M aterial H andling C lassics
Papers in the classics series have appeared in previous publications
of the
Material Handling Institute and are at least ten years old. Nonetheless, their value
in contributing to the evolution of the industry and to current practice is viewed
to be timeless, even though in many cases the authors and companies credited are
no longer in the industry.
BAR CODE TECHNOLOGY TO IDENTIFY WITH
1984 NAVSUP MATERIAL HANDLING SEMINAR
FRANK C. GOODFINGER
COMPUTER IDENTICS CORPORATION
NOVEMBER 7, 1984
Productivity seems to be the underlying theme on any current seminar on manufacturing or
distribution systems. Causes for adverse effects on productivity are typically due to the length of
time a product or component spends in a plant or warehouse. This situation is primarily caused
by a severe lack of automation.
The majority of factory dollars spent in automation can be attributed to materials handling
systems. The materials handling system is typically designed to simply reduce the time per unit
of production; however, without sufficient discipline and control that guards the integrity of
receiving, processing, assembly, packaging, storage and shipping operations, the materials
handling system alone does not achieve adequate productivity potential.
The integration of an automatic scanning system, even on a relatively modest scale, can
contribute to enormous improvements in productivity. Manual systems involved boring and
tedious jobs of identifying, counting and recording information from products passing by some
control point at relatively slow speeds. Mistakes created by manual systems were often
manifested in unreliable data, misrouting, erroneous shipments, lost inventory and delays.
Scanners, as many applications have proved, can do the job better, faster, cheaper, and with
accuracy and reliability.
In this presentation, we will explore the necessary ingredients for “you”, the users, to design a
successful automatic scanning system, utilizing the moving beam laser scanner.
Although the terms of the trade are necessary to define an automatic scanning system, which I
will explain later in this paper, we must first determine if scanning can be applied to your
application.
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Simply ask yourself two questions:
1. Is my product codable; that is, capable size-wise and surface-wise of being
marked or labeled with a machine-readable pattern?
2. Can my product move past a scanning point which will permit “line of sight”
reader access to the code pattern within known and controllable operating
parameters?
To select the appropriate bar code and label design, there are five fundamental parameters which
must be evaluated as follows:
1. Does the code content require Numeric or Alphanumeric data?
2. Are the codes a single, fixed length, or must they be variable in length?
3. What is the number of data characters required, and have they been reduced to a
minimum?
4. Is the application going to use a handheld lightpen and/or a laser scanner, and
what is the required “X” dimension?
5. What is the size of the code, and will the resulting label fit on the product?
The techniques of producing bar code labels and symbols and the availability of a broad range of
automatic and handheld code-reading equipment for automatic control and information gathering
has become a significant and diverse activity. So far, the technology of the 80’s has provided
many attractive alternatives to the materials handling system designer that were not readily
available in the past.
Bar code symbols have gained worldwide acceptance as one of he most accurate and practical
methods of encoding printed data. Bar codes are achieving this widespread popularity because
they can be easily incorporated in the primary-source marking of products from production to
consumption.
Basically, all bar codes follow the same general format rules.
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Qz or the quiet zones are located at the top and bottom of the ladder-like code or to the
left and right of a picket-fence code. These quiet zones permit the scanner to separate the
bar code symbol from other printed matter and to determine the base or “white”
background reflectance of the label substrate. The size of each quiet zone is a function of
the “X” dimension and is typically 10X.
LC or the length of the code is a function of three factors:
1. Code format, which is the basis of the coding rules used to assemble the printed
geometric symbol.
2. Number of digits (numeric) or characters (alphanumeric) including the start and
stop codes and any check characters (if applicable). The start and stop codes
provide the scanner with the logic to decode the bar code and permit bi-
directional code reading.
3. The “X” dimension, whose size will govern the length of the code based on the
number of “X” elements in the bar code.
LB or the bar length is also a function of three factors:
1. Conveyor line speed, which determines how many scans can be achieved based
on a fixed bar length and scanner speed.
2. Scanning speed, which determines how many scans can be achieved based on a
fixed bar length and conveyor speed.
3. Degree of label tilt and/or product skew, which geometrically changes the
presented code size to the scanner.
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The Start and Stop characters provide the scanner with the logical ability to permit bi-directional
reading. After the decoding process is complete, the scanners transmit only the data characters.
• DATA CHARACTERS are always between the Start and Stop codes. The highest
order or most significant character, for example, the “A” in A9321 is located adjacent
to the Start Code. The lowest order or least significant character, for example, the “1”
in A9321, is located adjacent to the Stop Code.
The first factor in the selection of a bar code symbol is to generally categorize its use as an:
ACTION CODE
or
INFORMATION CODE
Bar code symbols, called ACTION CODES, are typically used to describe a specific destination,
location or sort line as opposed to the item description. The data content is usually a small
number of digits or characters and can be encoded on small labels or tickets.
Action code symbology represents the majority of batch-printed label applications.
Bar code symbols, called INFORMATION CODES, provide a method to describe the product,
its serial number, its date of manufacture or order number and are normally read over and over
by scanners at different stages of manufacture or transportation during the product’s life.
In the industrial bar code environment, the Information Code Symbology represents the majority
of demand-printed label applications.
The three most widely used industrial bar codes are called Interleaved 2 of 5, Code 3 of 9 and
Code 128.
The Interleaved 2 of 5 bar code is so described because it always codes the odd-positioned data
characters in black bars and interleaves the even-positioned data characters in the separating
white spaces. Each data character is made up of five bars or five spaces. Two of the five bars
and two of the five spaces are always wide, hence the designation 2 of 5.
Interleaved 2 of 5 is compact, reliable and easy to read. It encodes only numeric characters 0
through 9 and is used in applications where all the codes are of the same data length.
The Code 3 of 9 bar code is constructed such that each character is composed of a combination
of nine black and white elements, three of which are always wide, hence the designation 3 of 9.
Code 3 of 9 as a unique “Start” and “Stop” code pattern which cannot be duplicated in any single
or adjoining character segment; therefore, variable-length fields can be scanned in the same
application.
Although Code 3 of 9 is about twice the length of Interleaved 2 of 5 for the same number of data
characters, it has a complete alphanumeric coding system.
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Due to the structure integrity and scanning reliability, Interleaved 2 of 5 and Code 3 of 9 are the
most popular industrial codes. Neither requires a calculated check digit for verified reliability.
The inherent reliability of these two codes is provided by their geometric construction and use of
both the black bars and white spaces for data. In both codes, an accidental ink spot or void will
create a pattern which is impossible to interpret as a valid character.
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An industrial code, gaining in popularity at a very fast pace, is called Code 128. Code 128
benefits from the technology of our time and provides a symbology many times more powerful
than Interleaved 2 of 5 or Code 3 of 9 for applications where that power is required.
Developed nearly three years ago, Code 128 is extremely compact and versatile. It provides a
user with upper and lower-case alphanumeric data, single-digit numeric data and double-density
numeric data, as well as a full set of ASCII data communications characters. It is a variable-
length code and has a means to alter its contents by the use of different start codes and internal
function symbols. Code 128 has been designed to read interchangeably with Code 3 of 9 and
Interleaved 2 of 5 in the same readers.
Code 128 follows the general bar code format rules but does not use the wide-narrow bar and
space construction of Code 3 of 9 or Interleaved 2 of 5. Instead, Code 128, like UPC, utilizes
four different bar and space thicknesses. This encoding technique permits the use of fewer code-
construction elements, or “X” dimensions, which reduces it length. It is ideally suited for
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printing on today’s popular dot matrix printers, because it permits systematic ink spread of up to
50% of the nominal “X” dimension.
Unlike UPC, Code 128 is completely edge-to-edge decodable. It is also character-self-checking
by using a parity scheme compatible with edge-to-edge decoding. It has a powerful modulus 103
check character, which is transparent to the user and is based on the value and position of the
data characters in the data stream. The combination of these three features gives Code 128 a
lower misread rate than established industrial codes.
An example of 20 numeric digits of data yield the following comparisons based upon a constant
“X” dimension:
• 59% reduction of the Code 3 of 9 symbol length
• 23% reduction of the Interleaved 2 of 5 symbol length
An example of 18 alphanumeric characters of data yield the following comparisons based upon a
constant “X” dimension and utilizing Code 3 of 9 as a reference:
• Code 128 with Start Code “A” provides a 26.4% reduction
• Code 128 with shift characters for maximizing groups of numeric digits provides a
44% reduction
Let’s take a close look at how a moving beam scanner works so we will be prepared to evaluate
its capabilities when integrated into an automatic scanning system.
Moving beam scanners are commonly called laser scanners, because their light source, which
scans the bar code, is a low-power HeNe laser.
The term “moving beam” is attributed to the manner in which the device scans. The laser emits
a “beam” of concentrated light, which is projected through optics onto a rotating or oscillating
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mirror. As the beam strikes the mirror surface, it is reflected through the scanner’s window to
the target area. What appears to the human eye as a projection of a thin red line is actually a
“spot” or laser light moving so fast in space it resembles a line.
The rate at which scanners read is very impressive, upwards to 1200 scans per second. This
means that every passing bar code is scanned or “looked at” several times, depending upon line
speed and the length of the bars in the code.
Moving beam scanners detect variations in contrast between the dark code marks and the light
background color of a label or carton surface. The laser spot traces through each bar and space
in the code. The light areas (spaces) will reflect the laser light and the dark areas (bars) absorb
the laser light, producing a well-defined impulse signal. The length of time the laser spot is
reflected or absorbed establishes which bars and spaces are wide and narrow. When converted to
digital information, a binary value of “1” is assigned to wide bars and spaces and a binary value
of “0” is assigned to narrow bars and spaces. The arrangement and combination of these binary
values is the foundation on which all bar code symbols are constructed.
Several moving beam scanners incorporate red filters on their light receivers to allow only that
light spectrum from the laser to be detected, eliminating any effects from ambient lighting. An
additional filter, called a polarizer, is utilized to virtually eliminate the phenomenon of specular
reflection. This type of reflection is a mirror-like return of laser light, which has a tendency to
blind the scanner temporarily. This could occur when reading bar codes through shrink or
stretch wrap or a glossy protective laminate.
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Some scanners even incorporate the use of a “reference strip” within the scanner, located on an
internal mirror surface and scanned every scanning cycle for real-time laser-power monitoring.
Over the years, this method has forewarned scanner users of potential laser failure long before
the scanner is “dead-in-the-water”.
“An understanding of the terms of the trade is fundamental to evaluating the tools of the trade.”
Optical throw (OT) “A” is the distance from the face of the scanner to the beginning of the depth
of field. Based on the effective reading area, this is the nearest the code will be to the scanner.
The Depth of Field (DOF) “B” begins at the maximum optical throw and ends at the maximum
operating range. Bar codes passing anywhere within the DOF dimension will be scanned.
The Operating Range (OR) “A” plus “B” is the distance from the face of the scanner to the end
of the depth of field. Based on the effective reading area, this is the furthest the code will be
from the scanner.
The Height of Scan (HOS) “C” is the vertical dimension along the scanning beam through which
the bar code can pass and still be scanned.
The scanning curtain or the effective reading area is the area in which a bar code can be scanned
and validly decoded. This area is defined by the height of scan and the depth of field.
There are other factors that must be considered in the bar code system design which pertain to
the bar code presentation to the scanner as it appears on the product.
Skew or yaw is the horizontal misalignment of the coded item with respect to he face of the
scanner. As an example, the carton is not traveling parallel to the conveyor guard rail.
Tilt is the misapplication of the bar code onto the item to which it is attached with respect to the
scanning beam.
Pitch or roll is the vertical misalignment of the coded item with respect to the face of the scanner.
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It’s now time to take a look at “X”, probably the most important dimension and factor in a
successful bar code system design.
“X” represents the smallest element of distinction in the optical recognition of black and white
and, therefore, is the common denominator in matching the scanner performance and the bar
code design.
Scanner manufacturers call the width of the narrow bar and space the “X” dimension. The width
of the wider bars and spaces is based on a multiple of the “X” dimension, usually 3X.
The size of the laser spot is critical to the various optical parameters of the application. This is
called “resolution”. The ideal match is where the size of the laser spot is equal to or less than the
“X” dimension within the system’s operating parameters. The resulting output signal is ideal for
decoding.
If the size of the laser spot is greater than the “X” dimension, the result is a marginal output
signal which may be nondecodable. This condition can occur due to poor bar code printing
quality where the narrow space shrinks because the adjacent bars have spread from ink bleed. It
can also occur when a bar code is presented to the scanner beyond the maximum distance
defined in the system.
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Three basic system design parameters must be compatible for a successful scanning system.
First, we have to consider the code design. Second, we must look “conservatively” at the
operating parameters of the application to determine if our code design is adequate. Third, with
the code design and operating parameters in mind, the appropriate scanner may be selected.
Even assuming the worst-case conditions, the bar code must be designed to allow the scanning
beam to pass at least once through all the bars in the code. This, however, is not conservative at
all. Considering all the “real-life” problems that can occur with a label from the time it is
printed, handled, applied, stored, conveyed and then scanned, one should design the code to
accommodate a minimum of four of five scans under the worst-case conditions. This leads to the
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relationship between LC and LB called “aspect ratio”. Conservatively, speaking, the aspect ratio
should be 3 to 1 (LC to LB).
Based on these factors, an effective width “W” can be calculated. Depending on the conveyor
line speed and the scanner speed, you can now determine the number of opportunities (looks) the
scanner will “see” of the bar code.
Well, what are these calculations?
1. Convert the conveyor line speed from feet per minute to inches per second.
ips = fpm x 0.2
2. Next, divide the scanner speed by the conveyor line speed in ips, and your result
is the number of looks (scans) per inch of code (LB) assuming no tilt, skew or
pitch.
# scans per inch of (LB) = scans per second
inches per second
3. Since just about every system has some tilt, skew and pitch, we must calculate the
effective width of the bar code as it appears to the scanner. Note that one quiet
zone has been used in the calculation, and the skew and pitch are considered
negligible.
4. Once the effective width “W” is calculated, it is multiplied by the number of
scans per inch of bar code to determine the number of scans based on the fixed
conveyor line speed and bar code tilt.
5. To accommodate system parameters that are slightly beyond those specified
(conservative operation) the result in step 4 should be greater than four or five
scans. If not, the bar length (LB) should be increased in the bar code design
which will increase the effective width “W”.
At this juncture, we have covered the basics in designing an automatic scanning system, utilizing
principally the moving beam laser scanner.
Now that a bar code has been designed, and the appropriate scanner has been selected for the
application, you, the system designer, must integrate this knowledge with your material handling
and data processing systems. A simple scanning system can be expanded to enhance operational
productivity. A microprocessor-based controller can provide the necessary “discipline and
control” from the point of identification to the materials handling interface and beyond.
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The most widespread application of bar code technology in distribution operations is the
automation of the product sortation function. The sortation system shown in the figure can be
used in virtually any distribution center. The purpose of he scanner is to read passing bar codes,
containing product identification. Presence detectors and shaft encoders, which measure the
movement of the material handling system, initiate the tracking process by sending timing and
movement information to the dedicated controller. System software allows the system to track
and sort the passing products to their predetermined destinations automatically. In a typical
application, the dedicated controller would be downloaded by the hose computer, which would
provide the controller with a list of products to be sorted and their sorting destinations. When the
sortation function is completed, the dedicated controller outputs (either to the host on demand or
a printer located at the shipping dock) a report of how many products by type were diverted to
each destination. When compared by the computer against the sorting plan, confirmation or
exceptions can be determined immediately.
Some systems are so sophisticated that invoices are prepared and sent along with the shipment.
Inventory records are adjusted as a by-product, as well as sundry other accounting records, all
without unnecessary data collection or rehandling. The real-time aspect of the system also
improves response time to customer inquiries and generally upgrades service levels.
The following application puts all the ingredients together into one dynamic distribution system.
An overview of this system, I believe, will demonstrate what can be done. It is interesting to
note that this system was installed without any disruption to normal operations.
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This system features a product sortation system, plus the use of bar codes and scanners for order
consolidation, providing an audit trail by unique carton number to each stockkeeping unit (SKU).
As shown in the figure, the system includes a host computer, a minicomputer, a high-speed dot
matrix printer, lightpen bar code terminals, moving beam bar code scanners and a product
sortation system.
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Orders are processed by store number. The first three digits of the bar code identify the store.
The remaining digits identify the unique carton number in which the SKU’s are packed.
Another interesting twist in this system is the use of something called a “collection sheet”.
These sheets are used in the order consolidation process. Each SKU contains a product-
identifying bar code label. The label is removed from the product and placed on the collection
sheet. The carton label, which has a perforated, tear-off section with a duplicate bar code label, is
also placed on the collection sheet. Every SKU packed in the carton, therefore, is represented in
a bar code form on the collection sheet. The sheet itself is a representation of the shipping
carton. Lightpen terminals are used to send the information from the collection sheets to the host
computer, which then has a permanent record of every carton by unique carton number and the
contents of each carton by SKU.
When the carton is sealed, it is placed in the production sortation system, which cruises along at
approximately 300 feet per minute.
Moving beam scanners read the passing bar codes (which represent store number/carton number)
and sort to corresponding staging areas for the stores. The cartons are placed on pallets with the
bar code labels facing outward. When the truck arrives for that store, the pallets are moved to
the shipping door. Here, an operator scans each carton on the pallet with a handheld lightpen
before placing the pallet on the truck. When all pallets have been loaded, the operator requests
the computer to clear the shipment. The computer matches the actual truckload versus the order
for that store. A match results in a release, in which case the truck is closed and sealed. A
printer, located on the dock, creates the shipment’s manifest by carton number and SKU within
each carton. A mismatch results in an exception report that identifies the missing or bad units.
The information processed during these functions also serves to update various accounting and
inventory records without unnecessary data collection or rehandling. The system benefits
included:
• Automatic, high-speed product sortation
• Elimination of misrouting errors
• Automatic adjustment to inventory records
• Precise accountability/traceability from SKU to shipping case to store
• Automatic document preparation
The following examples illustrate several other industrial data collection activities uniquely
applicable to bar code utilization:
PRODUCT MARKING IN MANUFACTURING in which individual subassemblies and
products are identified with a bar-coded label. The label provides the conventional,
visual information, as well as bar-coded information pertinent to quality control
inspection, production counting and finished-goods inventory. The bar-coded
information permits instantaneous access for automatic data collection.
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RECEIVING RAW MATERIAL is an automated process, utilizing a bar-coded lot and
vendor data label for receiving materials and semi-finished goods. In many applications,
the same label is used to identify inspection samples for incoming inspection procedures.
FACTORY DATA COLLECTION is normally associated with the tracking of materials
from one manufacturing stage or process through another until a finished product is
produced. From this tracking operation, reports of work-in-process inventory and
production progress can be generated.
Strategically located bar code readers are employed to scan the product or accompanying
documentation. Depending upon the industry, this documentation is referred to in
various terms, such as: in-progress traveler, job tickets, move tickets and assembly
manifests.
SHELF INVENORY SCANNING – Finished goods, parts, subassemblies and tools are
typically stored in assigned locations and require periodic inventory verification.
The extensive use of bar codes to identify these storage locations and their contents is a
continuing and expanding requirement for well run business operations.
In contrast to retail store shelf labeling, industrial inventory control requires labeling of
shelf locations, as well as constant re-identification of the changing contents. In these
inventory applications, a portable scanner terminal, employing a Lightpen or Laser Gun
scans the bar code and accurately records the data. Any variable data, such as quantities,
may be input via the terminal’s keyboard.
ACCESS CONTROL – The use of bar codes for unique, machine-readable identification
cards in security and admittance applications is a sensible alternative to other
technologies. It is particularly effective in one-time-use situations because of its
flexibility and low cost. Coding can also be invisible to the human eye, yet perfectly
readable by a scanning terminal.
SUMMARY
In summary, it is our intent to provide you with a basic understanding of bar code fundamentals
and their practical application in a real-world environment.
It is our hope that the brief survey of applications has given you a view of what other people
have done with this technology and has encouraged some of you to apply the technology to your
own data collection and productivity problems.
Mr. Goodfinger is Vice President, Government Systems for Computer Identics Corporation in
Canton, Massachusetts. He joined CI in 1970 as an electrical engineer and was part of the
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project team to develop CI’s first laser scanner. His roles within the company since then have
been in engineering management, technical sales management and as Director of O.E.M. Market
Development.
Mr. Goodfinger is a member of the International Material Management Society (IMMS) and is a
Professional Certified in Materials Handling (PCMH). He is also a frequent industry speaker.
Mr. Goodfinger is a BSEE graduate of Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts.
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