V to
W . That is,
T :V →W
is said to be a linear transformation(vector space homomorphism or
linear mapping), provided it preserves operations of a vector space
Additive Property: T (v + w) = T (v) + T (w), ∀ v, w ∈ V .
Scalar Multiplication: T (αv) = αT (v), ∀ v ∈ V and α ∈ F .

Note:
If V (F ) is a vector space. Then,
the linear transformation T : V → V is called a Linear Operator.
the linear transformation T : V → F is called a Linear Functional.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 4 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

Linear Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are two vector spaces then a mapping T from V to
W . That is,
T :V →W
is said to be a linear transformation(vector space homomorphism or
linear mapping), provided it preserves operations of a vector space
Additive Property: T (v + w) = T (v) + T (w), ∀ v, w ∈ V .
Scalar Multiplication: T (αv) = αT (v), ∀ v ∈ V and α ∈ F .

Note:
If V (F ) is a vector space. Then,
the linear transformation T : V → V is called a Linear Operator.
the linear transformation T : V → F is called a Linear Functional.
If V (F ) and W (F ) are vector spaces.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 4 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

Linear Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are two vector spaces then a mapping T from V to
W . That is,
T :V →W
is said to be a linear transformation(vector space homomorphism or
linear mapping), provided it preserves operations of a vector space
Additive Property: T (v + w) = T (v) + T (w), ∀ v, w ∈ V .
Scalar Multiplication: T (αv) = αT (v), ∀ v ∈ V and α ∈ F .

Note:
If V (F ) is a vector space. Then,
the linear transformation T : V → V is called a Linear Operator.
the linear transformation T : V → F is called a Linear Functional.
If V (F ) and W (F ) are vector spaces. Then, T : V → W be a
linear transformation iff
T (αv + βw) = αT (v) + βT (w), ∀ v, w ∈ V and α, β ∈ F .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 4 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

Linear Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are two vector spaces then a mapping T from V to
W . That is,
T :V →W
is said to be a linear transformation(vector space homomorphism or
linear mapping), provided it preserves operations of a vector space
Additive Property: T (v + w) = T (v) + T (w), ∀ v, w ∈ V .
Scalar Multiplication: T (αv) = αT (v), ∀ v ∈ V and α ∈ F .

Note:
If V (F ) is a vector space. Then,
the linear transformation T : V → V is called a Linear Operator.
the linear transformation T : V → F is called a Linear Functional.
If V (F ) and W (F ) are vector spaces. Then, T : V → W be a
linear transformation iff
T (αv + βw) = αT (v) + βT (w), ∀ v, w ∈ V and α, β ∈ F .
In the above result, we have T (v + w) = T (v) + T (w), if α = β = 1
and T (αv) = αT (v), if β = 0 since T is a linear transformation.
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 4 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

Examples of Linear Transformation

Zero Transformation: Let N : V → W be a transformation
such that N (v) = 0 ∈ W for every v ∈ V . Now

N (v + w) = 0 = 0 + 0 = N (v) + N (w),
N (cv) = 0 = c × 0 = cN (v).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 5 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

Examples of Linear Transformation

Zero Transformation: Let N : V → W be a transformation
such that N (v) = 0 ∈ W for every v ∈ V . Now

N (v + w) = 0 = 0 + 0 = N (v) + N (w),
N (cv) = 0 = c × 0 = cN (v).

Identity Transformation: Let I : V → V be a transformation

such that I(v) = v ∈ W for every v ∈ V . Now

I(v + w)= v + w = I(v) + I(w),

I(cv)= cv = cI(v).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 5 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

Examples of Linear Transformation

Zero Transformation: Let N : V → W be a transformation
such that N (v) = 0 ∈ W for every v ∈ V . Now

N (v + w) = 0 = 0 + 0 = N (v) + N (w),
N (cv) = 0 = c × 0 = cN (v).

Identity Transformation: Let I : V → V be a transformation

such that I(v) = v ∈ W for every v ∈ V . Now

I(v + w)= v + w = I(v) + I(w),

I(cv)= cv = cI(v).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 5 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

If V (R) is a vector of polynomials in the variable x over the real

R1
field R and if D(f (x)) = dfdx
(x)
and I(f (x)) = 0 f (x)dx.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 6 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

If V (R) is a vector of polynomials in the variable x over the real

R1
field R and if D(f (x)) = dfdx
(x)
and I(f (x)) = 0 f (x)dx. Then
D : V → V and I : V → R are linear transformation for

D(αv + βw)= αD(v) + βD(w),

Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
I(αv + βw) = (αv + βw)dx = α vdx + β wdx
0 0 0
= αI(v) + βI(w).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 6 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

If V (R) is a vector of polynomials in the variable x over the real

R1
field R and if D(f (x)) = dfdx
(x)
and I(f (x)) = 0 f (x)dx. Then
D : V → V and I : V → R are linear transformation for

D(αv + βw)= αD(v) + βD(w),

Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
I(αv + βw) = (αv + βw)dx = α vdx + β wdx
0 0 0
= αI(v) + βI(w).

If T is a transformation over the space F m×n is defined as

T (A) = P AQ.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 6 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Introduction

If V (R) is a vector of polynomials in the variable x over the real

R1
field R and if D(f (x)) = dfdx
(x)
and I(f (x)) = 0 f (x)dx. Then
D : V → V and I : V → R are linear transformation for

D(αv + βw)= αD(v) + βD(w),

Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
I(αv + βw) = (αv + βw)dx = α vdx + β wdx
0 0 0
= αI(v) + βI(w).

If T is a transformation over the space F m×n is defined as

T (A) = P AQ. Then, T is a linear transformation for

T (αA + βB) = P (αA + βB)Q = [α(P A) + β(P B)]Q

= α(P AQ) + βP AQ = αT (A) + βT (B).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 6 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Show that the mapping is linear transformation T : V3 (R) →

V2 (R) defined as T (x, y, z) = (x − y + z, 2x).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 7 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Show that the mapping is linear transformation T : V3 (R) →

V2 (R) defined as T (x, y, z) = (x − y + z, 2x).
Soln. Let u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) in V3 (R) and α, β ∈ R.
Then
αu + βv = α(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + β(x2 , y2 , z2 )
= (αx1 , αy1 , αz1 ) + (βx2 , βy2 , βz2 )
αu + βv = (αx1 + βx2 , αy1 + βy2 , αz1 + βz2 ) ∈ V3 (R).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 7 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Show that the mapping is linear transformation T : V3 (R) →

V2 (R) defined as T (x, y, z) = (x − y + z, 2x).
Soln. Let u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) in V3 (R) and α, β ∈ R.
Then
αu + βv = α(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + β(x2 , y2 , z2 )
= (αx1 , αy1 , αz1 ) + (βx2 , βy2 , βz2 )
αu + βv = (αx1 + βx2 , αy1 + βy2 , αz1 + βz2 ) ∈ V3 (R).
Now
T (αu + βv) = T (α(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + β(x2 , y2 , z2 ))
= [((αx1 + βx2 ) − (αy1 + βy2 ) + (αz1 + βz2 )), 2(αx1 + βx2 )]
= [(αx1 − αy1 + αz1 + βx2 − βy2 + βz2 ), (2αx1 + 2βx2 )]
= [α(x1 − y1 + z1 ) + β(x2 − y2 + z2 ), (2αx1 + 2βx2 )]
= [(α(x1 − y1 + z1 ), 2αx1 ), (β(x2 − y2 + z2 ), 2βx2 )]
= [α((x1 − y1 + z1 ), 2x1 ), β((x2 − y2 + z2 ), 2βx2 )]
T (αu + βv) = αT (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + βT (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = αT (u) + βT (v).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 7 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Show that the mapping is linear transformation T : V3 (R) →

V2 (R) defined as T (x, y, z) = (x − y + z, 2x).
Soln. Let u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) in V3 (R) and α, β ∈ R.
Then
αu + βv = α(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + β(x2 , y2 , z2 )
= (αx1 , αy1 , αz1 ) + (βx2 , βy2 , βz2 )
αu + βv = (αx1 + βx2 , αy1 + βy2 , αz1 + βz2 ) ∈ V3 (R).
Now
T (αu + βv) = T (α(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + β(x2 , y2 , z2 ))
= [((αx1 + βx2 ) − (αy1 + βy2 ) + (αz1 + βz2 )), 2(αx1 + βx2 )]
= [(αx1 − αy1 + αz1 + βx2 − βy2 + βz2 ), (2αx1 + 2βx2 )]
= [α(x1 − y1 + z1 ) + β(x2 − y2 + z2 ), (2αx1 + 2βx2 )]
= [(α(x1 − y1 + z1 ), 2αx1 ), (β(x2 − y2 + z2 ), 2βx2 )]
= [α((x1 − y1 + z1 ), 2x1 ), β((x2 − y2 + z2 ), 2βx2 )]
T (αu + βv) = αT (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + βT (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = αT (u) + βT (v).
Hence, T is a Linear Transformation.
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 7 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Show that the following mappings are linear transformations

T : R3 → R2 defined by T (x, y, z) = (z, x + y).

T : R3 → R2 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x − y, x + z).
T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y, y).
T : R3 → R defined by T (x, y, z) = x + 3y − 4z.
T : R2 → R2 defined by T (x, y) = (0, −x).
T : V (R)→ V (R) defined by (x +√iy) = x − iy where
V (R) = x + iy|x, y ∈ R and i = −i .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 8 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Show that the following mappings are not linear transforma-
tions
T : V3 (R) → V2 (R) defined by T (x, y, z) = (|y|, 0).
T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x + 1, 2y, x + y).
T : R2 → R defined by T (x, y) = xy.
T : R2 → R defined by T (x, y) = |2x − 3y|.
T : V (C)→ V (C) defined by T (x√ + iy) = x where
V (C) = x + iy|x, y ∈ R and i = −i .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 9 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Show that the following mappings are not linear transforma-
tions
T : V3 (R) → V2 (R) defined by T (x, y, z) = (|y|, 0).
T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x + 1, 2y, x + y).
T : R2 → R defined by T (x, y) = xy.
T : R2 → R defined by T (x, y) = |2x − 3y|.
T : V (C)→ V (C) defined by T (x√ + iy) = x where
V (C) = x + iy|x, y ∈ R and i = −i .
Example: Find out which of the following mappings are linear trans-
formations
T : R → R2 defined by T (x) = (2x, 3x).
T : R2 → R defined by T (x, y) = x − y.
T : R3 → R3 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x + 2, y, z).
T : R3 → R2 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x + 1, y + z).
T : R3 → R defined by T (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
T : R3 → R2 defined by T (x, y, z) = (|x|, y − z).
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 9 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Consider F be a field and V be the vector space of polyno-

mial functions from F into F defined as h(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +
· · · + cn xn , c0i s ∈ F and D(h(x)) = c1 + 2c2 x + · · · + ncn xn−1 . Prove
D : V → V is a linear operator.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 10 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Consider F be a field and V be the vector space of polyno-

mial functions from F into F defined as h(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +
· · · + cn xn , c0i s ∈ F and D(h(x)) = c1 + 2c2 x + · · · + ncn xn−1 . Prove
D : V → V is a linear operator.
Soln. Let the two polynomials in V be

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn ,
g(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bm xm , ai , bi0 s ∈ F.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 10 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Consider F be a field and V be the vector space of polyno-

mial functions from F into F defined as h(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +
· · · + cn xn , c0i s ∈ F and D(h(x)) = c1 + 2c2 x + · · · + ncn xn−1 . Prove
D : V → V is a linear operator.
Soln. Let the two polynomials in V be

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn ,
g(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bm xm , ai , bi0 s ∈ F.

Then, assume α, β ∈ F , we have

αf (x) + βg(x) = α a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn

+ β b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bn xn

αf (x) + βg(x) = (αa0 + βb0 ) + (αa1 + βb1 )x + (αa2 + βb2 )x2 + · · · .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 10 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Now

D(αf (x) + βg(x)) = (αa1 + βb1 ) + 2(αa2 + βb2 )x + 3(αa3 + βb3 )x2 + · · ·
= (αa1 + 2αa2 x + · · · ) + (βb1 + 2βb2 x + · · · )
= α(a1 + 2a2 x + · · · ) + β(b1 + 2b2 x + · · · )
D(αf (x) + βg(x)) = αD(f (x)) + βD(g(x)).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 11 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Now

D(αf (x) + βg(x)) = (αa1 + βb1 ) + 2(αa2 + βb2 )x + 3(αa3 + βb3 )x2 + · · ·
= (αa1 + 2αa2 x + · · · ) + (βb1 + 2βb2 x + · · · )
= α(a1 + 2a2 x + · · · ) + β(b1 + 2b2 x + · · · )
D(αf (x) + βg(x)) = αD(f (x)) + βD(g(x)).

Hence, D is a linear operator.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 11 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Linear Transformation: Examples

Examples:
Let V (R) be a vector space of integrable function on R. Prove
that T : V R→ R defined by
d
T (f (x)) = c f (x)dx, f (x) ∈ V and a, b ∈ R.
Let V (F ) is a vector space of all m × n matrices over a field F
and P and Q be two fixed matrices of order m × m and n × n
respectively over the same filed F . A mapping T : V → V such
that T (A) = P AQ, ∀A ∈ V is a linear operator.
Let P bePset of all polynomials in y over the field on reals and let
F (y) = n−1
i=0 ia y i ∈ P . Now the transformation T : P → P is
y i+1
defined as T (F (y)) = n−1
P
i=0 ai i+1 . Prove that T is a linear
transformation.
Show that the mapping T : V (R) → P2 (x) where V is a vector
space of square 2
 matrices defined by T (A) = α + (β + γ)x + δx for
α β
A= ∈ V is a linear transformation.
γ δ

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 12 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Introduction

Matrix Associated with a Linear Transformation

Let Rn and Rm be finite dimensional vector spaces of dimensions n, m
respectively. Let
T : Rn → Rm
and B = {e1 , e2 , · · · , ei , · · · , en } be standard basis of Rn where
ei = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 1, 0, · · · , 0) where 1 occurs at ith place. Assume any
vector v = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) ∈ Rn . Therefore, v can be written as linear
combination of x as v = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + · · · + xn en . This gives

T (v) = T (x1 e1 + x2 e2 + · · · + xn en )
= x1 T (e1 ) + x2 T (e2 ) + · · · + xn T (en )
Xn
T (v) = xi T (ei ). → (1)
i=1

Hence, T is a linear combination.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 13 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Introduction

Now, T (ei ) ∈ Rm as T (e1 ), T (e2 ), · · · , T (en ) are images of

e1 , e2 , · · · , en under linear transformation T and Rm is set of m-tuple
vectors so
T (ei ) = (α1i , α2i , · · · , αmi ), 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 14 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Introduction

Now, T (ei ) ∈ Rm as T (e1 ), T (e2 ), · · · , T (en ) are images of

e1 , e2 , · · · , en under linear transformation T and Rm is set of m-tuple
vectors so
T (ei ) = (α1i , α2i , · · · , αmi ), 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Then, from (1) we have
Xn
T (v) = xi ((α1i , α2i , · · · , αmi )
i=1
= x1 (α11 , α21 , · · · , αm1 ) + x2 (α12 , α22 , · · · , αm2 ) + · · ·
+ xn (α1n , α2n , · · · , αmn )
= (α11 x1 + α12 x2 + · · · + α1n xn , α21 x1 + α22 x2 + · · · + α2n xn , · · · ,
αm1 x1 + αm2 x2 · · · + αmn xn )

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 14 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Introduction

Now, T (ei ) ∈ Rm as T (e1 ), T (e2 ), · · · , T (en ) are images of

e1 , e2 , · · · , en under linear transformation T and Rm is set of m-tuple
vectors so
T (ei ) = (α1i , α2i , · · · , αmi ), 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Then, from (1) we have
Xn
T (v) = xi ((α1i , α2i , · · · , αmi )
i=1
= x1 (α11 , α21 , · · · , αm1 ) + x2 (α12 , α22 , · · · , αm2 ) + · · ·
+ xn (α1n , α2n , · · · , αmn )
= (α11 x1 + α12 x2 + · · · + α1n xn , α21 x1 + α22 x2 + · · · + α2n xn , · · · ,
αm1 x1 + αm2 x2 · · · + αmn xn )

If T (v) = w = (y1 , y2 , · · · , ym ) ∈ Rm then

(y1 , y2 , · · · , ym ) = (α11 x1 + α12 x2 + · · · + α1n xn , α21 x1 + α22 x2 + · · · + α2n
αm1 x1 + αm2 x2 · · · + αmn xn )
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 14 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Introduction

This gives

    
y1 α11 α12 ··· α1n x1
 y2   α21 α22 ··· α2n  x2 
=  or Y = AX(say). → (2)
    
 .. .. .. ..  ..
 .   . . ··· .  . 
ym αm1 αm2 · · · αmn xn

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 15 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Introduction

This gives

    
y1 α11 α12 ··· α1n x1
 y2   α21 α22 ··· α2n  x2 
=  or Y = AX(say). → (2)
    
 .. .. .. ..  ..
 .   . . ··· .  . 
ym αm1 αm2 · · · αmn xn

Thus, if we write v = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) and w = (y1 , y2 , · · · , ym ) as

column matrices X and Y respectively. From the equation (2), we can
understand that the image w = (y1 , y2 , · · · , ym ) of vector v can be
obtained by pre-multiplying the column matrix X with the matrix A
whose columns are the images T (ei ) of vector ei .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 15 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Introduction

This gives

    
y1 α11 α12 ··· α1n x1
 y2   α21 α22 ··· α2n  x2 
=  or Y = AX(say). → (2)
    
 .. .. .. ..  ..
 .   . . ··· .  . 
ym αm1 αm2 · · · αmn xn

Thus, if we write v = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) and w = (y1 , y2 , · · · , ym ) as

column matrices X and Y respectively. From the equation (2), we can
understand that the image w = (y1 , y2 , · · · , ym ) of vector v can be
obtained by pre-multiplying the column matrix X with the matrix A
whose columns are the images T (ei ) of vector ei .
Hence, T is completely determined by the matrix

A = [αij ]m×n , αij ∈ R.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 15 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Example: Show that T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y, y)

is a linear transformation. Find the associated matrix.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 16 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Example: Show that T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y, y)

is a linear transformation. Find the associated matrix.
Soln. It is we known that mapping T : R2 → R3 is a Linear Transfor-
mation(L.T.). Now

T (x1 , x2 ) = (y1 , y2 , y3 ), where (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 and (y1 , y2 , y3 ) ∈ R3 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 16 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Example: Show that T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y, y)

is a linear transformation. Find the associated matrix.
Soln. It is we known that mapping T : R2 → R3 is a Linear Transfor-
mation(L.T.). Now

T (x1 , x2 ) = (y1 , y2 , y3 ), where (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 and (y1 , y2 , y3 ) ∈ R3 .

This gives

T (x1 , x2 ) = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) = (x1 + x2 , x1 − x2 , x2 )

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 16 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Example: Show that T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y, y)

is a linear transformation. Find the associated matrix.
Soln. It is we known that mapping T : R2 → R3 is a Linear Transfor-
mation(L.T.). Now

T (x1 , x2 ) = (y1 , y2 , y3 ), where (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 and (y1 , y2 , y3 ) ∈ R3 .

This gives

T (x1 , x2 ) = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) = (x1 + x2 , x1 − x2 , x2 )

Therefore    
y1 1 1  
 y2  =  1 −1  x1 .
x2
y3 0 1

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 16 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Example: Show that T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x + y, x − y, y)

is a linear transformation. Find the associated matrix.
Soln. It is we known that mapping T : R2 → R3 is a Linear Transfor-
mation(L.T.). Now

T (x1 , x2 ) = (y1 , y2 , y3 ), where (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 and (y1 , y2 , y3 ) ∈ R3 .

This gives

T (x1 , x2 ) = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) = (x1 + x2 , x1 − x2 , x2 )

Therefore    
y1 1 1  
 y2  =  1 −1  x1 .
x2
y3 0 1
 
1 1
Hence, the matrix associated with given L.T. is  1 −1 .
0 1
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 16 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples
 
1 1 2
Example: Using the transformation Y = AX where A =  1 2 5 .
1 3 3
Find (i) image of X = (1, 4, 0) and (ii) the vector whose image is
(1, 4, 0).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 17 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples
 
1 1 2
Example: Using the transformation Y = AX where A =  1 2 5 .
1 3 3
Find (i) image of X = (1, 4, 0) and (ii) the vector whose image is
(1, 4, 0).
Soln. (i) The image of X = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (1, 4, 0) is given by
      
y1 1 1 2 1 5
Y = AX ⇒  y2  =  1 2 5   4  =  9  .
y3 1 3 3 0 13
Therefore, the image of X = (1, 4, 0) is (5, 9, 13).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 17 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples
 
1 1 2
Example: Using the transformation Y = AX where A =  1 2 5 .
1 3 3
Find (i) image of X = (1, 4, 0) and (ii) the vector whose image is
(1, 4, 0).
Soln. (i) The image of X = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (1, 4, 0) is given by
      
y1 1 1 2 1 5
Y = AX ⇒  y2  =  1 2 5   4  =  9  .
y3 1 3 3 0 13
Therefore, the image of X = (1, 4, 0) is (5, 9, 13).
(ii) Now we have to find X whose image is (1, 4, 0)
    
1 1 2 x1 1
AX = Y ⇒  1 2 5   x2 = 4  ⇒ X = A−1 Y. → (1)
 
1 3 3 x3 0

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 17 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples
 
1 1 2
Example: Using the transformation Y = AX where A =  1 2 5 .
1 3 3
Find (i) image of X = (1, 4, 0) and (ii) the vector whose image is
(1, 4, 0).
Soln. (i) The image of X = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (1, 4, 0) is given by
      
y1 1 1 2 1 5
Y = AX ⇒  y2  =  1 2 5   4  =  9  .
y3 1 3 3 0 13
Therefore, the image of X = (1, 4, 0) is (5, 9, 13).
(ii) Now we have to find X whose image is (1, 4, 0)
    
1 1 2 x1 1
AX = Y ⇒  1 2 5   x2 = 4  ⇒ X = A−1 Y. → (1)
 
1 3 3 x3 0
Thus
A−1 exists since |A| = −5 6= 0.
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 17 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Here,  
−9 3 1
−1 
A−1 = 2 1 −3  .
5
1 −2 1

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 18 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Here,  
−9 3 1
−1
A−1 =  2 1 −3  .
5
1 −2 1
    
−9 3 1 1 −3/5
−1 
(1) ⇒ X = 2 1 −3   4  =  −6/5  .
5
1 −2 1 0 7/5

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 18 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Here,  
−9 3 1
−1
A−1 =  2 1 −3  .
5
1 −2 1
    
−9 3 1 1 −3/5
−1 
(1) ⇒ X = 2 1 −3   4  =  −6/5  .
5
1 −2 1 0 7/5
Hence, X is −3 −6 7


5 , 5 , 5 whose image is (1, 4, 0).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 18 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Here,  
−9 3 1
−1
A−1 =  2 1 −3  .
5
1 −2 1
    
−9 3 1 1 −3/5
−1 
(1) ⇒ X = 2 1 −3   4  =  −6/5  .
5
1 −2 1 0 7/5
Hence, X is −3 −6 7


5 , 5 , 5 whose image is (1, 4, 0).
Example:
Show that T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (2x − y, x − y, −2x)
is a linear transformation. Find the associated matrix.
If T : R4 → R3 is a linear transformation and λ ∈ R, show that
the function (λT )(X) = λT (X) is a linear transformation. Also,
find the associated matrix.
If T : R4 → R3 , S : R4 → R3 are two linear transformations.
Show that the function T + S : R4 → R3 defined by
(T + S)(X) = T (X) + S(X), ∀X ∈ R4 is a linear transformation.
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 18 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Write the L.T., T :R3 → R3 corresponding to

2 0 3
A = −5 1
 6 .
4 −7 8
Write the L.T., T : R4 → R 3
 corresponding to
1 2 3 4
A =  0 −5 −6 −7 .
−1 8 9 −2
 
1 1 1
Consider the L.T., Y = AX in R3 where A =  1 2 3 . Find
2 5 3
(i) The image of X = (3, 5, 1) and (ii) The vector X whose image
is (0, 3, 4).  
1 3 2
Using the transformation Y = AX in R3 where A =  2 1 1 .
3 2 3
Find (i) The image of X = (1, 1, 2) and (ii) The vector X whose
image is (−2, −5, −5).
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 19 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Zero Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are vector spaces then a mapping T : V → W
defined as T (x) = 0, ∀x ∈ V is a linear transformation(operator).

Note: Zero transformation by O(x) = 0, ∀x ∈ V .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 20 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Zero Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are vector spaces then a mapping T : V → W
defined as T (x) = 0, ∀x ∈ V is a linear transformation(operator).

Note: Zero transformation by O(x) = 0, ∀x ∈ V .

Identity Transformation
If V (F ) is a vector space then a mapping T : V → V defined as
T (x) = x, ∀x ∈ V is a linear transformation.

Note: Identity transformation by I(x) = x, ∀x ∈ V .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 20 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Matrix Associated with a L.T.: Examples

Zero Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are vector spaces then a mapping T : V → W
defined as T (x) = 0, ∀x ∈ V is a linear transformation(operator).

Note: Zero transformation by O(x) = 0, ∀x ∈ V .

Identity Transformation
If V (F ) is a vector space then a mapping T : V → V defined as
T (x) = x, ∀x ∈ V is a linear transformation.

Note: Identity transformation by I(x) = x, ∀x ∈ V .

Negative of a Linear Transformation
If V (F ) and W (F ) are vector spaces and T : V → W is a linear
transformation. Then show that mapping −T : V → W defined as
(−T )(x) = −[T (x)], ∀x ∈ V is a linear transformation.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 20 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of L.T.: Introduction

Properties of Linear Transformation

If T : V → W is a linear transformation then
T (O) = O, where O on left hand in V and O on right hand in W .
T (−x) = −T (x), ∀ x ∈ V .
T (x − y) = T (x) − T (y), ∀ x, y ∈ V .
T (px) = pT (x), ∀ x ∈ V and p ∈ I.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 21 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of L.T.: Introduction

Theorem
Let T : V (F ) → W (F ) be a linear transformation.
If the vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ∈ V are linearly dependent over F
then T (v1 ), T (v2 ), · · · , T (vn ) ∈ W are also linearly dependent over
F.
If the vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ∈ V are linearly independent over F
then T (v1 ), T (v2 ), · · · , T (vn ) ∈ W are also linearly independent
over F .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 22 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of L.T.: Introduction

Theorem
Let T : V (F ) → W (F ) be a linear transformation.
If the vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ∈ V are linearly dependent over F
then T (v1 ), T (v2 ), · · · , T (vn ) ∈ W are also linearly dependent over
F.
If the vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ∈ V are linearly independent over F
then T (v1 ), T (v2 ), · · · , T (vn ) ∈ W are also linearly independent
over F .
Proof.
Since v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ∈ V are linearly dependent over F . There
exists scalars a1 , a2 , · · · , an ∈ F , not all zero such that

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0
⇒ T (a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn ) = T (0)
⇒ a1 T (v1 ) + a2 T (v2 ) + · · · + an T (vn ) = 0.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 22 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of L.T.: Introduction

Theorem
Let T : V (F ) → W (F ) be a linear transformation.
If the vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ∈ V are linearly dependent over F
then T (v1 ), T (v2 ), · · · , T (vn ) ∈ W are also linearly dependent over
F.
If the vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ∈ V are linearly independent over F
then T (v1 ), T (v2 ), · · · , T (vn ) ∈ W are also linearly independent
over F .
Proof.
Since v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ∈ V are linearly dependent over F . There
exists scalars a1 , a2 , · · · , an ∈ F , not all zero such that

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0
⇒ T (a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn ) = T (0)
⇒ a1 T (v1 ) + a2 T (v2 ) + · · · + an T (vn ) = 0.

Thus, T (v1 ), T (v2 ), · · · , T (vn ) ∈ W are linearly dependent.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 22 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of L.T.: Introduction

Suppose there exists scalars a1 , a2 , · · · , an ∈ F such that

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0 for vi ’s ∈ V (1 ≤ i ≤ n)
⇒ T (a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn ) = T (0)
⇒ a1 T (v1 ) + a2 T (v2 ) + · · · + an T (vn ) = 0.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 23 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of L.T.: Introduction

Suppose there exists scalars a1 , a2 , · · · , an ∈ F such that

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0 for vi ’s ∈ V (1 ≤ i ≤ n)
⇒ T (a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn ) = T (0)
⇒ a1 T (v1 ) + a2 T (v2 ) + · · · + an T (vn ) = 0.

Given T (v1 ), T (v2 ), · · · , T (vn ) ∈ W are linearly independent over

F.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 23 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of L.T.: Introduction

Suppose there exists scalars a1 , a2 , · · · , an ∈ F such that

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0 for vi ’s ∈ V (1 ≤ i ≤ n)
⇒ T (a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn ) = T (0)
⇒ a1 T (v1 ) + a2 T (v2 ) + · · · + an T (vn ) = 0.

Given T (v1 ), T (v2 ), · · · , T (vn ) ∈ W are linearly independent over

F.

∵ a1 = a2 = · · · = an = 0.
So that a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0 ⇒ a1 = a2 = · · · = an = 0.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 23 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of L.T.: Introduction

Suppose there exists scalars a1 , a2 , · · · , an ∈ F such that

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0 for vi ’s ∈ V (1 ≤ i ≤ n)
⇒ T (a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn ) = T (0)
⇒ a1 T (v1 ) + a2 T (v2 ) + · · · + an T (vn ) = 0.

Given T (v1 ), T (v2 ), · · · , T (vn ) ∈ W are linearly independent over

F.

∵ a1 = a2 = · · · = an = 0.
So that a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0 ⇒ a1 = a2 = · · · = an = 0.
Hence, v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ∈ V are linearly independent.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 23 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Find T (a, b) where T : R2 → R3 is defined as T (1, 2) =

(3, −1, 5), T (0, 1) = (2, 1, −1).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 24 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Find T (a, b) where T : R2 → R3 is defined as T (1, 2) =

(3, −1, 5), T (0, 1) = (2, 1, −1).
Soln. (i) Now, we show that (1, 2) and (0, 1) are linearly independent.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 24 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Find T (a, b) where T : R2 → R3 is defined as T (1, 2) =

(3, −1, 5), T (0, 1) = (2, 1, −1).
Soln. (i) Now, we show that (1, 2) and (0, 1) are linearly independent.
Consider
α(1, 2) + β(0, 1) = (α, 2α + β) = (0, 0)
⇒ α = 0, β = 0.
Therefore, (1, 2) and (0, 1) are linearly independent.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 24 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Find T (a, b) where T : R2 → R3 is defined as T (1, 2) =

(3, −1, 5), T (0, 1) = (2, 1, −1).
Soln. (i) Now, we show that (1, 2) and (0, 1) are linearly independent.
Consider
α(1, 2) + β(0, 1) = (α, 2α + β) = (0, 0)
⇒ α = 0, β = 0.
Therefore, (1, 2) and (0, 1) are linearly independent.
(ii) Thus, we prove that (1, 2) and (0, 1) span R2 . Let (x, y) ∈ R2 .
(x, y) = α(1, 2) + β(0, 1) = (α, 2α + β).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 24 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Find T (a, b) where T : R2 → R3 is defined as T (1, 2) =

(3, −1, 5), T (0, 1) = (2, 1, −1).
Soln. (i) Now, we show that (1, 2) and (0, 1) are linearly independent.
Consider
α(1, 2) + β(0, 1) = (α, 2α + β) = (0, 0)
⇒ α = 0, β = 0.
Therefore, (1, 2) and (0, 1) are linearly independent.
(ii) Thus, we prove that (1, 2) and (0, 1) span R2 . Let (x, y) ∈ R2 .
(x, y) = α(1, 2) + β(0, 1) = (α, 2α + β).
From the above equation, we get
α = x, β = y − 2x.
Then
(x, y) = x(1, 2) + (y − 2x)(0, 1). → (1)

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 24 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Example: Find T (a, b) where T : R2 → R3 is defined as T (1, 2) =

(3, −1, 5), T (0, 1) = (2, 1, −1).
Soln. (i) Now, we show that (1, 2) and (0, 1) are linearly independent.
Consider
α(1, 2) + β(0, 1) = (α, 2α + β) = (0, 0)
⇒ α = 0, β = 0.
Therefore, (1, 2) and (0, 1) are linearly independent.
(ii) Thus, we prove that (1, 2) and (0, 1) span R2 . Let (x, y) ∈ R2 .
(x, y) = α(1, 2) + β(0, 1) = (α, 2α + β).
From the above equation, we get
α = x, β = y − 2x.
Then
(x, y) = x(1, 2) + (y − 2x)(0, 1). → (1)
Hence, (1, 2) and (0, 1) span R2 .
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 24 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Now,
T (x, y) = xT (1, 2) + (y − 2x)T (0, 1) = x(3, −1, 5) + (y − 2x)(2, 1, −1)
T (x, y) = (2y − x, y − 3x, 7x − y).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 25 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Now,
T (x, y) = xT (1, 2) + (y − 2x)T (0, 1) = x(3, −1, 5) + (y − 2x)(2, 1, −1)
T (x, y) = (2y − x, y − 3x, 7x − y).
which is the required unique linear transformation.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 25 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Now,
T (x, y) = xT (1, 2) + (y − 2x)T (0, 1) = x(3, −1, 5) + (y − 2x)(2, 1, −1)
T (x, y) = (2y − x, y − 3x, 7x − y).
which is the required unique linear transformation.
Example: Find T (a, b, c) where T : R3 → R is defined as T (1, 1, 1) = 3,
T (1, 1, 0) = −4 and T (1, 0, 0) = 2.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 25 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Now,
T (x, y) = xT (1, 2) + (y − 2x)T (0, 1) = x(3, −1, 5) + (y − 2x)(2, 1, −1)
T (x, y) = (2y − x, y − 3x, 7x − y).
which is the required unique linear transformation.
Example: Find T (a, b, c) where T : R3 → R is defined as T (1, 1, 1) = 3,
T (1, 1, 0) = −4 and T (1, 0, 0) = 2.
Soln. Firstly, we shall show that the given vectors of domain of T from
a basis for R3 (domain of T ).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 25 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Now,
T (x, y) = xT (1, 2) + (y − 2x)T (0, 1) = x(3, −1, 5) + (y − 2x)(2, 1, −1)
T (x, y) = (2y − x, y − 3x, 7x − y).
which is the required unique linear transformation.
Example: Find T (a, b, c) where T : R3 → R is defined as T (1, 1, 1) = 3,
T (1, 1, 0) = −4 and T (1, 0, 0) = 2.
Soln. Firstly, we shall show that the given vectors of domain of T from
a basis for R3 (domain of T ).
(i) Now, we show that (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) are linearly inde-
pendent.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 25 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Now,
T (x, y) = xT (1, 2) + (y − 2x)T (0, 1) = x(3, −1, 5) + (y − 2x)(2, 1, −1)
T (x, y) = (2y − x, y − 3x, 7x − y).
which is the required unique linear transformation.
Example: Find T (a, b, c) where T : R3 → R is defined as T (1, 1, 1) = 3,
T (1, 1, 0) = −4 and T (1, 0, 0) = 2.
Soln. Firstly, we shall show that the given vectors of domain of T from
a basis for R3 (domain of T ).
(i) Now, we show that (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) are linearly inde-
pendent. Consider
α(1, 1, 1) + β(1, 1, 0) + γ(1, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ (α, , α, α) + (β, β, 0) + (γ, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ (α + β + γ, α + β, α) = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ α = 0, β = 0, γ = 0.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 25 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Now,
T (x, y) = xT (1, 2) + (y − 2x)T (0, 1) = x(3, −1, 5) + (y − 2x)(2, 1, −1)
T (x, y) = (2y − x, y − 3x, 7x − y).
which is the required unique linear transformation.
Example: Find T (a, b, c) where T : R3 → R is defined as T (1, 1, 1) = 3,
T (1, 1, 0) = −4 and T (1, 0, 0) = 2.
Soln. Firstly, we shall show that the given vectors of domain of T from
a basis for R3 (domain of T ).
(i) Now, we show that (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) are linearly inde-
pendent. Consider
α(1, 1, 1) + β(1, 1, 0) + γ(1, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ (α, , α, α) + (β, β, 0) + (γ, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ (α + β + γ, α + β, α) = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ α = 0, β = 0, γ = 0.
Therefore, (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) are linearly independent.
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 25 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

(ii) Thus, we prove that (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) span R3 . Let
(x, y, z) ∈ R3 .

(x, y, z) = α(1, 1, 1) + β(1, 1, 0) + γ(1, 0, 0) = (α + β + γ, α + β, α).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 26 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

(ii) Thus, we prove that (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) span R3 . Let
(x, y, z) ∈ R3 .

(x, y, z) = α(1, 1, 1) + β(1, 1, 0) + γ(1, 0, 0) = (α + β + γ, α + β, α).

From the above equation, we get

α = z, β = y − z, γ = x − y.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 26 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

(ii) Thus, we prove that (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) span R3 . Let
(x, y, z) ∈ R3 .

(x, y, z) = α(1, 1, 1) + β(1, 1, 0) + γ(1, 0, 0) = (α + β + γ, α + β, α).

From the above equation, we get

α = z, β = y − z, γ = x − y.

Then

(x, y, z) = z(1, 1, 1) + (y − z)(1, 1, 0) + (x − y)(1, 0, 0). → (1)

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 26 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

(ii) Thus, we prove that (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) span R3 . Let
(x, y, z) ∈ R3 .

(x, y, z) = α(1, 1, 1) + β(1, 1, 0) + γ(1, 0, 0) = (α + β + γ, α + β, α).

From the above equation, we get

α = z, β = y − z, γ = x − y.

Then

(x, y, z) = z(1, 1, 1) + (y − z)(1, 1, 0) + (x − y)(1, 0, 0). → (1)

Hence, (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) span R3 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 26 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

(ii) Thus, we prove that (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) span R3 . Let
(x, y, z) ∈ R3 .

(x, y, z) = α(1, 1, 1) + β(1, 1, 0) + γ(1, 0, 0) = (α + β + γ, α + β, α).

From the above equation, we get

α = z, β = y − z, γ = x − y.

Then

(x, y, z) = z(1, 1, 1) + (y − z)(1, 1, 0) + (x − y)(1, 0, 0). → (1)

Hence, (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) span R3 . Now,

T (x, y, z) = zT (1, 1, 1) + (y − z)T (1, 1, 0) + (x − y)T (1, 0, 0)

T (x, y, z) = 3z + (y − z)(−4) + (x − y)(2) = 2x − 6y + 7z.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 26 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

(ii) Thus, we prove that (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) span R3 . Let
(x, y, z) ∈ R3 .

(x, y, z) = α(1, 1, 1) + β(1, 1, 0) + γ(1, 0, 0) = (α + β + γ, α + β, α).

From the above equation, we get

α = z, β = y − z, γ = x − y.

Then

(x, y, z) = z(1, 1, 1) + (y − z)(1, 1, 0) + (x − y)(1, 0, 0). → (1)

Hence, (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) span R3 . Now,

T (x, y, z) = zT (1, 1, 1) + (y − z)T (1, 1, 0) + (x − y)T (1, 0, 0)

T (x, y, z) = 3z + (y − z)(−4) + (x − y)(2) = 2x − 6y + 7z.

which is the required unique linear transformation.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 26 / 75
 Linear Transformation - Preliminaries Properties of Linear Transformation: Examples

Example:
Find a linear transformation T : R2 → R2 such that
T (1, 2) = (3, 4) and T (0, 1) = (0, 0).
T (1, 0) = (1, 1) and T (0, 1) = (−1, 2).
Find T (x, y) where T : R2 → R3 is defined as
T (2, −5) = (−1, 2, 3) and T (3, 4) = (0, 1, 5).
T (1, 2) = (3, −1, 5) and T (0, 1) = (2, 1, −1).
Find T (a, b, c) where T : R3 → R is defined as T (1, 1, 1) = 3,
T (0, 1, −2) = 1 and T (0, 0, 1) = −2.
Let v1 = (1, 1, −1), v2 = (4, 1, 1) and v3 = (1, −1, 2) is a basis of
R3 . Let T : R3 → R2 be linear transformation. Such that
T (v1 ) = (1, 0), T (v2 ) = (0, 1) and T (v3 ) = (1, 1). Find the linear
transformation T .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 27 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Introduction

Kernal and Image of a Linear Transformation

Let V and W be two vector spaces over the field F and if T : V → W
be a linear transformation
Kernal(null space) of T is the set defined as

Ker(T ) = {v ∈ V |T (v) = Ow } .

It is denoted by NT .
Image(range) space of T is the set defined as

Im(T ) = R(T ) = {T (v) ∈ W |v ∈ V } .

It is denoted by RT .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 28 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Introduction

Note:
Kernal(null space) of T is a subspace of V and image(range) of T
is a subspace of W .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 29 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Introduction

Note:
Kernal(null space) of T is a subspace of V and image(range) of T
is a subspace of W .
If V is finite dimensional, the dimension of the image(range) space
of T is called the rank of T and the dimension of the (kernel)null
space of T is called the nullity of T .
Dimension Theorem: The sum of the dimension of the
range(image) space and kernal(null space) of the a linear
transformation is equal to the dimension of its domain. That is, If
V and W are vector space over the field F and if T : V → W is a
linear transformation and V is finite dimensional

Rank(T) + Nullity(T) = dim(V).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 29 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find the kernal and image of T : R2 → R2 by T (x, y) =

(x, x).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 30 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find the kernal and image of T : R2 → R2 by T (x, y) =

(x, x).
Soln. Given transformation T : R2 → R2 and it is defined as T (x, y) =
(x, x).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 30 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find the kernal and image of T : R2 → R2 by T (x, y) =

(x, x).
Soln. Given transformation T : R2 → R2 and it is defined as T (x, y) =
(x, x).
(i)

Ker(T ) = (x, y) ∈ R2 |T (x, y) = (0, 0)



= {(x, y)|(x, x) = (0, 0)}

Ker(T ) = {(x, y)|x = 0} = y − axis.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 30 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find the kernal and image of T : R2 → R2 by T (x, y) =

(x, x).
Soln. Given transformation T : R2 → R2 and it is defined as T (x, y) =
(x, x).
(i)

Ker(T ) = (x, y) ∈ R2 |T (x, y) = (0, 0)



= {(x, y)|(x, x) = (0, 0)}

Ker(T ) = {(x, y)|x = 0} = y − axis.

(ii)

Im(T ) = T (x, y)|(x, y) ∈ R2



= (x, x)|x ∈ R2


Im(T ) = the line y = x.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 30 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Consider the vector spaces R3 and R3 . T (x, y, z) = (x, y, 0).

Find the kernal and image of T .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 31 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Consider the vector spaces R3 and R3 . T (x, y, z) = (x, y, 0).

Find the kernal and image of T .
Soln. Given transformation T : R3 → R3 and it is defined as T (x, y, z) =
(x, y, 0).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 31 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Consider the vector spaces R3 and R3 . T (x, y, z) = (x, y, 0).

Find the kernal and image of T .
Soln. Given transformation T : R3 → R3 and it is defined as T (x, y, z) =
(x, y, 0).
(i)

Ker(T ) = (x, y, z) ∈ R3 |T (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)



= {(x, y, z)|(x, y, 0) = (0, 0, 0)}

Ker(T ) = {(x, y, z)|x = 0, y = 0, z ∈ R} = z − axis.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 31 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Consider the vector spaces R3 and R3 . T (x, y, z) = (x, y, 0).

Find the kernal and image of T .
Soln. Given transformation T : R3 → R3 and it is defined as T (x, y, z) =
(x, y, 0).
(i)

Ker(T ) = (x, y, z) ∈ R3 |T (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)



= {(x, y, z)|(x, y, 0) = (0, 0, 0)}

Ker(T ) = {(x, y, z)|x = 0, y = 0, z ∈ R} = z − axis.

(ii)

Im(T ) = T (x, y, z)|(x, y, z) ∈ R3



= {(x, y, 0)|x, y ∈ R}
Im(T ) = xy − plane.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 31 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : R3 → R3 by T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x + y, x + y). Find

the kernal and image of T .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 32 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : R3 → R3 by T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x + y, x + y). Find

the kernal and image of T .
Soln. Given transformation T : R3 → R3 and it is defined as T (x, y, z) =
(x + y, x + y, x + y).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 32 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : R3 → R3 by T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x + y, x + y). Find

the kernal and image of T .
Soln. Given transformation T : R3 → R3 and it is defined as T (x, y, z) =
(x + y, x + y, x + y).
(i)

Ker(T ) = (x, y, z) ∈ R3 |T (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)



= {(x, y, z)|(x + y, x + y, x + y) = (0, 0, 0)}

Ker(T ) = {(x, y, z)|x + y = 0 ∈ R} .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 32 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : R3 → R3 by T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x + y, x + y). Find

the kernal and image of T .
Soln. Given transformation T : R3 → R3 and it is defined as T (x, y, z) =
(x + y, x + y, x + y).
(i)

Ker(T ) = (x, y, z) ∈ R3 |T (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)



= {(x, y, z)|(x + y, x + y, x + y) = (0, 0, 0)}

Ker(T ) = {(x, y, z)|x + y = 0 ∈ R} .

(ii)

Im(T ) = T (x, y, z)|(x, y, z) ∈ R3



= {(x + y, x + y, x + y)|x, y ∈ R}
Im(T ) = {(r, r, r)|r = x + y, x, y ∈ R} .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 32 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

dp(t)
Example: Let T : P3 (R) → P3 (R) by T (p(t)) = dt . Find the kernal
and image of T .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 33 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : P3 (R) → P3 (R) by T (p(t)) = dp(t)

dt . Find the kernal
and image of T .
Soln. Given transformation T : P3 (R) → P3 (R) by T (p(t)) = d(p(t))
dt .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 33 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : P3 (R) → P3 (R) by T (p(t)) = dp(t)

dt . Find the kernal
and image of T .
Soln. Given transformation T : P3 (R) → P3 (R) by T (p(t)) = d(p(t))
dt .
(i)

Ker(T ) = {p(t) ∈ P3 (R)|T (p(t)) = 0}

 
d(p(t))
= p(t)| =0
dt
Ker(T ) = collection of all constant polynomials.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 33 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : P3 (R) → P3 (R) by T (p(t)) = dp(t)

dt . Find the kernal
and image of T .
Soln. Given transformation T : P3 (R) → P3 (R) by T (p(t)) = d(p(t))
dt .
(i)

Ker(T ) = {p(t) ∈ P3 (R)|T (p(t)) = 0}

 
d(p(t))
= p(t)| =0
dt
Ker(T ) = collection of all constant polynomials.

(ii)

Im(T ) = {T (p(t))|p(t) ∈ P3 (R)}

 
d(p(t))
= |p(t) ∈ P3 (R)
dt
Im(T ) = P2 (R).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 33 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find a basis and dimension of RT and NT for the linear

transformation T : R3 → R3 defined by T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 − x2 +
2x3 , 2x1 + x2 , −x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 ).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 34 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find a basis and dimension of RT and NT for the linear

transformation T : R3 → R3 defined by T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 − x2 +
2x3 , 2x1 + x2 , −x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 ).
Soln. Now, the images of standard basis vectors of R3 be (1, 0, 0),
(0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1) generate the image(range) space RT

T (1, 0, 0) = (1, 2, −1), T (0, 1, 0) = (−1, 1, −2), T (0, 0, 1) = (2, 0, 2).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 34 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find a basis and dimension of RT and NT for the linear

transformation T : R3 → R3 defined by T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 − x2 +
2x3 , 2x1 + x2 , −x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 ).
Soln. Now, the images of standard basis vectors of R3 be (1, 0, 0),
(0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1) generate the image(range) space RT

T (1, 0, 0) = (1, 2, −1), T (0, 1, 0) = (−1, 1, −2), T (0, 0, 1) = (2, 0, 2).

Now, we check that where these three images can form the basis of
RT .
     
1 2 −1 1 2 1 1 2 1
 −1 1 −2  ∼  0 3 −3  ∼  0 1 1  .
2 0 2 0 4 −4 0 0 0

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 34 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find a basis and dimension of RT and NT for the linear

transformation T : R3 → R3 defined by T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 − x2 +
2x3 , 2x1 + x2 , −x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 ).
Soln. Now, the images of standard basis vectors of R3 be (1, 0, 0),
(0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1) generate the image(range) space RT

T (1, 0, 0) = (1, 2, −1), T (0, 1, 0) = (−1, 1, −2), T (0, 0, 1) = (2, 0, 2).

Now, we check that where these three images can form the basis of
RT .
     
1 2 −1 1 2 1 1 2 1
 −1 1 −2  ∼  0 3 −3  ∼  0 1 1  .
2 0 2 0 4 −4 0 0 0

Therefore, the independent vectors from the Echolon form for the ma-
trix are (1, 2, 1) and (0, 1, 1) is a basis of RT and rank of T = 2.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 34 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Let (x1 , x2 , x3 ) be an element of NT . Then

T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = O = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 0, 2x1 + x2 = 0, −x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 35 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Let (x1 , x2 , x3 ) be an element of NT . Then

T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = O = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 0, 2x1 + x2 = 0, −x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0.

The corresponding matrix of the form be

       
1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 −1 2
 2 1 0 ∼ 2 1 0  ∼  0 3 −4  ∼  0 1 −4/3 
−1 −2 2 0 −3 4 0 3 −4 0 0 0

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 35 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Let (x1 , x2 , x3 ) be an element of NT . Then

T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = O = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 0, 2x1 + x2 = 0, −x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0.

The corresponding matrix of the form be

       
1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 −1 2
 2 1 0 ∼ 2 1 0  ∼  0 3 −4  ∼  0 1 −4/3 
−1 −2 2 0 −3 4 0 3 −4 0 0 0

The system of equation that we obtain be

x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 0, 3x2 − 4x3 = 0.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 35 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Let (x1 , x2 , x3 ) be an element of NT . Then

T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = O = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 0, 2x1 + x2 = 0, −x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 = 0.

The corresponding matrix of the form be

       
1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 −1 2
 2 1 0 ∼ 2 1 0  ∼  0 3 −4  ∼  0 1 −4/3 
−1 −2 2 0 −3 4 0 3 −4 0 0 0

The system of equation that we obtain be

x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 0, 3x2 − 4x3 = 0.

Here, x1 , x2 are basic variables and x3 is a free variable. Therefore,

the dim(NT ) = 1(Number of free variables or No. of unknowns - No.
of non-zero equations).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 35 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Taking x3 = k, we have
−2 −2
     
x1 3 k 3
 x2  =  4 4
3k
 = k .
3
x3 k 1

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 36 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Taking x3 = k, we have
−2 −2
     
x1 3 k 3
 x2  =  4 4
3k
 = k .
3
x3 k 1

Hence, ( −2 4
3 , 3 , 1) form a basis of NT .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 36 / 75
 Rank and Nullity of Linear Transformation Rank and Nullity of L.T.: Examples

Taking x3 = k, we have
−2 −2
     
x1 3 k 3
 x2  =  4 4
3k
 = k .
3
x3 k 1

Hence, ( −2 4
3 , 3 , 1) form a basis of NT .
Example:
Let T : R4 → R3 be the transformation defined by
T (x, y, z, t) = (x − y + z + t, x + 2z − t, x + y + 3z − t). Find a basis
and the dimension of (i) the image of T and (ii) the kernal of T .
Find a basis and dimension of RT and NT for the linear
transformation T : R4 → R3 defined by
T (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (x1 −x2 +x3 +x4 , x1 +2x3 −x4 , x1 +x2 +3x3 −3x4 ).
 
1 −1
If V is the vector space of 2 × 2 matrices, if M = and
−2 2
if T : V → V be the linear transformation defined by T (A) = M A,
find a basis and dimension of RT and NT .
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 36 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

One-one(Injective) Transformation
Let T : V → W be a linear transformation. Then T is called one-one
or injective iff

T (x) = T (y) ⇒ x = y, ∀ x, y ∈ V.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 37 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

One-one(Injective) Transformation
Let T : V → W be a linear transformation. Then T is called one-one
or injective iff

T (x) = T (y) ⇒ x = y, ∀ x, y ∈ V.

Onto(Surjective) Transformation
Let T : V → W be a linear transformation. Then T is called onto or
surjective iff for each w ∈ W , there exists v ∈ V such tha

w = T (v)(Range of T ).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 37 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

Non-singular Transformation
A linear transform T : V → W is said to be non-singular iff the null
space of T is the zero space {0}, that is null space consists of only the
zero element. Thus if
T (v) = 0 ⇒ v = 0, ∀ v ∈ V.
or
v 6= 0 ⇒ T (v) 6= 0, ∀ v ∈ V.
Then, T is said to be non-singular.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 38 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

Non-singular Transformation
A linear transform T : V → W is said to be non-singular iff the null
space of T is the zero space {0}, that is null space consists of only the
zero element. Thus if
T (v) = 0 ⇒ v = 0, ∀ v ∈ V.
or
v 6= 0 ⇒ T (v) 6= 0, ∀ v ∈ V.
Then, T is said to be non-singular.

Singular Transformation
A linear transform T : V → W is said to be singular iff the null space
of T contains at least one non-zero vector. Thus if

v 6= 0 ⇒ T (v) = 0, for some v ∈ V.

Then, T is said to be singular.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 38 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

Isomorphic Vector Space

Two vector space V and W over the same field F are called
isomorphic if there exists a linear transformation T : V → W such that
it is one-one and onto.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 39 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

Isomorphic Vector Space

Two vector space V and W over the same field F are called
isomorphic if there exists a linear transformation T : V → W such that
it is one-one and onto.
Example: Show that linear transformation T : R3 → R2 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − y, y) is onto but not one-one.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 39 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

Isomorphic Vector Space

Two vector space V and W over the same field F are called
isomorphic if there exists a linear transformation T : V → W such that
it is one-one and onto.
Example: Show that linear transformation T : R3 → R2 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − y, y) is onto but not one-one.
Soln. Given T : R3 → R2 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − y, y), ∀ (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 39 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

Isomorphic Vector Space

Two vector space V and W over the same field F are called
isomorphic if there exists a linear transformation T : V → W such that
it is one-one and onto.
Example: Show that linear transformation T : R3 → R2 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − y, y) is onto but not one-one.
Soln. Given T : R3 → R2 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − y, y), ∀ (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .

To show T is onto: Let (a, b) ∈ R2 be any element.

T is onto if ∃(x, y, z) ∈ R3 such that
T (x, y, z) = (a, b) ⇒ (x − y, y) = (a, b) ⇒ x − y = a and y = b.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 39 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

Isomorphic Vector Space

Two vector space V and W over the same field F are called
isomorphic if there exists a linear transformation T : V → W such that
it is one-one and onto.
Example: Show that linear transformation T : R3 → R2 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − y, y) is onto but not one-one.
Soln. Given T : R3 → R2 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − y, y), ∀ (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .

To show T is onto: Let (a, b) ∈ R2 be any element.

T is onto if ∃(x, y, z) ∈ R3 such that
T (x, y, z) = (a, b) ⇒ (x − y, y) = (a, b) ⇒ x − y = a and y = b.
Therefore,
For (a, b) ∈ R2 , ∃(x, y, z) = (a + b, b, z) ∈ R3 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 39 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

Isomorphic Vector Space

Two vector space V and W over the same field F are called
isomorphic if there exists a linear transformation T : V → W such that
it is one-one and onto.
Example: Show that linear transformation T : R3 → R2 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − y, y) is onto but not one-one.
Soln. Given T : R3 → R2 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − y, y), ∀ (x, y, z) ∈ R3 .

To show T is onto: Let (a, b) ∈ R2 be any element.

T is onto if ∃(x, y, z) ∈ R3 such that
T (x, y, z) = (a, b) ⇒ (x − y, y) = (a, b) ⇒ x − y = a and y = b.
Therefore,
For (a, b) ∈ R2 , ∃(x, y, z) = (a + b, b, z) ∈ R3 .
such that
T (x, y, z) = (a, b).(∵ a, b ∈ R ⇒ a + b ∈ R)
Hence, T is onto.
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 39 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

To show T is non one-one: Let (4, 5, 6) and (4, 5, 8) ∈ R3

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 40 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

To show T is non one-one: Let (4, 5, 6) and (4, 5, 8) ∈ R3 such that

T (4, 5, 6) = (−1, 5) and T (4, 5, 8) = (−1, 5).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 40 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

To show T is non one-one: Let (4, 5, 6) and (4, 5, 8) ∈ R3 such that

T (4, 5, 6) = (−1, 5) and T (4, 5, 8) = (−1, 5).

⇒ T (4, 5, 6) = T (4, 5, 8)

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 40 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

To show T is non one-one: Let (4, 5, 6) and (4, 5, 8) ∈ R3 such that

T (4, 5, 6) = (−1, 5) and T (4, 5, 8) = (−1, 5).

⇒ T (4, 5, 6) = T (4, 5, 8)

whereas
(4, 5, 6) 6= T (4, 5, 8).
This gives T is not one-one.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 40 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

To show T is non one-one: Let (4, 5, 6) and (4, 5, 8) ∈ R3 such that

T (4, 5, 6) = (−1, 5) and T (4, 5, 8) = (−1, 5).

⇒ T (4, 5, 6) = T (4, 5, 8)

whereas
(4, 5, 6) 6= T (4, 5, 8).
This gives T is not one-one.
Example:
Show that linear transformation T : R2 → R is defined by
T (x, yz) = x is onto but not one-one.
Show that linear transformation T : R3 → R2 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x, y) is onto but not one-one.
Show that linear transformation T : R3 → R2 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − y, y − z) is onto but not one-one.
Show that linear transformation T : R2 → R3 is defined by
T (x, y) = (x, x − y, x + y) is one-one but not onto.
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 40 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Introduction

Invertible Operator
A linear operator T : V (F ) → V (F ) is said to be invertible operator iff
there exists an operator S : V (F ) → V (F ) such that

T S = I = ST,

where I is an identity operator. Here, S is called the inverse of T and

id denoted by T −1 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 41 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : V3 (R) → V3 (R) be defined as T (x, y, z) = (3x, x −

y, 2x + y + z). Prove that T is invertible and find T −1 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 42 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : V3 (R) → V3 (R) be defined as T (x, y, z) = (3x, x −

y, 2x + y + z). Prove that T is invertible and find T −1 .
Soln. We know that T is invertible iff T is one-one and onto.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 42 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : V3 (R) → V3 (R) be defined as T (x, y, z) = (3x, x −

y, 2x + y + z). Prove that T is invertible and find T −1 .
Soln. We know that T is invertible iff T is one-one and onto.
(i) To show T is one-one: Let v1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ∈
V3 (R).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 42 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : V3 (R) → V3 (R) be defined as T (x, y, z) = (3x, x −

y, 2x + y + z). Prove that T is invertible and find T −1 .
Soln. We know that T is invertible iff T is one-one and onto.
(i) To show T is one-one: Let v1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ∈
V3 (R).

T (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = T (x2 , y2 , z2 )
⇒ (3x1 , x1 − y1 , 2x1 + y1 + z1 ) = (3x2 , x2 − y2 , 2x2 + y2 + z2 )
⇒ 3x1 = 3x2 ⇒ x1 = x2
⇒ x1 − y1 = x2 − y2 ⇒ y1 = y2 and
⇒ 2x1 + y1 + z1 = 2x2 + y2 + z2 ⇒ z1 = z2 .

Therefore,
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ⇒ v1 = v2 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 42 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : V3 (R) → V3 (R) be defined as T (x, y, z) = (3x, x −

y, 2x + y + z). Prove that T is invertible and find T −1 .
Soln. We know that T is invertible iff T is one-one and onto.
(i) To show T is one-one: Let v1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ∈
V3 (R).

T (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = T (x2 , y2 , z2 )
⇒ (3x1 , x1 − y1 , 2x1 + y1 + z1 ) = (3x2 , x2 − y2 , 2x2 + y2 + z2 )
⇒ 3x1 = 3x2 ⇒ x1 = x2
⇒ x1 − y1 = x2 − y2 ⇒ y1 = y2 and
⇒ 2x1 + y1 + z1 = 2x2 + y2 + z2 ⇒ z1 = z2 .

Therefore,
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ⇒ v1 = v2 .
It gives
T (v1 ) = T (v2 ) ⇒ v1 = v2 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 42 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T : V3 (R) → V3 (R) be defined as T (x, y, z) = (3x, x −

y, 2x + y + z). Prove that T is invertible and find T −1 .
Soln. We know that T is invertible iff T is one-one and onto.
(i) To show T is one-one: Let v1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ∈
V3 (R).

T (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = T (x2 , y2 , z2 )
⇒ (3x1 , x1 − y1 , 2x1 + y1 + z1 ) = (3x2 , x2 − y2 , 2x2 + y2 + z2 )
⇒ 3x1 = 3x2 ⇒ x1 = x2
⇒ x1 − y1 = x2 − y2 ⇒ y1 = y2 and
⇒ 2x1 + y1 + z1 = 2x2 + y2 + z2 ⇒ z1 = z2 .

Therefore,
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) ⇒ v1 = v2 .
It gives
T (v1 ) = T (v2 ) ⇒ v1 = v2 .
Hence, T is one-one.
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 42 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Examples

(ii) To prove T is onto: Let (a, b, c) ∈ V3 (R) and we shall show that
there exists a vector (x, y, z) ∈ V3 (R) such that
T (x, y, z) = (a, b, c)
⇒ (3x, x − y, 2x + y + z) = (a, b, c)
⇒ 3x = a, x − y = b, 2x + y + z = c
a a
⇒ x = , y = − b, z = c − a + b.
3 3

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 43 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Examples

(ii) To prove T is onto: Let (a, b, c) ∈ V3 (R) and we shall show that
there exists a vector (x, y, z) ∈ V3 (R) such that
T (x, y, z) = (a, b, c)
⇒ (3x, x − y, 2x + y + z) = (a, b, c)
⇒ 3x = a, x − y = b, 2x + y + z = c
a a
⇒ x = , y = − b, z = c − a + b.
3 3
Since a, b, c ∈ R gives x, y, z ∈ R. Therefore
a a 
(x, y, z) = , − b, c − a + b ∈ V3 (R).
3 3

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 43 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Examples

(ii) To prove T is onto: Let (a, b, c) ∈ V3 (R) and we shall show that
there exists a vector (x, y, z) ∈ V3 (R) such that
T (x, y, z) = (a, b, c)
⇒ (3x, x − y, 2x + y + z) = (a, b, c)
⇒ 3x = a, x − y = b, 2x + y + z = c
a a
⇒ x = , y = − b, z = c − a + b.
3 3
Since a, b, c ∈ R gives x, y, z ∈ R. Therefore
a a 
(x, y, z) = , − b, c − a + b ∈ V3 (R).
3 3
Thus, T is onto.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 43 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Examples

(ii) To prove T is onto: Let (a, b, c) ∈ V3 (R) and we shall show that
there exists a vector (x, y, z) ∈ V3 (R) such that
T (x, y, z) = (a, b, c)
⇒ (3x, x − y, 2x + y + z) = (a, b, c)
⇒ 3x = a, x − y = b, 2x + y + z = c
a a
⇒ x = , y = − b, z = c − a + b.
3 3
Since a, b, c ∈ R gives x, y, z ∈ R. Therefore
a a 
(x, y, z) = , − b, c − a + b ∈ V3 (R).
3 3
Thus, T is onto.
Hence, T is one-one and onto.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 43 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Examples

(ii) To prove T is onto: Let (a, b, c) ∈ V3 (R) and we shall show that
there exists a vector (x, y, z) ∈ V3 (R) such that
T (x, y, z) = (a, b, c)
⇒ (3x, x − y, 2x + y + z) = (a, b, c)
⇒ 3x = a, x − y = b, 2x + y + z = c
a a
⇒ x = , y = − b, z = c − a + b.
3 3
Since a, b, c ∈ R gives x, y, z ∈ R. Therefore
a a 
(x, y, z) = , − b, c − a + b ∈ V3 (R).
3 3
Thus, T is onto.
Hence, T is one-one and onto.
This gives, T is invertible.
T (x, y, z) = (a, b, c)
a a 
⇒ T −1 (a, b, c) = (x, y, z) = , − b, c − a + b
3 3
is required inverse of T .
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 43 / 75
 Invertible Linear Transformation Invertible L.T.: Examples

Examples:
Let T be a linear operator on R3 be defined as
T (x, y, z) = (2x, 4x − y, 2x + 3y − z). Prove that T is invertible
and find T −1 .
Let T be a linear operator on R3 be defined as
T (x, y, z) = (x − 3y − 2z, y − 4z, x). Prove that T is invertible and
find T −1 .
Let T be a linear operator on R3 be defined as
T (x, y, z) = (x + z, x − z, y). Prove that T is invertible and find
T −1 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 44 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Introduction

Matrix Representation of a L.T. Relative to Order Basis

Let T : V → W be a linear transformation, where V and W are vector
space over a filed F and dim(V ) = n and dim(W ) = m.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 45 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Introduction

Matrix Representation of a L.T. Relative to Order Basis

Let T : V → W be a linear transformation, where V and W are vector
space over a filed F and dim(V ) = n and dim(W ) = m.
Let
B1 = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } and B2 = {w1 , w2 , · · · , wm }
be ordered bases of V and W respectively.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 45 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Introduction

Matrix Representation of a L.T. Relative to Order Basis

Let T : V → W be a linear transformation, where V and W are vector
space over a filed F and dim(V ) = n and dim(W ) = m.
Let
B1 = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } and B2 = {w1 , w2 , · · · , wm }
be ordered bases of V and W respectively. Therefore, T : V → W is a
linear transformation so that for every v ∈ V , we have T (v) ∈ W .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 45 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Introduction

Matrix Representation of a L.T. Relative to Order Basis

Let T : V → W be a linear transformation, where V and W are vector
space over a filed F and dim(V ) = n and dim(W ) = m.
Let
B1 = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } and B2 = {w1 , w2 , · · · , wm }
be ordered bases of V and W respectively. Therefore, T : V → W is a
linear transformation so that for every v ∈ V , we have T (v) ∈ W .
Since B2 is a basis of W so each T (v) ∈ W can be uniquely written as
a linear combination of the elements of B2 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 45 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Introduction

Matrix Representation of a L.T. Relative to Order Basis

Let T : V → W be a linear transformation, where V and W are vector
space over a filed F and dim(V ) = n and dim(W ) = m.
Let
B1 = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } and B2 = {w1 , w2 , · · · , wm }
be ordered bases of V and W respectively. Therefore, T : V → W is a
linear transformation so that for every v ∈ V , we have T (v) ∈ W .
Since B2 is a basis of W so each T (v) ∈ W can be uniquely written as
a linear combination of the elements of B2 . In particular, each
T (vj ) ∈ W , where 1 ≤ j ≤ n, can be expressed as follows

T (v1 ) = α11 w1 + α21 w2 + · · · + αm1 wm

T (v2 ) = α12 w1 + α22 w2 + · · · + αm2 wm
··· ··· ···
T (vn ) = α1n w1 + α2n w2 + · · · + αmn wm

where αij ∈ F and for 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 45 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Introduction

That is
T (vj ) = Σm
i=1 αij wi , 1 ≤ j ≤ n.

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 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Introduction

That is
T (vj ) = Σm
i=1 αij wi , 1 ≤ j ≤ n.

Then, the coefficient matrix of the above equation is

 
α11 α21 · · · αm1
 α12
 α22 · · · αm2 
 .. .. .. 
 . . ··· . 
α1n α2n · · · αmn

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 46 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Introduction

That is
T (vj ) = Σm
i=1 αij wi , 1 ≤ j ≤ n.

Then, the coefficient matrix of the above equation is

 
α11 α21 · · · αm1
 α12
 α22 · · · αm2 
 .. .. .. 
 . . ··· . 
α1n α2n · · · αmn

The transpose of the above coefficient matrix is defined as the matrix

of linear transformation T relative to the bases B1 and B2 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 46 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Introduction

Note:
The matrix of linear transformation T with respect to the bases
B1 and B2 is denoted by

[T ; B1 , B2 ] or [T ](simply).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 47 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Introduction

Note:
The matrix of linear transformation T with respect to the bases
B1 and B2 is denoted by

[T ; B1 , B2 ] or [T ](simply).

If W = V that is T : V → V is a linear operator then the matrix

of T with respect to basis B(B1 = B2 ) as [T ] = [αij ]n×n .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 47 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Introduction

Note:
The matrix of linear transformation T with respect to the bases
B1 and B2 is denoted by

[T ; B1 , B2 ] or [T ](simply).

If W = V that is T : V → V is a linear operator then the matrix

of T with respect to basis B(B1 = B2 ) as [T ] = [αij ]n×n .
[v; B1 ] is the co-ordinate matrix of v with respect to basis B1 and
[T (v); B2 ] is the co-ordinate matrix of T (v) with respect to basis
B2 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 47 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T be a linear operator on R2 , T (x, y) = (4x − 2y, 2x + y)

Find the matrix of T relative to the basis B = {(1, 1), (−1, 0)}.
Also, verify that [T ; B][v; B] = [T (v); B] for any vector v ∈ R2 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 48 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T be a linear operator on R2 , T (x, y) = (4x − 2y, 2x + y)

Find the matrix of T relative to the basis B = {(1, 1), (−1, 0)}.
Also, verify that [T ; B][v; B] = [T (v); B] for any vector v ∈ R2 .
Soln. Express any element v1 = (α, β) ∈ R2 as a linear combination of
the element of basis B.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 48 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T be a linear operator on R2 , T (x, y) = (4x − 2y, 2x + y)

Find the matrix of T relative to the basis B = {(1, 1), (−1, 0)}.
Also, verify that [T ; B][v; B] = [T (v); B] for any vector v ∈ R2 .
Soln. Express any element v1 = (α, β) ∈ R2 as a linear combination of
the element of basis B.
Let (α, β) = a(1, 1) + b(−1, 0) for reals a and b.

⇒ (α, β) = (a − b, a)
∵ α = a − b, β = a
⇒ a = β, b = β − α.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 48 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T be a linear operator on R2 , T (x, y) = (4x − 2y, 2x + y)

Find the matrix of T relative to the basis B = {(1, 1), (−1, 0)}.
Also, verify that [T ; B][v; B] = [T (v); B] for any vector v ∈ R2 .
Soln. Express any element v1 = (α, β) ∈ R2 as a linear combination of
the element of basis B.
Let (α, β) = a(1, 1) + b(−1, 0) for reals a and b.

⇒ (α, β) = (a − b, a)
∵ α = a − b, β = a
⇒ a = β, b = β − α.

Therefore,
(α, β) = β(1, 1) + (β − α)(−1, 0) → (1)

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 48 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Example: Let T be a linear operator on R2 , T (x, y) = (4x − 2y, 2x + y)

Find the matrix of T relative to the basis B = {(1, 1), (−1, 0)}.
Also, verify that [T ; B][v; B] = [T (v); B] for any vector v ∈ R2 .
Soln. Express any element v1 = (α, β) ∈ R2 as a linear combination of
the element of basis B.
Let (α, β) = a(1, 1) + b(−1, 0) for reals a and b.

⇒ (α, β) = (a − b, a)
∵ α = a − b, β = a
⇒ a = β, b = β − α.

Therefore,
(α, β) = β(1, 1) + (β − α)(−1, 0) → (1)
Given T : R2 → R2 defined as T (x, y) = (4x − 2y, 2x + y) and B =
{(1, 1), (−1, 0)} is a basis of R2 .
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 48 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Now

T (1, 1) = (4 − 2, 2 + 1) = (2, 3) [ie., (a, b)]

= 3(1, 1) + (3 − 2)(−1, 0) = 3(1, 1) + 1(−1, 0) [Using(1)]
T (−1, 0) = (−4, −0, 2(−1) + 0) = (−4, −2),
= (−2)(1, 1) + (−2 + 4)(−1, 0) = −2(1, 1) + 2(−1, 0). [Using(1)]

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 49 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Now

T (1, 1) = (4 − 2, 2 + 1) = (2, 3) [ie., (a, b)]

= 3(1, 1) + (3 − 2)(−1, 0) = 3(1, 1) + 1(−1, 0) [Using(1)]
T (−1, 0) = (−4, −0, 2(−1) + 0) = (−4, −2),
= (−2)(1, 1) + (−2 + 4)(−1, 0) = −2(1, 1) + 2(−1, 0). [Using(1)]

 T  
3 1 3 −2
[T ; B] = = .
−2 2 1 2
This is the matrix of T relative to the basis B.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 49 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Example:
Find the matrix representation of T : R2 → R2 defined as
T (x, y) = (3x − 4y, x + 5y) with respect to the basis (i)
B = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} and (ii) B = {(1, 3), (3, 4)}.
Let V (F ) be a vector space of polynomials in y of degree less than
or equal to 3 and D be the differential operator on V (D : V → V )
d
such that D[g(y)] = dy (g(y)) for all g(y) ∈ V .
Let V be the vector space of 2 × 2 matrices over reals and
p q
P = . Find the matrix of each of the following linear
r s
operators T on V relative to the usual basis of V such that (a)
T (A) = P A, (b) T (A) = AP , (c) T (A) = P A − AP , (D)
T (A) = AP − P A and , (E) T (A) = P A + AP, ∀ A ∈ V (R).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 50 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find the matrix representation of each of the following lin-

ear operators relative to given basis of R3
T : R3 → R3 is defined by T (x, y, z) = (2z, x − 2y, x + 2y) and
basis is B1 = {(1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0)}.
T : R3 → R3 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (3x + z, −2x + y, −x + 2y + 4z) and basis is
B1 = {(1, 0, 1), (−1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 1)}.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 51 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find the matrix representation of each of the following lin-

ear operators relative to given basis of R3
T : R3 → R3 is defined by T (x, y, z) = (2z, x − 2y, x + 2y) and
basis is B1 = {(1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0)}.
T : R3 → R3 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (3x + z, −2x + y, −x + 2y + 4z) and basis is
B1 = {(1, 0, 1), (−1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 1)}.
Soln. Any element v = (a, b, c) ∈ R3 as linear combination of the
elements of given basis B1 . Let

(a, b, c) = p(1, 2, 1) + q(1, 1, 1) + r(1, 1, 0)

⇒ (a, b, c) = (p + q + r, 2p + q + r, p + q)
⇒ p + q + r = a, 2p + q + r = b, p + q = c.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 51 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find the matrix representation of each of the following lin-

ear operators relative to given basis of R3
T : R3 → R3 is defined by T (x, y, z) = (2z, x − 2y, x + 2y) and
basis is B1 = {(1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0)}.
T : R3 → R3 is defined by
T (x, y, z) = (3x + z, −2x + y, −x + 2y + 4z) and basis is
B1 = {(1, 0, 1), (−1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 1)}.
Soln. Any element v = (a, b, c) ∈ R3 as linear combination of the
elements of given basis B1 . Let

(a, b, c) = p(1, 2, 1) + q(1, 1, 1) + r(1, 1, 0)

⇒ (a, b, c) = (p + q + r, 2p + q + r, p + q)
⇒ p + q + r = a, 2p + q + r = b, p + q = c.

Solving these we have

p = b − a, q = c − b + a, r = a − c.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 51 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Therefore,
(a, b, c) = (b − a)(1, 2, 1) + (c − b + a)(1, 1, 1) + (a − c)(1, 1, 0). → (1)

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 52 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Therefore,
(a, b, c) = (b − a)(1, 2, 1) + (c − b + a)(1, 1, 1) + (a − c)(1, 1, 0). → (1)
Given T : R3 → R3 is a linear transformation defined by T (x, y, z) =
(2z, x − 2y, x + 2y) and basis is B1 = {(1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0)}.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 52 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Therefore,
(a, b, c) = (b − a)(1, 2, 1) + (c − b + a)(1, 1, 1) + (a − c)(1, 1, 0). → (1)
Given T : R3 → R3 is a linear transformation defined by T (x, y, z) =
(2z, x − 2y, x + 2y) and basis is B1 = {(1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0)}.
Now
T (1, 2, 1) = (2(1), 1 − 2(2), 1 + 2(2)) = (2, −3, 5)
= (−3 − 2)(1, 2, 1) + (5 + 3 + 2)(1, 1, 1) + (2 − 5)(1, 1, 0)
= (−5)(1, 2, 1) + (10)(1, 1, 1) + (−3)(1, 1, 0),
T (1, 1, 1) = (2(1), 1 − 2(1), 1 + 2(1)) = (2, −1, 3)
= (−1 − 2)(1, 2, 1) + (3 + 1 + 2)(1, 1, 1) + (2 − 3)(1, 1, 0)
= (−3)(1, 2, 1) + (6)(1, 1, 1) + (−1)(1, 1, 0),
T (1, 1, 0) = (2(0), 1 − 2(1), 1 + 2(1)) = (0, −1, 3)
= (−1 − 0)(1, 2, 1) + (3 + 1 + 0)(1, 1, 1) + (0 − 3)(1, 1, 0)
= (−1)(1, 2, 1) + (4)(1, 1, 1) + (−3)(1, 1, 0).
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 52 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Therefore
 T  
−5 10 −3 −5 −3 −1
[T ; B1 ] =  −3 6 −1  =  10 6 4 
−1 4 −3 −3 −1 −3
.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 53 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Therefore
 T  
−5 10 −3 −5 −3 −1
[T ; B1 ] =  −3 6 −1  =  10 6 4 
−1 4 −3 −3 −1 −3
. Examples:
Let T be a linear operators on R3 defined by
T (x, y, z) = (2y + z, x − 4y, 3x). Find the matrix of T relative to
the basis B = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 0, )} and verify that
[T ; B][v; B] = [T (v); B] for all v ∈ R3 .
Let C(R) be a vector space of all complex numbers over reals and
T is a linear operator on C(R) defined by
T (x + iy) = x + iy, ∀ x + iy ∈ C(R). Find the matrix of T with
respect to the basis B = {2 + 3i, 3 + 4i}.
If the
 matrix of a linear
 operator T on R3 relative to usual basis
1 1 −1
is  −1 1 1  that find the matrix of T relative to the basis
1 −1 1
B = {(1, 2, 2), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1)}.
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 53 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find the matrix representation of each of the following lin-

ear transformation
T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x − 2y, 3x + 4y, 5x − 6y) with
respect to the usual ordered basis for R2 and R3 .
T : R3 → R4 defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − 2y + z, x − 3y, y + 2z, x + 4y − 3z) with respect to
the usual ordered basis for R3 and R4 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 54 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find the matrix representation of each of the following lin-

ear transformation
T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x − 2y, 3x + 4y, 5x − 6y) with
respect to the usual ordered basis for R2 and R3 .
T : R3 → R4 defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − 2y + z, x − 3y, y + 2z, x + 4y − 3z) with respect to
the usual ordered basis for R3 and R4 .
Soln. Given T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x − 2y, 3x + 4y, 5x −
6y) with respect to the usual ordered basis for R2 and R3 and B1 =
{(1, 0), (0, 1)}, B2 = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} are usual ordered basis
for R2 and R3 respectively.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 54 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Example: Find the matrix representation of each of the following lin-

ear transformation
T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x − 2y, 3x + 4y, 5x − 6y) with
respect to the usual ordered basis for R2 and R3 .
T : R3 → R4 defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x − 2y + z, x − 3y, y + 2z, x + 4y − 3z) with respect to
the usual ordered basis for R3 and R4 .
Soln. Given T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x − 2y, 3x + 4y, 5x −
6y) with respect to the usual ordered basis for R2 and R3 and B1 =
{(1, 0), (0, 1)}, B2 = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} are usual ordered basis
for R2 and R3 respectively.
Now
T (1, 0) = (1 − 0, 3 + 0, 5 − 0) = (1, 3, 5)
= 1(1, 0, 0) + 3(0, 1, 0) + 5(0, 0, 1),
T (0, 1) = (0 − 2, 0 + 4, 0 − 6) = (−2, 4, −6)
= −2(1, 0, 0) + 4(0, 1, 0) + (−6)(0, 0, 1).
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 54 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Therefore
 
 T 1 −2
1 3 5
[T ; B1 , B2 ] = =  3 4 .
−2 4 −6
5 −6

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 55 / 75
 Matrices of Linear Transformations Matrices of L.T.: Examples

Therefore
 
 T 1 −2
1 3 5
[T ; B1 , B2 ] = =  3 4 .
−2 4 −6
5 −6

Examples:
Let T : R3 → R2 be a linear transformation defined by
T (x, y, z) = (2x + y − z, 3x − 2y + 4z). Find the matrix of T
relative to ordered bases B1 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 0)} and
B2 = {(1, 3), (1, 4)} of R3 and R2 respectively.
Let T : R2 → R3 be a linear transformation defined by
T (x, y) = (3x − 2y, 0, x + 4y). Find the matrix of T relative to
ordered bases B1 = {(1, 1), (0, 2)} and
B2 = {(1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1)} of R2 and R3 respectively.

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 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Introduction

Transition Matrix
Let B1 = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } and B2 = {w1 , w2 , · · · , wn } be bases of a
vector space V(F). Therefore, w1 , w2 , · · · , wn ∈ V as B2 is a basis of
V.

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 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Introduction

Transition Matrix
Let B1 = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } and B2 = {w1 , w2 , · · · , wn } be bases of a
vector space V(F). Therefore, w1 , w2 , · · · , wn ∈ V as B2 is a basis of
V.
Now, each wj can be expressed as a linear combination of the elements
of basis B1 . Let

w1 = α11 v1 + α21 v2 + · · · + αn1 vn

w2 = α12 v1 + α22 v2 + · · · + αm2 vn
··· ··· ···
wn = α1n v1 + α2n v2 + · · · + αnn wn

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 56 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Introduction

Transition Matrix
Let B1 = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } and B2 = {w1 , w2 , · · · , wn } be bases of a
vector space V(F). Therefore, w1 , w2 , · · · , wn ∈ V as B2 is a basis of
V.
Now, each wj can be expressed as a linear combination of the elements
of basis B1 . Let

w1 = α11 v1 + α21 v2 + · · · + αn1 vn

w2 = α12 v1 + α22 v2 + · · · + αm2 vn
··· ··· ···
wn = α1n v1 + α2n v2 + · · · + αnn wn

n
X
i.e., wj = α1j vi , 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
i=1

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 56 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Introduction

Then, the coefficient matrix of the above equation is

 
α11 α21 · · · αn1
 α12 α22 · · · αn2 
..  .
 
 .. ..
 . . ··· . 
α1n α2n · · · αnn

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 57 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Introduction

Then, the coefficient matrix of the above equation is

 
α11 α21 · · · αn1
 α12 α22 · · · αn2 
..  .
 
 .. ..
 . . ··· . 
α1n α2n · · · αnn

Then P = [αij ], which is the transpose of above coefficient matrix is

called transition matrix from the basis B1 to the basis B2 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 57 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: If B1 = {1, i} and B2 = {1 + i, 1 + 2i} are basis of vector

space C(R).
Find the transition matrix A from B1 TO B2 and B from B2 to
B1 .
Show that [T ; B2 ] = B −1 [T ; B1 ]A, where T (v) = v̄(Conjugate of
complex number v).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 58 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: If B1 = {1, i} and B2 = {1 + i, 1 + 2i} are basis of vector

space C(R).
Find the transition matrix A from B1 TO B2 and B from B2 to
B1 .
Show that [T ; B2 ] = B −1 [T ; B1 ]A, where T (v) = v̄(Conjugate of
complex number v).
Soln. (a) (i) Let B1 = {1, i} = {v1 , v2 } and B2 = {1 + i, 1 + 2i} =
{w1 , w2 }.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 58 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: If B1 = {1, i} and B2 = {1 + i, 1 + 2i} are basis of vector

space C(R).
Find the transition matrix A from B1 TO B2 and B from B2 to
B1 .
Show that [T ; B2 ] = B −1 [T ; B1 ]A, where T (v) = v̄(Conjugate of
complex number v).
Soln. (a) (i) Let B1 = {1, i} = {v1 , v2 } and B2 = {1 + i, 1 + 2i} =
{w1 , w2 }. Now

w1 = 1 + i = 1 · (1) + 1 · (i) = 1 · v1 + 1 · v2
w2 = 1 + 2i = 1 · (1) + 2 · (i) = 1 · v1 + 2 · v2

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 58 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: If B1 = {1, i} and B2 = {1 + i, 1 + 2i} are basis of vector

space C(R).
Find the transition matrix A from B1 TO B2 and B from B2 to
B1 .
Show that [T ; B2 ] = B −1 [T ; B1 ]A, where T (v) = v̄(Conjugate of
complex number v).
Soln. (a) (i) Let B1 = {1, i} = {v1 , v2 } and B2 = {1 + i, 1 + 2i} =
{w1 , w2 }. Now

w1 = 1 + i = 1 · (1) + 1 · (i) = 1 · v1 + 1 · v2
w2 = 1 + 2i = 1 · (1) + 2 · (i) = 1 · v1 + 2 · v2

Therefore,
 T  
1 1 1 1
A= = .
1 2 1 2
This is the transition matrix from B1 to B2 .
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 58 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

(ii) Let α + iβ be a complex number in C(R).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 59 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

(ii) Let α + iβ be a complex number in C(R). Now

α + iβ = a(1 + i) + b(1 + 2i) = (a + b) + i(a + 2b)
⇒ α = (a + b), β = (a + 2b) ⇒ a = 2α − β, b = β − α.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 59 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

(ii) Let α + iβ be a complex number in C(R). Now

α + iβ = a(1 + i) + b(1 + 2i) = (a + b) + i(a + 2b)
⇒ α = (a + b), β = (a + 2b) ⇒ a = 2α − β, b = β − α.

Therefore,
(α + iβ) = (2α − β)(1 + i) + (β − α)(1 + 2i) → (1)

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 59 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

(ii) Let α + iβ be a complex number in C(R). Now

α + iβ = a(1 + i) + b(1 + 2i) = (a + b) + i(a + 2b)
⇒ α = (a + b), β = (a + 2b) ⇒ a = 2α − β, b = β − α.

Therefore,
(α + iβ) = (2α − β)(1 + i) + (β − α)(1 + 2i) → (1)

Now
v1 = 1 = 1 + (0)i = (2 − 0)(1 + i) + (0 − 1)(1 + 2i)
= 2(1 + i) + (−1)(1 + 2i),
v2 = i = 0 + 1 · i = (0 − 1)(1 + i) + (1 − 0)(1 + 2i)
= (−1)(1 + i) + (1)(1 + 2i).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 59 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

(ii) Let α + iβ be a complex number in C(R). Now

α + iβ = a(1 + i) + b(1 + 2i) = (a + b) + i(a + 2b)
⇒ α = (a + b), β = (a + 2b) ⇒ a = 2α − β, b = β − α.

Therefore,
(α + iβ) = (2α − β)(1 + i) + (β − α)(1 + 2i) → (1)

Now
v1 = 1 = 1 + (0)i = (2 − 0)(1 + i) + (0 − 1)(1 + 2i)
= 2(1 + i) + (−1)(1 + 2i),
v2 = i = 0 + 1 · i = (0 − 1)(1 + i) + (1 − 0)(1 + 2i)
= (−1)(1 + i) + (1)(1 + 2i).

Hence  T  
2 −1 2 −1
B= =
−1 1 −1 1
which is the transition matrix from B2 to B1 .
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 59 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

(b) Given T (v) = v̄, ∀ v ∈ C(R). Now, we find [T ; B1 ]. Here,

T (1) = 1̄ = 1 = 1 · (1) + 0 · (i),
T (i) = ī = −i = 0 · (1) + (−1) · (i),

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 60 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

(b) Given T (v) = v̄, ∀ v ∈ C(R). Now, we find [T ; B1 ]. Here,

T (1) = 1̄ = 1 = 1 · (1) + 0 · (i),
T (i) = ī = −i = 0 · (1) + (−1) · (i),
Therefore,
 T  
1 0 1 0
[T ; B1 ] = = .
0 −1 0 −1

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 60 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

(b) Given T (v) = v̄, ∀ v ∈ C(R). Now, we find [T ; B1 ]. Here,

T (1) = 1̄ = 1 = 1 · (1) + 0 · (i),
T (i) = ī = −i = 0 · (1) + (−1) · (i),
Therefore,
 T  
1 0 1 0
[T ; B1 ] = = .
0 −1 0 −1
and now we find [T ; B2 ]. Thus, for any α + iβ ∈ C(R), we have
α + iβ = (2α − β)(1 + i) + (β − α)(1 + 2i).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 60 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

(b) Given T (v) = v̄, ∀ v ∈ C(R). Now, we find [T ; B1 ]. Here,

T (1) = 1̄ = 1 = 1 · (1) + 0 · (i),
T (i) = ī = −i = 0 · (1) + (−1) · (i),
Therefore,
 T  
1 0 1 0
[T ; B1 ] = = .
0 −1 0 −1
and now we find [T ; B2 ]. Thus, for any α + iβ ∈ C(R), we have
α + iβ = (2α − β)(1 + i) + (β − α)(1 + 2i).

¯ i) = 1 − i = (2 − (−1))(1 + i) + (−1 − 1)(1 + 2i)

T (1 + i) = (1 +
= 3(1 + i) + (−2)(1 + 2i),
T (1 + 2i) = (1 +¯ 2i) = 1 − 2i = (2 − (−2))(1 + i) + (−2 − 1)(1 + 2i)
= 4(1 + i) + (−3)(1 + 2i),

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 60 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Therefore,
 T  
3 −2 3 4
[T ; B2 ] = = .
4 −3 −2 −3

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 61 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Therefore,
 T  
3 −2 3 4
[T ; B2 ] = = .
4 −3 −2 −3
 
1 1
Thus, the matrix A = . Then, we have |A| = 1 × 2 − 1 × 1 =
1 2
 
2 −1
1 6= 0. Therefore, A is invertible and Adj A = .
−1 1

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 61 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Therefore,
T  
3 −2 3 4
[T ; B2 ] = = .
4 −3 −2 −3
 
1 1
Thus, the matrix A = . Then, we have |A| = 1 × 2 − 1 × 1 =
1 2
 
2 −1
1 6= 0. Therefore, A is invertible and Adj A = .
−1 1
Hence,  
−1 Adj A 2 −1
A = = .
|A| −1 1

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 61 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Therefore,
T  
3 −2 3 4
[T ; B2 ] = = .
4 −3 −2 −3
 
1 1
Thus, the matrix A = . Then, we have |A| = 1 × 2 − 1 × 1 =
1 2
 
2 −1
1 6= 0. Therefore, A is invertible and Adj A = .
−1 1
Hence,  
−1 Adj A 2 −1
A = = .
|A| −1 1
Now,
   
−1 2 −1 1 0 1 1
A [T ; B1 ]A =
−1 1 0 −1 1 2
 
3 4
= = [T ; B2 ].
−2 −3

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 61 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: Find the bases change matrix form α to β, where α = {t, 1, t2 }

and β = {3 + 2t + t2 , t2 − 4, 2 + t}.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 62 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: Find the bases change matrix form α to β, where α = {t, 1, t2 }

and β = {3 + 2t + t2 , t2 − 4, 2 + t}.
Soln. Given α = {t, 1, t2 } and β = {3 + 2t + t2 , t2 − 4, 2 + t}.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 62 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: Find the bases change matrix form α to β, where α = {t, 1, t2 }

and β = {3 + 2t + t2 , t2 − 4, 2 + t}.
Soln. Given α = {t, 1, t2 } and β = {3 + 2t + t2 , t2 − 4, 2 + t}.
Now

w1 = 2t + 3 + t2 = 2(t) + 3(1) + 1(t2 )

w2 = t2 − 4 = 0(t) + (−4)(1) + 1(t2 )
w3 = 2 + t = 1(t) + 2(1) + 0(t2 ).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 62 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: Find the bases change matrix form α to β, where α = {t, 1, t2 }

and β = {3 + 2t + t2 , t2 − 4, 2 + t}.
Soln. Given α = {t, 1, t2 } and β = {3 + 2t + t2 , t2 − 4, 2 + t}.
Now

w1 = 2t + 3 + t2 = 2(t) + 3(1) + 1(t2 )

w2 = t2 − 4 = 0(t) + (−4)(1) + 1(t2 )
w3 = 2 + t = 1(t) + 2(1) + 0(t2 ).

Therefore,
 T  
2 3 1 2 0 1
A =  0 −4 1  =  3 −4 2  .
1 2 0 1 1 0
This is the transition matrix from α to β.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 62 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Examples:
Consider the following bases of R2 . Here, B1 = {(1, 0), (0, 1)},
B2 = {(1, 2), (2, 3)}.
Find the transition matrices P and Q from basis B1 to B2 and B2
to B1 respectively. Verify Q = P −1 .
Show [v; B1 ] = P [v; B2 ] for any vector v ∈ R2 .
Show [T ; B2 ] = P −1 [T ; B1 ]P , where T (x, y) = (2x − 3y, x + y) and
T (x, y) = (5x + y, 3x − 2y).
Verify that [T ; B2 ][v; B2 ] = [T (v); B2 ] and
[T ; B1 ][v; B1 ] = [T (v); B1 ].

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 63 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

(a) Let T : R3 → R3 be a linear operator defined as

T (x, y, z) = (3x + z, −2x + y, −x + 2y + 4z)
Find the matrix of T relative to bases
B1 = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}, B2 = {(1, 0, 1), (−1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 1)}
for R3 .
Also, find the transition matrix P form basis B1 to B2 and verify
that P −1 [T ; B1 ]P = [T ; B2 ].
(b) Let T : R3 → R3 be a linear operator defined as
T (a, b, c) = (2a − 3b + c, a + b − 2c, a + c) ∈ R3 . Find [T ; B1 , B2 ]
where B1 = {(1, 1, 1), (−1, −1, 0), (1, 0, 0)},
B2 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1)} are ordered bases of R3 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 64 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Identity Transformation
The matrix representation [id]βα of the identity transformation
id : V → V with respect to any two ordered bases α and β is called the
bases change matrix or the co-ordinate change matrix β to α.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 65 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: Consider a curvexy = 1 on the plane R2 . Find the quadratic

equation of the curve which is obtained from the curve xy = 1 by ro-
tating around the orgin counter clock-wise through an angle π4 .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 66 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: Consider a curvexy = 1 on the plane R2 . Find the quadratic

equation of the curve which is obtained from the curve xy = 1 by ro-
tating around the orgin counter clock-wise through an angle π4 .
Soln. Let x = x0 cos θ − y 0 sin θ and y = x0 sin θ + y 0 cos θ. This can be
re-written as
    0 
x cos θ − sin θ x
=
y sin θ cos θ y0

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 66 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: Consider a curvexy = 1 on the plane R2 . Find the quadratic

equation of the curve which is obtained from the curve xy = 1 by ro-
tating around the orgin counter clock-wise through an angle π4 .
Soln. Let x = x0 cos θ − y 0 sin θ and y = x0 sin θ + y 0 cos θ. This can be
re-written as
    0 
x cos θ − sin θ x
=
y sin θ cos θ y0
Let β = {e¯1 , e¯2 } be the basis for R2 obtained by rotating the standard
basis α = {e¯1 , e¯2 }.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 66 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: Consider a curvexy = 1 on the plane R2 . Find the quadratic

equation of the curve which is obtained from the curve xy = 1 by ro-
tating around the orgin counter clock-wise through an angle π4 .
Soln. Let x = x0 cos θ − y 0 sin θ and y = x0 sin θ + y 0 cos θ. This can be
re-written as
    0 
x cos θ − sin θ x
=
y sin θ cos θ y0
Let β = {e¯1 , e¯2 } be the basis for 2
 R obtained byrotating the standard
x0

x
basis α = {e¯1 , e¯2 }. Let [x]α = and [x]β = .
y y0

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 66 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: Consider a curvexy = 1 on the plane R2 . Find the quadratic

equation of the curve which is obtained from the curve xy = 1 by ro-
tating around the orgin counter clock-wise through an angle π4 .
Soln. Let x = x0 cos θ − y 0 sin θ and y = x0 sin θ + y 0 cos θ. This can be
re-written as
    0 
x cos θ − sin θ x
=
y sin θ cos θ y0
Let β = {e¯1 , e¯2 } be the basis for 2
 R obtained byrotating the standard
x0

x
basis α = {e¯1 , e¯2 }. Let [x]α = and [x]β = .
y y0
    0 
x cos θ − sin θ x
= [x]βα =
y sin θ cos θ y0
−1 x0 y0
" # " #
√1 −
  √
 0  √ √
x x
= √12 √12 0 = x0
2
y0
2 .
y 2 2
y √ + √
2 2

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 66 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Example: Consider a curvexy = 1 on the plane R2 . Find the quadratic

equation of the curve which is obtained from the curve xy = 1 by ro-
tating around the orgin counter clock-wise through an angle π4 .
Soln. Let x = x0 cos θ − y 0 sin θ and y = x0 sin θ + y 0 cos θ. This can be
re-written as
    0 
x cos θ − sin θ x
=
y sin θ cos θ y0
Let β = {e¯1 , e¯2 } be the basis for 2
 R obtained byrotating the standard
x0

x
basis α = {e¯1 , e¯2 }. Let [x]α = and [x]β = .
y y0
    0 
x cos θ − sin θ x
= [x]βα =
y sin θ cos θ y0
−1 x0 y0
" # " #
√1 −
  √
 0  √ √
x x
= √12 √12 0 = x0
2
y0
2 .
y 2 2
y √ + √
2 2

x0 y0 x0 y0
x = √ − √ and √ + √ .
2 2 2 2
Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 66 / 75
 Change of Basis Change of Basis: Examples

Given that xy = 1 is transformed to

 0
y0
 0
y0

x x
√ −√ √ +√ =1
2 2 2 2
(x0 )2 (y 0 )2
− = 1 ⇒ (x0 )2 − (y 0 )2 = 2.
2 2

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 67 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Introduction

Similarity
Let A and B be any square matrix of order n. If there exist a
non-singular square matrix P of same order such that

B = P −1 AP

then A and B are similar to each other.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 68 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Introduction

Similarity
Let A and B be any square matrix of order n. If there exist a
non-singular square matrix P of same order such that

B = P −1 AP

then A and B are similar to each other.

Theorem
Let T : V → W be a linear transformation from a vector space V with
basis {α1 , α2 } to another vector space W with basis {β1 , β2 } then

[T ]βα22 = P −1 [T ]βα11 Q

where, Q = [id(V )]αα12 P = [id(W )]ββ12 are the bases change matrices.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 68 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Introduction

A particular case, if we take the vector space W = V , α1 = β1 and

α2 = β2 then P = Q and we get the following result.

Let T : V → V be a linear transformation and α and β are ordered

bases for V
[T ]β = Q−1 [T ]α Q
where, Q = [id]αβ which is invertible and Q−1 = [id]βα .

Note:
Q is a change of basis matrix from β to α.
Id represents identity linear transformation from V to V .
Here, [T ]α ∼ [T ]β .

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 69 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

Example: Let T : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation defined by

T (x, y, z) = (x + 2y + z, −y, x + 4z).
Find [T ]α where α is the standard basis of R3 .
Using similarity transformation, find [T ]β where
β = {(1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)}.

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 70 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

Example: Let T : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation defined by

T (x, y, z) = (x + 2y + z, −y, x + 4z).
Find [T ]α where α is the standard basis of R3 .
Using similarity transformation, find [T ]β where
β = {(1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)}.
Soln. It is given that α is the standard basis of R3 ,
α = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}. Now,

T (1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 1), T (0, 1, 0) = (2, −1, 0) T (0, 0, 1) = (1, 0, 4).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 70 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

Example: Let T : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation defined by

T (x, y, z) = (x + 2y + z, −y, x + 4z).
Find [T ]α where α is the standard basis of R3 .
Using similarity transformation, find [T ]β where
β = {(1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)}.
Soln. It is given that α is the standard basis of R3 ,
α = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}. Now,

T (1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 1), T (0, 1, 0) = (2, −1, 0) T (0, 0, 1) = (1, 0, 4).

and we get  
1 2 1
[T ]α =  0 −1 0  .
1 0 4

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 70 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

Next, we find the change of basis matrix Q = [Id]αβ . The transforma-

tion Id : R3 → R3 defined by Id(x, y, z) = (x, y, z).

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 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

Next, we find the change of basis matrix Q = [Id]αβ . The transforma-

tion Id : R3 → R3 defined by Id(x, y, z) = (x, y, z).

Id(1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 0) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 0 · (0, 1, 0) + 0 · (0, 0, 1),

Id(1, 1, 0) = (1, 1, 0) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 1 · (0, 1, 0) + 0 · (0, 0, 1),
Id(1, 1, 1) = (1, 1, 1) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 1 · (0, 1, 0) + 1 · (0, 0, 1).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 71 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

Next, we find the change of basis matrix Q = [Id]αβ . The transforma-

tion Id : R3 → R3 defined by Id(x, y, z) = (x, y, z).

Id(1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 0) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 0 · (0, 1, 0) + 0 · (0, 0, 1),

Id(1, 1, 0) = (1, 1, 0) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 1 · (0, 1, 0) + 0 · (0, 0, 1),
Id(1, 1, 1) = (1, 1, 1) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 1 · (0, 1, 0) + 1 · (0, 0, 1).

Therefore,  
1 1 1
Q = [Id]αβ =  0 1 1 
0 0 1

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 71 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

Next, we find the change of basis matrix Q = [Id]αβ . The transforma-

tion Id : R3 → R3 defined by Id(x, y, z) = (x, y, z).

Id(1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 0) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 0 · (0, 1, 0) + 0 · (0, 0, 1),

Id(1, 1, 0) = (1, 1, 0) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 1 · (0, 1, 0) + 0 · (0, 0, 1),
Id(1, 1, 1) = (1, 1, 1) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 1 · (0, 1, 0) + 1 · (0, 0, 1).

Therefore,  
1 1 1
Q = [Id]αβ =  0 1 1 
0 0 1

and now we find Q−1 = [Id]βα

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 71 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

Next, we find the change of basis matrix Q = [Id]αβ . The transforma-

tion Id : R3 → R3 defined by Id(x, y, z) = (x, y, z).

Id(1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 0) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 0 · (0, 1, 0) + 0 · (0, 0, 1),

Id(1, 1, 0) = (1, 1, 0) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 1 · (0, 1, 0) + 0 · (0, 0, 1),
Id(1, 1, 1) = (1, 1, 1) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 1 · (0, 1, 0) + 1 · (0, 0, 1).

Therefore,  
1 1 1
Q = [Id]αβ =  0 1 1 
0 0 1

and now we find Q−1 = [Id]βα

Id(1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 0) = 1 · (1, 0, 0) + 0 · (1, 1, 0) + 0 · (1, 1, 1),

Id(0, 1, 0) = (0, 1, 0) = (−1) · (1, 0, 0) + 1 · (1, 1, 0) + 0 · (1, 1, 1),
Id(0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 1) = 0 · (1, 0, 0) + (−1) · (1, 1, 0) + 1 · (1, 1, 1).

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 71 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

Therefore,  
1 −1 0
Q−1 = [Id]βα =  0 1 −1 
0 0 1

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 72 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

Therefore,  
1 −1 0
Q−1 = [Id]βα =  0 1 −1 
0 0 1
Now, by similarity theorem [T ]β = Q−1 [T ]α Q, we have
     
1 −1 0 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 5
[T ]β =  0 1 −1   0 −1 0   0 1 1  =  −1 −2 −6  .
0 0 1 1 0 4 0 0 1 1 1 5

Dr. M. Sivakumar (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and Linear Algebra March 29, 2025 72 / 75
 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

Example: Let T : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation defined by

T (x, y, z) = (2x + y.x + y + 3z, −y). Consider α = {e1 , e2 , e3 } be the
standard basis for R3 and β = {v1 , v2 , v3 } be another ordered basis
consisting of v1 = (−1, 0, 0), v2 = (2, 1, 0) and v3 = (1, 1, 1).
Find the associated matrix [T ]α and [T ]β for T .
Also, show that T (vi ) is the linear combination f the basis vectors
in β with entries of the j th column of [T ]β as its co-efficient for
j = 1, 2, 3.

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 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

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 Similarity Transformations Similarity Transformations: Examples

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