WADD-TR-61-67, Vol.

I, Revision 1

TELEMETRY TRANSDUCER HANDBOOK

NV

TECHNICAL REPORT No. WVADD-TR-61-67, VOLUME 1, REVISION 1 I o

This R~evision Supersledes Volume. I of NVADD-TRi-61i-67 Dated July 1961

SEPTEMI3ER 1963

AF FLIGHT DYNAMICS LABORATORY .-

AERONAUTICAL SYSTEMS DIVISION

AIR FORCE SYSTEMS COMMAND
WRIGIIT-PATTEBSON AIR FORCE BASE, OHIO

K: Project No. 4107, Task No, 410719

Prepared under Contract No. AF &33616)-8309

b~y RADIATION INCORPORATED, MELBOU RNE, FLORIDA
Author: H. F. Fisher, Jr.
 NOTICES

When Government drawings, specifications, or other data are uscd for any
purpose other than in cornnection with a definitely related Government procure- .
ment operation, the United States Government thereby incurs no responsibility
nor any obligation whatsoever; and the fact that the Government may have
formulated, furnished, or in any way supplied the said drawings, specifications,
or other data, il not to be regarded by implication or otherwise as in any
manner licensing the holder, or ay other person or corporation, or conveying
arny rights or permission to manufacture, use, or sell any patented invention
that may in any way be related thereto.

Qualified requesters may obtain copies of this report from the Defense
Documentation Center (DDC)., (formerly ASTIA), Cameron Station, Bldg. 5,
5010 Duke Street, Alexandria 4, Virginia

This report has been relezed to the Office of Technical Services, U.S.

-! Department of Commerce, Washington 25, D.C., in stock quantities for sale

to the gen"ral public.

Copies of this report should not be returned to the Aeronautical Systems

Division ,,nless return is required by security considerations, contractual
obligations, or notice on a specific document.

900 -OctDber 1963 - 16-11- 179

::::: i: ::i: : !::

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 FOREWORD

This Handbook is a revision of the Tetiemetry Transducer

Handbook originally prepared by Radiation Incorporated under "
U. S. Air Force Contract No. AF 33(616)-7466.* The updating
and expansion effort has been performed under U. S. Air Force
Contract No. ALF 33•616)-8309, for the Aeronautical Systems
Division, Air Force Systems Command. The Air Force Project
and Task numbers are 4107 and 410719, respectively. The work
was performed under cognizance o' the Flight Control Laboratory
ASRMC -42 and the Air Force Project Engineer, Mr. Paul
Polishuk.

The draft of the original handbook was prepared during

the seven-month period of 30 June 1960 to 31 January 1961.
Changes and final preparation of the reproducible copy were per-
formed during the period 20 March to 28 April 1961 and delivered
to the Air Force in May 1961 for printing and distribution.

It was recognized that the Handbook could be improved and

rmaintained current by continued efforts. Work was started in
May 1961 to update and expand the Handbook by revising Volume I
and adding supplement material to Volume II.

Volume I Revision contains a completely rewritten

Section I, Telemetry Systems, resulting from a review of the
original- Section I by Dr. L. L. Rauch and the rewriting by Mr.
t
Dan McRae. Both are associated with the Advanced Planning
Group at Radiation Incorporated. Material was added to Section II,
Fundamentals to include acceleration, temperature, vibration, thrust
and bio-instrumentation. Section III, Applications, was expanded
7wth information on satellite and space probe instrumentation.
Section IV on Transducer Calibration and Test Techniques has
additional data on particular test and calibration methods as sug- -- -
gested from manufacturers bulletins and NBS reports. A list of
NBS reports and other references are given pertaining to detailed
evaluation procedures. It has been difficult to obtain handbook
type data to present standardized methods of approach in this area.
Facilities available for instrument calibration and test are listed
in Section V as received from solicited organizations. A numerical

* This revision supersedes Volume I of WADD-TP-O61-67 dated July 1961.

"**Presently designated Flight Control Division of the AF Flight Dynamics
Laboratory.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1

..... *.' . ,
 listing of references is included in Section VI and a compre--
hensive Bibliography with indexing constitute Section VII.
Section VIII, Appendixes, contains miscellaneous material,
details, and derivations pertaining to material in Sections I,
II, III, and IV. .O

The updating and expansion of Volume II of the handbook

have been accomplished through the preparation of three separate
supplements, presenting new material for insertion in the orig-
inal Volume II. Supplement 1 contained 100 additional transducer
data qheets, a revised manufacturer's listing and additional
transducer research and development information. The final
reproducible copy of Supplement 1 was deli,,ered to the Air
Force in December 1961. A second supp!ement was completed
and dclivred to the Air Force in March l%;,2 containing 99 addi-
tional data sheets, revised manufacturerts iisting and further '
R & D listings, plus an index to the origU±1:J Volume II and
Supplement I data sheets. Supplement 3 i" being delivered at
the same time as the completed revision c. Volume I, in
May 1962.

Writing, compilation, and editing of the original Volume I

was performed by C. 0. Alford, L. P. l auer, J. T. Conklin,
R. H. Dimond, G. D. Falcon, 1-. C. va-, L. F. O'Kelley and
- (- Thnpon-e The 1i,11,
bu of- the t -r.vas done by Mrs. Jate --
Thomas. Art work and other preparation of reproducible copy
was done by R. K. Hoefler, E, H. K-url*baus, L. C. Newman,
and R. A. Norris. The major portion of proof reading was per-
formed by 3. L. Adams. L. F. 0' Kelley was the Project Engineer.

The revision of the handbook has been performed in the

Data Systems Division at Radiation Incorporated by Mr. H. F.
Fisher, Jr., Project Engineer. Mrs. R. E. French and Miss
Donna Valentine have been responsible for the typing, handling
Of Correspotndence,, ai, i-aintaniif...g V anu files pertaining
.ecoiudus
to the Handbook revision. The art work and preparation of
reproducible material and draft copies have been done by Mr.
G. E. Roberts and the publications department at Radiation.

Neither Radiation Incorporated nor the U. S. Government

in any way endorses the products or services described in this
Handbook, or condemn any such that are omitted. In addition
the expression of opinions, implied or otherwise, contained

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV I

C -I.

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 herein, are not necessarily those of Radiation Incorporated
or the U. S. Governmcnt.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In the preparation of the original Handbook and the

revision, the help and cooperation from transducer manufac-
turers, user organizations and other government groups have
made it possible to perform planned tasks. In most instances
references are included as footrotes and in a list of references
(Section VI, Volume I). The listing of all contributors of ,_-
material for use in the Handbook (including the revision)
would be too lengthy for inclusion in these pages of acknowl-
edgements, however, the very helpful contributions and
assistance of certain individuals and organizations justify
the following spe cific acknowledgments:

Mr. Paul Polishuk for his able guidance and direction

as Project Engineer for the Air Force.

Members of thw Transducer Committee of the Telem-

etry Working Group, Inter-Range Instrumentation Group (IRIG), - 4
for their creative suggestions at the beginning of the Handbook
program and subsequent contributions, including the Glossary
of Telemetry Transducer Terms. Committee members are
listed as follows:

Mr. Arnold E. Bentz

Sandia Corporation
Albuquerque, New Mexico

Mr. Maurice E. Binkley

Air Force Flight Test Center t
Edwards Air Force Base
California-

Mr. Paul Polishuk

Aeronautical Systems Division
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
Ohio

Mr. Warren M. Sanders

Track Test Division
Instrumentation Branch
Holloman Air Force Base
New Mexico

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 In addition, the Telemetry Working Group of the IRIG
"provided telemetry standards which are included as an appendix to
Volume I.

Personnel of the National Bareau of Standards, Washington,

D.C.; specifically, Mr. Paul Lederer, Mr. Arnold Wexler, and Mr.
"ArthurSchach. Mr. Lederer submitted data and photographs relat-
ed to transducer calibration and reviewed the Handbook draft. Mr.
We:,ier also reviewed the draft and provided significant recommenda-
tions for its improvement. Mr. Schach provided the numerous tables
which describe the NBS calibration facilities, reviewed proof copies
and recommended certain changes to improve their presentation in
the Handbook.

Mr. Joseph Pearlsteii. of the Diamond Ordnance Fuze Labora-

tories, Washington, D. C., was rery helpful through his consultations
with project personnel regarding sources of data, bibliography organi-
"zation, and the contribution of data for use in the Handbook.

Mr. Harry N. Norton, of General Dynamical Astronautics, San

"Diego, California, as Chairman of the ISA Surve-y Committee on Trans-
ducers for Aero-Space Testing, submitted significant comments and
suggestions during the Handbook's preparation. The cooperation and
exchange of information from ISA has been helpful, thanks to Mr. Covey,
(former editor) and Mr. Minnar, Editor ISA Journal.

Mr. Malcomb Johnson of the Bendix Corporation, Research

Laboratories Division, Soutbfield (Detroit), Michigan was most coopera-
tive in exchanging information related to transducer manufacturer's
su vey and questionnaire information concerning nuclear and penetrating
radiation environments.

A portion of the text on testing and calibration was contributed

by Mr. R. D. Bronson, Convair, Fort Worth, Texas.

U.S. Government organizations which submitted data for either

direct or indirect use in the Handbook are listed as follows:

Air Force Flight Test Center

"Edwards Air Force Base
California

Air Force Systems Command

Air Research and Development Comnmand
Washington, D. C.

WADD TR 61-67 ivV

VOLI REVI

"•°'
% '°'' °N
' " " "''•'° • " °'•' ' "•
 Arnold Engineering Development Center
U. S. Air Force
Arnold Air Force Station
Tennessee

Dayton Air Force Depot

Calibration Standards Division
Gentile Air Force Station
Dayton, Ohio

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 01

Langley Research Center
Langley Field, Virginia

U. S. Naval Air Test Center

Patuxent River
Maryland K-

U. S. Naval Missile Center

Point Mugu, California
"6 4

U. S. Naval Ordnance Test Station

China Lake -I
California

Western Primary Standards Laboratory I._ -

U. S. Navy -.W4
Pomona, California

Aeronautical Systems Division

Air Force Systems Command
Directorate of Support Engineering
Flight Vehicle Division
Fligh Control branch, ASNPFC
4' Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
Ohio

Aeronautical Systems Division

Air Force Systems Command
Directorate of Engineering Test,-'x.
Environmental Division, ASTEV
Wright- Patterson Air Force Base
Ohio

Radiation Incorporated and the U. S. Air Force are

particularly grateful to the many companies which cooperated

WADD TR 61-67 v
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in this endeavor by submitting data, photographs and drawings
pertaining to transducer fundamentals, testing and calibration
facilities, research and development programs, and the catalog
of transducers.

'-I 6 7

I.

S..

VOLI REVI

A.. 2". ,&

 4
ABSTRACT

As / result of studies conducted by tl/e Air Force a/dd

the/s it became apparent tt~t there was /need for / compre-
ensive collection of data on telemetry transducers. Tie'
Telemetry Transducer Handbook h/s bedn prepared in at effort
to present information and data useful to t4 transducer user.
Tte material ht/s bedn prepared in two volumcs with general
instrumentation information in Volume I and detailed transducer
specification data in Volume II.

Volume I consists of technical information on telemetry

systems, transducer fundamentals, applications, testing and
calibration techniques and facilities. Volume II consists of /
listing of transducer manufacturers, complete data (with photo-
graphs and outline drawings) on several hundred transducers
(over 700 with Supplements 1, 2, and 3), descriptions of transducer ..
research and development programs and an index to the instrument
data sheets.

Section T of Volume I discusses in detail the characteristics

of the transmission system and its relation to transducers and
telemetry systems. References I through 119 pertain to Section I
discussion offering a guide to more specialized investigation of
the many aspects of telemetry systems. Section II covers the
/'fundamentals involved in various physical measurements and how
these fundamentals are employed in the general design of transducers.
Measurements of displacement, strain, pressure, fluid flow, rotary
speed, fuel quantity, ac power, acceleration, temperature, shock
and vibration and thrust are discussed. Section III offers general,
information and examples in the application of telemetry transducers.
Testing and calibration techniques and facilities available are prezeni-
ed in Sections IV and V. A list of performance reports available
from NBS offers some evaluation information on telemetry transducers.

WADD TR 61-67 vii

VOLI REV.

~t.V..&iac - . X.t. --- V

-7-,
 in the text.
.44
The List of References, Section VI, groups all references
cited in Sections I - V in the numerical order of their appearance
An extensive bibliography is presented in Section VII.
;"

There are 835 listings. An index to the bibliography is also included. . "
Appendix material is included in Section VIII. There is a glossary
of terms, IRIG Telemetry Standards definitions of many basic
physical effects and principles related to transducer design, and
detailed data on acceleration, temperature and thrust measurement
fundamentals.

The Table of Contents in Volume I also includes Volume II Con-

tents. This includes all material in the original Volume II plus
Supplements 1, Z, and 3.

PUBLICATION REVIEW

The publication of this report does not constitute approval by

the Air Force of the findings or conclusions contained herein. It
is published only for the exchange and stimulation of ideas. 2

FOR 'THE COMMANDER: " .

ii. W. BASHAM
Chief, Control Elements
Research Branch
2-4 Flight Control Laboratory
.'o Directorate of Aeromechian~cs"

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

VOLUME I -

SECTION PAGE , {SI

I TELEMETRY SYSTEMS1

1-1 Introduction 1
1-2 Selection of Transmission System
Characteristics 3
1-3 Transmission System Fundamentala 4
a. Multiplexing 4
b. Frequency Division Multiplexing 5
c, Time-Division Multiplexing Systema 9
(1) Analog Time-Division Systems I"
(a) PAM 11
(b) PDM 13
(c) PPM 15
(d) Errors 15
(2) Digital Systems 19
(a) PCM 20
(b) Orthogonal Coding System. 24
(c) Other Digital Systems 25
(d) Errors 27
d. Sub-Multiplexed and Combination
Systems 29
1-4 Transmission System Applications 33
a. FM/FM 33
b. FM/PM 36
c. FM/ AM 38
d. Other Frequency Division Systems 38
e. Analog Time-Division Systems 38
f. PCM System 41
g. Orthogonal Systems 46
h. PACM/FM 46

II TRANSDUCER FUNDAMENTALS 51

2-1 Introduction 51
a. General 51
b. Transducer Nomenclature 52
c. Physical Effects and Transduction -'
Principles 54

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 SECTION PAGE

2-2 Measurement of Displacement and Position 54

a. Differential Transformers 55
(1) Operating Principles 55
(2) Linearity and Linear Range 60
(3) Sensitivity and Output 61
(4) Resolution 62
S(L,) Excitation 63
(6) Phase Characteristics 64
67 A
b. Synchros
(1) General 69
(2) Principle of Operation 70
(3) Accuracy 71 0!
(a) Static Errors 71
(b) Velocity Errors 72
c. Electrical Resolvers 74
(1) General 74
(2) Errors 75
d. Induction Potentiometers 78
(1) General 78
(2) Refinements 79
(3) Applications
Electroni i lce
81
81
..
C. n-1r4 rirr

(1) Moving Anode Transducer 81

(Z) Ionization Transducer 83
(3) Radiation Tracking Transducer 85
f. Mechanical-Optical Transducers 86
g. Electrolytic Potentiometers 88
Z-3 Measurement of Strain 89
a. Introduction 89
b. Basic Circuit 92
5 c. Wheatstone Bridge 93
XLI %2_Ic Lraz

(2) High Impedance Load 96

(3) Low Impedance Load 97
(4) Calibration Resistor 98
(5) Special Applications 98
d. Wiring Standard 99
2-4 Measurement of Pressure 99
a. Force Summing Devices 99
(1) Diaphragms 101
(2) Bellows 102

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SECTION PAGE

(3) Bourdon Tube 102

(4) Straight Tube 103 ,
b. Conversion of Displacement to an Electrical
Analog Signal 103
(1) Potentiormeter Types 3 04
(2) Variable Reluctance Type 1 06
(3) Variable Capacitance Type 108 0
2-5 Measurement of Fluid Flow 109
a. Volumetric Flow Measurement 109
(1) Displacement Meters 109
(a) Reciprocating Piston Meter 109 ""- -

(b) Daplex Rotor Meter ill

(c) Senmti-Rotary Piston Meter 112
(d) Rotary Meter 114
(2) Velocity Meters 115
(a) Turbine Flowmeter 115
(b) Vortex-Velocity Flowmeter .118
(3) Differential Pressure Meters 118
(a) Pitot Tube 120
(b) Venturi Tube 12].
(c) Orifice Meter 123
(d) Dall Tube 123
(c) Comparisons 124
b. Mass .Flow Measurement 125
(1) Transverse Momentum F!owmeter 126
(a) Radial Flow Ty-pe 126
(b) Axial Flow Type 1.29
(c) Gyroscopic Type 136
(2) Thermal Flowme ters 138 ". -
(3) Summary 140
2-6 Measurement of Rotary Speed 140
a. Introduction 140
b. Analog Tiansducers 142
(1) General 14Z
(2) AC Induction Tachometer 142
(3) Drag-Torque Tachometer 143
(4) DC Tachometer Generator 143
(5; Permanent Magnet Alternator 144
c. Digital Transducers 147 '-
(1) General 147
(2) Features of Digital Tachometer Systems 149

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SECTION PAKiE

(3} Transducer Types 150

(4) Capacitive Tachometer
Transducer 150
(a) General 150
(b) Transducer Structures 152
(c) Transducer Auxiliary Circuits 153
(5) Variable Reluctance Tachometer .-
Transducers 159
(a) General 159
(b) Transducer Structures 161
(c) Magnetic Sensor 165
(6) Eddy Current Tachometer
Transducers 171 -.
(a) General 171 -"
(b) Transducer Structures and
Circuits 171
Z-7 Mleasurement of Fuel Quantity 173
a, Optical Discrete Point Fuel Measuring
System 175
b. Continuous Type Optical Fluid Level
Sensor System 177 -
c. Ultrasonic Discrete Point Fuel Measuring
System 180 -
(1) Operating Principle 180
(2) Mounting 182
d. Ultrasonic Continuous Type Liquid
Level Sensing System 185 -'
e. Gulton Industries Sonar System 185 .
f. Bogue Electric Company Sonar System 185
g. Rocketdyne-Autonetics Sonar System 186
h. Radiation Sensor Fuel Measuring System 187
I1\ Adl nt
n 1.: e 188
(2) Disadvantages 189
i. SONARAD 189
2-8 Measurement of AG Power--The Hall
Watt Transducer 190-
a. The Hall Effect 190
b. The Hall Multiplier 192
c. The Hall Watt Transducer 193

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SECTION PAGE

2-9 Measurement of Acceleration 195

2-10 Temperature Measurements 202
a. Introduction 202
b. Thermal Equilibrium Category 203
(1) Linear Expansion of Solids 203
(2) Liquid Expansion Thermometers 204 ,
(3) Gas Thermometers 205
(4) Vapor Pressure Thermometers 206
(5) Temperature Indicators 207
(6) Resistance Thermometers 208
(7) Thermocouples 212
(8) Semiconductors 215
(9) Thermistors 216
(10) Sensitors 219
(11) Thermionic Emission 219
(12) Magnetic Techniques 220
(13) Thermal Noise Thermometer 224
c. Thermal Radiation Method 225
(1) Radiation Detectors 225
(2) Line Reversal Pyrometer 227
(3) Optical Pyrometers 228

(5) Two-color Pyrometer 229

(6) Microwave Radiometer 230
d. Miscellaneous Methods 232
2-11 Vibration and Shock Measurements 236
2-12 Measurement of Thrust 248
a. From Characteristics of Vehicle Motion 248
1. Accelerometer Technique 249
2. Combined Accelerometer-Force Transducer 249 -
3. Direct Method-Force Measurements 253
b. Determination of Thrust by Parametric r
Methods 254
1. Use of Engine Parameters 254
Z. Indirect Parameter Measurement 257
c. Advanced Propulsion Systems 259
2-13 Bio-Instrurmentation 261
a. Introduction 261
b. Physiological Measurements 262
c. Diagnosis and Display 273

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 SECTION PAGE

II TRANSDUCER APPLICATIONS 275

3-1 Introduction 275

3-2 General 275
a. Selection Criteria 275
b. Mounting Considerations 278
c. Environmental Effects 280
d. Operating Time 281
3-3 Aircraft Applications 282
a. General 282
b. Examples of Applications 28Z
c. Temperature Measurements 288
(1) Ambient Air Temperature 288
(2) Temperature Measurements in
Engines 291
(3) Measurement of Surface Temperature 292
(4) Thermostats 293
3-4 Missile Applicattons 294
a. General 294
b. Environmental Measurements 296
(1) Temperature 296
(a) Resistance Thermometers 296
(b) Thermocouples 303
(c) Thermopiles 303
(d) Thermistors 303
(2) Vibration 304
(a) Unbonded Strain-Gage Vibration
Transducer 304
(b) Piezoelectric Transducers 305
(c) Velocity Vibration Transducer 306
c. Propulsion Measureme~nts 306
(1) Flowmeter Converter 307
(2) Pressure Transducers 307
(3) Pressure Switches 307
(4) Liquid Level Transducers 307 "
d. Angle of Attack Measurements 310
(1) Free Air Stream Type 310
(2) Local Drag Vane Type 311
(3) Local Probe Type 31.1

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 SECTION PAGE

3-5 Transducers for Re-Entry Bodies 311

a. Temperature M~easuremnent 311
(1) Tungsten-Iridium Thermocouple 312
(2) Thin Film Resistance Thermometer 312
b. Pressure Measurement 313
(1) Dynamic Pressure Loading 313
(2) Internal-Pressure Transducer 313
c. Vibration Measurement 314
d. Acoustic Noise Measurement 314
3-6 Satellites and Spaceprobes 316
a. General 316
b. Experiments 331 '.

(1) Erosion, Impact, and Piercing 331

A (2) Magnetic Field Measurements 333
(3) Electromagnetic Radiation Measurements 339
(4) Nuclear and Penetrating Radiation
Meas arements 354
(5) Other Ionization Measurements 358
c. Project Mercury Aerornedical Data Display 362

IV TESTING AND CALIBRATION 366

4-1 Introduction 366

4-2 General 367
a. User Considerations 367 --,
(1) Relation of Procurement to Laboratory
Calibi atior 367
(2) Relative Measurement Concept 370
(3) Transduction Ratio 370
(4) Self-Generating Transducers 371 .7.'
(5) Typical Static Considerations 371"/ .
"6) Dynamic Considerations
b. Transducer Characteristics 373
(1) Accuracy and Response 373
(2) Repeatability 374
(3) Linearity 375
(4) Hysteresis 375
(5) Resolution 376
(6) Response to Transverse Excitation 376
(7) Temperature Effects 377
(8) Environmental Extremes 378

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- SECTION PAGE

4-3 Calibration of Linear Accelerometers 380

4. Static Acceleration 380
"b. Damping and Frequency Response 381
4-4 Calibration of Angular Accelerometers 386
a. General 386
b. Torsional Vibration Calibrator 386
(1) Description 386
(2) System Static Calibration 387
(3) System Frequency Response 387
4-5 Vibration (Motion and Displacerrment) Testing Using
an Optical Device 389
4-6 Sweep-Sync Displays for Back-to-Back Transducer
Calibration 390
4-7 Vibration Pickup Calibration 392
4-8 Use of the SLIP-SYNC in Accelerometer
Calibration 393
4-9 A Vibration Measuring System 396
4-10 Pressure Transducer-General Evaluation
Procedure 399
4-11 A Method for Calibration of a Dynamic Pressure
A Pickup . ... ....A .. fl.
. .. .. . ...--- 399

Transducer Calibration 403

4-13 Performance Tests on Two Piezoelectric
Crystal Pressure Transducers 405
4-14 The Shock Tube as a Facility for Dynamic Testing
Pressure Pickups 410
4-15 Load Cell and High Capacity Force Devices 412
4-16 Testing Gyrbs at Norden 4ZZ
4-17 Automatic Testing and Calibration 427
4-18 Instrument Society of America, Aero-Space Standards
fllviainJn Pau-tm, f-libtlhninonA e Se-nia44nna
'an C-nAnsde 4015

V TESTING AND CALIBRATION FACILITIES 430

5-1 Introduction 430

5-2 Measurement Services of the National Bureau
of Standards, Washington, D. C. 430
5-3 Environmental Branch 453
a. Dynamics Section, kS'FEVD 453
(I) Vibration 453

"/ .."'m_

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SECTION PAGE
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(2) Acceleration 453

(3) Combined Environments 454
(4) Shock 455
(5) Acoustic Energy 455
b. Space and Atmospheric Deterioration Section -
WWFEVS 455
(1) Combined Environmental Facility 455
(2) Space (High Altitude) Chamber, Building 45A 456 .
(3) Low-High Temperature (Ground Support)
Facility, Building 25A 456
(4) Systems Altitude-Temperature Facility
Building 22 456
(5)Explosion-Proof Facilities,
Buildings 45A and 47A 456
(6) Solar Radiation Facility, Building 45 457
(7) Atmospheric Environment Facilities 457 .
(8) Ram Air Temperature - Altitude Facility 457
5-4 Single Integrated U. S. Air Force Calibration
Dayton Air Force Depot
Gentile Air Force Station
Dayton Z0, Ohio 458
5-5 Western Primary Standards Laboratory-U.S. Navy
Pomona, California 464
5-6 Avco Research and Advanced Development
Division, Wilmington, Massachusetts 465
5-7 Sandia Corporation 468
a. Livermore, California 468
b. Sandia Corporation, Field Test
Transducer Component Control Section, 7Z1 3-3
Sandia Base
Albuquerque, New Mexico 470
5-8 U. S. Naval Missile Center .
Point Mugu, California 471
5-9 U. S. Naval Ordnance Test Station
China Lake, California 473
5-10 Electrical Testing Laboratories, Incorporated . -

Z East End Avenue

New York 2l, New York 473
5-11 Naval Air Test Center, Weapons Systemns Test
Division, U. S. Naval Air Station
Patuxent River, Maryland 474
5-12 Naval Air Test Center, Flight Test Division
IT. S. Naval Air Station
Patuxent River, Maryland 4766

WADD TR 61-67 Xvii

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. . 1,, . ,, . . . .. h ,, " - " • " '. -. "- ' . , "•.. . . i •

 :94

SECTION4 PAGE

5-13 Rototest Laboratories Incorporated

2803 Los Flores Boulevard -"
Lynwood, California 477
5-14 National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Langley Research Center
Langley Field, Virginia 480
5-15 Jet Propulsion Laboratory
California Institute of Technology
Engineering Facilities Division and
Hydraulics Lab

5-16
Pasadena, California
6593D Test Group (Development)
Air Force Systems Command
United States Air Force
482

A
" '

Edwards Air Force Base, California 485

5-17 Inland Testing Laboratories
Division of Cook Technological Center
Morton Grove, Illinois 486
5-18 Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton Corporition
Waltham 54, Massachusetts 487
5-19 Cryogenics, Inc.
Alexandria, Virginia 4Hi8 -4
5- 20 Endevco Corporation
Calibration Service ... ,
Pasadena, California 489
5-21 Radiation Incorporated
Melbourne, Florida 490
5-22 Associated Testing Laboratories, Inc.
Wayne, New Jersey 494
5-23 North Hills Electronics, Inc.
Glen Cove, New York 496

VI REFERENCES - Introduction 497

6-1 List of References 498

VII BIBLIOGRAPHY - Introduction 525 IL

Bibliography 526
Index to Bibliography 577

WADD TR 61 -6 7 xviii
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SECTION PAGE

APPENDIX I 1MIG TELEMETRY STANI)ARDSIi

FOREWORD 1-2

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1-3

I RADIO FREQUENCIES (FREQUENCY PARAMETERSZ

AND CRITERIA FOR DESIGN OF TELEMETRY
TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER SYSTEMS) 1-7

1. 1 Frequency'Utilization 1-7
1.2 Frequency Band 216-260 MCS 1-7
A. Efficiency of Spectrum Usage
(216-260 mcs Band) 1-8
1. Transmitter Systems
(FM/FM; PDM/FM; PAM/FM;
and PCM/FM) 1-8
2. Receiver Systems
(FM/FM; PDM/FM; PAM/FM;
and PCM/FM) 1-10
1. 3 Frequency Band 1435-1535 Mcs 1-10
A. Efficiency of Spectrum Usage 1-11
1. Transmitter Systems
(1435-1535 mcs Band) I-1.
2. Receiver Systems ,-- -
(1435-1535 mcs Band) I-12
3. Bandwidths 1-12
1.4 Frequency Band 2200-Z300 Mcs 1-13
A. rffllr4 Pncy of Specrur Uage 1-!13
1. Transmitter Systems
(2200-2300 mcs) 1-13
2. Receiver Systems
(2Z00-Z300 mcs) 1-15
3. Bandwidths 1-15

WADD TR 61-67 xix

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l.,-•.,J ¼_
 SECTION PAGE

II FM/FM OR FM/PM STANDARDS 1-17'"

2.1 General 1-17

2.2 Sub-Carrier Bands 1-17
2. 3 Automatic Correction of Sub-Carrier
Zero and Sensitivity Drift 1-18 -.
2.3.1 General 1-18
2. 3. 2 Automatic Correction Command 1-18
2. 3. 3 Data Carrier Calibration 1-21
2. 3.4 Correction Capability 1-23
4 PAM/FM/FM Commutation 1-23
2. 4. 1 Commutation Rates 1-23
2.4.2 Recommended Sample Rates 1-23
2.4. 3 Separated Data 1-23
2. 5 In-Flight Zero and Full Scale Calibration 1-27

III PDM/FM OR PDM/PM OR PDM/FM/FM

SVANDARD 1-29

3. 1 General 1-29 .".

3. 2 PDM/FM or PDM/PM 1-29
3. 3 PDMiFMiFM 1-30
3. 4 In-Flight Zero and Full Scale Calibration 1-32 -

IV PAM/FM OR PAM/PM STANDARDS 1-33

V PCM STANDARDS 1-34

5. 1 General I-34
5. 2 Bit Rate Versus Receiver Intermediate
Frequency (IF) Bandwidth (3 db points) 1-34
5. 3 Bit Rate Stability 1e35
5.4 Word and Frame Structure 1-35
"- 5. 5 Synchronization 1-35
5. 6 Super-Commutation and Subcommutation 1-36
5. 7 Pre-Modulation Filtering 1-36
5.8 RF Carrier Modulation 1-36

.--.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 xx -.

-- x.~..*.*--..',-.
'.. . . . . . .

d.'.-.

-.-,,' ,.',' -- ,,,,

f , ,----,, ,% , : ... ,,- . ~., . .,(
--.- .v v , v ,. -. ,..., .- . ., . . • - , ' -,.
 SECTION PAGE

APPENDIX II - GLOSSARY OF TELEMETRY TRANSDUCER

TERMS II-1

ACKNOW LEDGEMENTS 11-2

GLOSSARY 11-3

APPENDIX III - PHYSICAL EFFECTS AND PRINCIPLES

WHICH FORM THE BASIS FOR TRANS-
DUCTION III-1

111-5 _INTROD

II PHYSICAL EFFECTS AND PRINCIPLES 111-5

a. Edison or Richardson Effect 111-5

b. Galvanomagnetic and Thermomagnetic
Effects 111-5
(1) Hall Effect 111-5
(2) Ettingshausen Effect 111-6
(3) Nernst Effect 111-6
(4) Righi-Leduc Effect 111-6
c. Thermoelectric Effects 111-6
(1) Seebeck Effect 111-6
(2) Peltier Effect 111-6
(3) Thomson Effect 111-6
d. Gyromagnetic Effects 111-7
e. Piezoelectric Effect 111-7
f. Ferroelectric Effect 111-7
g. Electrostrictive Effect 111-7
h. Magneto strictive Effects 111-8
(1) Joule Effect 111-8
(2) Villari Effect 111-8
(3) Wetheim Effect 111-8
(4) Wiedemann Effect 111-8
i. Magneto resistive Effect 111-8
j. Thermoresistive Effect 111-8
k. Mechanoresistive Effects 111-9
1. Electroresistive Effect 111-9

WADD TR 61-67 xxi

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.....
C. -.

I W... ...... *A . "-

, -,,a . . - , *..-. a-,- .- . - - - ., . . . a..
...- - .. .- . .-.
•..... - . - -. , • .. . . . _ , - •
 SECTION PAGE

m. Mechano -Capacitive Effects 111-9

n. Variable Inductance Principle III-10
0. Generator Principle III-10
p. Proximity Effect 111-10
q. Pyroelectric Effects III-10
r. Triboelectric Effect III-10
Volta or Contact-Potential Effect III-10
t. Luminescent Effects 111-11
(1) Triboluminescence III-1l
(2) Thermoluminescence Ill-1
(3) Chemiluminescence 11.-l
(4) Cathodoluminescence hi-11
(5) Electroluminescence III-11 ,
(6) Photoluminescence ITT-1 I
U. Photoconductive Effect 111-12
v. Photoelectric Effect (Photoemissive
Effect) 111-12
w. Photovoltaic Effect 111-12
x. Electro-Optic Effect 111-I2
y. Faraday Effect 111-12
z. Photoelastic Effect 111-12
aa. Photo-Elect romagnetic (Photo-
Magnetoelectric) Effect 111-13
bb. Photo-Thermoelectric (Thermal-
Photoelectric) Effect 111-13
cc. Electrokinetic Effects 111-13
(1) Electroosmosis 111-13
(2) Electrophoresis 111-13
(3) Stream or Flow Potentials 111-13
(4) Dorn Effect II-1 3
dd- Galvanic IEloctrnnhen-jical) E.....11 -1 J
ee. Photochemical Effect 111-14
ff. Additional Thermal Effects 111-14
gg. Effects Involving Radiation fromi
Radioactive Sourc ;s as a Medium 111-15
hh. Mechanical Displacement and Strain
Effects 111-15

WADD TR 61-67 xxii 0

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"-.'': " - "-•.r. 4 ...-....

" .' ." ." "-. ,, " -.- ''"- '."-"
. -,- ".." *--. "-.. , . . . .. . . ..-. , .. ., -. . ... .- ,- .
 SECTION PAGE -,4

APPENDIX IV IV-I

I• ACCELEROMETER FUNDAMENTALS IV-I

2. TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT FUND.AMENTALS IV-1-

a. Semiconductor s IV-12
b. Thermionic Emission IV-16
c. Bridge Techniques in Temperature
Measurements IV-19

3. THRUST MEASUREMENT FUNDAMENTALS IV -26

a. Accelerometer Technique IV-26 .-.
b. Application of Combined Accelerometer L.t
Force Transducer to the V-2
Rocket System IV-7'
c. Liquid Propellant Systems IV-29
d. Solid Propellant Systems IV-33
e, Flight Thrustmeter, Theory of Operation IV-36

4. BTO-INSTRUMENTATION TV-44 -

*-

JtVVlN~tflA v rtr•5ou~ttr- IINfl1)UU K ZEVALUAntION V-i

1. Scope V-1

Z. Test Equipment and Procedures V-1

2.1 Test Equipment V-1
2.2 Test and Data Procedures V-Z

3. Static Accuracy V-Z .'

3.1 Linearity and Hysteresis V-2
3.2
33 Functional ero Voltnpe
Effect of .Sunplv an Ctlan•,e
niiiyDitV-3 V-3 -
4. Temperature Effects V-3 -

4. 1 Static Temperature Effects V-3 -

4.2 Dynamic Temperature Effects V-4
5. Vibration Effects V-4

6. Dynamic Accuracy V-5

7. Dielectric Tests V-5

8. Special Tests V-5

WADD TR 61-67 xxiii

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-.- ' '. "-.--.-*.."v ..--.- v.-..-..- .".....-''''- -..- ."""*.-...--., , "- -.. .- * .. ..* .-* . -,'. v v .. -' -" ".*
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

VOLUME II

SECTION PAGE

TRANSDUCER MANUFACTURERS

1-i Manufacturers-Transducer Types I-Mfrs-1

1-2 Manufacturers-Alphabetical Listing I-Mfrs-IZ

NON-SWITCHING TRANSDUCERS

Accele ration II-Accel-1 4

Air Speed II-Air S-I
Angle of Attack II-AoA- 1
Biophysical II-Bio-l
Digitizer (Shaft Position Encoder) II-Dig-1
Displacement II- Disp-l
Electric Frequency II-E Freq-l
Electric Power I-F Pwr-1
Electromagnetic Radiation II- E Rad- l
Flow II-Flow- I
Force il- FoI-C - i
Fuel Quantity II- F Qty- 1
Gyroscope II- Gy ro - i
"Humidity 11-Hum- 1-
"Level II-Lev- 1
Magnetic Field II-Mag F-i1
Nuclear and Penetrating Radiation IT-N & PR-I
Pre s sure IT-Press-i
Rotary Speed II.- RPM-i
Sound Pressure II-S Press-1
•.. .
Lý AY Ii-Sp G-i
Strain 1I-Strain-I i
Temperature I1- Temp- 1
Torque II-Tor-l
Ultrasonic II-U Sonic -I -
Velocity II-- Vel- 1
Vibration and Shock II-V & S-i

WADD TR 61-67 xxiv

VOLI REV1

S ...... :.•.-..,.- -.. ..... - -...... ,.... ,-- .. . .. ,. . . ,..... *- .... -.- ... . .. .
It',.,4.-, ... ' .. *- - - - - - . --.-
, , ./ %-
- ... ..- .. ° . .- - . .,. .... .- •.. . . . . . . . . . . •. • - • .-
 SECTION PAGE

* III SWITCHINJG TRANSDUCERS

Acceleration III-Accel Sw-1

Displacement III--Disp Sw-1 c
Flow III- Flow Sw- 1I
Level III- Lev Sw.- I
Pressure Ill-Press Sw-i 9
Temperature 1II- Temp Sw-I
Velocity III- Vel Sw- i

IV DRAWINGS

Drawings IV-Draw-1

V RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

5-1 Magna- Ducer Magnetic/Resistance

Transducer V-R & D-1
5-2 Solid State Transducers V-R & D-i
5-3 High Temperature Displacement
Transducers V-RI & D-2
5-4 Svystem-Mass Fiowmeter with s
Digital Output V-=l & D-2
5-5 High Temperature Photoelectric
Tecrique s V-i1L & D -
5-6 Storage Transducer Tube V-R. & D-3
5-7 Dynamic Displacement Meter V--R & D-4
5-6 Accelerometer, Servo-Balanced Dual
Output V-R & D-5
5-9 High Temperature, Nuclear Radiation
Resistant, Tachometer System V-K & D..5
5-10 Telemetering Transducer Calibration
and Testing Techniques Development V-Rl & D-7"
5-11 Development of Vibration Apparatus V-lI & D-7
5-12 Astracon Tube V-iR & D-8
5-13 Environmentally Adaptad Single Stage
Intensifier Image Orthicon Tabe V=-R & D-8
5-14 Develop Unique Telemetering Presure
Transducer V-il & D-9
5-15 Develop Differential Pressure Transmitter
for High Line Pressures V-l & D-10
5-16 Develop Semi-Conductor Strain Gage
Pressure Transducer V-IR & D-10

V/ADD 'FR '01-67 xxv

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-4
S":'."
-. .'-"-" . -. . ',+ '-. :-'+,+-
," " +-"" .''.
. .. . '-".' .' ." ."-',5"'-.- " " " .. '', '..-'"... - . . ". .- "- . . ".""
SECTION PAGE

5-17 0-1000 PPM Fuel Flowmeter System V - R & D -11I

5-18 Tungsten Sensor V - R & D -11
5-19 High Temperature Zone Box V - R & D -12
5-20 Miniature Radiometer V- R & D -1
5-21 Heat Flowmeter V- R & D-13
5-22 Hydrogen Mass Flowmeter System
Development V- R & D -13
5-23 A New Kind of Vacuum Gauge V - R & D -14
5-24 Window Accelerometer, Self-Switching V - R & D -14
5-25 Nuclear Irradiation and High Temperature
Testing of Flight and Engine Instruments V - R & D -15
5-26 Torque Pressure Measuring System,
Servo Type V- R & D -16
5-27 Accelerometer, High Accuracy V - R & D -17
5-Z8 Synchro Transmitter - High Temperature
Radiation Resistant V- R & D -18 k
5-29 Accurate Signal Devices with Improved
Accuracy V - R & D -18
5-30 UVICON Tube V - R & D -19
5-31 High Temntrature, Rtaiation Resistant -.
Temperature Amplifier Development V- R & D -20
5-32 High Temperature, Radiation Resistant
Accelerometer Development V - R & D -Z0
5-33 High Temperature Radiation Resistant
Temperature Probe Developmen-t V- R & D -21
5-34 Product Improvement Program, Trans-
mitter System, Pressure Oil and Data V - R & D -21
5-35 Product Improvement of the Edison
Pressure Indicator and Pressure
Transmitter V - R & 1)
D-ZZ
5-36 Radiation Resistant Pressure Transmitter V - R & D -23
5-37 Investigation of Microwave Reflection
Techniques for Air Data Measurements at
Hypersonic Velocities V - R & D -24
5-38 Design and Ccnstructfon of Six Solid State
Optical Devices Called "The Photopot" V - R & D -24
5-39 Semiconductor Strain Gauge Pressure
Transducer V - R & D -2,5
5-40 Thermocouple Temperature Transducer V - R & D) -26,

WADD TR 6i-67 xxvi.

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 SECTION PAGE

5-41 Resistance-Type Temperature Transducer V-R & D-27

5-42 Gas Temperature Sensor V-R & D-27
5-43 Pressure Ratiometer V-R & D-28
5-44 Mach Sensor V-R & D-29
5-45 Angle of Attack or Angle of Yaw Sensor V-R & D-30 .
5-46 High Temperature Neutron Flux
Ionization Chamber V-R & D-30 .
5-47 Photoelastic Digital Transducer V-R & D-31
5-48 Pressure Transducer V-R & D-32
5-49 Heat-Transfer Transducer V-R & D-33
5-50 Liquid Hydrogen Mass Flowmeter V-R & D-34 -j
5-51 Thixotropic Flowmeter V-fl & D-34
5-52 Rocket Engine Heat Transfer
Measurement Techniques V-R & D-35
5-53 Rocket Engine Heat Transfer
Measurement Techniques V-R & D-35
5-54 Hydraulic Pressure Indicating System V-R & D-36
5-55 Semi-Conductor Radiation Detectors V-R & D-37
5-56 1500 Degree F Strain Gauge V-R & D-37
5-57 Investigation of Advanced Digital
Transducer Techniques V-R & D-38
5-58 Baldwin- Lirma- Hamilton Company-
Sponsored Development V-R & D-39
5-59 700 Degree F Strain Gauge V-- R & D-40
5-60 Adjustable Pre-Load Force Transducer V-R & D-40 ,
5-61 Atmospheric Density Measurements V-R & D-41
5-62 A Novel Pressure Transducer V-R & D-41
5-63 Humidity Sensor V-R & D-4Z
5-64 Development of a Temperature
Measuring System V-R & D-43 '-
5-65 Rate Sensing Techniques Using
Vibrational Energy V-R & D-44
5-66 I-all Effect Resolvers V-R & D-45
5-67 Multispeed Precision Synchros V-R & D-45
5-68 Charged Particle Measurements above
100 krm by the Langmuir Prove Technique V-KR & D-46
5-69 Measurement of the Earth's Atmosphere V-]R & D-47
5-70 Design, Fabrication and Test of Prototype
Digital Encoders V-R & D--47
5-71 Detail Design, Fabricate, Performance Test -.
and Deliver two each Prototype Units of a
Digital Shaft Transducer (Encoder) V-K. & D-49

WADD TR 61-67 xxvii 9

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... .- .-

S.....,,.-\-',-'>.
. . .-... '."
.. ...-...
.....-....-......-..............-..
/.-... -... - . -..-.... 7----.--
.-. ,, ,- >..-
-: - . . , . . .-.. .-.... .. -.- - .- .._ - - ...-.-. . -.---. . - .'.-.- -.- -- -- .- -- --. .:< -- " - ', -. .
 SECTION PAGE

5-72 19-Digit Photoelectric Shaft Position

Encoder V-R & D-50
"5-73 One Second of Arc Tachometer/Increment
Encoder V-R & D-51
5-74 Experimental Investigation of Advanced
Digital Transducer Techniques V-R & D-52
5-75 Dual Pressure Transducer System V-R & D-52
5-76 Research on Techniques and Instrumentation
for Measurement of Physiological Variables
in Mammals under Space Flight V-R & D-53'
I
5-77 Dielectric Bolometer V-R & D-54 S.
5-78 Rotating Pendulum Accelerometer V-R & D-54
5-79 Solid State Resolver V-R & D-55
5-80 Research on Vibratory-Output Anguler
Motion Sensors V-R & D-56
5-81 A Survey and Evaluation of Methods of
Measuring V-R & D-56
5-82 Research and Development of Techniques
and Equipment for Solid State Digital
Computers V-R & D-57
5-83 Research and Development of Techniques
and Equipment for Solid State Digital
Computers V-R & D-58

5-84 A Study of Force and Displacement '..

Measuring Techniques V-R & D-58
5-85 Information Aspects of Sensor Operation V-R & D-59 ,-

-, VI INDEX OF TRANSDUCER DATA SHEETS

Index VI-TDS Ind-1

.. 4

WADD TR 61-67 xxviii

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'.,. . . . . . . . .

" L.¶ A. •.-.".-_•.• ' ' ' • {d • . " . • . "' -•, ',. ..- ,. ' • . ' . ", " . . , •
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Title Page

1-l Telemetry System Functional Diagram 2

1 -2 Frequency Division Multiplexed System 6
1-3 Time Divisicn Multiplexed System 10
1-4 Pulse Amplitude Waveform 12
1-5 Pulse Duration Waveform 14
-6 Pulse Position Waveform 16
1-7 Power Density Spectrum of Sampled Data Waveform 18 '9
1-8 Decimal and Binary Equipment 21
1-9 Illustration of Pulse Coding 21
1-10 Binary Modulation 22
1-11 Eight Level Binary Code 26
1-12 Eight Level Orthogonal Code 26 2
1 -13 Example of Sequential Sampling System 30
1-14 Combined System with Frequency Division
Multiplexed Baseband 31
1-15 Example of Combined System with Time Division
Multiplexed Baseband 32
1-16 NASA FM/AM Ground System 40 V'
2-1 Differential Transformer Configuration and Schematic 55 ..
2-2 Output Voltagc and Phase
. as.
•-i•Lo-u .. uf Core
Position 56
2-3 Differential Transformer, Demodulator and
Filter Circuits 57
2-4 Inverter/Demodulator Transistorized Circuitry 58
2-5 Differential Transformer Four Winding Configurations 59 7-

2-6 Flux Distribution of the Metrisite 59

2-7 Armature Designed for Non-Linear Input-Output
Function 60
2-8 H Core Differential Transformer 60
2-9 F Core D.if..reztial Transformer 61 4
2-10 Null Balance Circuit 62
2-]l Equivalent Circuit (Simplified) 65
2-12 Output Phase Angles for Various Core Positions 66
2-13 Practical Circuits for Reduction of Phase Angle 67
2-14 Synchro-Resolver Telemetry System Application 68
2-15 Synchro Angle Transmission System 70
2-16 Synchro Simplified Diagram 71
2-17 Typical Error of Synchro Transmission System 72

WADD TR 61-67 xxix

VOL I REVi

-. *.-.- --- .- * *-.

- - - . -. - . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-- ...
- - - -
... - - -
,..- - -
.-- ... - . .-.. - .-.. ."-..-.,-..
.- ,..-.. .... . . .... . ...-.. -. '. ... . . . . . . .
.::::::::::::::::::::::::: . .. ::-; :;:::::: "'
 F',gure Title Page

Z--18 Schematic Representation of the Electrical Resolver 74

2-1.9 Variation of Transmission Ratio with Applied Voltage
as a Result of Iron Nonlinearity 77
2-N.o Relationship Between Windings and Magnetic Field 79
2-21, More Complex Induction Potentiometer Circuit,
Showing Refinements Required for Good Performance 80
2-22 Moving Anode Transducer 82
2-23 Circuit for RCA 5734 Transducer 82
2-24 Ionization Transducer 84
2-25 Capacitance Measuring Circuit 85
2-26 Example of Radiation Tracking Transducer Operation 85
2-27 Shaft Position Encoder 86
2-28 Encoder Disc for 13 Digits 87
2-Z9 Electrolytic Potentiometers 88
2-30 Operational Schematics of Electrolytic Potentiometers 89
2-31 Strain Gage in a Potentiometric Circuit 93
2-32 Wheatstone Bridga with Two Active Arms 95
2-33 Wheatstone Bridge with Four Active Arms 95
2-34 Strain Gage Bridge and External Circuitry 95
2-35 Transducer Wiring Standard for Resistance Strain
Gage Systems. 100
-1 2 LZ T7.. .
2-3 Foce Summing Dvce 101v
2-37 Pressure Transducers with Potentiometer Pickoffs 105
2-38 Twisted Tube with Armature and Coils 107
2-39 Ind1uctance Bridge with Two Active Arms 107
2-40 Inductance Bridge with Four Active Arms 107
2-41 Capacitive Transducer donfiguration 110
2-42 Hartley Oscillator Using Variable Capacitance
Transducer 110
2-43 Duplex Rotor Meter 111
2-44 St;n'i--Rotu.ry Piston Meter 112
2-45 Rot;,.r-y !\:Ieter ii4
2-46 Turbine Flowmeter 116 L
2-47 Vcr;.ex-Velocity Flowmeter 118
2-48 Principle of Vortex Velocity Meter 119
2-49 Pitot Tub- s 121
2-50 Venturi Tube 122 A"
2-51 Orifice Meter 123
Z-5Z Dall. Tube 124
2-53 Schematic Diagram of Li Mass-Rate Flowmeter 127 ---
2-54 Description of Operation of Li Radial Flowmeter 127

WADD TR 61-67 xxx

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* * - - * *...... -

.- '%-.-
''•• , .-. - 2 .. .- *.-. . . . .,. . . . . . .".. . .---
 Figure Title Page

2-55 Schen,- dic Diagram of Coriolis Type Mass Flowmeter 130

2-56 Particle Path Through Flow Sensing Element 130
2-57 Pictorial Diagram of General Electric Mass Flowmeter 131
2-58 Avien Flowmeter 1 34
2-59 Twin Turbine Mass Flowmeter 135
2-60 Gyroscopic Mass Flowmeter 137
2-61 Trans-Sonics Mass Flowmeter 139 -#

2-62 Conversion of Frequency to DC Voltage 145

2-63 System Employing Two Permanent Magnet Alternators
for Measuring Differential Speed 146
2-64 Block Diagram of Digital Tachometer System 148
2-65

2-66
A Simplified Sketch of a Variable Position Capacitive
Transducer
A Sirtplified Sketch of a Split-Stator Capacitive
Transducer
152

154
?tS

I
j
2-67 Sketch of Simple Structure 154
2-68 Sketch of Gear Type Structure 154
Z-69 A Simplified Sketch of a Variable Position Capacitive
Transducer 155
2-70 Sketch of Split-Stator Gear Type Structure 155
2-71 Electrostatic Type Circuit Schematic Diagram 155
2-72 Schematic Diagram of Simple AC Excited Transducer
Cir cuit 157
2-73 Schematic Diagram of a Capacitive Tachometer
Transducer Circuit 158
2-74 Variable Reluctance Transducer 16Z
2-75 Gear Type Chopper Transducer Structure 163
2-76 Differential. Output Transducer Structure 164
2-77 Cutaway View of Magnetic Sensor 166
2-78 View of Sec.sor Showing Shifting of Magnetic Lines of
Force Due to Disturbance of Magnetic Material 167
2-79 Curve Showoing Change in Output of Magnetic Sensor "-
as Function of Clearance Between Poles Piece and
Activating Medium. 167
2-80 Comparison of Outputs from Standard Sensors 167
Z-81 Output Wavefornms Produced by Fine-and (Coarse-
Tooth Gears 168
2-82 Outputs Produced by Two Sizes of Single Activating
Masses 169
Z-83 Diagram for Determining Dimensions for Optimum'
Operation of a Magnetic Sensor 170
2-84 Sketch of Simple Eddy Current Transducer 172

WADD TR 61-67 xxxi

VOL I REV 1

. .. ..

:,-:'-:'.-2,-: . :'.':-':2-:-'-'-:.
. i ......
"-:,:----" . ,,:-7
. . . "...:-.-..
. . . . . .". ."...,. .".. .... .".. . ., ,',.
. . . ". •d•l . . *%.•q ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | . I .| I. |. . . ..
Figure Title Page

2-85 Gear Type Structure 173

2-86 Experimental Eddy Current Transducer Circuit 174
Z-87 Operating Principle of Optical Monitor System 176
Z-88 Continuous Type Optical Fuel Level Sensing System 178
2-89 Light Paths in Continuous Type Optical Fuel Level 179
2-90 Block Diagram of Oscillator Level Switch 181
2-91 Horizontally Mounted Probe 182
2-92 Vertically Mounted Probe 183
2-93 Inverted Mounting 184
2-94 Sonar Transducer and Reflector Assembly 186
2-95 Radiation Gauge Principle 188
2-96 Principle of the Hall Effect 191
2-97 Hall Multiplier 192
2-98 Hall Watt Transducer 193
2-99 Fundamental Linear Accelerometer 197
2-100 Adaptation of Basic Unit shown in Fig. 2-99 for
Relatively Low Accuracy Use. 197
2-101 Accelerometer with Mass Floated in Oil to Minimize
Friction and Prevent Mass from Being Forced
Against Guide Rod by Accelerations Along Axes
Other than the Sensitive One. 197
Z-102 Block Diagram of Accelerometer Shown in Fig. 2-101 197 "-
2-i03 Pendulous Accelerorneter 199
2-104 Accelerometer with Compound Pendulum 199 _-
2-105 Two Simple Pendulums Fastened Together by a Collard --
to Reduce Crosstalk and Maintain Low Resonant
Frequencies. 199
2-106 Accelerometer with Mass Support by Two Wires in Tension 201 I
2-107 Highly Accurate Pendulous Gyro Accelerometer
Including Servo ZO
2-108 Three Types of Connections Used In Resistance 0i
Thermometers 209 <
2-109 Siemen's 3 Wire Lead Compensation Method with "

Wheatstone Bridge 209

2-110 Callendar's Lead Compensation Method with Wheatstone
Bridge 209
2-111 Four Terminal Lead Compensation Method with Wheatstone
Bridge 211
2-112 Potentiometer Method of Measuring Resistance 211
2-113 Thermocouple Circuit Z14
1-114 Typical Thermistor Characteristic Curve 217
Z-115 Simple Diode Temperature Measuring Circuit 221

WADD TR 61-67 xxxii

VOL I REV I

. ?."'" :.'--" -,-!'."

"-":- .-..
'-i- .--.,
"--"'-. "--- . -"-'. -,.-. .' -'-- ', %
.. "'-. -. "v .,,.
-.....................
-,----',,,.'-,, .-.-.-
.-..-.
" i'--.'. '--.,. ".-. ".-".. - "-.---.-
 Figure Title Page

2-116 Mutal Inductanc& Bridge 221

2-117 Temperature Variation of Ferromagnetisrn 223
2-118 Ferromagnetic Thermometer 223 "4
2-119 Schematic Diagram of Dicke's Radiometer 231
2-120 Sketch of Cooled Gas Pyrometer 233
2-121 Single Degree-of-Freedom System 239
2-122 Fixed Reference Device 239
2-123 Mass-Spring Devices Employing Various Displacement
Indicating Elements 241
2-124 Mercury- Electrolyte Vibration Transducer 245
2-125 Separation of Masses Consideration for Liquid
Propellant Systems 251
2-126 Simplified One- Dimensional Example 251
2-127 One-Dimensional Example With Drag Force D 251
2-128 Force Transducer- Accelerometer Technique Applied
to Solid Propellant Rocket Motor 251
2-129 Diagram of Rocket Engine and Thrust Cradle 252
2-130 Mechanical Arrangement of Force Sensors 252
2-131 Computer for Direct Thrust Measurement System 252
2-132 Electromagnetic Attenuation/ Thrust Relationship 258
2-133 Diagram of Electromagnetic Attenuation

I
TechninriP nf Thrui-st Measurement
2-134 Photograph of Astronaut, John H. Glenn, Jr.
Undergoing Medical Checks Before MA-6 Launch 260
2-135 Photograph of Enos, A 5 1/2 year old Chimpanzee
Instrumented for Space Flight 263
2-136 Electrical Response of a Single Muscle Fiber 265
2-137 Electrical Responses From Multiple Muscle Fibers 265
2-138 Electrical Response From the Human Brain 265
2-139 Respiration - Rate Transducer 270
- 2-140 Circuit Diagram of Monitoring Unit 272

WADD TR 61-67 xxxiii

"VOL I REV 1

,..v.........,..:...?.,....
f2•,,7,•v~~~~~~~~~~~~~v•,v,~~~..
v•.... ... " .. .- -,.,,. ,-.,
........ . . :... [•?
Figure Title Page

3-1 Missile Measurements 294

3-2 Photograph of Launch of Mercury Scout Missile
From Cape Canaveral Z95
3-3 A Typical Air Breathing Vehicle Showing Representa-
tive Applications of Transducers 301
3-4 A Typical Missile Configuration Showing Representa-
tive Applications of Transducers 302
3-5 Strain Gage Vibration Transducer 304
3-6 Strain Gage Circuit 305
3-7 Optical Liquid Level Monitor System 308
3-8 Accelerometer - Data Sensors, Inc. 309
3-9 Artist Conception of S-3 (Delta 6) Satellite Flight 315
3-10 Artist Conception of Mercury-Scout 1 Satellite Inflight 317
3-11 Photograph of Launch of NASA 4-Stage JUNO II Rocket 326
3-12 A Photographic Conception of the 78 Pound Payload
(P-14 Magnetometer - Plasma Probe) on its Journey
to outer space 330
3-13 Photograph of a Thor-Delta Launch Vehicle Being
Readied to Project a Space Probe 334
3-14 Planned Trajectory of Explorer X 335
_• Digrpnyn orf S-3 Eneroetirc Particles Satellite 338
3-16 Block Diagram X-4942, Proton Magnetometer 337
3-17 Block Diagram of Rubidium Vapor Magnetometer 337
3-18 Block Diagram of 1959 Iota Satellite (Explorer VII)
Instrum entati on 341
3-19 The Sunflare Experiment 342
3-20 Two Views of 1960 Eta Z 342
3-21 Photograph of Prominences Beyond the Limits of the
Sun's Surface 343
3-22 Diagram of Interferometer Spectrometer 345
3-23 Infared Horizon Sensor 346
3-24 Horizon Sensor Operation 346
3-25 Spectral Distribution of Radiation Received from the
Earth 348
3-26 Horizon Sensor Block Diagram 348
3-27 Cutaway Diagram of Satellite 1959 Alpha 349
3-28 Photograph, Tiros II Mock Count Down and Tower
Removal 350
3-29 Photograph of Launch Preparations on Tiros II1 352
3-30 System Component Arrangement of Tiros I 353
3-31 Cutaway Drawing of the Gamma Ray Astronomy
Satellite (S- 15) 355

WADD TR 61-67 xxxiv

VOL I REV 1

4- "°
 - .?.. .+ - * )-X.. -------

Figure Title Page

3-3Z Photographic View of 440 Pound Orbiting Solar

Observatory Spacecraft 357
3-33 Cross Section of Ion Chamber and Quartz
Integrating System 359
3-34 Photographic Conception of Ranger III Payload 361
3-35 Photograph of Launch of Mercury-Redstone 4
Spacecraft Carrying Astronaut Virgil "Gus"
Grissom 363
3-36 Typical EKG Waveform 364
3-37 Astronauti's Pulse and Respiration Variations
During MR- 3 Flight 364
3-38 Photograph of Atlas Agenda B with the Ranger II
Payload Ready on Pad 12 for Launching 365
4-1 Height of Overshoot of Oscillatory Transients
as a Function of Damping Ratio for a System
with One Degree of Freedom 382
4-2 Response of a Seismographic System to a
Sinusoidal Displacement 383
4-3 Example of Using Fig. 4-2 to Determine
Damping Ratio and Natural Frequency 385
4-4 Photograph of Torsional Vibration Calibrator 388
A _ rZ" ina
Model 701 Displacement olwro
Follower Diagram of
Operation 89 a
4-6 Block Diagram for Accelerometer Calibration 391
4-7 Schematic Diagram of Vibration Pickup Calibration
Setup 393
4-8 Photograph of Slip-Sync and Strobex Instruments 395
4-9 Slow-Motion Sampling --- The VMS System 397
4-10 Block Diagram of VMS 397 b
4-11 High Pressure Air Circuit, Pressure Pickup Calibration 401
4-12 Electrical Circuit, Pressure Pickup Calibration 401
4-13 Ph..otograph of Model 265 Pressure Transducer
Calibrator, Gilmore Industries 404
4-14 Cross-section View of SLM Transducer Construction,
Kistler Instrument Company 407
4-15 Load Cell Calibrator, 1,000,000 Pound Capacity 417
4-16 Mechanical Lever Type Scale for Secondary Force
Standard 417
4-17 Photograph of Electric Load Cell Weighing of the
Atlas Missile 418 0
4-18 Comparison of 4 Types of 1, 000,000 Pound Secondary
and Tertiary Force Standards 419

WADD TR 61-67 Xxxv

VOL I REV 1

4% "- :"-."•-
"-," ". "~~~~~.. "."..-".....'.-......'....'-..:.
.... . ......... ' ....
.. ,..-.--
. . . ...- . ,. . -..- ,-. ... , ,o. -..-
: - :.- .:.,.,.......:
.- -...-. :v ..-v .', .
 Figure Title Page

4-19 Load Cell Arrangement for Force Component Measure-

ment 419
4-20 Block Diagram of Field Standard Calibration System 419
4-21 Universal Weight and Thrust Facility 4Z0.A
4-22 Universal Weight and Thrust Facility Platform Layout 4Z0
4-23 Universal Weight and Thrust Facility Block Diagram 421
4-24 Gilmore Aircraft Static Thrust z,,LM Weight-Loss
"Instrumentation System 421
4-25 Orientations For Gyro Test 424
4-26 Orientations For Gyro Test 424
4-27 Orientations For Gyro Test 425
4-28 Saturn Static Test Setup 429
5-1 (Top) Accuracies Attainable in Measurement
of Pressure and Vacuum with Standard Instru-
mnents at the National Bureau of Standards.
(Center) Useful Ranges of Pressure Transmitting
Media.
(Bottom) Useful Ranges of Some Working Instru-
ments for Pressure and Vacuum Measurements 440
5-2 Operation of the Single Integrated USAF
Calibration System 459

I-I Automatic Zero and Sensitivity Drift Calibration

Command and Data Channel Signals 1-22
I-z PAM Pulse Train Waveform 1-26
I-3 PDM Pulse Train Waveform 1-30
TV-i Fundamental Linear Accelerometer IV-2
IV-2 Accelerometer With Mass Floated in Oil IV-2
IV-3 Block Diagram of Accelerometer Shown in Fig. IV-2 TV-2
IV-4 Bode Diagram of System in Fig IV-3 IV-Z A
IV-5 Bode Diagram of System in Fig IV-3 with Lead-Log
Network added to Improve Stability TV-_2'.l-

IV-6 Highly Accurate Pendulous Gyro Accelerometer

including Servo IV-8
IV-7 Block Diagram of Accelerometer in Fig. IV-6 IV-S
IV-8 Accelerometer With Motor Built Into Pendulum TV-B ,,'
IV-9 Block Diagram of Accelerometer in Fig. IV-8 IV-8
IV-10 Energy Levels of Electrons in an Atom IV-13
IV-_ I Energy Bands in a Solid IV- 13
IV- 12 Energy Band Configuration for Various Conduction
Mechanisms IV- 17
IV-13 Effect of Fermi-Dirac Statistics Upon Free Electron
and Hole Concentration in a Semiconductor IV-17

WADD TR 61-67 xxxvi

VOL I REV I

[ . %

-- ".,",\,¶,'' .- ',% , . ,, ,, • . , , , ," . , -

-- , -- -, , . .'. :. ,,t. - ..-.. . . -. . . .
Figure Title Page

IV-14 Practical Split Bridge Circuits IV-Z3

IV-15 Examples of Full Bridges IV-Z4
IV- 16 Mechanization of Thrust Equation IV-28
IV-17 Plot for Acceleration Versus Time of V-2 Rocket IV-30 -"-

IV-18 Plot of gM2(t) for V-2 Rocket IV-30

IV- 19 Plot Showing the Variation in the Acceleration Forces
with Time of Burning IV-30
IV-20 Liquid Propellant Systems Diagrams IV-32
IV-21 Liquid Propellant Systems Diagrams IV.-32
IV-Z2 Liquid Propellant Systems Diagrams IV-32
IV-Z3 Solid Propellant Systems Diagrams IV-34
IV-Z4 Solid Propellant Systems Diagrams IV-34
IV-25 Solid Propellant Systems Diagrams IV-34
IV-26 Gross Thrust Versus Nozzle Pressure Ratio IV-41
IV-Z7 Straight Line Formula, Thrust and Pressure
Relationships IV- 41

WADD TR 61-67 xxxvii

VOL I REV 1

.... . . . ........ .. .. .
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

1-1 Maximum Sampling Rates for Manually

Separated Data 34
1-2 Subcarrier Bands for Selected Measurands 35
1-3 NASA FM/AM Channel and Frequency Allotments 390
1-4 NRL Telemetry Transmitting Set AN/DKIT..7
(XN-2) 42 "
1-5 Programs of PCM Telemetry Equipment 43
1-6 Operating Parameters of PCM Systems 44
1-7 Telemetry Transmission of PCM (existing
systems) 45
1-8 Digilock Specifications 47
1-9 Digilock Tested Environmental Capability 47
1-10 Tested Application of a Digilock System 47
2-1 Tentative Nomenclature for Aero-Space
Transducers 53
2-2 Error Components in Syncbro Transmission
Systems 73
2-3 Sources of Errors in Electrical Resolvers 77 -
2-4 Typical Average Gage Factors and Temperature
Coefficients 92
2-5 Typical Flow Ranges of Semi--Rotary Piston
Flowm ete r 113
2-6 Typical Ranges of Turbine Flowmeters 117
Z-7 Comparison of Differential Pressure Meters 124 K
Z-8 Classification of Mass Flowmeters IZ6
2-9 True Mass Flowmeters 141
2-10 Comparison Table for Digital Transducers 151
2-11 Manned Space Flights as of March 1962 262-
3-1 Factors to Consider in Selecting Transducers Z76
3-2 Transducer Applications in Drone Aircr.-ft 283
3-3 Transducer Applications in Jet Fighter Air-
craft Test Programs 285 .. '

WADD TR 61-67 xxxviii

VOLI REV1

-%
A-..--
%.
4-N.•'-.:' V%'" '.%.'"- "% " s.-:
-.. ... '.-'"-''>-:'-.....-"........".".-..'-.,..'-..-.,.."-....,-''-. ',. " "'.'.,.--"'-,
Table Tit! e Pageo

3-4 Transducer Applications in. an Aerodynamic

Missi.le Test. Program 297 .
3-5 United States and Russian Satellites Lunar Probes
and Space Probes, 1957 to June 1960, (obtained from"
statistics prepared by the National Aexonautics and
Space Administration) 318
3- 6 Minimum Instrumentation Requirements for a .
Manned Orbital Type Space Vehicle 327
3-.7 Table of Space Magnetometer Specifications 339
3 8 Measurements of Vital Physiological Elemzi.ts
of Astronaut Shepard Before and After M.R-3 Flight 364
4-.1 Reports on Performance of Telemetry Transducerc 368
5-1 Static Methods (Zero Frequency) 434
5-2 Steady State Sinusoidal Method 434
5-3 Small Lightweight Piezoelectric Vibration Transducer 435
5-4 Fixed Points of the International Temperature Scale 436
5_5 Platinum Resistance Thermometers 436
5-6 Thermocouples, Thermocouple Matertslts,
Pyrometer Indicators 437
5-7 Optical Pyrometers, Ribbon Filament Lamps 437
5-8 Liquid- In- Glass Thermometers 438
5-9 Calibration Services, Pressure and Vacuum 439,....
5-10 Foice Mctasurements: Proving Rings and Ofher " "
Elastic Load Measuring Devices 44
5-11 441 - .'.'

5-12 acornsst.c Measurements 44?2.

5-- 13 Metal Capacity Standards 443
5-14 Volumetric Glassvwa:,-e 443
5- 1!5

I
Denuity 444 -
5- 16 H-Iydrometers and Thermohydrcineters 414
5-17 Fluid Meters 444
5-16 Gas Volume Measuring InstrU'rte.ts 44 ""
5- 19 Wu-C Speed Indicators 444
5 '0 X-Ray and Gamina,-Ray Instrumnents 445
J- 21 X-Ray P:orectivr Materials 4.45 k'
5 X.- }Ray Inspections 446 -'

•2 Gamma.- Ray Measurem enits of Radioactive

Preparation 4,-6
5- Neutron Mea.surements 447
5- Radioactivity 447
5-26
5-27
Aadioamctry
Stanua-rd inlandescent Lamps Furnishc
N13S (Approximately 10Z volt,)
tby
448

4.--''
.1-
WýADD TR 6:-67 xxxix
VOL 1 ]i\T' I
........... ::

- .-.. .•-

N- .. . . .. ..... .. . .-- -- -.-- 6 C

 Table Title Page

5-28 Standardizationi of Lamps Submitted 449

5-29 Photometric Instruments and Accessories 449
5-30 R.atinge of Incandescent Lamps 449
31 Relectometry Standards Issued '50
5- 3 1 Glossieetrrv 450
5-33 Lovibond Glassos 450
5-34 Othier Photo--, etric and Related Standa:rds
Supplied by NBS 450
5-35 Spc:tropho~ornetric Standards 451
5- 36 Spectrophotomwtric Measurements 45Z .
5-37 Colorirmetry Ser-nices 45Z
F-38 Activities Authorized to Pos sesos AMA and
Aýt Standards 460
5-39 Activities Aarhori-ed to Pos-sess Base 'tandards 461
5-40 Testing and Calibration Facilities, West-ern
Primary Standards Lab 464
5-41 Electrical! Electronic Measurement Accuracv ,$
Capabilities, Avco Research and Dcvelopment Div. 465
5-42 Physical Meaýsuremer.ý.s, Accuracy Capabilit-es,
Including M•etrology, Itardneacs, Vibration 466
5-43 Temperatu-e Measurement Accuracy
Capabilities, Avco 467
5-44 Pressure Measurements Accuracy Capabilities, Avco 467
5-45 Testing and Calibration Facilities, Sandia Corp. 468
5. 46 Testing and ýelibration Facilities,, Sandia Corp. 470
5-47 Instramentation Capability List, U.S. Naval Missile
Center 471 .,
5-48 Testing and Calibration Facilities, U.S. Naval.
Ordnance Test Station 473
5-4.9 Testing and Calibration Facilities, Electrical
Testing Labs, Inc. 473
5-50 Testing and Calibration Facilities, U.S. Naval
Air Uvet stition 474
5-51 ComwrxnInstru-tentation Vlasurements and Calibration
Ste&udarde, U.S. Naval Air Test Station 476
5-52 Testing and Calibration Facilities, Rototest Labs, Ric 477
5-53 Testituz ind Calibration Facilities, NASA Langley Field 480
5-54 Te s ting and Calibration Facilities, JPL 482.
Jles tiiig and Calibration Facilities, 6593D Test Group 485
5-5,6 Testing and Calibration Facilities, hiland Testing Labs 486
5-57 Testing and Calibration Facilities, Baldwin- Lima- ..-
Hamnilton Corp. 487

WADD TR 61-67 xxxx . -

VOL I REV 1 ,.,.

". V" % %". ..

,-".
 Tabl, Title Pa_.

5-58 Testing and Calibration Facilities, Cryogenics, Inc. 488

5.-59 Testing and Calibration Facilities, Endevco Corp. 489
5-60 Testing and Calibration Facilities, Rad. Inc. 490
5-61 Testing and Calibration Facilities, Associated
Testing Labs 494 -.-

I- I Subcarrier Bands (Appendix I) 1-19 -

I- z Commutation Rates - Unseparated Data

(Appendix I) 1-24
1-3 Commutation Specification for Automatic
Decommutation (Appendix 1) 1- 28
1-4 PDM Modulation of FM/FM Sub- Carrier Channels
(Appendix 1) 1-31
I-5 Bit Rate and Receiver IF Bandwidth (3 db points)
(Appendix I) 1-34
IV-_ Summary of Bridge Equations (Appendix IV) IV-Z5
IV-Z Definition of Terms (Thrustmeter-Appendix IV) IV-37

S6X
.

N:5:
*- -- S_

VO-L. -E.I

- . -' ..

- -- - - - 6-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
 SECTION I

TELEMETRY SYSTEMS

1-1 INTRODUCTION

Trhe word "telemeter" is derived from the Greek words

"Ttele" which means "far" and "metron" which means "measure."
Thus telemetry is the art of measuring from afar. 9
Although almost any measurement apparatus or communi-
cation system might be called a telemetry system dependent upon
ones interpretation of "measure" and "far," this section is concerned
principally with telemetry systems used to monitor parameters
associated with aircraft, missiles, and space vehicles. At least
to date, the bulk of the output of the telemetering industry in the
United States is used in this connection. Industrial applications such
as remote monitoring by electrical utility and oil companies and other
scientific applications such as oceanography, hydrography, and
physiological measurements will be discussed briefly.

The telemetry system can be divided functionally into

three parts. (Figure 1-1) These are:

I) The transducers - which are located at the remote

station and transform the physical quantities to
be monitored into electrical signals.

2) The transmission system -which consists of:

a device for transforming the electrical signals
from the transducers into one suitable for trans- '
mission to the receiving station (remote processor);
the transmission and receiving devices; and device
for transforming the output of the receiver to
forms suitable for display and interpretation (receiving La
processor).

3) The display and interpretation system - which consists

of the devices which calculate the desired parameter
and display them for final interpretation by automatic
or human means.

Manuscript released by author May 1962 for publication as a WADD

Technical Report.

WADD TR61-67 1 .
VOL I REV 1

--------------------------------------------- JN'..%%
r -___-- - -___ ____- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - I

TRANSMITTER RECEHVER -

PROCESSOR SYTMPROCESSOR"

L
, -J
-

TRANSDUCERS DISPLAY AND. .

:NTERPRETAT.IONn, ?

Figure 1-1 Functional Diagram

WADD TR
61T-R67ANSMSSIONI
"VOL I REVI
 In the broadest (and most realistic) sense, the purpose
of the telemetry system is to provide data in such a form that
the interpretation of this data will lead to correct decisions con-
cerning the remote quantities or devices which are monitored. .
Therefore, the transducer must be considered by the systems
engineer as a part of the telemetry system. Of equal importance, .
the transmission system must be considered by the measurement -.-
engineer as a part of the measurement device. For this reason
the first section of the "Telemetry Transducer Handbook"
will be devoted to a general discussion of the transmission sys-
tern and its relationship to the over-all measurement problem.

1-2 SELECTION OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

As was stated in the preceding paragraph, the purpose of -

a telemetry system is to monitor remote occurrences so that correct
decisions can be made concerning the physical quantities or devices
associated with those occurrences. The variety of measurement
problems, however, have thus far precluded attempts to relate in
a general sense the characteristics of the transmission system
with the ability to make correct decisions. Therefore, the selection
of transmission systemn characteristics has usually been divided
into two steps:

1) Selection of the measurements and transducers;

and evaluation of the characteristics of the data
which may be expected from the transducers and
the accuracy which must be maintained by the
transmission system.

2) Selection of the transmission system characteristics

based upon cost in terms of power consumption,
spectral occupancy, size, weight, reliability and
dollars. These are functions of the data charac-
teristics and accuracies raquired.

As can be imagined, both of the two steps mentioned

above are quite complex involving many considerations which are
special to the particular use envisioned for the telemetry system.
Therefore, a single all erncompassing equation is not available
which allows satisfactory determination of system parameters in a

WADD TR 61- 67 3
VOLI REV1

, ~~
•-., ~~~...
•- ,-.-,. , ,• .'- - .-. •.... .- _..-.' .....-.... •...-...........-............... p •
 completely straightforward fashion. Rather, the system parameters
must be chosen on the basis of the theoretical relationships between
system parameters which are available to the chooser, upon his
knowledge of available hardware, and upon his past experience,
after thorough consideration has been given to the purpose of the
over-all telemetry system. This is true whether the system en-
visioned is to be specialized or "general purpose" since the two
differ only in degree of specialization.

There has been much analysis done in the area of relating S

the required transmitter power, the spectral occupancy, the
transmission system characteristics (including type of transmission
system and adjustment of internal parameters within the system)
and the accuracy required of the data (Ref. 1 through 60 ).
For the most part the analses have been based upon idealistic
assumptions of the data characteristics (data with spectral
characteristics corresponding to band limited white noise). Ideal-
ized filter characteristics have also been assumed in many of the
analyses. Although these analyses have necessarily made approx-
imations they represent an important tool to system designers
since they deal with some of the most definitive and complex
relationships involved in selection of system parameters.

It is not feasible to present transmission system analysis -

in this section since they belong more properly in a book on the .•
subject. Instead, a discussion of the different techniques available
to the telemetry user will be presented. This will be done in two
steps. The first part will describe the pr-inciple of operation of
the various techniques and discuss from a general point of view
the principal considerations involved in the use of each technique.
The second part will discuss specific cases of past applications
of the techriques. Throughout, an attempt has been made to include
sufficient references so that the reader with more specialized
interest can investigate his problem in greater depth if he so des,•src.
Due to the large number of references used in this section the ref-
erences are collected and listed numerically in Section V1.

1-3 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS

a. Multiplexing

In most telemetry applications, it is desired to perform

a number of different measurements. Although, a separate trans-
mission link could be used for each measurement, the problem-s of

WADD TR 61- 67 4
VOL I REV 1

• ~~.•.-,-.,.-..,.... -...-...-.-.-..-..-.. .......

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 cost in terms of power, spectral occupancy, weight, size and
dollars normally precludes this possibility. Therefore, it
is common to send many measurements over a single transmission
link. This process is called multiplexing.

There are two types of multiplexing in common

use today. These are:

1) Frequency division multiplexing

2) Time-division multiplexing

These techniques will be discussed in more detail below.

b. Frequency Division Multiplexin 14

The basic operation of a frequency division multiplex

system is illustrated in Figure 1-2. The measurement signals
from the transducers are used to modulate "subcarrier" oscillators
_
tuned to different frequencies. The outputs of the subcarrier
oscillators are then linearly summed in voltage and the resulting
composite signal used to modulate the prime transmitter. At the
receiving site the composite signal is obtained from thc receiver
demodulator and fed to a number of band-pass filters which are
tuned to the center frequencies of the subcarrier oscillators. The
outputs of these filters are then demodulated to obtain the individual
measurement signals. Thus in frequency division multiplex sys-
terns, the individual measurements are transmitted in such a form
that they occupy different regions of the video or baseband frequency
spectrum.

All types of modulation can be used for both the subcarrier

oscillators and the prime carrier; that is: frequency modulation -.
(FM), phase modulation (PM), amplitude modulation (AM), suppressed - -
carrier amplitude modulation (SC) and single sideband amplitude
modulation (SS). Frequency division multiplex systems are normally
designated by listing the type of modulation used for the subcarriers
followed by the type of modulation used for the prime carrier. Thus
FM/AM would indicate a frequency division multiplex system in
which the subcarriers are frequency modulated by the measurement
and the prime carrier ii amplitude modulated by the composite _
subcarrier signals. Almost all combinations of sub- and prime-
carrier modulation techniques have been used in the past. However,

WADD TR 61-67 5
VOL I REV I -

%-%

• j rfg- j ' • , . " . ; *

, ' %. -. -
.'- ' ,%*..- - %
- .- . %. - -~ *)q. - " "- *.-_ -' - i , - -' . - • ' " . - - , . , . --- .. . ... -- '
 SUB-CARRIER BANDPASS SUB-CARRIER
TRANSDUCER OSCILLATORS -*.~
FI LTERS DEMODULATORS

OUTPUTS F

:SUMME:R XMR RVRf

NN

Figure 1-2 1'reque-ncy Division Multiplexed System

WADD TR 61-67 6
VOL I REVi1

q~~
-~-
FM/FM is by far the most common technique in use today.

The principal sources of errors in a frequency division 0

multiplex transmission system are:

I) Drifts

2) Bandlimiting "

3) Cross Talk

4) Distortion

5) RF Link Noise

The most objectionable drifts are those associated

with modulation and demodulation of the subcarriers. If the drifts
are slow their effect can be greatly diminished by use of calibration
signals. The errors due to drifts are not fundamental to the system
and hence their magnitude depends upon the ability of the circuit
designer. For the purposes of this report errors of this type will
be called systematic errors.

Errors due to bandlimiting occur throughout Vth systemn

wherever the data is dynamic in nature (as is all data except the
trivial case of dc). The amount of error caused by bandlimiting
is a direct function of the spectral characteristics of the data and
the amount of spectrum which is to be allocated to the telemetry
system. Hence, this type of error is fundamental to the system
in that for a fixed type of data (non-ideal) and spectrum allocation
(finite) the error cannot be eliminated regardless of the circuit
design. The errors due to bandlimiting are most severe when the
bandlimiting takes place directly on the data; that is: prior to
modulation or after demodulation of the subcarrier. Bandiimiting
of the modulated subcarrier signals either in the subcarrier
oscillators or in the band-pass filters at the receiving station
also can cause objectionable error unless care is taken. The
bandlimiting of the modulated prime carrier in the transmitter or
receiver i-f is of less bother but cannot be ignored completely. In
practical systems the bandlimiting errors may be at least as dependent
on the phase linearity of the filters involved as they are on amplitude
roll -off.

r --
WADD TR 61-67 7
VOL I REV I

c;V c$ V... . .f.i..V.V. . . .

 Gross-talk errors in frequency decision multiplex
systems are of two varieties, one which is systemnatic and one
which is fundamental. The first of these is caused by non- :
linearities in the summing amplifier prior to the transmitter
or in the modulation or demodulation process of the prime
carrier. Non-linearities at these points in the system cause
production of frequency components in the video or base-
band spectrum that would not otherwise be present. If these
additional components lie in a frequency range which is passed
by the band-pass filters at the receiving station, they will appear
at the outputs of those channels as errors. Since in theory no
limit exists on the linearity which can be achieved, these errors-
are systematic. The second type of cross-talk errors are those
due to overlap in the baseband spectral content of the information
channels. Since non-idealistic data spectra contain tails which
die off but do not go to zero, there will always be some overlap
which passes through band-pass filters adjacent in frequency and
causes error in those channels. The amount of error from this
source is dependent upon the frequency spacing between the sub-
carrier channels and the nature of the data and hence is fundamental
to the system.

Distortion error is error due to non- linearities in the

subcarricr modulator and demodulator (not to be confused with a

cross-talk errors due to non-linearities in the prime carrier

modulator and demodulator). As in the case of drift, errors due
to distortion at this poiný in the system can be alleviated some-
what by use of calibration signals. This class of error is sys -
temnatic.

The RE link noise causes errors which are randomn

in nature but are fundamental to the system since their magnitude
depends upon almost all of the transmission. system parameters.
The principal contributors to this noise are: the receiving station
front end, galactic sources and man-made interference.

Although the sources of error which have been discussed

should normally represent the principal ones of the frequency division
transmission system, others can be of significance when the trans-
ducer outputs are low level. In these cases amplifiers are normally
used between the transducers and the subcarrier modulator. In such .

cases the randomn noise contributed by the first stage of the amplifier, C
errors due to common mode signals on the transducer lines, and
errors due to electrical pickup can be significant. The analytical

WADD TR 61-67 8
VOL I REV 1

n.- N
 treatments contained in references 1-23 deal with frequency division
systems.

c. Time-Division Multiplex Systems

The operation of a time-division multiplex system

from a functional scandpoint is illustrated in Figure 1-3. The
signals from the transducers are fed to a commutating device which Lz*
samples the channels sequentially. Thus, the output of the commutator
(also referred to as the multiplexer) is a series of pulses, the ampli- " ,
tudes of which correspond to the sampled values of the input channels
from the the transducers. This train of pulses is then passed through
a device which converts it to a form suitable for modulating the trans-
mitter. At the receiving station the process is reversed. The de-
modulated output from the receivers is passed through a converter
which reproduces the pulse train that existed following the com-
mutator at the transmission site. This pulse train can then be
decommutated to produce pulses with values corresponding to samples
of the original measurement signals. In many cases, interest in the
value of the measurement cannot be guaranteed to coincide with time
at which a sample is available. In such cases it is then necessary -t
to interpolate in some fashion between samples. The interpolation .'.
process may also be used to produce a continuous time waveform
from the sarnnmed values

As was the case in frequency division systems the modulation

of the transmitter may take any form, that is AM, FM, PM, etc.
However, the principal distinction between time-division systems lies
in the form of the converter. In this regard the types of systems can v-s.
be divided into two broad categories:

1) Analog Systems

2) Digital Systems

The analog systems are those in which the output of

the converter varies continuously in some fashion, or in other
words is an analog of the input voltage to the converter. In the digital
systems, however, the converter is capable of putting out only a
discrete number of waveforms, although the input voltage may vary
continuously. Thus, the principal distinction between analog and
digital systems lies in whether the modulation waveform can be
varied continuously in some fashion, or can take only discrete values.
In this respect, all of the frequency division systems discussed

WADD TR 61- 67 9
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. S... .- .- . -. ..- - - - -. - -.
... . -N ........
- - - %
, - ,.....- .- .. - - - - - .:
- .,
-
.:-.
-- -
* TRANSDUCERS
INTER POLATOR
OUTPUTS
A I, A A

>11)>YB B
RECEIVER
CONVERTER -WXM~TR RCVR COVTE

COMMUTATOR

-I DECOMMUTATORI

N
N *I

NN

Figure 1-3 Time Division Multiplexed System

WADD TR 61-67 10
VOLI REVi
 previously are considered to be analog systems. Since the
properties of the analog and digital time-division systems are
somewhat different we will present first the principle of operation ':4
of the major analog time division techniques followed by a dis-
cussion of the principal sources of error in these systems and
then follow with a similar discussion of the digital time-division
systems.
S~~'...4e
(1) Analog Time -Division Slystens

The primnar-y analog time-division multiplexed

systems in use today are:

1) Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)

2) Pulse duration or width modulation K:"l

(PDM) or (PWM)

3) Pulse position or time modulation

(PPM or PTM) ''.

As has been mentioned any of these techniques

can be used to modulate the prime carrier in any fashion. The
system. designation normally lists thc ty•-Fpe uf converter first
3
followed by the type of prime carrier modualtion. That is PDM/PM
would be a pulse duration type converter, the output of which is used
to phase modulate the prime carrier. WV>:

(a) Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) .,

A pulse amplitude modulation system is one

in which the output of the commutator is used directly to modulate
the prime trarit,,ditter. Thus the converter is simply a pair of
wires. Hence PAM is the simplest time-division multiplex system.
Indeed PAM wavetrains are produced as the first step in virtually
all time-division multiplex systems.

The pulse amplitude wave trains may take

several forms, two of which are illustrated in Figure 1-4. The
principal difference lies in the duty cycle system. The length of
time necessary to sample all channels is normally referred to as
a frame time. In order to be able to identify the sample at the
receiving station it is necessary to insert frame synchronization.

WADD TR 61-67 11
\VOLI REVl

S ,,, . .. . .... _..... ...,.. .,...,....

. . . . . .,:.
. ..,.---.:
. .=....:.:
..=..
- -...- . -:.:.:
. -. -. -. *.=..... . . . . .========
j •;¢,%--.-.;/,-:-,,,.; ,; , .. . . . .. . . . . . . .
 .~7 . --

u -4

UU)

A Ln

}IV a- -'--

z4

j7~ = J

126
Several different methods can be used to designate frame. The one,
illustrated in Figure 1-4 consists of forcing several consecutive channels
to a level below the minimum allowable data value. Since drifts and non-
linearities in the system cause error directly, it is also common to -
transmit calibration pulses as shown. The data is offset in such a fashion
that channels with signal outputs which are capable of both positive and
negative polarities are centered about the half scale value.

Figure 1-4b illustrates a 50% duty cycle PAM wavetrain. As

in the case of the 100% duty cycle wavetrain the frame synchronization
for 50% duty cycle is designated by several consecutive channels returned
to a reference level which is also returned to this level during half of each '["
channel time.

The 50% duty cycle wavetrain has been used to a greater extent
in the past due to the relative ease of synchronizing at the receiving ,."'-'
station. In general the 100% duty cycle system occupies a smaller spec-
trumn than that of the 50% duty cycle system. Also a longer time period
is available for filters in the system to reach the full pulse height. How-
ever, the dead time available in the 50% duty cycle system allows the use-
o1 circuitry to dump the transients in the storage devices of the video
filter hence reducing crosstalk between successive channels.

(b) Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM)

Pulse duration modulation is a time-division multiplexed

technique wherein the duration of pulses is varied in proportion to the
modulation signal. The pulse train, then, consists of a string of pulses
with different widths as illustrated in Figure 1-5. Guard time is allowed
at both the beginning and the end of each pulse to reduce the difficulties
associated with interchannel crosstalk. Since the information is carried
in terms of pulse width, drifts and noa-lih:,earities in the system do not
have as great an effect upon data accuracy as they do in an equi•a•lent
PAM system. PDM systems are analog in nature, however, since the
pulse duration is varied continuously rather discretely. Thus RF link
noise and interference as well as system transients introduced by band
limiting dJrectly affect the accuracy of tho data.

7.4

WADD TR61-67 13
VOLI RE..
 '-i!>

Lr) 4.

rd ;0

U) n

0)

410

6-6 oAD '

VOLI REV1
14 ~ -
 (c) Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

Pulse position modulation is similar to pulse duration modu- -

lation except that rather than using the entire duration of the pulse, only
the trailing edge of the pulses are transmitted to identify the pulse width.
It is used principally in conjunction with an amplitude modulated prime
carrier since its principal advantage lies in the small percentage of time -

that pulses are present, thus allowing relatively high peak powers and low
average powers. The wider system bandwidths required (as compared to
PDM and PAM) makes its use in conjunction with a frequency modulated -
prime carrier undesirable, since the reduction in average power for the .
FM system could not be realized.

A typical pulse position waveform is shown in Figure 1-6

along with the equivalent pulse duration waveform. The synchronization
pulses shown also may vary from system to system. Although pulses
corresponding to the leading edge are not transmitted in the system -
illustrated this may be done to reduce synchronization problems at the -
receiving station.

(d) Errors in Analog Time-Division Multiplex Systems

The principal sources of error in analog time-division multi- .

plex systems are closely related to those in frequency division multiplex
systems. These are:

1) Drift and non-linearity

2) Bandlimiting
3) Crosstalk
4) Interpolation errors
5) RF link noise

With the exception of pulse ampliLude modulation, only drifts

and non-linearities associated with equinment prior to (nnd thw . %nc
remote converters and after (and including) the receiver converter are
of primary concern to analog time division systems. As is the case in
the frequency division systems this drift and non-linearity is systematic
in that the amount is dependent entirely on the state-of-the-art in circuit
design, and calibration signals can be of considerable aid.

Errors classified as bandlimiting errors in time-division

systems are produced only in the equipment preceding the multiplexer.
Errors due to bandwidth restrictions in other parts of the system are
usually classified under different names. Since, in theory, there is no ,. ,•
reason to bandlimit the system at this point, these errors are also

WADD TR 61- 67 15
VOLI REV1

..-......... - -.-
 Zero Half Full 1231

Data Channels

Pulse Duration

Zero Half Full 1 i 2 3

Frame Sync
Calibration Data Channels -

Pulse Position

Guard . Fig.
Time 1-.6 .. Pulse Position Waveform ,. I"".

WADD TR 601-67
VOL REV1 I 16
systematic in nature and depend upon the phase and amplitude response
of the filters involved a, well as the character of the data.

Crosstalk in a time-division system normally occurs from

bandlimiting of the pulse video signal causing transients from channel r.
pulses to effect the pulses of the channels following. The relationship
between bandlimiting and crosstalk varies fronm system to system. There
is no crosstalk due to non-linearity in time-division systems. Crosstalk
in a time-division system is a fundamental error.

Interpolation error comes about when an attempt is made to

reconstruct a continuous waveform from the sampled values of the original -"-"
waveform available to the receiving station. The amount of interpolation .'--
error is a function of the characteristic of the data which was sampled,
the method of interpolation and the sampling rate and, hence, is a funda-
mental error in the system. The power spectrum of a waveform consist- .
ing of impulse samples of a continuous waveform is made up of images -
of the spectrum of the original waveform (Figure 1-7). The purpose of -
the interpolation process is to recover intact the image appearing about
dc while ignoring frequency content belonging to other images (which
appear about the sampling frequency and its harmonics). Normally, the
interpolation process is such that it introduces distortion due to bandlimit- .-
ing in the spectrum about zero frequency and allows some content of the
unwanted images into the output. These two types of error have been
termed errors of omission and errors of cvxniniSion respectively. The
errors of commission are also called foldover errors and aliasing errors.
It should be noted that errors of omission are almost directly equivalent
to errors due to bandlimiting in the subcarrier bandpass filters of frequency
division systems. Also errors of commission are almost directly equiva-
lent to errors due to adjacent channel crosstalk in frequency division systems. --
Thus the fundamental relationships imposed on system parameters by fixing -
interpolation error in a time-division system has almost a direct counter-
part in frequency division systems.

The '-. 1lin.k. errur8i, as in the frequency division system, are

fundamental being functions of the recei--.ed signal power at the receiving
station and many other system parameters.

As was the case in frequency division systems additional errors

not listed can occur when the measurement device output is at low level.
The anmount of error varies dependent upon whether a separate amplifier
is to be supplied for each channel prior to commutating or whether the
commutating or multiplexing is to be done at low level. Until fairly
recently it was not considered feasible to perform low level commutation
in systems with missile environment. References 1-9 and 26-36 consider
various aspects of time division systemns. References 32-36 consider -.
specifically the interpolation problem. --.

WADD TR61-67 17
VOL I REV I.

J.-..

w C-%-
.4-.----'."..-..-..--',%...,, " .. ". "- "-.'' ..- - . ''. ".--"•
""i. '. ' ' - 1tt' ¶
 POWER DENSITY

INTERPOLATION FILTER

IMAGES
ORIGINAL
DATA
SPECTRUM

-f, 2FREC
ERRORS OF ERRORS OF FREOUENCY
COMMISSION OMISSION

Figure 1-7 Power Density Spectrum of Sampled Data Waveform

WADD TR 61-67 18
VOL I REV I

,,--,

------
 (2) Digital Systems

The output of the converter in a digital system

can take on only certain discrete forms. Each of the possible outputs @-
of the converter can be thought of as a separate message. If the input
to the converter is a continuously variable voltage, such as would be the
case in many measurement problems, it is common to divide the range
of probable variation into segmnents of voltage. The converter has an
output waveform assigned to each segment and is constructed such that
it supplies the output corresponding to the segment occupied by the input
waveform. The process of segmenting the input range of variation is
known as quantizing and the segments themselves are referred to as
quantization levels. The converter output is usually called a code arid
the converter itself either a coder or analog to digital converter (A to
D converter).

As may be imagined an unlimited number of differ-

ent types of digital systems could be envisioned since an unlimited number
of different code waveforms are available. However, a large majority
of digital telemetry systems use a code which is made up of pulses which
are weighted in a binary fashion. The interval of time allotted for each
pulse is quite often referred to as a bit time (in teletype this is called a
baud time). The codes are distinguishable from one another by the presence
or absence of the pulses. Thus the w...avef1,orm in•
-- each bIt position can take
on one of two possible configurations. Codes of this variety will be called
two-level codes herein to avoid confusion with the binary weighting of the
individual bits which will be discussed in the following section. Along this
line it is worth noting that quite often in literature the word binary is used
interchangeably to describe either or both of these properties of the code
(that is: number of levels and weighting) and hence onc needs to take care w..
in its interpretation. Codes with binary weighting of the bit values are
invariably two level codes. However, the converse is by no means true.

The discussion of digital systems will be divided ---.

into four sections. The first will concern the binary, two-level, pulse
coding mentioned above. The next section will discuss a different variety ---
of two-level pulse coding known as orthogonal coding. The third section
will discuss briefly other forms of coding. Lastly, the principal sources
of error in digital systems will be presented. All of the digital systems
discussed in this section are of necessity time-division multiplexed systems.

WADD TR 61- 67 19
VOL I REV I

S~~~~......................,.... .. ... .-... :..............--..-:::

•.--..--
•",.,.:,:,.•..:,;.h'¢
.,,:: -'( ,:-:- .'..-'-'--', . ,-'-',:,
.... . . . . . .. .,.-...,...-.. ...-...
". . . .-.. .... ...-. "-.. .-.-. .-.
".
 -' --.

(a) Binary Pulse Code. Modulation (PCM)

Two-level, binary weighted, pulse coded systems have been

used to such an extent in the past that the abbreviation ior pulse code
modulation (PCM) has been quite often used to imply a c.;ystern of this
type*. The weighting of the codes are illustrated in Figure 1-8, As can
be seen, the code which stands for each quantizing interval is represented "
by a sequence of bit intervals which are distinguished by the presence or
absence of a pulse. The weighting assigned to each bit interval is a
binary number. The total value of the code can be obtained by adding
up the weighting values of all bits with pulses present (this can also be
thought of as multiplying the weighting assignments by "zero" or "one"
depending on the absence or presence of pulses, and summing the results).
The code illustrated is a three bit code which has eight possible values. LAM
The number of values or quantizing levels which can be represented by -- -
a sequence of n bits weighted in binary fashion is 2 n.

Figure 1-9 illustrates the entire coding procedure where a

three bit code (eight quantizing levels) is again used to simplify the
illustration.. The zero to full scale range of the input analog signal is
divided into quantizing segments as shown and the quantizing segments
numbered. The samples of the analog waveform are coded corresponding
'lequantizn lflLV±
interva JL jJ±C -a L)y -3- 6a±i-.pleu CL

Thus far the transmission of "one" or "zero" value during a bit

interval has been referred to as being designated by the presence or
absence of a pulse, In actual practice this waveforrm can take on many
differen;I forms. Figure 1-10 shows a number of the different waveforms
which can be used. The non-return-to-zero waveform is probably the
most commonly used of those shown. However, all of those shown have
either been used in systems to date or are to be used. When the non- .
return-to-zero or return-to-zero waveforms are used it is common
practice Lu use a pre-modulation filter to round off the corners of the
modulating waveform. _'

*Strictly speaking, however, a system of pulses which can take on four

levels rather than two and has weighting of bits other than binary should
also be considered a pulse code modulation system.

WADD TR 61-67 20
VOL I REV i

- -o
 Fig. 1-8. Decimal and Binary Equipment

Binary Pulse
Decimal .
Code Group

0 000

1 001

2 010

4 100

5 101 L.L..I
6 110 JJ

* Dashed line represents absence of pulse

I
7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

IIl II~ Il I i~ III Iii I Ii ,I iii i;

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Fig. 1-9. Illustration of Pulse Coding

WADD TR 61- 67
VOL I REV 1
%, -,,. ,'
 * -:.(::

1) ... .-- - NRZ (CHANGE)

0 0 1 0 1 1 1

2) 0 RZ RETURN TO ZERO

0 0 1 0 1 1 1

3) 0'-NRZ (MARK)

0 0 1 0 1 1 1

4) RB
4) 0RETURN TO BIAS

0 0 1 0 1 1

5) 0 PHASE REVERSAL

0 0 1 0 1 1 1

+ :.- -::.
6) 0---------------------- SINE WAVE

0o 0 1 0 1 1.1

7) DI PULSE

0 0 1 0 1 1 1

PHASE REVERSAL
8) J1 IiI /l IOF HIGH rn-"•UENCY
CAKRIER -'

0 0 1 0 1 1 1

9) PHASE DIFFERENCE

0 0 1 0 1 1 1 "' ''

Figure 1-10 Binary Modulation

WADD TR 61-67 22
VOL I REV I

. --. ~---
- - - - - - - ... . - 4
 The arrangement of the code sequence in a binary transmission
system is called the format. In general the format is defined by the
arrangement of bits in each code group representing a sample value (which
is sometimes called a word) and the arrangement of these code groups in .
respect to one another. The bits within a particular coded word may con-
sist of: information bits which are weighted binarily as previously described
to represent the sample value; a parity bit which takes on the polarity
necessary to make the total number of one bits per word either even or
odd (dependent upon whether even or odd parity is to be used); and synchro-
nization bits which are normally of fixed polarity. Either or both of the
latter types of bits might be missing depending upon the requirements of
the system. Parity bits serve the purpose of allowing detection of words
with a single bit in error. However, parity is of questionable value in a
radio transmission link since only in a relatively small area of signal-to-
noise ratios is the probability of a single bit error probable enough to be
a bother and much more probable than the occurrence of two errors within
the word. For this reason parity bits are quite often not included in the
transmitted format of radio links. However, in the ground data handling
process parity bits are almost always used since the statistics associated
with the introduction of errors in the code by the data handling equipment
are quite favorable to their detection by parity. The synchronization or
timing bits which may appear every word or may appear after a certain
small sequence of words are usually called word synchronization bits.
Virtually all presently operating binary PCM systems have included some
form of word synchronization, although some presently under development
do not.

The arrangement of words in respect to one another is quite

flexible and varies between almost all systems. In many systems it is
possible to include words containing different numbers of information
bits. This is particularly the case when one bit words (which are some-
times called bi-level or events data) are to be inter-mixed with words of
a larger fixed number of information bits. In the simplest cases the k -d
information channels are sampled sequentially with fixed word length
(such as was illustrated in Figure 1-3). In this case each word represents
the code for a separate information channel, appearing sequentially in
time. The sequence is repeated each time the commutator completes
a cycle. This entire cycle is normally called a frame. In most recent
PCM systems the programming of channels within a frame has been
quite complex, with some channels being sampled more often than others.
This can be best visualized by considering a commutator with a very •"!

WADD TR 61-67 23
VOL I R.EV 1

. -.- . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ----. '-?

% . - -
large number of terminals with some of the terminals tied together so that
some channels are sampled more often than others.* It is necessary to
also supply timing information to designate the start of the frame. This is
normally done by transmitting a unique or identifiable code pattern in one or
more word positions.,S.

(b) Orthogonal Coding Systems --. '.7"

In recent years considerable study has been devoted to the use

of codes other than the ordinary binary code described in Section 1, 1-2c.
as a means of transmitting information. Perhaps the most: interesting
category of codes is the orthogonal variety. In the early work on infor-
mation theory it was recognized that codes could be chosen which allowed
an exchange between system sensitivity and system bandwidth. The
orthogonal coding technique accomplishes this exchange in a fashion
similar to that predicted. Thus, orthogonal systems utilizing relatively
large RF spectrum space can be received with less transmitted power
than other systems transmitting the same information under equivalent
conditions. Although, other techniques, such as high deviation frequency
modulation, have been used in the past to exchange bandwidth for sensitivity,
they do not perform the exchange as favorably as do the orthogonal systems.

The principle of operation involves the use of only a few of a

large number of possible binary codes to represent the quantized signal .
levels. The set of codes to be used are selected in such a fashion that
they are mutually orthogonal; that is the cross correlation between any
two different codes selected is zero or negative. The correct code can be
identified at the receiving 3tation by cross correlating the input word
signals with all of the possible transmitted words and selecting the cor-
relator with the largest output. Since the averaging time in the correlation
process is an entire word rather than a single bit time, the noise power
as compared to a binary system is reduced.

*The different means producing such a program are sometimes referred

to as: super commutation, subcommutation and programmed multiplexing.
Subcorninutation implies that a single channel which appears periodically
is supplied by another commutator so that each revolution of the prime
commutator, one of the subcommutator channels appear. Super corn-
mutation and prograrnmmed multiplexing are similar in that they can present
the same format but differ principally in technique of supplying the format.
2
WADD TR 61-67 24
VOL I REV I
 An eight level orthogonal code along with the equivalent eight
level binary code are illustrated in Figures 1-11 and 1-12. As can be
seen four binary bits are required to achieve the orthogonal combinations
meaning that eight of the binary combinations in the orthogonal code are
not used. The code levels are shown as plus and minus E rather than one
and zero since the evaluation of the cross correlation function requires
the "zero" bit to have equal value of opposite polarity from the "one" bit.
As can be seen the average of the product of any two of the orthogonal
combinations is zero or negative whereas this is not true of the binary
code (the average produce varying from 1/3E to -E). The assignment
of levels to the orthogonal code is arbitrary since the receiving station
identifies the codes word by word rather than bit by bit.

The total gain in power available from use of an orthogonal

system as compared to an ordinary binary system can. be shown to be
approximately one-half the number of binary bits necessary to achieve
A
the number of quantizing levels. Thus for an orthogonal system with
eight quantizing levels (corresponding to a three bit binary system) the
power gain is approximately one and a half or 1. 8 db. An orthogonal
system with 10Z4 quantizing levels (corresponding to a 10 bit binary
system) would realize an approximate power gain of 5 or 7 db.

The number of orthogonal combinations in a word of n binary

bi s is 2 n. Thus in order to allow representation of all quantization --
signals with mutually orthogonal signals, the number of bits per word
in an orthogonal system must be equal to one-half the number of quantiz-
ing levels. This, then, requires an increase in bandwidth over an equivalent
binary system of a factor equal to half the quantization levels divided by
the number of binary bits necessary to realize the quantization levels in k
a binary system. For the system with 8 quantization levels the bandwidth
must be increased by 4/3, while the system with 1024 quantization levels
the bandwidth must be increased by a factor of 512/ 10 or 51.Z. The slope
of power vs. bandwidth becomes small as the bandwidth becomes large.

(c) Other Digital Systems

As previously mentioned, there are an unlimited number of

different types of digital systems. Although, binary weighting has been
used almost exclusively in systems involving RF link transmission, other
two level codes have often been used in data handling equipment. Perhaps
the most common of these is binary coded decimal (BCD) which consists
of sequences of four bit binary pattern. Each four bit binary pattern is

WADD TR61-67 25
VOL I REV I

---,-. °- -.'- -: -- ."

', ,"
. -- - ',-- . , --' , -,-' . -. " ' ,' -i .5 ' -- i"" . . •• 'i % ' . "" " . '. ' < '- " : ' -- - '.. " - '- '
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. . . .. . . . ....
,-.,.-. . . ..- '.--.-.,.-.". . ..-... .-.-...-.
-". i-ii~ 'ii, .'- i2•'.i~~
.. /ll 2iil~i i
 Binary Code Orthogonal Code

Le vei Level
+E +E
0 0
-E-El

1+E +F -
2
-El- -E

4-E +E

a E EL .1--E.- -E . :

+E +-E

+E +-E
+E E_.

+E •+E
5
--E
I I5
-E

6 6
-E -E

+E- +E
7E 7

Fig. 1-.11 Eight Level Fig. 1--12 Eight Level

Binary Code Orthogonal Code

WADI) T, 61-67-
VOL! REV I

26
S•_.t

.p\.~,.,. P
used to represent a number from zero to nine. The four bit patterns are
than used in decimal formn to represent the total number. Thus twelve
bi-level bits are necessary to represent a number between zero and nine
hundred and ninety-nine, the first four bits representing the decimal values
for the hundred column, the second four bits representing the decimal -.-
value for the ten colunn, and the last four bits representing the decimal . -
values for the one column. Since all of the binary combinations are not -"
used, this code is somewhat inefficient from the standpoint of a trans-
mission system (10 binary bits can represent 1024 levels) but is convenient
for readout purposes.

Other two level codes such as cyclic or grey code have also been
used (see Reference 48). In addition trinary or three level codes have been
discussed in literature and at least one instance exists where a four level
pulse system was used for telemetry. "

Error correction codes have been used which use several bits
per word and hence lie between (in complexity) the parity bit, which is an
error detecting device, and orthogonal coding schemes which are extreme
cases of error correcting codes. Such codes are particularly useful in
wire transmission of digital data handling systems where the probability g..\%.-

of a single error per word is significanZ but the probability of more than
one insignificant.

(d) E:rors in Digital Systems

Probably the tendency toward digital systems which appears in

telemetry today is due to the relatively good accuracies which can be
achieved. Although a considerable a-mount of analytical effort has gone
into showing the gernerally advantageous exchangebetween system band-
width and system sensitivity* available in digital systems, it is probably '2
the reduction in systematic errors which can be achieved in digital trans-
mission systems that has provided the most universal appeal. The errors
in a 4
cnafer.v; U be cate

*'The emphasis placed on this may be due in part to the relative ease of
handling discrete transmission systems with a classical information
theory approach. The trade off between sensitivity and bandwidth is best
visualized by use of information theory.

WADD TR 61 67 27
VOL I REV 1

%....-.
 1) Analog errors (drifts, bandlimiting, non-linearity,
etc. in analog portions of the system)
2) Digital dropouts
3) Quantization errors -'
4) Interpolation errors -
5) RF Link errors ... --

Since most digital systems contain some analog circuitry, (up

to the digitizer at the transmission end and after digital-to-analog conversion
at the receiver if analog readout is required) errors due to drifts, etc.
similar to those previously discussed in connection with analog time-division
multiplexed systems can exist. All of these errors are systematic rather
than fundamental and in general can be reduced to a much smaller value
than can the equivalent errors in an analog system since drifts, distortion
and bandiimiaing in the transmission link beyond the converter causes no .', -.
error aL all unless they are very severe.

The systematic errors associated with data after it has been

digitized are called dropouts. In a binary coded system the principal
source of dropouts are in the tape recording process due to tape imper-
fections. "

There are three fundamental errors in a digital system. The

firbs ib quantization error. If the signal into the converter takes on a
continuous range of voltage and the signal out of the converter can stand
for only discrete values there is usually a difference between the input and
output which is called quantizing error. The maximum. quantizing error
is equal to one-half the quantizing range and if the signal is presumed to
equally likely to be at any place within the quantizing interval, the rms
quantizing error is the quantizing interval divided by the square root of
twelve.

Since the digital systems discussed herein are time-division .- .-.

multiplexed systems the problems of interpolation and the errors associated
with the process are identical to those of analog time division system.
About the only difference involves the relative ease of interpolating with a
digital computer which may provide some advantage over other techniques.

The RF link errors in digital systems behave in a different

fashion than those of analog systems in that a very sharp threshold exists.
When the signal strength is very much above this threshold almost no - ..
errors occur due to noise in the RE link. However, if the signal strength -

WADD TR 61- 67 2$
VOL I REV 1

. . "' ''J. J Z / . . . . .-.-."...-. " . ". .. ' " " " ' , ... . ..... " - -' -. - . L -.-... . , -. - " ..' .. ' - '"°".
is much below that threshold the data is very noisy, (References: 1-9
and 37 through 53 consider digital systems.)

d.Sub-Multiplexed and Combination S yse ms

In frequency division transmission systems it has been common

to sub-multiplex some of the wider band subcarrier channels, This sub-
multiplexing usually involves the use of a time-division multiplexed wave-
form as the modulation of one of the subcarrier channels as illustrated
in Figure 1-13. The use of sub-multiplexed channels of this nature allows
the total number of measure.ments handled by the transmission system to
be increased considerably, The frequency content of the sub-multiplexed
measurernents must be low relative to that which could normally be trans-
mitted over the subcarrier channel.

The most comm-non types of sub-multiplexing have been PAM/

lFM/FM and PDM/FM/FM although almost all varieties ha.ve been used
for some applications. Sub--multiplexing by frequency division multiplex-
ing with low frequency channels and using the composite signal to modulate
a higher frequency subcacrier has also been used. This is called FM/FM/
FM. In many systems different types of sub-multiplexing are used on.
different subcarrier channels.

Although conmbined telemetry systems have not been widely used

to date, there is some iindication that they may receive increased attention "
in the future. To illustrate what is meant by combined telemetry systems,
two examples will be presented.

The first example illustrated in Figure 1-14 combines a general

time- division multiplexed system with frequency division subcarriers.
Since thle time-division waveformn can. be expected to occupy the lower
frequency region of the baseband, higher frequency subcarriers can be
added in a linear sunmn;er in such a fashion that they are separablc by..
virtue of bas eband frequency content.

The second example involves the combination of twvo time-

division systems, as illustratea in Figure 1-15. The modulating waveform
is further tinme multiplexed Letween the two time-division systems. Such
.2
"a schnrme using PAINM and PGM (called PACM) has been considered in
literature (Reference Z). Analytical papers on the specific subject of sub-
multiplexed and combination syste;ns can be found in references 1 and 2, - ,-
and 54 through 60. '1

WADD TR 61 - 67 29 --
VOL I REV 1
 U)

Loi
(nn

(D~

*..I .- ~
Go.(L

VO
P,1'V I

u.~ uilk
TRANSDUCERS

-------
0 -( VRT ER

COMMUTATOR

L%
U - r SUMMER -*MODULATION 10 TRANSMITTER

SUB-CARRIER , ,
OSCILLATORS
r• ....- , I wri D1F1,14ZTY
( W. I•_ .

2" 'PECTRUM OF TIME DIVISION SiGNAL

A AU A -10F.EQUENC Y
0fo ~1 '2 f.
[i
BASEBAND SPECTRUM

Figue 1-14 Combined System witL Frequency Division Multiplexed Basebaind

WADE) TR 61. -67 3]

VOL I RlV I

A . \,- . .-
 TRANSDUCERS ]
CONVERTER

B j COMMUTATOR NO, 1

"OUrPUT TO
MODULATOR OF
TRANSMITTER
COMMUTATOR NO. 3

COMMUTATOR NO. 2

Figure 1-15 Example of Combined System with Time Division Multiplexed Baseband

WADD TR 61- 67 32
VOL I REV 1

. . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .

i-'-V .... '.,..: ... ' .... . ...-..-...... .-

,. . ..,...-.-.,. . -.. . -...-.-.-. -. .,...-. . .-. . .,-•.... . . -.. .-.. .,.'& .,...-. . . - .- •,.-..-...,
1-4 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM APPLICATIONS

a. FM/FM

Shortly after World War II the Research Development Board

(RDB) established a set of standards for FM/FM telemetry. This set of
stanlards, which formed the foundation for the present day Inter-Range
Instrumentation Group (IRIG) Standards, specified the center frequencies
of the subcarrier oscillators, and the bandwidths allotted to each subcarrier
channel. With these parameters tied down, and the subsequent production

j
of standard subcarrier oscillators and subcarrier discriminators, FM/FM
became the most widely used military telemetry system. tiis ascendency
has lasted to the present time, and has carried over into some of the
western European nations as well. As time progressed, the number of
measurements required of telemetry systems increased. The limitations [A
in maximun number of channels allowed in original and present day
standards for FM/FM were alleviated by establishing standards for sub-
multiplexing the higher frequency subcarrier channels. Thus sLandards
for PAM/FM/FM and PDM/FM/FM were generated. The complete
standards are given in Appendix I. For convenience, the table showing
the subcarrier frequency locations and the bandwidths associated with.
the individual subcarrier channels are given in Table 1- 1. As can be
seen, the subcarrier channels vary from 400 cps to 70 kc in center frequency
with frequency response variations of 6 cps to 1.05 kc. ..

Due to the variation in information capacity of the subcarrier

channels, it is necessary for the user to take care in setting his system up
if he is to make the best use of the system. Table 1-2 (Ref. 61) gives an
idea of some of the measurementb and what measurands can be accommo-
dated by various subcarrier channels.

In addition to selecting the proper subcarrier channel for each

measurand, the taper of the system must be adjusted. The taper determines
the frequenry deviation of the prime carrier causcd by each suhcarrier
and hence determines which channels are most likely to be effected by
crosstalk and RF link noise. Discussions as to how to properly adjust the
taper are included in Refs. 61 and 62.

Examples of modern day use of FM/FM and subcommutated

FM/FM systems may vary from its use for operational evaluation of small
missiles (Ref. 63) to design testing of an ICBM, Refs. 64 through 66) to
measurements of hydrographic quantities (Ref. 67).

WADD TR 61- 67 33
VOL I REV I

-. "..'-',-
 Table 1-1. Maximum Sampling Rates for Manually Separated Data

Net Sample Lengths* Sampling Rates**

(Milliseconds) (Sample s/Second)

Channel Conservative Conservative

(cps) Values Min. Values Values Max. Values

400 660 165 1.52 6.0

560 500 125 2.00 8.0
730 363 91 2.76 i1. 0
960 296 74 3.38 13.5
1,300 200 50 5.00 20.0
1,700 160 40 6.25 25.0
2,300 114 Z8.5 8.75 35.0
3,000 89 22.2 11.z 44.8
3,900 66 16.5 15.0 60.0
5,400 50 12.5 20.0 80.0
7,350 36.4 9.1 27.5 110.0
10,500 Z5.0 6.25 40.0 160.0
14,500 18.Z 4.55 55.0 220.0
22, 000 12.1 3.02 82.6 330.0
30,000 8.9 Z.Zz 1.1 . o 448 .U
40,000 6.6 1.65 152.0 609.0
52,500 5.1 1.25 196.0 785.0 7
70,000 3.8 0.95 263.0 1,050.0

Optional Bands (-f 15% Deviation) """-

22,000 6.0 1.5 165.0 660.0

30,000 4.5 1.12 222.0 888.0
40,000 3.3 0.825 303.0 1,212.0 -
52,500 2.5 o.625 400.0 1,600.0
70,000 1.9 0.475 526.0 2,100.0 -

*Net sample is defined as the timne a sampling device dwells

on a function. This is equal to the gross sample or the
period between the start of two adjacent samples only when
no time is lost in switching from one sample to the next,
•* Assuming no lost time between samples. Multiply these
values by the duty cycle for the actual values.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 34

% . . . . . . .
 Table 1-2. Subcarrier Bands for Selected Measurands

Subcarrier Intelligence Suggested Measurands

Frequency Frequency
(kc) (cps)

1. 3 20 1. Linear or constant acceleration

1.7 25 2. Equipment supply voltages (plate,
heater, grids, etc.
2.3 35 3. Accumulator or pump pressures
3. 0 45 4. Slowly varying positions
3.9 60 5. Static or slowly varying forces
6. Conducted temperature

- A 80 i. L w frequency vibration.
7.35 110 2. AGO voltages
3. Servo system measurements

10.5 160 1. Pressure surges and shocks

14.5 220 2. Radiated temperature
3. Loading in piston rods, struts, etc.

22 660 1. Vibration
40 1200 2. Monitoring of actuating voltages
70 2i0o 3. Rapid motion -

WADD TR 61-67 35
VOL I REV I

S.......%..... .. .......- .
 A standard FM/FM was described (Ref. 63) for the purpose
of operational testing of the Found Dog missile. Since a relatively small
number of different quantities were to be monitored, sub-multiplexing was
not required.

In the Atlas Intercontinental Ballistic Missile program, FM/FM .

and PAM/FM/FM was used both in in-flight testing (Ref. 64) and ground
testing and checkout (Ref. 65 and 66). The in-flight systems described
contained 16 subcarriers, these being channels 1-13 and channels A, C
and E. The upper seven subcarriers were sub-multiplexed with a total
of 168 PAM channels, with sampling rates varying from 2. 5 samples per'- -

second to 30 samples per second.

FM/FM and PAM/FM/FM systems have also been used in

connection with the Jupiter, Pershing, and Juno II missile programs
(Ref. 68) and the Saturn (Ref. 69). The system described for the Saturn
booster is capable of handling 216 channels by using PAM subcon-imutation
on eight subcarrier channels.

FM/FM and PDM/FM/FM systems have been used for aircraft

testing (Ref. 73). In the system described, ten FM/FM channels were
used with the upper two sub-multiplexed with 245 PDM channels. PDM/
FM/FM was also used in connection with the Bomarc interceptor program,
(Ref. 71).

Although FM/FM has not been used to a large extent in space

work, it is used in the Mercury manned orbital program (Ref. 7Z). Two
standard FM/FM links are used with four subcarriers in use on each.
Channels 5, 6 and 7 contained respiration and electro-cardiogram infor- -
mation. Channel 12 was sub-multiplexed with ninety PAM channels
sampled at 1-1/4 sps. The low frequency channels deviated the prime
carrier 3 kc each while the deviation caused by the high frequency channel
was 10. 5 kc. -__

.MtnAy othn r descriptions of past and projected uses of FM/FM

exists in the literature. Ref. 73 through 81 should provide a sampling of
the more recent articles of this nature.

b FM/PM

The principal use of FM/PM to date has been in connection

with the "inicrolock system" (Ref. 82) which has been used extensively

WADD TR 61-67 36
VOL I REV 1
N'

"-.-'x
• •,•,"
' . ,"•.
- . -" •. -- . ' •.- . '.-. '-' -- , '.'-". . " .• .. "- _-",."." _--, .. ", .''"" . • '. " .. '-"-
in our space program. This system consists of'a few of the lower frequency
standard IRIG subcarrier channels which phase modulate a prime trans-
mitter. The phase modulation index is adjusted to assure the presence of
a carrier signal which is required by the phaselocked receiver at the
receiving site.

In the first U.S. satellite, Explorer I, launched in early 1958,

channels 2, 3, 4 and 5 were used to monitor skin temperature, internal
temperature, micrometeorites, and cosmic rays. Exploere III carried
a similar system. (Ref. 83). The first U.S. lunar probe, Pioneer I
launchedon October iI, 1958, contained an FM/PM system utilizing
channels 1-5. The quantities monitored and the subcarrier channels
used were (Ref. 84):

1) Search coil magnetometer (Channel Z)

2) Micrometeorite detector - flux and momentun (Channels 4 & 5)
3) Internal temperature (Channel 3)
4) Ionizaticn chamber (Channel 1)
5) Facsimile TV scan

The facsimile was to be carried on a separate link but failed

to funciion properly. j
Similar telemetry systems were carried on Explorers IV and
VI and Pioner. TT TTT and ITV (Ref. •. Explorer VI also cauried a digital

link as did Pioneer V which will be discussed later.

In some instances in the past phase modulation prime trans-

mitters have been used in standard missile FM/FM systems. However,
the receivers have contained frequency rather than phase demnodulators t-
and the transmitted signals have received pre-emphasis so that the link
has been FM/FM rather than FM/PM.

The microlock system achieved excellent sensitivity and was

a major contributur to the success of the early United btates
Sundoub.1Tedly

space efforts when transmitted power was at a premium, More recently,

however, the larger information capacities required in space and satellite
missions and the rising popularity of digital transmission systems have
decreased the applications of FM/PM.

WADD TR 61-67 37
VOL I REV 1

" , 4 ... . ~..... . . . . . .. ..- ""

 c. FM/AM

Although FM/AM has not been extensively used, there has been
at least one system in continuous use. This is the telemetry system
developed by NACA (now NASA) and employed at Langley Field--Wallops
Island Facilities of NASA.

The FM/AM technique is basically the same as FM/FM (both".

are frequency division systems) with the exception that the output of the
FM/AM subcarrier oscillators modulate the amplitude instead of the
frequency of the transmitter. At the receiving terminal, the input data
is recovered by channel filters and discriminated to obtain the analog
quantity. The NASA channel and frequency allotments are shown in
Table 1-3. The block diagram of the ground system is shown in Figure
1-16. in this system, the tape recorder is used to store data for later
processing.

Recently, effnrts have been made to develop FM/AM as a

replacement for FM/FM (Ref. 10) with the argument that the hardware
limitations which precipitated the original decisions to standardize on
FM/FM are no longer valid. Another FM/AM system is described in
Ref. 86.

d. Other Frequency Division Systems , - -

As has previously been mentioned almost all combinations of K

prime and subcarrier modulation techniques have been either used or l
suggested. Some of these are: AM/FM (Ref. 87) proposed for physio-
logical measurements; SS/FM (Ref. 88) for vibration channels in missile
testing; PAM/FM/AM and special purpose FM/FM (Ref. 89) in the Tiros
weather satellite; FM/SS (Ref. 90); and PDM/ FM/AM and AM/AM (Ref.
85) in connection with the Vanguard program.

e. Anaog Tirne-Division Systens

The majority of the uses of PDM and PAM have been in connection
with sub-multiplexed FM/FM systems which have been previously discussed.
However, a PDM/FM system for aircraft testing has been described (Ref. 70)
which could handle up to 88 active channels at a sampling rate of 16 2/3
Other systems involving the use PDM or PWM used to modulate a prime ups. -'.

carrier directly are described in Ref. 91 through 94.

WADD TR 61-67 38
VOL I REV I

* - 4 - . . . . .
 Table 1-3. NASA FM/AM Channel and Frequency Allotments

Channel Filter Frequency() Filter Passband

1 72. 5+2. 5 70, 0 - 75. 0

2 82.5 80.0 - 85.0

3 97.5 95.0 - 100.0

4 110.0 107. 5 -112. 5 t

5 119.5 117. 0-122.0

6 129.5 127.0- 132. 0

7 139.5 137.0-142. 0

8 150. 0 147. 5-152.5

9160. 5 158. 0 -163. 0

10 170.0 167.5-172. 5

11 179.5 177.0- 182. 0

12 190. 5 188.0- 193. 0

13 1.5197. 0 -202. 0

14 217. 0±*5. 0 212. 0 -222. 0

15 j 222. 0± 10. 0 212. 0 -232.0

16 238. 0+5. 0 233. 0 -243. 0

WADD TR 61-67 3
VOL I REVi1
 - 2 L

4-ý

P 14

0 W

rZ
IT lI r)L h
--- -. NO

in 4

VVD R .. 6 40
vo'. IcnV
 N N- - . . .. '. ½ N,,.- - -- ½- - - -. - - - -V - - - - ,

A thirteen channel PAM/FM system missile application has

been described in Ref. 95. The system is capable of sampling at rates
as high as 50 kc and uses 50% duty cycle.

A PPM system was employed by Naval Research Laboratories

with operational characteristics as shown in Table 1-4. Other applications
of PPM/AM include the Vanguard missile program (Ref. 96), aid physic-
logical telemetry systems (Ref. 97). General purpose systems are
described in Ref. 98 and 99.

f. Pulse Code Modulation System

The growing quantities of telemetry data and the advent of digital

computing devices dictated some time ago the use of digital ground data
handling systems. Although, binary pulse code modulation had been con-
sidered for voice transmission purposes in the late forties (Ref. 100), its - N.

use in airborne telemetry transmission systems began in the middle fifties

with the development of the AKT-14, UKR-7 system for Wright Air
Development Center (Ref. 101 through 106). From this time on the growth
in the number of digital transmission systems in telemetry applications
has been rapid. A survey of the PCM systems for telemetry purposes
was conducted by R. L. Sink (Ref. 107) in 1960 and is shown in Tables
1-5, 1-6 and 1-7. Since the time of compilation of the table most of the
systems pending service or in-development have been put to active use.
For instance, the PCM system for A. C. Spark Plug Division of General
Motors has been used successfully in seven flights of the Titan ICBM thus
far. In addition many of the large booster programs in the future appear to
be planning upon the use of PCM4 telemetry systems and in this area it -'--
seems likely that PCM may supplant FM/FM as the most commonly used
type of telemetry system.

A second area in which digital systems appear to be gaining

supremacy is in space telemetry. The signal-to-noise advantages coupled
with the relative reliability and flexibility of digital circuits compared to
analog circuits has made the use of digital systems appear Quite attractive
in applications where long periods of unattended operation are required.
'ihe Telebit system described in Table 1-5 has been successfully used in
both Explorers VI ard VII and Pioneer V (Ref. 108, 109 arid 110). A
feeling for the growing capability of digital space telemetry system can
De obtained by considering the PCM system being designed for NASA for
the Nimbus weather satellite which wili multiplex and code 924 different
channels using less than 2 waits of power. -

Reference material describing other PCM applications may be

found in Ref. IIl through 119. .

WADD TR 61.67 41
VOL I REV 1

S. , :.! . - .i
 -i7 7777-7777777-**., 7 .- -W1 7

Table 1-4. NRL Telemet%1ry Transmittin-g Set AN/DKiT-7(M'J-Z I

Channels 15

.4Samapling Rate 312. 5 samples per sec-or-d

Supercomrnirutation 4 channels may be cro,-s-

strapped for 1250 sps

RF Frequency Link 220-230 mc

Transmitter Power Out 40 watts (peak pulse power)

Accuracy: *2% (156 with external

cali~bration)

Power InipLt 2-8 v dc at 3. 5 amnps

6.7 v dc at: 1.1. 3 arrps

Commutation Electronic :i
Signal Inpuit 0-5 volts

Pulse Interval ZOO usec

Bandwidth ~ 100 kc approx. jt

WADD TR 61-67 42
VOLI REVLI1

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. . . . .
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WADD TR 61*.*I4 t67- L

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61-67. , 4-
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VOL I 'TR
REV
 Eg" Orthogonal Systems

An orthogonal system utilizing 32 quantization levels has been

developed and is popularly known as Digilock. The Digilocix system will
accept either analog or digital input signals to the airborne equipment.
Analog inputs are commutated, converted to digital form in the analog to A
digital converter, and passed to the Digilock encoder. Digital data is
programmed directly to the encoder. The encoder unit quantizes the input ..-
-' data into binary code sequences which are used to modulate the transmitter,
each value of data being represented by a different code sequence. In the
-* ground station, the received signal is demodulated and applied to the input •--0
of a matrix of matched filters. Each filter "matches" one of the mn.any
possible code sequences. A decision device, the output selector, compares
the outputs of all filters and selects that filter having tne maximum output.
NSA The data value corresponding to this matched filter is then recorded and
used for external system functions in either digital or analog form.
"Alternatively, the output of the receiver may be recorded at any remote
location and later processed at a central decoding station.

Specifications and performance of the Digilock systemn are given

in Tables 1-8, 1-9, and 1-10.

"Ih. A.CM /PM

FM

,n.Beginning in February 157. a telemetry system study prograrn

was undertaken by Aeronutronic under Contract Number DA.-36-039 SC-
"73182. Prime objectives of the study were: (1) to forecast future telemetry
tet- loads at the test ranges and to predict the user's requirements of an
-"
individual telemetry s-ystemx in types and amount of information to be trans-
0"-
mitted over the next decade; (2) to recommend suitable operating frequencies
for fature telemyetry systems; (3) to examine the various forms of modulation
and data multiplexijlng, and recommend optimum techniques for future systems;
0(4) to hivestigateý the performance of presýent telemetry systLem-s and to
-,* recommend inliprovernents.

'The requirements in terms of data parameters were based upon

the felemetry user's needs as determined from the results of the user
* requirements survey. 'i'x-ý survey covered factors such as data accuracies,-
informnation bandwidth, numner of sensors, and total data rate. It was
determinied that an "average" requirement is one in which 75 sensors are
required, the average data accuracy is 2. 5% of signal range, and the total
data. rate is equivalent to 75, 000 bits per second. The single pcilit most
evident from the user requirements survey is that a general purpose system S
inrtended to accommodate a maiority of user needs must be a very flexible

WADD TR 61-67 46 -
VOL I REV 1

- - - -
%S ,,
 Table 1-8. Digilock Specifications

Inputs: 100 binaj )r inputs per frame

from either analog or digital
sources, com-mutated b--y the
Digilock encoder.

Data Rate: One complete commutation

frarre per second.

Output Signal: Binary sequcnce suitable

for phase modulation or of
comimercial frequency
Modulation.

Akctive Elements: Silicon transistors throughout.

Power i1equirenicnts: 7. 5 v at 1.60 ma (1. 2w)

NVeight: Z. 25 lbs.

Size 8" x 1. 2 5" x 6"1

Table l.-9. Digilock Tested Environmental Capability

Temperature -20 to +700 C

Acceleration: 60 g

Vibration: 20 g from 100 to 2, 000 cps

Table 1-.10. Tested Application of a Digilock Systemn

Carrier Frequency: j240 mc

Transmitted Power: 200 mw

Transmitting Antenna Gain: 0 db

Receiving Antenia. Gain 27 db

RcevrNoise Figure: 4. 5 db

Gonmunica-tion R~ange: 50, 000 mniIesJ-

V~rADD TR 61.. 67 47
VOL I REV 1
- system indeed. The requested accuracies range from 0. 1% to 20% with
most requirements having different accuracy reqaests among the data
channels. Some of the large missile and aircraft tests utilize over 400
sensors, and while the average data rate was 75, 000 bits per second,
nearly 10% of the requests were for more than 1, 000, 000 bits per second.
It was seen that a single general purpose system would have to provide -"-

.4 data rates of 100, 000, 200, 000, and 400, 000 bits per second, at least.

Anticipation of increased data requirements and further congestion

in the telemetry bands also required that efficient use of the RF spectrum
- be a major factor in the choice of a general purpose system. The
efficiency of a system in spectral utilization is a function of its interference
A susceptibility and interference generation.

In addition to consideration of flexibility and spectrum utilization,

considerations of a more general nature which were taken into account
in the design of the conceptual system were as follows:

1. To the greatest extent possible, the system should be

compatible with existing input and output devices, i.e.,
transducers, data display, recorders, computers, etc.

2. The wide application of telemetry at the test facilities and

ranges represents a very large investment in equipment
and effort, consequently the maximum utilization of these
"is desirable.

3. The greatly increased cost of vehicles and their non-

+
recoverable nature demands increased emphasis on
"reliability as a design consideration.

4. Size and weight of the vehicle-borne components is

important in view of the desired usefulness in applica-
"tions ranging fronm small research vehicles to ICBM's.

Some of the considerations noted above represent conflicting

demands on the conceptual system design. However, requirements (1)
and (2) and aspects of requirement (3) are largely met upon selection
of a system which will expeditiously meet most user needs an! which
the capability of expanding to accommodate the increasing requirements .
of the future.

WADD TR 61-67 48
VOL I REV 1

- - - - - - - .. a - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..- ,
. . . . . . . . .. "' . . '
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The conclusions reached in the course of the study are listed
in detail in the Final Report (Ref. 5). The system recommena ded as a general
purpose telemetry system is a combination of PAM/FM and PCM/FM which
is designated as PACM/FM. The format consists of pulse amplitude
channels time-division multiplexed with PCM/FM channels. The time
allocated to each pulse amplitude channel is chosen as an integral number
of bit times to simplify the timing. system. The system is in the evalua-
tion state at present.

-i

:.L R. .V

I . • ,
 SECTION II

TRANSDUCER FUNDAMENTALS

2-1 INTRODUCTION
a. General

This section covers the fundamentals of various ... OJ

physical measurements in an effort to illustrate and provide basic
information about transducing devices used to translate the measure-
ments to usable signals as employed in telemetering systems. In
many cases it is difficult to clkssify a measurement fundamental as -
applicable to an existing transducer element or device. However,
as new materials, methods arid instruments are developed to
satisfy new and advanced program requirements, some fundamental N
relationships will become more useful. For example, the advance-
ments in the use of optical scanning techniques (color TV included)
has made more useful, many measurement fundamentals based
on visual indications, rather than mechanical or electrical signals.

It would,of course, take several text books to

adequately discuss each of the major types of measurements
involved. References have been given pertaining to historical
dcvc.oprne,,t, dt:taiied derivations, and evaluation reports to
supplement the limited descripdions that follow. The reader may 77.
..
also question the inclusion of certain types of transducers. Synchros,
for example, are not generally thought of as "telemetry transducers."
However, telemetry engineers must be familiar with synchros,
resolvers, control transformers and other like equipment, since
they are often called upon to handle signals (shaft position, ac vol-
tage, etc. ) from servo and computer systems. The question as to what
equipment should be included in this handbook leads to the next question .
of what is meant by "transducer." A brief and explicit definition cannot
be easily derived. The I..ter-Range Instrumn.cntation, Group has adopted the
following definition for an instrumentation transducer (See AppendixIl):
"A device which responds to a phenomenon and produces a signal which is
a function of one or more characteristics of the phenomenon. " This general . -.

definition encompasses two groups of elements as stated byLion (Ref.lZ0);

namely, input transducer s and modifiers. As classified by Lion, an input
transducer is capable of converting a nonelectrical quantity into an electric
signal and a modifier element converts an electric signal into another modified L

12.0 Lion, Kurt S. , Instrumentation in Scientific Research (Electrical

Input Transducers), New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 19 5 9,pp. 1-2

WADD TR 61-67 51
VOL I REV 1

t ,•.,"J'..•
.'.v,..','..."."-."v
.-......
." .,"-" •: ."-."-:'.," ,..""......"-,"-....."".-
"-."....."..-.......-.-..'..","., -'."."". " "..
(:••'J
.';';,"-[ -";;' " <,....... ,.,... ,".....~h ' .. . .. . . .
 \. ... j.

(A%,,. electric signal. Lion has defined a third group of elements in the field:-
of electrical instrumentation. These are output transducers, used to
convert an electrical signal into a nonelectrical quantity ( e. g., meter, -'.
strobotron tube). The devices described in this and other sections of
the Handbook, and called transducers herein, could be logically separa- .
ted into these three groups, or their combinations. It may be noted that
transducers described in this handbook are, for the mnost part, input
transducers; e. g. , pros re, acceleration, and temperature transducers.
SThe telemetry engineer iL also concerned with modifier elements such
as the conversion of ac power to a proportional dc signal. An example
of this is the Hall Watt transducer described in this section. The use
of output transducers within telemetry systems is limited to special si-
tuations wherein an intermediate element is required between the non-
electrical quantity which is to be telemetered and the input transducers.-V
A case may be the use of a synchro transmitter (input transducer) and
receiver (output transducer) wherein the transmitter converts shaft rota-
tion to an electrical signal for remote operation of the receiver. The
output of the receiving synchro is a corresponding shaft rotation which,
in order to be telemetered, must be mechanically coupled to another input
"transducer (e. go, potentiometer, differential transformer).
From the preceding discussion, it may be recognized that
to advance a definitive statement of the meaning of "transducer" could
easily impose limitations on the handbook's coverage and consequently its
usefulness to the telemetry engineer. In the opinion of the authors, the
handbook should incorporate all significant devices with which the tele-
metry engineer must work.

b. Transducer Nomenclature

Standard nomenclatures for transducers have not yet been

settled upon and adopted by manufacturers and users, 1-iowever, both groups
have recognized their need and organized work is being carried out toward :
this end. A recent questionnaire prepared by the Instrument Society of.
America contains a tentative listing which may be used in selecting trans- .'-"- :"7'
ducer titles (Ref.121). This listing is shown in Table Z-1 and the following :

121 "Preliminary Questionnaire on Transducers Having Electrical Output," "

Survey Committee on Transducers for Aero-Space Testing (SCOTFAST),
(Committee No. 8A-RP37 of Aero-Space Standards Division of the Instrument
Society of America), undated.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 52Z... -

* C,. - *-r -..-. -.-.. ,"-.,.--. .

...................... C 66
::l.i"'ill-.. l-lili illll r r,..................."''.. NERIMMOMME6
-""
 o4 oE o u E

0.4 rl - H4F,
0)½ 7 2

a. o

o t qfo Eý ý r)u

'-4

r
.

E2.
oV - U

uu
'442&

aV) n 4fllrV 1ý .44 9 &

WAD T 6-6

D 53
VOL
IREV o
 "7j-

are examples of transducer nomenclatures:

,
Transducer - Acceleration, Linear, Unbonded Strain
Gage Type, *t3 g

Transducer - Pressure, Elastic Element, Potentiometer

Type, 0-1000 psig

The nomenclature of a particular transducer does not neces-

sitate the use of all modifiers shown in Table 2-1. The second modifier
may or may not be employed and a fourth modifier could be used to indicate
further restrictive or special characteristics. Examples of a possible
fourth modifier are* Integrating; Logarithmic; Digital, Discrete Incre-
ment; Bi-Directional; AG or DC Output.

c. Phyical Effects and Tansdution Principles

Appendix III provides brief explanations of numerous physical

effects and principles, many of which are utilized in transducer designs.
Some of the effects have not yet been applied in transducer design, but it
is conceivable that research may prove them to be of value under special
conditions.

Z-Z MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT AND POSITION

The more frequently used transducers are acted upon by the mnea-
surand (a generic term designating any physical quantity which can be
measured, detected, sensed, or controlled) to cause rectilinear or angular
displacement of one of its integral parts. The magnitude of displacement
corresponding uo the maximum permissible measurand value may be minute
or large. For instance, displacement of the moving mass of a force-balanced
(servo-balanced) accelerometer is hardly discernible, yet a displacement
must exist in order to obtain a signal proportional tu aue.lratzoi.. . .Relativciy
large displacements are encountered in pressure elements such as the bellows
and Bourdon tube. Very large displacements occur in transducers which are
used for measuring position (e. g. , rectilinear potentiometers, differential
transformers, inductive potentiometers). The conversion of displacement to
electrical signals may be accomplished by utilizing such effects as the change
in electrical capacitance between two metal plates due to change in distance
between the plates; the change -in electrical resistance produced by a movable
contact, as in the potentiometer or rheostat; the change in self-inductance

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV 1 54

I
 '2'.

or mutual inductance produced by a movable magnetic clement; the voltage

produced by force applied to a piezoelectric crystal; and the variation in k
wire resistance due to mechanical strain.

a. Differential Transformers

(1) Operating Principles

Differential transformers are electromochanical %

devices for tranelating the displacement of a magnetic armature in an ac -
voltage which is a linear function of the displacement. Although their
physical configurations vary between manufacturers, they are basically
composed of primary and secondary coils wound on a ferromagnetic or air be
core and a movable armature is used to control the electrical coupling
between them. When two primary windings are used, they are connected
series aiding. The secondary windings are connected series bucking so
that the transducer output is the vector difference in the two voltages in-
duced in the secondaries.

One type FPRIt•APY COIL.

of differential transformer ccm- COIL l, SECONDAk> F-COIL 2, SECONDARY

figuration and its wiring schema- MOTION To BE-•' ¶ FORPN, '

tic is shown in Figure 2-1. The INDICATED OR
COND ROI O
TED i I_____
ac output versus armature posi= COjiR\ ...
tion is depicted in Figure 2-2ZCORE
TO AC VOLTAGE "
(Pef.-Z2), A dc signal suitable for 5OURCE (CONSTANT)!
- - DIFFERENCE VOLTAGE
telemetry purposes may be ob- OUTPUT E,,,
tained by use of a demodulator
and low pass filter. Basic cir- N.

cuitry for ac to dc conversion is 4 (W

. shown
in Figure 2-3. In transducer _r'I SECONDARY 1
- applications, the ac input power is 2
V.', often obtained from a transistorized PRIMARYii (output)
*: inverter to allow operation from a (input)
dc bus. The inverter, differential U SECONDARY 2
transformer, demodulator, and
filter are usually contained in one
* package, along with the sensing
element (e. g. , bellows). Figure 2-4 Fig. 2-1. Configuration and
is a schematic of a typical inverter, Schematic

. 122 "Note6 on Linear Variable Differential Transformers,' Bulletin

AA-lA, Schaevitz Engineering, pp. 1-2.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI RLVI 55

%-. . -- - - - -. ........--- ---

i"" -' i . . . I V- - - - - ''l. - - -.. | - " - ' - -
'" - -- ..
"1.. " . . I.. . .. I .I II
 0

VOLTAGE OUT
OPPOSITE PHASE

CORE DISPLAXCE/M NT

CORE AT A CORE AT 0 COqE AT B

(NULL POSi ION)

Fig. 2-2. Output Voltage and Phase as

Function of Core Position

transformer, and phase sensitive demodulator circuit. The inverter

(often called a modulator by manufacturers) generates a square wave
carrier which permits simple capacitor filtering to aChi-ve lox;W ripple-,
output. Electro-mechanical response is determined by the degree of..........
filtering required and may be related to ripple approximately as fol-
lows:

oupu etoR
ec(rmn)cal 10 x desired response bh e o)
carrier frequency V

Another configuration of an air core differential

transformer with a ferrornagnetic armature is shown in Figure 2-5
wherein our windings arc woun.d with different physical relationships
(Ref. 123).

The flax distribution of an iron core type dif-

ferential transformer, designated as the Metrisite by the rnatufacturer,
is shown in Figure 2-6, and one armature design (a conducting loop) is

7
123 "Handbook of Linear Transducers, Handbook No. R-50, Automiat-
ic Timing and Controls, Incorporated, p. 4.

WADD TR 6 1-67
VOL I REVl15

- . .

%
 -- - - --- -~ . ----- .-.. '
...--.--- ' " - - -.. -. --.. .. .. .-----

IP

INPUTO S• -.

-dH

Fig. 2-3. Differential Transformer, Demodulator i4

and Filter Circuits

"depicted in Figure 2-7 (Ref. 124). It consists of three coils disposed on

three legs of a laminated magnetic structure. In the central leg, there
is an air gap, and in this a single-turn loop of conducting material is
free to move. When alternating voltage is applied to the central coil,
an alternating magnetic flux flows through the central leg, across the air
gap, and through the outer legs. The coils on these outer legs are identical
and are connected in series opposition. If the conducting loop is in the
center of the air gap, the flux divides equally between the two outer legs
inducing equal and opposing voltages in the two coils. The net output signal,
therefore, is zero.

If the conducting loop is moved away from the

center of the air gap as shown in Figure 2-6, the flux distribution is
altered by the circulating current induced in the loop. This results in
less flux flowing through the coil toward which the loop was moved and
S..or. flux LnoUI the opposite coil. Accordingly, the voltages
"A are unbalanced, and the net output represents the loop position. The
loop acts as a flux inhibitor due to the circulating currents induced in
it which oppose the flux of the primary excitation.

lZ4 Ardnt, John P. and Gardner P. Wilson, "An Electra-Mechanica,l

Transducer With Unusually Low Reaction Force," Brush Insitruments,.-
Division of Clevite Corporation.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 57

.~.

..... -......
~.~h.~~....:c 7 x.:..-.... -..... c-....,-.-.-'-.. v.
.' .-..-,.-:,.-.-
 in

DC TO AC
INVERTER

IPROBE U- -----------
,

f7

DEMODULATOR
CIRCUIT

Fig. Z-4. Transistorized Circuitry

WADD TR 61-67
VOLT REVi 58
 input

SECONDARY
AIDING PRIMARY ANDBUCKING
SIMUJLTANEOUSLYINTIRWOUND%.4

Secondary

TOPAIDING PRIMARY ANDBP'1Tu4 BUCKING SECONDARY

i~pui$

Supl
AConar ACSpl

~~ignotpu
Oupu iga OtutL

rig. 2-6. FouDsr-ibutiong Confitheratriosit

WAD TR 6 1-67ppl
pl

L .59....... ......
...R.. ...... .... . ...

. .. ... .. .. .. .. . ... .. . . .. ... ..

 When the air gap
is uniform, the output is very nearly a
linear function of loop position over a dis---6
tance approximately equal to the width of
the central leg of the core. The major "'
source of error is fringing of the flux. In
designs requiring the best possible linear-
ity, the slight error due to fringing may I .
be eliminated by proper shaping of the air _"A

gap. "-_-.'_

Variants of the H
and E core magnetic configurations have
been employed in differential transformers. Fig. 2-7. Armature Designed
Figures Z-8 and 2-9 depict their basic ar- for Non-Linear Input-Output
mature movements. Function

The underlying
principle of operation is the large variation in the reluctance of the magne-
tic circuit resulting from relatively small armature movements. These
reluctance changes in turn vary the coupling between the primary and secon-
dary windings, thus producing an output voltage. -'- -

The sensitivity of the _ -

E and H core design is exceedingly high, but L u-.
the output is necessarily non-linear. Another
undesirable characteristic is the appreciable
* magnetic pull between the armature and pole
* pieces.

6 (2) Linearity and Linear -

Range (Ref. 125) .

"1he output volage o01

an air coi e differential transformer is a lin-
ear function of core displacement within a
L- -

certain range of motion, In other words,

within this range, a graph of output voltage Fig. 2-8. H Core Differential
Transformer

125 "Notes on Linear Variable Differential Transformers,"

op. cito, p. 5.

WADD TPR 61-67

VOL T PV 1 60 ,.

*.-. -.- :.:

 ro 0

INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT

Fig. 2-9. E Core Differential Transformer

versus core displacement is essentially a straight line. Beyond this range,

the graph starts to deviate from a straight line.

The degree of linearity within the linear range is

defined as the maximum deviation of the output curve from the "best fit"
straight line passing through the origin, expressed as a percentage of the ---

* output at nomi-nal range. For Cxa-i~Pie, if the output is 1. 45 volts when

the core is displaced from the null to the limit of the nominal range and
the maximum deviation of the output curve from the straight line through
the origin that best fits the curve is ±0. 005 volts, the linearity is
10. 005/1.25 or ±-. 4%.

Unlike the potentiometer, the differential trans-

former may be connected to a wide variety of load impedances from infinity
down to an impedance of the same order as its differential secondary impe-
dance. In many app~lications, the load may be given any value in this range--
with only snall effect on linearity or linear range-

(3) Sensitivity and Output (Ref. 126)

The rated sensitivity is usually stated in terms of

written my out/0. 00d"/volt in. ).

----------
millivolts output per 0. 001 inch core displacement per volt input (commonly
In a particular application, the input vol-
tage may have a constant specified value so that sensitivity is often simply
Unlik th oetoeer*h.ifrnia rn-•-•

. wit-ony.s
. . .liea. .alleffcton
. . . .
iner-t.o. . . . ... ange- . . - . --..
. . . .-.. . . .
+26 0 b ord.
p. 5.

* WADD TR 6 1-67

VOLI REVi 61
 described in millivolts (or volts) output per 0. 00 inch core displacemrent.
As voltage sensitivity varies with frequency, excrIpt in some designs over
a limited frequency range, the frequency should be statecl when specifying .
sensitivity. The actual output voltage for a given core displacement is
determined by multiplying the sensitivity by the displacement in thousandths
of an inch, then multiplying this product by the input voltage.

Instead of specifying sensitivity as described above,

some users prefer to specify the output voltage produced at rated input
voltage with the core positioned at one end of the rated linear range, more
simply stated as the nominal full-range output.

Sensitivity and output generally increase with fre-

quency, particularly in the low frequency portion of the range specified '
for a particular differential transformer. In some design.-:, the output
variation with frequency may disappear for limited frequency ranges and
particular load conditions.

(4) Resolution (Ref. 127)

The output voltage variation of the differential '.

transformer is stepless. Therefore, the effective resolution depends
entirely on the minimum voltage or current increment which can be sen-.-
sed by the associated electrical system. The output may readily be re- -. , -
solved to within 0. 1 % of the full-range output by a suitable null-balance L _-0
indicating or servo system such as that shown in Figure 2-10.
K. INPUT MOTION

I SERVO MOTOR

INPUT

_L.
KV '
BALANCNG -
OUTPUT Of

SERVO MOTOR
-'- TRANSFORMER

Fig. 2-10. Null Balance Circuit

.127 Ibid., p. 7

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV i 62 L

................... . .. ....

, * --- --. ...

 (5) Excitation (Ref. 128)

The fundamental inductive arrangement of the @.

differential transformer with a straight movable magnetic core can be
designed for operation at any ac frequency in the range from below
60 cps up into the radio frequency region (one megacycle and beyond).
However, standard transformers for laboratory, military, and indus-
trial application are readily available for operation in the 60 to
20, 000 cps range.
N .,

When the transformer is used to measure static -'-.

displacements or to sense linear motion which does not include oscil-
latory components above approximately 6 cps, the common 60 cps power
frequency is generally convenient. The 400 cps aircraft power fre-
quency is widely used and highly suitable for many applications.
Accurate response to vibration and rapid mech-

anical movement requires the use of an excitation frequency at least

ten times the highest frequency present as a component of the mechani-
cal motion, preferably higher. •

Many differential transformers have been designed

for a conservative nominal input rating of 6. 3 volts. Low power at this
voltage is readily obtained from standard filament transformers and re- %.
Rim; gulated power sources commonly supplied as components for electronic
equipment.

The excitation power required to produce useful

sensitivity in different types of transformers varies with transformer size
and application. In many applications, this power is only a fraction of a
watt. In practice, this power is usually limited by the maximum hot spot
temperature produced within the primary winding under the maximum
ambient temperature condition of the particular application. Due to the
high reluctance of the magnetic path, core saturation generally does not
occur with any current value which would not eventually overheat the
primary winding. kq
"When a differential transformer is excited at a . '
fixed voltage, the primary current will vary downward with increasing
frequency. As the heating effect is proportional to the square of the cur-
rent for all practical purposes, the maximum input voltage may be -.- 4

7
128 Ibid., p. .

1
WADD
VOL I TR
REV61-67
1 63 "N

%/

,-~..-......v-.'.-.-,...'..--.......-................-.........'...-.°..-.....
" ''",' '; ":... --. . . ,'... . " . . .' .. "...- . .
 increased at higher frequencies by the amount required to niaintaiii the
primary current at a fixed value, up to the absolute niaximuni voltage
limit for the winding and circuit insulation.

A constant-current power source, rather than a

constant-voltage source, is often preferable for accurate operation,
particularly when using an input level which produces a substantial temp-
erature rise in the transformer. A constant-current source eliminates
any output variation directly due to the normal primary resistance varia-
tion with temperature. This primary resistance variation is important
at low frequencies, but may be insignificant at high frequencies where
the impedance is principally inductive.

(6) Phase Characteristics (Ref. 129)

The phase angle of the output voltage with respect

to the input voltage has two values differing by 1800, dependinig on whether
the core is on one side of null or the other. When not otherwise specified,
the phase angle is usually understood to mean the one which is closer to
zero.

Generally, the phase angle, as defined above, is ,

between -20` and +75', depending on the type of transformer, the fre-
quency, load, and other factois. Au approximate calcolation of phase aagle
is fairly simple. Taking the input voltage as the reference, the phase of
the primary current is the angle whose tangent is -2rrfLK/Rp, where f is
frequency, L p. and Rp
p are the known values of primary inductancc and re-
sistance respectively, and the negative sign indicates that the current lags
the voltage. The electromotive force generated in the secondary,leads
the primary current by 900; hence, the phase of this e nf is readily calcu-
lated. If the output load is a very high impedance, the output voltage is
practically equal to the emf both in amplitude and in phase.. If not, the
phase of the output voltage appearing across the load can be calculated by
elementary ac circuit theory if the secondary resistance and inAductanr-ce-
are known.
L;~
The phase angle calculated by the above simplified
procedure is only approximate because it ignores the "reflected impedance''
of the secondary circuit which modifies the primary impedance. ttowever,
because of the loose coupling between primary and secondary, this effect

129 rbid. p. 8.

WADD TR 61-67 F.,

VOL IREV 1 64

S"-'"..',...'22'.'.2.':.'2.'--. "".-.'."-.V-.-.'.•. 2.'.2--2.- ........- .... .- ....- ... . . . '2'2'2

 °- ° ,

is small except possibly at high frequencies. The cffect of winding Capa-

citancc, which has been ignored but which is always present to some extcni,
*mayalso become appreciable at high frequencies.

An equivalent circuit, based on the simplifying as- ,

sumptions mentioncd above, is shown in Figure Z-1 1.

ELp EnfEOUT

NOTE: Emf leads I, in phase by 90

secondary resistance
Ls secondary inductance
I,. primary current
R =, primary resistance
j"RI
Z1. laucd impedcnce Ip. primory inductance

Fig. 2-11. Equivalent Circuit (Simplified)

Displacement of the core causes a shift in the out-

put phase angle, but this shift is usually very small (of the order of 1').
within the linear range. ,.-'

Normally, as the core passes through the null point,

the output phase changes abruptly by 1800. However, under unusual condi-
tions of high minimum balance voltage (or"null" voltage), such as might be %
-,"

A
caused by masses of metal located close to the transformer, the 180' phase
reversal is not abrupt but takes the form of a gradual phase shift in the vicin-
ity of the null point. At the null point, the phase angle differs by 90' from
the two phase angles obtained at appreciable distances on both sides of null.

The phase relationships mentioned in the preceding

ParI-agraphi are II u-tr:ed in Figure 2--I. The vector OP represents the
input (primary) voltage. 051 and OSZ represent the output voltage at the two -t
opposite ends of the linear range. 08 represents the minimum output vol-
tage, which occurs at the ''null'' point. The other solid-line vectors repre-
sent the output voltage for intermediate displacements. The magnitude of
the minimum voltage 080 has been greatly exaggerated in the figure for
purposes of illustration. Thie dotted line represents the output of a perfectly
balanced differential transformer having zero minimum voltage, 0T 1 and

* WADD TR 61-67
VOLTI REVI16

- .. kk&Ž° § §:?Ž: . - o's-.

t, * -2..
-
- .". * ."
 ,4/,;, "

Si

T2

ofn motne
n oeapiain
i as hoevr
, it isdeirbl.t ia I.M-=

(amplitudc/ae, onu vole exaggeath ed

for c sarity)

Fiag.e s-12. Outu Phas.eAngralyses forkngVaiouscoreasPoiionsfeuec

toh ra
pasetherpases ansabply
, bty 1800acattioint
used
effect
be putl I many Applicaton teoutput
phase angle
pil i
piligure sathelendso
utbe
bein tho upubotagndb
0Ty cicutaaeshw Zo13nlvoTage theqe lnac aneyheln
of hieaggeircutead
fof component'.-'.
vuof noangle
importance. applications, however, it is desirable to make
In someGenerally
•.'.the smnall or zero. speaking, an increase in frequency . ii[.
will reduce the phase angle, and id some cases, the desired phase angle
"maybe obtained by suitable selection of frequency. -mn

hIn other cases, a simple circuit modification can

•-" be used effectively to give zero output phase angle. Typical corrective
.N circuits are shown in Figure 2-1 3. The choice of circuit and of component-,-.-:
vauedepends on the type of transformner, the application in which it is,-.._
• •.• ~used, and the characteristics desired, such as maximum sensitivity. -. :''
.• minimumn variation of phase with frequency, or minimum variation of phase
"* with core displacement. •-•P

-p .4

•" WADD TR 61-67

VOL I REV 1 66

"" "
*v A-,'.
- -.
" .7.- . . . " - ¾ ."-""
" " '- " - " ' - - ' " ' - " ' ' - - " ' " " " '•' " " ] " i. .
-., ,, N
.%.•..•.' N.•••. ' .•.=-. ..
-. .•.• ., • .-.-. •..
 (a)Tt, RFTAqO PCSOTivt ANGLE

aORT

RI RWITH
USE'WOVAES,$TANCES.
(ENTER'1APPEOSOURE~ LUS0ONE
REtSISTOR.OTHERWISE) Li'
(WEOAOVP.NC NtGýTIVE ANGLE

Fig. 2-13. Practical Circuits for Reduction of Phase Angle

b. Synchros (Ref. 130)

Synchros are motor-like devices to translate angular position

to electrical signals or vice-versa. Although the class of transducers which -
_AWN
includes synchrous arid resolvers is not, in a strict eense, a part of the tele-
metry transducer group of instruments, it is a transducer class which is
often involved in a telemetry system in a secondary mannci. This can be
illustrated by the hypothetical application illustrated in Figure 2-14. In this
application, a missile control system functions according to the position of
a certain surface. The control system operation is based on the position, 0,
which is obtained from a synchro transmitter-control transformer follow-up
servo and the sine of the angular position, sin 0, which is obtained from
the resolver. It is desired to telemeter both of these input functions to some
location as a check on the control system operation.

The resolver output, E 1 sin 0, is an ac voltage (usually 60 or

130 "Synchros, Electromechanical Components and System Design,"

Vol. III (February, 1959), p. 51.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 67

Lw
 0 L

00

C)4

U'l

C. 0 0 l

vo U

0 0

w-

VI~ RE 6
.. ,: - r• .' C X• %'••,
•, . ¼
•. -- . . --- - . , . . - •o,.' - -" - .
-.. -- . , . ." j -~ - . .. .. •-,, • , .

%0

40( cps) which can be used directly to drive a voltage controlled oscillator
of in FVI/FM telemetry system. Since the synchro control transformer L 9
pr csents a mechanical output, this must be converted by the use of a se-
coutd transducer (potentiometer or encoder) to obtain an electrical output
which is a function of the input angle, 0. This electrical output can then
be used to drive a voltage controlled oscillator for FM modulation or the ' -

encoder output can be used for a PGM/FM telemetry system.

1 General 2

There are two essential. types of synchros. The

first of these, the simplest but least commonly used, is the group of - -
torque synchi os which can transmit angles directly without the use of .
additional servomechanism components. Where light loads are to be an-
gularly driven, such as pointers and remote indicators, torque synchros
are satisfactory. Howevee-, because angular error depends upon output
shaft loading, they are inadequate for appreciable loads. Furthermore,
their nature requires that they operate quite hot and at high flux densities,
introducing angular inaccuracies. These units will not be considered
further in this text.

More important are the control synchros, in-

cluding three basic types: the synchro control generator, the control
differential generator, and the control transformer. These are inter-
connected by simple wiring, with electrical energy applied only at the
input terminals to the synchro control generator. The synchro generator
converts its shaft ang,.e to a set of electrical voltages. The differential
generator, energized by the synchro generator, has output windings which
in turn, energize a control transformer. The shaft angle of the differential
generator adds to, or subtracts from, the input shaft setting of the control
generator. The control transformer receives signals from the generator
or the differential generator and, by means of a servomechanism, is
driven to a null depending upon the shaft position of generator and differen-
tial gener4tnr, Theý control r-msr has a twro-termninal output .., hich
develops an error signal proportional to the sine of the angle of its shaft
displacement from correspondence with generator and differential genera-
tor angles. This error is amplified to drive a servo motor which in turn
drives the control transformer and any other additional load to a null posi-
tion.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 69

-- -- -- ---- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -
.. .. .
 Control synchros are used with a servo-
mechanism. Output energy is supplied by the servomechanism, permit-
ting torque multiplication.

Figure 2-15 shows a typical angle transmission - -

system incorporating a transmission generator, a differential generator,

and a control transformer, as well as a servomechanism for driving the
output angle. The figure indicates how this system works. Where re-, .
quired, additional control transformers can be connected to the genera-
tor or differential generator, or additional differential generators may be
inserted in chains. A great variety of practical configurations may be
assembled for specific use. Because of transient coupling as well as in-
creased errors, torque synchros are seldom used with control synchros.

LINE VOLTAGE

G DG T%-l- 'GEARING
rN .- ttSERVO-
ArIMPLIFIEýR SERVO-
~0' e 0 0 CTL~-MOTOR-

Fig. 2-15. Synchro Angle Transmission System Incorporating a

Synchro Generator, Differential Generator, and Synchro Control
Transformer. The generator translates the line voltage excitation
to a flux field whose orientation with respect to its three-phase
secondary winding is determined by its shaft angle, 0G. The single -
phase field in the DG primary, which is the resultant of the three
input currents, may be reorien ed by adjustment of ODG. The CT is
positioned to correspond to 0G - ODG by the servo-system shown
in the figure.

(2) Principle of Operation

Although variations exist, Figure 2-16 shows the

common arrangement of magnetic circuits within a synchro. The stator
incorporates a three-phase winding. (However, it should be remembered
that only single-phase line power is applied. ) The generator rotor may be
a salient pole or conventional wound rotor, incorporating a single phase
winding. Sometimes a short-circuited winding is applied at right angles to
the main rotor winding to improve accuracy. However, its role is not

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 70

"- "","'

--'.
. ---.--..
_
 t ~0-
E cos EMAXIMUM PHASE VOLTAGE W

AXI5 OF THE
'G: APPLIEr FLUX
. . .0*). . Ec.. . .

SHAFT ANGLEEoz+10
(O+"_ 0. • J E P(e+2 ,),
Ecos0 " .

I 042
APPLIED
NPUITVOLTAGE
THROUGHSI IG

Fig. 2-16. Synchro Simplified Diagram. This depicts how

the input voltage applied to the rotor winding of a synchro
generator induces secondary voltages in the three-phase
outputwinding which vary sinusoidally with shaft position.

fundamental and it will not be considered hero further.

The differential gencrator has a. three-phase stator

and a three-phase rotor winding. It is distinguished from both the genera-
tor and the control transformer by the three slip rings necessary to make
coupling with the output brushes. Windings are arrayed on the motor-like
magnetic lamination stacks and generate fields similar to those shown in
Figure 2-16. This figure, in simplified form, shows the ideal operating
condition in a synchro transmission system. Because each synchro re-
presents a balanced load, additional synchros on the system do not change
the basic theory of operation.

(3) Accuracy

(a) Static Errors

Synchlro accuracy is affected by design and

manufacturing errors. Transmission accuracy can vary from about 5 to
30 minutes of angle, with instances of both better and worse accuracy oc-
curring. Accuracy is generally improved in larger units, or units opera-
ting at higher frequency, such as 400 cycles rather than 60 cycles. The
mxore imuporLantL mL.cIrS ueLermining accuracy are the roundness and sym-
metry of the magnetic circuit elements, and the uniformity and balance of
the three-phase windings. Factors tending to produce unbalance or dis-
symmetry introduce errors. Iron in the magnetic circuit is of highest irn-
portance, requiring use of high nickel alloys with very high permeability.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV1 71

.-. **, .- . . -. .. -. . . . . .. .. . . \F:.

. J.&., 3.:.- . ..- . -.

A - -
These alloys are carefully annealed and assembled so as to eliminate
strains or grain effects which tend to introduce dissymmetry.

Since the windings generate the magnetic

fields, layout of the coils is extremely important. The choice of slot
combination, turns per slot skew, and the shape of salient pole struc-
tures, are design factors affecting the sinusoidal flux distribution. .

The nature of the angular error, par-

ticularly the frequency of repetition in a 360 period, is a function of
its origin. Table 2-2 tabulates the errors occurring in a synchro sys-
tern, identifying the sources. Figure 2-17 shows a typical error curve
for a synchro transmission system.

MAXIMUMERROR POINT

MX.I
ERROR

JELEC.
ZERO _ ~

Fig. 2-17. Typical Error of Synchro Transmission System.

For discussion of the composition of this error curve, see
Table Z-Z.

(b) Velocity Errors A t

In addition to the static errors discussed .
above, synchros are subject to an error due to rotational velocity. Thus, .
if tCe. rotors of a generator and control transformer are aligned to pro- .
dluce. essentially zero error output, and if the rotors are then rigidly
coup;'.ed together, so that there can be no relative motion between them,
and i' then the two synchros are rotated together, a voltage will appear at ""
the control transformer terminals. This voltage will consist in part of
components due to the static errors discussed above, but there is also 4.
a ste .dy component that increases with speed. Hence, if the two synchros •.Y.
are. used in a servo system that tends to null the in-phase component of
the output voltage, the output tends to run slightly behind the input when a
constant velocity input signal is applied. This velocity error is an addition
to the error normally found in servo systems having velocity lag. These "28.4
output errors occur in the high-speed synchros of a multi-speed synchro

WADD) Tý' 61-67

V oQI 1 R-l 72

-'.
 •- . -"

Table 2-2. Error Components in Synchro Transmission Systems.

The error pattern of a synchro-transmission system (error versus

shaft position) may be analyzed into its Fourier Components. These
will have a periodicity which may be expressed in cycl,ks per complete
synchro revolution. In general, the pattern of quadrature residual
voltage will have a similar appearance, the relative magnitude being
determined by the source of the error.

Error Comnp. Origin Possible Cause

One cycle Rotor eccentricity Manufacturing inaccura-

cies, purely random.

Two cycle Unbalance in Stray capacitance or re-

3-phase circuitry sistance in line, elliptical
stator air-gap, stray line
coupling. Random
occurrence.
C -4.-.T
-Xuuou~ud± Conunxun error pattern in
also 12, 18, etc. flux waves. many synchros due to
cycles harmonics generated by
the windings. Uniform
error pattern for spe-
cific synchro designs. -

Slot Errors Non-sinusoidal Error pattern due to slot

flux-wave. combinations in synchros. ,
Less important with 3n-
creased number of .1ots-
Minimized by proper
skewing. Uniform error
pattern for specific syn- -

chro designs.

L' "

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 7).

, ~-. i---- > .....

:& u.:-,- :.-K
.: --- ..',:..::..:..... --.- -..'-, .. - ' ,- . -.2. -.- .'i' - .- % ) -I - , ?.-
-
.
•-.? ? -
 system. They are significant when the synchro system is operating
higher than about 1/3 of synchronous speed.

c. Eleztrical Resolvers (Ref. 131)

(1) General

Electrical resolvers are small motor-like com-

ponents in the saine family as synchros. They differ from synchros in
that they have two input windings and two output windings on the rotor
and stator respectively. The windings on each member are distributed
at right angles to one another so that individual rotor windings and stator.' -
,windings do not interact among themselves. The resolver is represented
schematically as shown in Figure Z-18. The unit generally has four slip
rings and bruuth assemblies providing electrical contact to rotor windings.
For transduciag application, only one set of slip rings may be required,
or in many instances where angular travel is limited, pigtail connections c--. -
may be provided.

INPUTS OUTPUTS I' •

E%,ER si8
ES2 co$t - Es sm
SE• F..ez"ES,COS9 ÷ES, sin 8"'"°•

Fig. Z-18. Schematic Representation of the Electrical Resolver

When a resolver primary winding is excited, voltage

is generated in the opposing windings, varying as a sinusoidal function of
shaft position. Since the windings are distributed at 90* to one another on

131 Ibid., pp. 54-56. -'

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVi 74

. "...-.
...... -......... , ....-
. - --.. ....... . ..
.. .'0;,,, *, .. :...2 ." . ?, .2. - . . . , ,,- • -< :",,..-5 " , T, - ' ."2.,.",- . .
 * 4%

both rotor and stator, output voltages constitutinig sine and cositne functions
of shaft angle are generated. Simultaneous application of voltage to both
primaries causes a resultant magnetic field whose magnitude corresponds
to the square root of the sum of the squares of the separately applied vol-
tages and whose angular orientation depends on the vector resultant of the '.
separate applied voltage vectors. Because of these properties, a resolver .
is directly applicable to problems involving trigonometry, such as the con-
version of coordinates, rotation of coordinates and in most computing ap-
plications where trigonometric functions appear. Resolvers are especially
suited to fire-control problems in which a good deal of the computation is
necessarily based upon trigonometry. Here, however, we will not consider -
these applications of the resolver, but rather its use as a transducing ele-
ment.

Many vn)riations of the resolver exist. Resolvers

may serve as four-wire synchro systems where accuracies of the order of "
several minutes are required. Large diameter units, having many poles,
which can be regarded either as resolvers or synchros, sometimes called
"pancake units, are frequently found as transducer-type sensors. Sixty- .. .71
cycle resolvers as well as 400-cycle resolvers are available, the former
being considerably larger than the latter. Resolvers are also available for
application up to many kilocycles.

(2) Errors..""'.,
A,
The resolver is particularly well-suited to mea-
surement of a limited angular travel. The absence of resolution steps
makes it possible to detect motions of dhe order of several seconds of arc.
Many errors that arise as a result of mechanical irregularities such as
eccentricity of rotor and stator, ellipticity of the critical magnetic air gap
surfaces, or similar departures from ideal, may be balanced out over a
small angular range by careful trimming and adjustment of scale factor.
This is feasible because errors from these sources vary slowly and mayhe b,.-.-
assumed constant or linearly varying over small ranges.

For small angle applications, the most serious error

is shift in the axis or null point. The axis drifts as a result of changing con-
ditions, primarily temperature. Drift of the order of one minute of arc is N
not uncommon. Where the total angular span is of the order of several de-
grees, drift may be a significant portion of the overall error.

WADD TR 61-67-
VOL I REV 1 75 7,
 Additional angular errors resulting from slot
harmonics within the resolver air gap also occur. Although by careful
winding design, it is possible to reduce most air gap harmonics to zero, L -
slot harmonics can be reduced just so far, the minimum error depending
roughly on the inverse square of the number of slots. In small resolvers
with few slots, these harmonics may introduce as much as a minute or
two of error with consequent angular inaccuracy. Scale factor or output
voltage per unit displacement may vary, introducing additional error.

While scale factor may be trimmed to an exact

value for a given set of operating conditions, variations in temperature,
line frequency, and to some extent input voltage, will cause changes.
Temperature errors, the most troublesome, are frequently compensated
by the use of thermistors. In many instances, although not particularly
in transducer applications, booster amplifiers employing feedback com-
pensation are used to maintain constant input-output phase shift and
scale factor over varying conditions.

A particularly troublesome source of error for

small angular ranges is residual voltage, occurring in all electromagne-
tic components. Residual voltage appears at the null position and deter-
mines the maximum gain to which the control amplifiers may be set
without saturation. Residual voltage includes both fundamental and har-
monic components. Various circuits have been devised to cancel out the
former. Harmonics are minimized by selecting optimum magnetic ma-
terials, operating these at very low flux densities, and maintaining large.
air gaps. Filtering provides further attentuation, but attention must be
given to avoid time delays which can affect system stability.

Table 2-3 summarizes the errors that can occur

in electrical resolvers. These are typical of errors found in all magne-
tic-type pick-offs. This classification of errors is required to prepare
an accurate specification by avoiding over-specifying certain aspects of
pe.rformance hile ignoring
•. ,others. For evanple noe froim Ole thtale
the effect of varying input voltage on the transmission ratio of the resolver.
This varying input voltage varies magnetic core permeability and conse-
quently, the main coupling reactance, changing the resolver transmission
ratio. While booster compensation can correct this, boosters are bulky
and expensive and i.ntroduce considerable circuit complexity. However,
other methods of resolver compensation cannot correct this particular
error.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVl 76

-,"-.'--.-.-.-.. --- ..... -.... . . .

-':5" ,'.":"• g-•
":":"--'•--: -:-.-':'-i '...: .'-.'-----".---- .'--.-'.. "'-. -.. t-.-
---. '.. .
"-" .".-".-. -' .-. .. . -
 -.. t

Table 2-3. Sources of Errors in Electrical Resolvers

NMi'aligni,,cnit of ae, ,of

gct')ll|w"try
'coil., due i) iimperfect"- . .

Slowlh -izr i Crror',

eig *ihin to inp er,-fect goilitn' tr..
•nriation f tcnui-i ii•siun• ratio -ilh iilih'i vlied "oltage.

Temnperaitlre error-, primaiiry cOpijli'r i(-i',1llilt'-

Frequency errors, trasisnui•_j ratio anti pliiiase, as with

an,, transformer.
Angular inaccuracy, resulting front imperfect intui.oi-
eillity of infdimngs.
Application errors, due to unbalaniced or non--tandairdt
loading, primary impedance unbalance, pick-up, etc.

,N...~

(14

Figure 2-19 shows the variation in transmission

ratio as a function of applied voltage for a typical resolver. At very low
input voltage where the magnetic material permeability approaches its
oilN

VARIATION USLIIA1LY A SMALL FRACTION

OF A PERCENT
too
M REDUCTION DUE

TO LOW iNITIAL
P a
PERMEABILITYOF REDUCTIONPUF To
SCIRCUIT IRON SATURATION OF
S CIRCUIT IRON

APPLIEO VOLTAGE -

Fiar 2-19, o-F Transmnission Ratio

V ar iation with- Applied
Voltage as a Result of Iron Nonlinearity

initial value, transmission ratio variation is most pronounced. At the

high voltage extreme, saturation sets the operative limit. By restricting
voltage range and using very high permeability alloys, such as Supermalloy,
it is possible to hold these errors to acceptable limits. Where transducers s

operate at essentially constant voltage, this problem does not exist.

-S,•,i%NI

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV1 77

~~~~~~~~....................-....
_~~~,.... ....-. ..........
. .............-..-..-...... ,......-...-......,..:.... ... :. ., , ,.,-,.:..,,',,':. . .-. -
. . .. ....
....
-",~~~~~~~~~~.."." " . ".. .. ."". .'' .".-" ..-- . . . ,'•"•
''. .. - '"• , ."':. :< ..-. ". "• -"-% ".-"." -"." ' "- - .
- - -- - - - - - - .- - ,, --.-
-".---.- -. . - -.-- .-. . . ' .. ' ,.,," .. '. ' . .. " . -. o '.. . ,." . ' .. . . -. "-.". ' , . -. ,. -. "

-. .,*. . I.- - . . . . . . . .
 -"c -" "-i

Note that the resolver has an error unique to

itself, namely the alignment of the axes of the different coils. These L .1
axes should be precisely 900 apart. Achievement of an exact 90' is
very difficult. Auxiliary trimming coils have been used with some sue- "
cess. Axis alignment is affected by line voltage variations as the
changing magnetic core permeability causes a corresponding though
small. shift in the flux axis. Because axis alignment is difficult to con-
trol, and because not all resolver applications require four active coils,
it is often economical to classify production resolvers in accordance
with the number of properly aligned windings. Thus, a grade A resolver
might have excellent alignment while a grade C would have poorer align-
ment of axis. Grade C units mnight be used where only one input and one
output winding are required, so that axis misalignment causes no deteri-
oration whatever in quality of performance. This is strictly for economy,
and complicates stocking of spare parts.

d. Induction Potentiometers (Ref. 132)

(1) General

Induction potentiometers belong to that family of

rotating components that include synchros and resolvers. They are dis-
tinguished by their single input winding and single output winding. Where
additional windings arc provided, they are used solely for balancing ima-

pedances, and do not have a directly functional role. Although they are
used principally as a computing element, we consider here their use only
as a transducer. Their linear output voltage versus shaft angle charac-
teristics provide high accuracy, good stepless resolution, and particularly
good performance in comparison with conventional potentiometers for
equivalent diameters and angles of rotation. An important characteristic -
of the induction potentiometer to note is that its output impedance is not .- ''.
constant with the result that loading affects angular accuracy.

£-Cgure C.4V bilWtb LIM; pJiiuriIiaic 01 tOf ue

I UcLonC
".-i
potentiomneter indicating the nature of the magnetic field, the relationship
between input and output windings, and one technique whereby a linear
function of shaft angle is achieved. Other combina ions of windings, not
described here, achieve a similar result. Although capable of infinite
rotation, the induction potentiomneter operates over a limited angular ..--

132 Ibid., pp. 58-59

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVl 78

.xN -. x---------------------------------.i--?1•

............... ~-. . . .-....

 14

/ • •"-•.• PRIMARY
COIL ,,'

STATOR

OUIPUT
SO~~~(N
SIERIES . ",

• / ~~STRUCTURIE""
POLE ROTOR

(The air gap flux is distributed uniformly in

the salient region of the rotor structure. Thus, "
in the position shown, the primary to secon-
dary coupling will vary linearly with rotor
shaft position.
Fig. 2-20. Relationship Between Windings and Magnetic Field
in an Induction Potentiometer, to generate a linear voltage-

displacement characteristic.

range. The circuit shown in the figure covers a useful angle of about
60 to 70". Accuracy deteriorates badly for angles beyond this value.
Induction potentiometers have been devised with operating angles up
to double this figure, but they exhibit other performance limitations.
..
(2) Refinements

To illustrate more specialized techniques required ,i

for good performance in transducers of this type, noLe the following in -
Figure 2-21: L.•

1. To achieve a square flux wave, a special

booster coil is provided in the center of
the main coil to raise the flux level where

WADD TR 61-67 .".

VOLI REVi 79 .:-i

-%.-. . . -- . ,. . . . . -, . .. - . -.- - . %
.... . J,- -"--. . . N----.
- ""' -,,. 2-".-. . ,_ . -, .- _
 ,'4"

/• NO~T S,:OWNI
SITATOI? (OUTPUT COILS """'

S'"0
ROOSTER
(2 REQ'D) COILS'R
TO %"ow•
• SLIGHTLY BOOST
FLUX IN CENTER "''

POLE
Oy DIP
',A WHERE
NATURPALLY

OCCURS DUE TO
LONGER MAGNET-

MARY WINDING

MODIFIED ROUND
ROTOR STRUICTURE

SHORT CIRCUITED
OUADRATURE WINDING.
FOR MORE UNIFORM
OUTPUT IMPCDANUE

Fig. 2-21. More Complex Induction Potentiometer Circuit,

% showing refinements required for good performance.

the normally greater reluctance of the

magnetic path tends to produce a dip in
flux density.

Z. A pair of balanced secondary windings is

provided 90' apart. Dy symmetrically
loading these windings even when only one
output is required, the primary impedance
becomnes far less sensitive to loading with
greatly reduced linearity error from,. this
source. '.l

3. A symmetrical second wii-ding is provided

on the primary structure 90' from the in-
put winin g. -1 windiUg is normally
short-circuited providing some of the bene-
fits described below.

With a single primary coil, the output impedance . -

varies from a minimum, when the coil is coupled directly to the output

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 80

%i

*1,

1.4 :4-:.2
................. .. . ."-.-- -- --.- ,--

. . . . -
 wninding for -maximumi output, to a m-aximumi 90'> away. Use. of a short-
circuited quadrature winding minimizes impedance variation so that the
output impedance is a nmaximum at 45'. Variation in output impeda.nce-
is reduced by this means by 3, 4, or 5 to 1. Where a limited angular
travel of about 45' is required, a properly distributed winding at 90'_
to the main winding, distributed approximately sinusoidally, results
in an output impedance independent of shaft position.

An additional benefit of the shorted quadrature

windings on the primary structure (both in the induction potentiometer
and the resolver) besides rnaintaining output impedance constant, is
the reduction in flux axis shift due to housing distortion, mechanical
dissymmetry, temperature changes,and aging. The shorted quadrature
winding cancels quadrature flux resulting from dissymmetry by genera-
ting flux bucking currents.

(3) Applications

Application of the induction potentiometer is very

similnr to application of the resolver as a transducer, except that here,
as a result of the linearity characteristics, a much wider angular range
can be covered. Induction potentiometers possess long life, s ry low
ui•r, a btepil&• uutpLtL,aUld cain operate at very high speeds. Very im-_ ,
portant application in the computing field is not covered here since we
are confining our topic to transducer applications. As with resolvers,
the effect of changing air gap reluctance, as a result of iron permeability
variations with temperature or flux level, the effect of frequency shift,
temperature effects on the copper winding, etc. , are very similar to
those p:.eviously discussed. Thermistor compensation is a convenient
method for correcting temperature errors in incauction potentiometers.
e. Electronic Displacement Transducers -'

(i) Moving Anode Transducer

The plate current in a space-charge-limited va-

cuum tube is- a function of the electrode geometry. Small displacements
can be measured with a triode system as illustrated below. A device of
this type is the Mechano-Electronic Transducer, RGA Tube 5734, illus-
trated in Figure Z-22. The cathode and grid assembly are held in a
fixed position within a vacuum-tight envelope, the anode is supported by
a rod which extends through the center of a thin metal diaphragm sealed

WADD TR 61-67
VoL i REV 81 -

'_'% -% % - - •. -. -- . - . - .- -) - - • . - . . . - .
.- .. -. -' ..* - p
,- .- - . . $.- - -- .- .* • .- • .. • • .- .. •,

,-'
"-'• -'.'° -. ",",'• •¢• -. "-.,v -•• A ._.A -:.. .. . ., .,.- '',: '.. :t-,~ t..' - - . --...'- .. -..- - .'- -. -- .'-
-.- - -. .. .. " .' , .
* I FLEXIBLLv
METAL OPERATING
DIAPHRAGM SHAFT
MOVABLE GRID
ANODE-
METAL SHELL CATHODE
CONNECTED
"TO ANODE

Fig. 2-22. Moving Anode Transducer

to the tube envelope. An angular displacement of this rod leads to a var-

iation of the plate current. The transfer characteristic is linear wit-in
about 2%. The maxdmum permissible displacement of the rod is tO0. 50.7
about the zero position. For this displacement, a torque of 13. 3 g-cm--
is required. The momernt of inertia of the moving system is 3. 4 m .g-cmz.

Sfrequency csp<-'rnsc linsi nA by the mnechani.cal resonance of the part 2

of the plate shaft within the tube, which is about 12, 000 cps. The tube is
generally operated in the bridge arrangement shown in Figure 2-23.

75K SET,
OUTPUT ZERO lOOK

7-? 3-

Fig. 2.-23. Circuit For RCA 5734 Transducer

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 8Z

v".
. . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. .. . . . . .
 The maximum displacement of the anode rod
by 0. 50 results in a variation of the output by -+20 volts. Mechano-
electronic transducers are delicate, both mechanically and electrically.
(2) Ionization Transducer (Ref. 133, 134)

A dc voltage of considerable magnitude arises

between two electrodes in contact with a gas discharge caused by a radio
frequency field. Thi s principle gives rise to a transducer system which
permits conversion of mechanical displacements and capacitance changes.._
into electrical signals.

A glass tube filled with gas at a pressure of about

10 mm Hg and containing two electrodes is brought into an electrical
high-frequency field between the plates PI and P 2 of a capacitor, as shown
in Figure Z-24. If the field is sufficiently high, a glow discharge will a-
rise in the tube. The two electrodes A and B act as probes in the discharge; - 7.
their potential is determined by the space potential of the plasma surround-
ing each electrode and by the rf potential induced by their capacitive coup-
ling to the plates PI and P 2 . In the symmetry position, the net charges of
both electrodes are equal, so that their potential difference is zero. Out-
side of the symmetry position, the charges are different for each electrode
and give rise to a dc potential difference. The transfer characteristic, i. e.
the output voltage Eo versus the displacement S, is illustrated. Potential
difference can reach values of more than 100 volts, and A E/A X, can
0
reach values up to several volts per micron of displacement. For technical
reasons, operation between 0. 1 and 10 mc is recommended. Accurate
frequency stability is not required for the operation of the transducer.

The preceding circuit arrangement is useful for

displacements up to about 1 mm. Other arrangements are possible for move-
ments up to several inches.

133 Decker Technical Bulletin No. 01, The Decker Corporation, Bala-
Gynwyd, Pennsylvania.

134 Lion, Kurt S. ,"Mechanic -Electric Transducer," The Review of

Scientific Instruments, Vol. 27, (April., 1956), pp. 222-225. '

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV 1 83

' %'" - i2,t-,'

:-X,. ", ,'..; -. ':-; , ""- "-.... ... ,$ .. '.',7.:-.'.,.2,:,.,>, " -'.- -. - ":* ""- " - . - " -"" . .
 .% o"

I DISPLACEMENT (b)

ax

Fig. 2-24. Ionization Transducer

A circuit for measurement of capacitance is

shown in Figure 2-25. This circuit and a variety of probes are comnmer-U
cially available from the Decker Corporation, Bala-Cyniwyd, Pennsyl-
vania. The transducer is excited by two external electrodes. The in-
ternal probe electrodes are connected to one of the external electrodes
through a differential capacitance. Every variation of this capacitor
causes a corresponding change (as high as +60 to -60 volts) of the out
15
put voltage. Capacitance changes of l TFarads or motions of
inches are readily measured.

By capacitively coupling the appropriate probe

to the vibu
a lc rovigui atIOhi iDeIer11Cop rt n BaClfla-Cynwyd
Ofnns yl-e'v
g .11
parameters may be made: capacitance, pressure, vibration, proximr-ity,
rotation, weight, liquid level, speed, temperature, thickness, strain,
force, humidity, and displacement. -

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 84

-. ..-. .'.-. ,• -. .. ' • •. .,, ,. -. '-,.%." . N.A-.-

. '• ,.• -"- -'..,.- -
•'.- " -,. ,- -. .. ._.-.- . -.- -..- .-.. .-. _- , -.- . -_.-.. .
- I:*~P'
.
1 : %\.- - --
 ""4

SIGNA OUTPUT

Fig. 2-25. Capacitance Measuring Circuit

(3) Radiation Tracking Transducer (Ref. 135)

This transducer is a single-element photovoltaic

device that detects position of visible to near infrared radiation simultan-
eously in two axes. Coupled with a lens system, this solid state compo-
nent is capable of detecting angular position of a radiation source. An
example of its operation is depicted in Figure 2-26. A uniform spot of

LIGHT SPOT POSITION Case No. I

Case No. I Vx 0; Vy 0
Case No.22.L
Case No. 3 a Case No. 2
-*1 Vx = a; Vy

,4 bCase No. 3
*4L ¾-ix =-a; vy =a-b .

-b

Fig. 2-26. Example of Radiation Tracking Transducer Operation

135 "Radiation Tracking Transducer XY-20, " (company brochure),

Micro Systems, Incorporated, Pasadena, California. '--

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 85

VOL N
light focus-tc on the centci of the cell produces zero output. When the
spot is pc s;t.c.,eld o'f cenf cr in the X or Y axis, a voltage output is pro-
CIuced ;,t the X. o- Y te,u'rminals proportional to the degree of displacement.
Whe:'-, usei ith a light source and a reflecting or masking member, the
transducc!r 'anr 1,c adapted to such applications as vibration in two co-
ordi.nat:es, accefleratieon in two co-ordinates, pressure, angular position,
strain, and liquid or gas flow.

f. Mechanical.-Optical Transducers (Ref. 136

Mechanical displacements can be converted into electric

signals 1 y optic-electrical means, for instance, by an arrangement con-
sisting of an illuminated slit and a photoelectrical transducer; the moving
object obscures a part of the slit and causes a variation of the light inten-
sity reaching the photoelectrical transducer, and hence a variation of the
transductir output.

An arrangemeent of this type which may be used for the con-

Yersion of rotary displacerncnt into a digital output is shown schematically
in F."igure 2,-27. An optical system produces a number of parallel light

MULTI- ]-EM NJ!// CYCLIC-BLNARY

;--•--_ •REA[•OJI

LiGHT RAY!, D AND sIGrA: ,, i,"

L9M •.EVLiL (TRI kR VOLTAkE•)
O-'UTP•-r" { LIGHTSOURCE'• ..
S•1
IGNAL_
h (STROBELAM/,)

LELECTRODE E L R' ","CDE,

Fig. 2-,27. Shift Position Encoder

136 Lion, Kurt S. , Ins'trurnation in Scientific Research (Electrical

Input Transducers), New York. McGraw Hill Book Go. , Inc., 1959,
pp. 89-90.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLT REVi 86
beams which are directed upo.' zorresponding photo tra.nsducers. The
light beams traverse an encoder disc with transparent and opaque seg-
ments. Depending upon the position of the disc, some of the light beams
will reach the photo transducers and cause an output signal; the result
appears in binary digits (e. g., 1, 1, 0).

An encoder disc with thirteen concentric arrays of segments,

for thirteen-digit information, is shown in Fi ure 2-28. " A disc of this
type gives a different output for each of the Z'3 possible configurations,

MW

Fig. 2-28. Encoder Disc for 13 Digits

i. e., it furnishes information of the angular-disc position with an accuracy - -

of 360O/89iZ, or an angle of about 0. 044*. Systems cd this type have been

built with discs of 10" diameter having up to seventeen concentric segments.
An accuracy as high as ten seconds of arc has been obtained. Instantaneous
reading of rotating discs is accomplished by pulse operation of the light
source.

WADD TR 61-67 S

VOL I REV 87I

'" "• %" . '%i . . " ._ - _- -. . ., . . .. - - . • , ,-,' ",'-. ,"-, ".. . . ." . ., . . . . . .
 g. Electrolytic Potentiometers (Ref. 137, 138)

These devices sense displacement from the horizontal .

and are sometimes referred to as electrolytic switches and gravity-
sensing electrolytic potentiometers. Their basic construction con-
sists of a small sealed cup with two or more electrodes in contact
with an electrolyte which partially fills the cup. Two configurations
are shown in Figure 2-29.

Air Bubble

Electrode A Electrode B

Electrolyte Electrode C

Fig. 2-29. Electrolytic Potentiometers

in the level position, the electrolyte covers an equal area

of each electrode. As the switch is displaced from true horizontal., the
amount of electrolyte covering the electrodes increases on one side and
decreases on the other, creating a differential resistance or conducti-
vity. When a given ac voltage is applied across the unit, a differential
current flow is created through the electrodes, proportional to the de-
viation from level.

Two single-axis potentiometers may be mounted at right

angles to one another in order to reference the horizon in two planes;
however; the two-plqnp fe.fure can h;i hbilt into
,• nn. in by employ in.
four electrodes. Operational schematics of single-axis and dual-axis
units are shown in Figure 2-30.

137 Product Data Sheet 118-3, Lear, Incorporated.

138 EP 1012 Data Sheet, Hamlin, Incorporated.

WADD TR 6 1-67
VOL I REV 1 88

-.. . .-.. . . . . . . . . . .
- . .: -.
 -'
""Electrolyte
Electrode
Electrolyte
Electrode

0t

Case2

Single - Axis Dual - Axis ,V,

Fig. 2-30. Operational Schematics of Electrolytic Potentiometers

The electrical rating of such units is determined principally

by their ability to dissipate heat, and the amount of bubbling at the elec-
trodes that can be tolerated. As the applied voltage is increased, bubbling
at the electrodes increases; ann an electrolytic pull operates on the air
bubble to decrease the stability of the potentiometer resistance, particu- • ,
larly near the zero tilt angle. .

When dc is used, the electrolyte slowly polarizes, causing

delay in reaching a stable condition. In general, the operation is much
better when ac is used.

2-3 MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN •

a. Introduction (Ref. 139)

In telemetry engineering, the measurement of strain is per-

formed through use of electrical strain gages. Therefore, this discussion
is limited to such gages and excludes all purely mechanical methods for
determining strain in materials and structures.

139 Aronson, M. H. and R. C. Nelson, Strain Gage Instrumentation,

Pennsylvania: Instruments Publishing Co. Inc. 1958, pp. 1-5. '"

61-67
WADD TR
VOLI REV1 89 .,

- ,• Q-'
, .1.
. -.

,-......-''
.", - ' , • .
.. •.. .
... '-. _.". .
- .....
•. .'.. . . _.-*......
.'' ' ., .'.,..".-.-'- *.'_"
 The strain gage has importance as a telemetry transducer
for two reasons. First, it is a basic transducer in its own right for mea-
surements of strain. Second, numerous other transducers, notably the
pressure gauge and accelerometer, often employ a strain gage as the
electrical pickoff. Since this discussion is primarily concerned with
strain measurements, the use of strain gages in other types of transducers
is not covered in the following paragraphs.

* Strain gages are transducers that are applied to the surface

2 of materials in order to sense the strain of the material. The strain gage
is elongation sensitive; that is, its electrical properties change propor-
tionately to the elongation of the gage. Strain elongation (of the gage and
the member on which it is mounted) is usually small as long as the applied
stress does not exceed the elastic limit for a material. Stress is, by
definition, the applied force (F) divided by the cross-sectional area (A) of
the member:

Stress = F/A (2-2)

An applied stress produces a strain (dimensional change) in

the mraterial. The relationship between stress and the resulting displace- '."
ment is defined as Young's Modulus(E) where:

E = unit stress/unit strain (2-3)

With stress expressed in pounds per square inch and strain

in inches per inch, E has a value of 30, 000, 000 for steels. Thus, a stress
of 15, 000 psi in a steel member produces a strain of only 0. 0005 inch per
inch of length. If it is desired to measure stress of 4, 000 psi with an ac-
curacy of 1%, the strain gage must be sensitive to an elongation of 1. 3
millionths of an inch per inch of gage length.
The most common form of strain gage consists of a short
t-'1~- A IIIlathalr
.~. rSn
length of small-diameter (appruxinnaLely U. 001
sistance. To keep the gage length short, the wire runs the length of the
gage several times. To simplify its mounting and to protect it, the wire is
cemented between two thin pieces of paper. To apply the gage, it can be
cemented to the member to be tested; this is a bonded resistance-wire
strain-gage.

Recently, the semiconductor or "solid state" strain gage has "

become available. This operates on the same piezoresistive effect which

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 90 -

S. , .-.. .- . ...... %.. -.

.... . .
- .f. . .. --.- ..
"-'.-.-. •, " --.-..
• ":,' ","-V'-"-:", •,'-". -" ."."".
",." x "J'- "' "." " ."-'"-".".. "'" '".. . . .".-.. . . .-.. .- . .•. .•.. . . ".-. .. " -" • . . . . . . " . "
 S. 44

applies to metal strain gages. This effect is the name given to the ,
change in electrical resistivity of a material due to applied stress.
Scientists at Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Case Institute of
Technology several years ago noted that when a semiconductor crystal
is subjected to tension or compression, it undergoes & sharp change
in resistance. In 1953, the piezoresistive coefficients of Germanium
and Silicon were determined and found to be extremely high. (Gage ',
factors up to 175 as compared to Z to 5 for metallic wires.)

Strain, in engineering usage is defined: 1"K -:

Strain = change in length/original length *•

S A L/L (Z-4)

Strain gages indicate strain indirectly -- that is, the

length change is measured in terms of a resistance change. The me-
thod, although indirect, is precise -- accuracies to 0. 1% can be ac- Law
hieved. Coupled with this accuracy is great application flexibility.

When the test member is strained, so is the bonded gage.

As the wire is strained, its electrical resistance changes. This re-
and
sistance change is directly proportional to the strain in the wirc,
the strain in the wire is directly proportional to the strain in the rnem-
ber.

Strain in a test member (S) is defined as A L/L. The unit

resistance change that the strain produces is defined as A R/R. The
relation between the unit strain and the unit resistance change is defined
as gage factor (G). That is:

A R/R A R/R (25)

G= < A- TTAL

The gage factor (G) is the conversion constant between strain

and gage resistance, and depends.on the type of material used for the
strain-gage wire. Manufacturers maintain close control on wire compo-.... :-'
sition, but the measured gage factor, stated on each package, should be ,. .-
used in all calculations. Table 2-4 gives some gage factors and tempera-
ture coefficients.

"WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 91

. . . . . . .... . . . ........... ... .. ... -_ .-...---- ,.- -... _ ... ,.::..-

. ,• ,f:::',:x .. "-"
. .-"". . "~~~~~~~.
" ,...,.......,
'... , .... '.-.'.. •',,.....,--,,;", ,.....
 Table 2-4. Typical Average Gage Factors
and Temperature Coefficients

Material Temp. Coeff.

Gage Factor of Resistance
ohms/ohim/nG

Advance 2. 1 0. 0001 0
Chromel 2. 5

Constantan 2.0 0. 00001

Copel 2.4

Isoelastic 3. 5 0. 00047

Manganin 0.47 0.00001

Monel 1.9 0. 002

Nichrome 2. 5 0. 0004

Nickel -12. 1 0.006

Phos. Bronze 1.9 0.002

Platinum 6. 0 0. 003

b. Basic Circuit
°-4,

The basic strain gage is merely a wire whose resistance is

directly proportional to the strain in the wire. When bonded to a member,
this effect provides a direct indication of the strain in the member itself.
This resistance change is made to yield a uscful output by employing the
strain gage in conventional resistance measuring circuits.

WADD TR 6 1-67

VO.......

............................ ,....... .......-...... ,...... _ . ......... ...-. .- ....- . .. .. ,.:-',:

,... .., ,- . • . , .,,. %. •o',,. •. ., ; .., , -, S,,
, , . ._+ .- - , .+ . . -.- - -.- ,, •,• .- - . . , . , - . . .. .. • ,. , , ., , . ,
At its most basic level, this circuit takes the form of a potertiometer as ___--'-

shown in Figure 2-31. However, the most commonly used circuit is that
of a Wheatstone bridge.

GAGE R Egg
E

Fig. 2-31. Strain Gage in a Potentiornetric Circuit

There are several disadvantages to the potentiometer circuit

which make it unsuitable for most applications. Since A Rg is small corn-
pared to Re, A E, will be small compared to Eg and its nmaburemenr is
difficult. The static component E may be removed by a bias voltage or
g
capacity coupling; however, neither approach is desirable. The bias volt-
age represents another error producing factor and the use of a coupling
capacitor limits low-frequency response. In this circuit, the temperature
coefficient of resistance of the gage and R 1 produce direct errors, another
undesirable aspect.

c. Wheatstone Bridge

(1) General

Since the disadvantages of the potentiometer circuit

can be eliminated in the Wheatstone bridge, its use has become standardized
in the application of strain gages. To obtain temperature compensation from ,'
the bridge, two or four active arms are necessary. An indirect advantage
of this is the increased gage sensitivity which is obtained through the use of "
more than one active arm.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 93

,.4-, '

--- -- - -- --
- --
 Figures 2-32 and 2-33 show the two common
Wheatstone bridge circuits in simplified form. R and R 4 of Figure 2-32 .'
are dummy resistors necessary to complete the bridge circuit.

Since slight differences in the resistance of gages

or dummy resistors may exist and a small strain unbalance is likely (when
the gage is mounted), a method of producing an electrical zero is required.
This is accomplished by a balancing potentiometer (RB) and isolation re-
sistor (RI) as shown in Figure 2-34. The balance potentiometer must
enable the zero output condition (RlR 4 = R 2 R3) to be obtained. A method
of adjusting full-scale output voltage, or bridge sensitivity, is desirable
and commonly accomplished by the use of a resistor, fixed or variable,
in series with the bridge power supply, shown in Figure 2-34 as RS. V4-
A calibration resistor (Rc) and switch (Sw) are also
shown in Figure 2-34. The most desirable method of system calibration
from the standpoint of absolute accuracy, is to apply a known input of
strain to the instrumented structure. IHowever, this is not always prac-
tical for pre-flight and in-flight calibration. Therefore, an electrical
calibration is frequently, employed by shunting one active arm of the bridge
to simulate the known resistance change caused by a particular mechanical
input.
An accessory device, usually referred to as a
"bridge balance and calibrating unit" has become an integral part of strain
gage systems. These devices house the balance potentiometers and sensi-
tivity adjustment resistors for a number of channels (up to 24) ini a self-
contained unit. Provision for dummy and calibration resistors is also pro-
vided. Calibration is accomplished by the switching of calibration resistors
across one arm of the bridge. In more elaborate units, this is performed
automatically with a stepping switch to provide in-flight calibration. Balance
and drive voltage meters are sometimes provided, as well as series or shunt
galvanometer damping resistors.

There are two basic applications of the Wheatstone LAO

bridge to consider; the case where the bridge output drives a high impedance
intermediate load such as an amplifier, and the case where the bridge drives
a low impedance measuring device directly, such as a galvanometer. .y -

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 94

, - - . .. . , . 1. . . . . , . - • -. . . .- '
 0.

RIG

£ 0 F-
Drive

Fig. 2-32. Wheatstone Bridge With Two Active Armys

]DriveQ

Fig. 2-33. Wheatstone Bridge With Four Active Arms

RSw

RB 3

-- 0- 0

Frig. 24.Srai aeBig n Etra icir

WADD
6bRI I 9

i{E I
V OLT
-G - - - - -
-R . - -
..- w - .thRx
'.<:--;-.n *I4
 (2) High Impedance Load

The typical high impedance load for a strain gage

is a voltage amplifier to provide sufficient outpct to drive a voltage-con,-
trolled subcarrier oscillator or other voltage sensitive telemetry system
input. Strain gages are frequently subconmnutated, or sampled since
the frequency of information is usually quite low. Because it is difficult
to directly subcommutate or multiplex the low-level signals from a strain
gage, amplification is usually required. .

Referring to Figure 2-32, it will be assumed that

R= R 2 and R 3 R4. This is the usual case to allow the bridge to be con-
veniently balanced. In the case of the bridge with four active arms (Fi-
gure Z-33), all arms are usually of the same resistance. Gages of matched
gage factor and resistance are usually employed.

For two active arms, the open-circuit or high im- ,

pedance load output voltage from a Whcatstone bridge is -.

- Eo (A
E(AR) (2-6)k

where

=i R2 R

AR 1 = AR? = AR

E = Drive Voltage

Fot four active arms, the open circuit voltage is

E= B(__->. (2-7)
B0 AR

where R j =
RI =R? R3 R4 R

AR =ARj2=ARyAR4= R

E drive voltage

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 96

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 When the above equations are combined with the
strain gage equation,

AR/R (2-5)
AL/L (2-5)

a more useful expression for output voltage is obtained:

E GENS (2-8) ,
0 '

where
G = gage factor

E drive voltage .

N= number of active arms

S A L/L unit strain

(3) Low Impedance Load

When a bridge is used to directly drive a galva-

nometer or other low impedance device, the output voltage equations must
be modified. Galvanometers having sensitivities of greater than 1 milli-
voi' per inch deflection are common; therefore, multichannel oscillographs
represent useful strain gage recorders. However, galvanometer coil re-
sistances are very low, usually less than the resistance of the strain gage
itself. Their load effect on bridge output must be taken into consideration.
This can be done by employing the folLowing equations which apply to the
case of four equal resistance arms.

ELE (L
\RL + Eo (249L'2'-9)
,

or

IL (= l ) E (2-10)

whe re
Y- voltage across the load
L
IL current through the load

RL load resistance

WADD TIP 61-67

VOL I REV I 97

. -....- [

S~~~~~~.
. . . .. . .. . .. . ..-.-
. . ... .,.... . -...-
.. . : .,- ...-.-,,-. ',-".. .,..--. -"2-...-.
 To maintain optimum galvanometer frequency
response, the galvanometer damping must be correct. In many cases,
through careful selection of the strain gage and galvanometer, the
damping offered by the characteristic resistance of the bridge itself
will. be correct. In this case, no additional series or shunt galvanometer
damping resistors are required. However, if it is necessary to employ
damping resistors, their effect on bridge output must be taken into ac-
count.

(4) Calibration Resistor

As previously mentioned, a calibration resistor

may be employed. By shunting one arm of the bridge, any percentage of
full-scale output can be obtained. It is general practice to calibrate at
the level of maximum anticipated output, or at normal full-scale output .
Calibrating in this manner can minimize errors due to drive voltage drift
and galvanometer sensitivity inaccuracy. The following equations give the
value of Rc in terms of equivalent strain:

sR u R o ta (2-1 IA)
I -GS : "-
tine (2-1uelyeialto
vaue
in terms of output voltage: Li-S

= -~ (2--lZA

or
RC =R( - 1 (2-12B)

(5) Spe~cial Applications

(':ertai.n special purpose devices have been designed
to directly accept strain gagle ouputs and to provide an internal drive volt-
age. The drive voltage, in tbcsc cases is usually ac and consequently, the
impedance of the bridge is not a.lways purely resistive. However, the pre- - -
ceding equaati.ons generally apply since reactive components are usually
balanced.

WA])D 'mTB61-67
VOL 1 IREV i 98

V,-

... . .... ..... . ,. -... . . .

 A relatively common telemetric device which
operates directly with a Wheatstone bridge circuit is the strain gage sub-
carrier oscillator. These are usually phase shift oscillators wherein
the bridge output provides the frequency controlling feedback. Some ver-
sions of this device have automatic compensation for the effects of shunt
capacity in the bridge and leads, while others require external neutrali-
Zation.3

There are also time-division telemetry systems

which will directly accept strain gage transducer inputs. The multiplexer
of these systems is designed to provide an ac drive, usually synchronized
with the sampling rate, through the use of a polyphase transformer with
separate drive windings for each input channel. External neutralization
is not usually required.

One of the most common ac techniques is the sup-

pressed carrier system. This approach usually provides the same results
as a conventional bridge and dc amplifier (i. e. , dc output at a relatively
high level); however, it avoids the difficulties of dc amplification. In this
system, an ac drive is provided and the bridge output is amplified, detected,
and filtered to produce the desired dc output. --.-
d. Wiring Standard

Figure 2-35 shows a standard wiring diagram and color code . u..
for strain gage type transducers, recommended by the Western Regional
Strain Gage Committe (1052 West Sixth Street, Los Angeles 17, California).
This recommended standard has evolved from an extensive survey of users
and manufacturers and reflects the preferred color coding of a majority of
the major users.

2-4 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

a. Force Summing Devices

From basic physics, force is equal to the product of pressure v j

and the area over which pressure is exerted. In the telemetering of pres-
sure and vacuum, certain mechanical elements are generally used to con-
vert the applied force into a displacement; however, the displacement is not
always a linear function of the force (or pressure). These mechanical ele-
ments are often referred to as "force summing devices. " Those which are ..-
commonly used for converting pressure into displacement are listed below

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 99

.---.- - .-.- - - -. - '- -b-,. - - -..--- -.-. - - - - .-- --- - "

.- . -.....................................
-. - .- • .,- , '. 2 '-'"
 o- 2/.1. +Output
fL - -;•?: =
PRIMARY
SGAGEW IRING
BRIDGEW7 Whlie 3/C -Outpuit
• .:: '

4/D -Input
Black-
Bý
N 31

6/FAUIIR

WIRING

- Ye
hi t CW
'W%' llo w /G

W-B
White -Black

Approved: 9-18-57 9/1 SHIELD - See Note 4

Revised: 5-6-60
CONNECTOR

1. The direction or position of the function producing a positive output

signal shall be indicated on all transducers.

Z. The bridge elements shall be arranged so that functions producing

positive output will effect increasing resistance in arms 1 and 3 of
the bridge.

3. Wherever possible, tension, elongation, increasing pressure, or

positive
other generally accepted positive quZntities shall produce
gages.
output signals. Exceptions: compression load cells and vacuum

4. For shielded transducers, pins 5, 7 and 9 shall be shield terminals for

4, 6 and 8 wire system-s respectively.

The following mnarkings are suggested6

+ Tension Load Cells, Universal Load Cells, Micrometers, etc._. --

-4 Compression Load Cells

_.• Accelerometers and Flow Meters
+ Torque Transducers- -:
where the higher pres-
4 Differential Pressure Cells at the port
sure causes positive output signals

Fig. 2-35. Transducer Wiring Standard for Resistance Strain

Gage Systemns. (Prepared by the Western Regij'onal Strain Gage
Comrnittee.

WADD TR 61-67
100
VOL I REV 1
.-..-
7'..

_. .. -----

- ... ...
%...
and illustrated in Figure 2-36.

1. Diaphragm 3. Bourdon Tube

a. Flat a. Circular
b. Corrugated b. Twisted
c. Capsule

2. Bellows 4. Straight Tube

la lb 'C

II ~4
3a
--- PRESSURE I
S--DISPLACEMENT

Fig. 2-36. Force Summing Devices

S* n -;1aplira-gir15 (Ref. i40)

A diaphragm is a flat or convoluted surface, usually

circular, bonded at its outer circumference to a circular support or another

1.40 Pressure Transducing and Instrumentation Techniques, Vol. 1,

Book 1, WADD Technical Report 59-743, p. 113. AD 251111

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 101
 diaphragm. The convoluted form usually consists of a number of convo--
lutions of radial symnmnetry. Such diaphragms can be used singly or in
pairs. When used in pairs, by bonding together two diaphragms at their 6
Souter circumference, the resultant assembly is called a capsule. One
or more capsules may be used together to obtain a desired stroke. The
"deflectionof a capsule is slightly more than twice a single diaphragm,
since the rim is not restrained radially.

(2) Bellows (Ref. 141)

A bellows is a cylindrical pressure element

which contains a large number of convolutions along the length of the
cylinder. Relatively stiff end plates are usually provided to close off
the ends of the bellows and make it airtight. The cylindrical convolutions
provide an infinite number of springs along the length of the bellows, pro-
viding a much lower spring rate along its length than across the diameters.

As the pressure inside the bellows is increased, it

tends to expand along the lines of least resistance. In this case, the line
of least resistance is along the length of the bellows. The internal pr( 3-
sure acting on the end plates tends to increase the length of the bellows
until balanced by the stresses along the length of the cylindrical springs.
Since the spring rate opposing the increase in diameter is large with res-
pect to the spring rate opposing the increase in length, the small increase
in diameter is neglected in most cases and the increase in length utilized.

(3) Bourdon Tube (Ref. 142)

A Bourdon tube is a length of tubing whose cross-

section is some shape other than circular (usually flat-oval) and whose
length has been deformed into a curve predominantly in the plane of the W
smallest cross-sectional dimension. The simpler and more common form
of Bourdon tube has a constant radius of curvature along its active length
and covers an arc length of less than 3600. In some cases, the tube is
fixed at one end and the stroke nieasured at the other end, and in other Case
the tube is fixed at the middle of its active length and the movement between k •
the two free ends measured. In order to get more active length of tube and F"7
therefore more stroke, the tube can be made in the form of a spiral with a

141 Ibid., p. 114.

14Z Ibid. , p. 110.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVi1 10Z

. . . -,"'-.-*,.*.
. . .- -- - - - -

--.-. '.::.:: .2 - -. : - . - .'.: - . -" q -,' -'",-'-. -'V-- '-" -_-.-.,: --- ,-, ,- .-.- . .
-•. . . . . . -.
. .-.. .-':
continuously variable radius of curvature and an arc length of well over
360°, or in the form of a helix with a constant radius of curvature and
again an arc length of well over 360*. Both. of these designs have the
same cause of change in radius of curvature as the plain Bourdon tube,
but since they havc more active length, the free end of the tube will
travel over a greater distance and give more stroke.

Since the cross-section of a Bourdon tube is not 2

circular, the introduction of internal pressure will tend to deform the
cross-section into a circle. In doing so, the smallest cross-sectional di-
mension will increase and the largest will decrease. A length of tube in
its unpressurized state has a given radius of curvature of the centroid of
area along its length and a given cross-sectional thickness along that
radius. As a result, the innermost line and the outermost line have given
lengths. If the tube is pressurized, these points will move away from the
centroid of area by some amount. The innermost line moving closer to -_
the center of curvature will. tend to get shorter and will have compressive
stresses set up along its length. The outermost line will tend to stretch
and will have tensile stresses set up along its length. These stresses are
resisted by the material of the tube to some extent and result in the opening
up of the radius of curvature and a movement of the free end of the tube.

(4) O llr TubegRe 143)x"""ue---

Also known as the "hollow tube," this is the only

force summing device in this discussion which has an initial circular cross-
section and therefore cannot deform into this shape. Instead, while under
pressure, the walls of the tube stretch and the diameter increases. The
deflection that is measured may either be the diameter increase or the in-
crease in circumference.

b. Conversion of Displacement to an Electrical Analog Signal

Force summing devices provide a displacement as a result of

their input pressure and it is nece,,rary that this be converted to an electrical
parameter which can be fed to, or sensed by, the input circuitry of a telemetry
system. The telemetry system may receive an electrical signal or may
"see" a change of impedance as a result of the displacement. Although some

143 Ibid. p. 111.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 103
%-
N.-

N.L-•

Jl .:v <:': '/: "- "°

: . ""-:"• .v
- v: : '.- - - : . . . . : :> -. , . .-- ". o• ".- : '. . - : - . . . .: , - . , . .' \ -. -.P

• - , * , . • , . -,• • . . .. - .- ..- § . . . . . .. .-. • .. , . - •-•

methods of measuring displacement have been covered in Paragraph 2-2 of
this section, it is the intent of this discussion to provide representative 0
techniques employed in pressure transducers.

(1) Potentiometer Types (Ref. 144)

The bellows and Bourdon tube generally have suf-

ficient displacement, as a result of their pressure input, to be suitable
for attachment to the wiper arm of a potentiometer. Changes in the pres-
sure cause a mechanical movernent of the bellows or Bourdon tube. This 2.
results in a corresponding change in position of the potentiometer's slider.
If the poteitiometer is supplied with a constant ac or dc voltage, its out-
put voltage also changes. When a bridge circuit is involved, the slider -'

position causes a variation in the ohmic value of one or more active arms.

The potentiometer winding in most cases consists

of a tightly wound coil of very fine wire. Its resolution is relatively coarse
since it depends on the ability of the sliding contact to distinguish contact
with one wire, the bridging of two wires, and then a one-wire contact, as
the slider moves across the coil. Windings with spacings of the equivalent
to 1, 000 turns per linear inch have been achieved. Deposited conducting
films on ceramics and glass have been employed in a few pressure trans-
ducers to give almost infinite resolution.

Figure 2-37 shows two pressure transducers which

utilize wirewound potentiometers (Ref. 145). These transducers require
an external voltage source. The output voltage produced by the motion
of the wiper arm may be supplied to a voltage controlled oscillator of a
FM/FM telemetry system.

144 Borden, Perry A. and Wilfrid j. Mayo-Weils, Telemetering

Systems, New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1959, pp. 130-131.

145 General Catalog and Transducer Handbook, Technical Bulletin

No. 75, Trans-Sonics, Incorporated, November 1960.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 104

.. ... .-. ' .- - ..- - - ----

-. 2'_ .
 COUNI ERWEIGI

3 ,BELLOWS PRESSURESEINSINGELEMENI
4.
REEEC SPIN P1 AR VI ,4fG

WINDING
_:POTENPIGMETER1 OPENING ,?WPR01
_ 0.111105 11011 IL-A IUR
PUSPARMSENSING El [ N

RESSI
PRE ~ ~~~~~OV
ER PRESSURESTOPS PTTHLE WION
P URE COINTIWEGGH POENIM E

(a) (b)

Fig. 2-37. Pressure Transducers with Potentiometer Pickoffs

Advantages and disadvantages of potentiometer

type transducers are as follows:

Advantages

(a) High outputb

(b) Simple and easy to use
(c) Relatively inexpensive
(d) May be used with ac or dc
(e) A wide range of non-linear functions is obtainable
(f) High electrical efficiency
(g) Amplification and impedance matching are gen-
e- ally unnecessary
(h) May be used for static or dynamnic measurements

Djs advantages

(a) Generally finite resolution

(c) Sensitive to vibration

(d) Low frequency response RR

.1(e) Relatively large displacements are required

(f) Large actuating force required
(g) Noise increases with wear

WADD TR 61-67
VFOL I REV 1 105
 (2) Variable Reluctance Type (Ref, 146, 147), ,

An example of the use of a variable reluctance

pickoff in a pressure transducer is one in which a twisted Bourdon tube -
is the force surnming device. This is a length of hollow tubing which has
been flattened and twisted about its longitudinal axis. One end is sealed
and pressure is applied to the other. The open end is held fixed, but
the sealed end is free to rotate as pressure is applied. The tube untwists
when the pressure 4n it is positive and twists when it is negative or when
the pressure outside is positive. Thus, it can be seen that the tube will
respond to pressure or vacuum applied either internally or externally and
to the difference between internal and external pressures. Another varia-
tion is to evacuate and seal the pressure element, applying pressure only ;,'.

to the outside of the element, through the transducer case inlet. This is
the basis of an absolute pressure pickup. It is also practical to evacuate
and seal the transducer case and apply the pressure inside the tube.

A flat magnetic armature may be fastened to the p.

sealed end of the element so that it rotates with it, as illustrated in Fi-
gure 2-38. The rotation causes air gaps in an electro-magnetic circuit 14
to change, thereby changing circuit inductances. These inductances may
be employed as two active arms of a four-arm bridge as shown in Figure
2-39. Two of these arms are fixed by using the center tapped secondary
winding of an oscillator output transformer. The two active arms, shown
as L 1 and L 2 , are the coils in the transducer. The movement of the arm-
ature causes the inductance of Li to increase and that of L to decrease as
pressure is applied. The instrument is adjusted initially to a balanced -
condition such that the voltage drop across Ll is equal to the voltage drop
across L 2 . This results in an output voltage E. of zero volts in the ab- .

sence of an applied pressure. As the armature rotates, the voltage drop

across LI increases as that of L 2 decreases in proportion to the magnitude -
of rotation. Half the difference between these two voltage drops appears
as the output voltage at Eo. Working into an open circuit, this output volt- .
age is approximately 10% of the input voltage. .
146 Engineering Data Sheet 359-103, Daystrom-Wiancko Engineering
Company.

147 Engineering Data Sheet 359-104, Daystrom-Wiancko Engineering -

Company.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 106

¾ . .
..- . ... ., . - - ~ ~ .---- .
 ,/SECOND E "-CORE AND COIL SET

-I 'lo'

ARMATURE -

-ELECTRICAL COIL

Fig. Z-38. Twisted Tube with Armature and Coils

EI I L LoJL E0

Fig. 2-39. Inductance Bridge with Fig. 2-40. Inductance Bridge with
Two Active Arms Four Active Arms

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVi1 107

0'~
 As illustrated by the dashed lines in Figure 2-38,
the transducer mnay contain four inductances which are used as four active
arms of the bridge circuit shown in Figure 2-40. Output voltage is approxi-
mately 20% of the input voltage for open circuit conditions.

(3) Variable Calpacitance Typie (Ref. 148) .

Variable capacitance transducers find their greatest

application in those areas requiring response to a wide range of frequencies.
Capacitive transducers have good response characteristics from zero up to
several thousand cycles per second,

Capacitive transducers are generally associated

with the mecasurement of small mechanical displacements and units may be
obtained for use at extremely low pressure ranges on the order of a few -
"microns. Measurements can be made in terms of microinches if desired
and can be highly accurate depending upon specific setup involving stray
capacitance effects, rnaximumn deflection, and area of capacitive plates. '-
"Their fast response makes them mdeal for applications requiring precise
time studies.

The capacitive transducer may bc used in any elec-

trical circuit where a change in capacity will affect the circuit. They are .
most commonly used in impedance bridge circuits or as the frequency de-
termining compon-ent in anl oscillator. The ruggedness of the capacitvc
type transducers makes them desirable in applications requiring shock,
vibration, and acceleration resistant units. These retain their calibration
well.

The basic mechanical configuration of a variable

capacitance transducer is shown in Figure 2-41. A plate on a flexible
2
metal diaphragm or bellows is mounted near a rigid plate and the edges
electrically insulated. Pressures aýe applied to each side of the flexible
diaphragm. The diaphragm responds to the difference between the two
pressures and moves toward the side wihere the pressure ib luwer. As the,
distance between the movable plate and fixed plate varies, the electrical

148 Pressure Transducing and Instrumentation Techniques, Vol. 1, ,

Book 2, WADD Technical Report 59-743, pp. 130 - 132. ADZ51112 -

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I R.EV 1 108

*. . . -. I *L . . . . - - .. . I " " |. .
 capacitance changes as a function of the applied pressure. The capa.ci-
tance varies as I/D, where D is the distance from the movable plate to , 9
the fixed plate. If changes in D are small compared with the nominal
value of D, the change in capacitance is approximately a linear function-.-
of pressure.

When used as a component in an oscillator cir-

cuit, the oscillator must be of a type that can be tuned by changing capa-
citance. Figure 2-42 shows a simple Hartley oscillator using a variable
capacitance pickoff as the frequency determining component. As the
value of capacitance is changed, the oscillator frequency changes propor-
tionally. Either static or dynamic pressures may be monitored with this
type circuit. A static pressure results in a constant displacement of the
diaphragm; therfore, a new steady state oscillator frequency is established.
Time varying pressure changes result in time vary.ng frequency shift of
frequency modulation.

2-5 MEASUREMENT OF FLUID FLOW

a. Volumetric Flow Measu'erement

The three basic types of volumetric flow meters are displace-

mert meters, velocit-y meters, and differential pressure meters. A great
variety of each type exists, the selection being dependent upon density, vis-
cosity, flow rate, and corrosiveness of the fluid to be measured. Meter
flow zange, pressure loss, monitoring technique, size, accuracy, reliability,
and cost must also be considered.

(1) Displacement Meters

A displacement meter is usually in the form of a

fluid pump which is run in reverse by the flowing fluid. When calibrated for
a fluid of a given density and viscosity, meter reciprocation or rotation is
•.Iectly p, UporLiUil tu tLine iluiu 1ow rate, and the sum of the rotations is a
measure of the fluid volume. Several of the more common displaccment
meters are discussed herein.

(a) Reciprocating Piston Meter

The reciprocating piston meter is essentially

the reverse of a double-acting reciprocating p,_imp. Although it is a very

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV 1 109

',• ".......... "..':.- ".. v.-" '- . <''-"--'- , - - , . .'. -'-'.-.--'.--V-'• -' •- -,
 PORT PORT

I.'

RIGID
BACK
PLATE
PLATE
ON
FLEXIBLE
BELLOWS

ELECTRICAL .-
LEADS

Fig. 2-41. Capacitive Transducer Configuration

--- LVV

CAPACITANCE
TRANSDUCER

Fig. 2-42. Hartley Oscillator Using Variable Capacitance Transducer

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 110 -"

-. -- *-t -% -
. . .... . . -...
. . . -. - ..-. - - - - - - -- ?,. .... - - i .. . .
early style meter, practically all liquids can be metered satisfactorily
through suitable selection of fabrication materials. An error of 0. 2%
can be obtained down to virtually zero flow. To reduce wear and head
loss, large pistons with short stroke are necessary with the result that
the meter is inherently large in. comparison with many other types.

(b) Duplex Rotor Meter (Ref. 149)

The duplex rotor meter, illustrated in

Figure 2-43 has a greater flow capacity. The moving element consists
of two fluted rotors. The relative position between the two rotors is
controlled by two helical timing gears so that synchronized rotation is
obtained. There is always a small clearance between the helical sur-
faces so that no metal to metal contact exists. The sequence of opera-
tions is as follows: the metered liquid enters the measuring chamber
causing the rotors to move. A volume of liquid is momentarily isolated
from the outlet and inlet A further movement of the rotors allows the
volume of liquid to be discharged from the working chamber. Rotor
motion may be monitored and recorded by electrical or mechanical
means. A typical meter of this description, suitable for a three-inch
pipe, has an error of approximately 0. 75% from 41 gpm up to a maxi-
mum flow rate of 266 gprn and a pressure loss of about 500 psfd.

/ / - :.

Fig. 2-43. Duplex Rotor Meter %j"

149 Linford, A. "Measurement of Fluid Flow, The Instrument Manual, -

Third Edition, London: United Trade Press, LTD, 1960, p. 122.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV I lil

(u
- A C .~".:,-
 ...

4W

(0 ( ) , .' "-.-

S~~Fig. 2-44. Semi-Rotary Piston Meter "-"'

M(C) Semi-Rotlary Piston Meter (Ref. 150) '-'-

The semni-rotary piston meter was devel- :!:}

oped primarily for the measurement of small flows of water. However,

now available for teasuring other liquids. -

'The salient features of these meters are

low cost and maintenance, a large flow range, interchangeability of .:':' "
working parts and a good commercial accuracy (error less than ±2%/ of -•
actual flow) over the whole working range. '"•"

A cross-sectional diagram of this mneter.-",

fmn, i4q qknwr, in Tin- 2-44.
Tlie body of the meter, mlounted in the pDipe- ""
line, conFtains a cylindrical piston of soeaewhat smaller diameter, but of
the same height as the working chaelber.iqi

j.2" '

150 Ibid. pp. I122-124i. ," -

•'.-• VOL I R-EV I I""

 'The working chamber is fitted with a radial
partition projection partly across it, and with a central hub. The piston, ,
the wall of which is split, fits over the partition, and also over the central
"hub. The diameters of the working chamber, of the central 1,ub and of the
piston are such that, whatever the position of the piston, line contact is
obtained between its outer wall and the inner wall of the working chamber.

The liquid being metered enters the bottom

"ofthe working chamber on one side of the partition and leaves the chamber
from the top on the other side of the partition, so that the piston forms a
movable barrier between the inlet and outlet ports. The result is that the.:
liquid, flowing through the working chamber, sets the piston in motion,
a semi-rotary movement being obtained, the piston sliding to and fro along
the fixed partition--yet always revolving round the working chamber in the
same direction, although it does rot rotate about its own axis. Each semi-
revolution of the piston allows a volume of liquid, equal to the volume itf
sweeps out, to pass through the rneter. The nominal sizes of these semi.-
rotary piston meters range from 1/2 inch to 6 inch connections. Table 2-5
gives some examples of typical meter capacities and flow ranges. Such
meters are suitable for working pressures up to 21, 600 psfg.

a ITable Z-5. Typical Flow Ranges of Senmi-Rotary Piston Flowmeter

Meter Meter Accuracy Rated Maximum

Size Starts of 98%/( Maximum Occasional
"(inches) A.t At Working Flow Overload
S ~(64 psfd pres- (1600 psfd ..
___ __ ___ __ sure loss) pressure loss)
1/2 0. 017 gpm 0.083 gpm 1.7 gpm 8. 3 gpm.
"1 0. 033 gpm 0. 17 gpm 4. 2 gpm 22. gpm-
"2 0. 067 gpm 0. 5 gprn 25. gpm 130. gprn
,4 0. 42 gpm 0.8 gpm 83. gpm 420. gpm "
6 0.5 gpm 1.0 gpm j 130. gpm 635. gprn

-4.

WAD,) TR 61-67 , ,
VOLI REVi 113 .

b )2J*;ll1

.......................................................-. . . . . . .
S..
• ... =• .- . - .. . .-- . . .- - -- . -. . - -..
... . . -.. .... . . -..- . .. - -.-. . . -. - - : :-

iMPELLERS 171_

ý34

@~71
Fig. 2-45. Rotary Meter

(d) Rotary Meter (Ref. 15 1)

The rotary meter is one of several types of

displacement gas meters. As shown in Figure 2-45, it consists of a work-
The gas
ing chamber containing two impellers, each mounted on a shaft.
pressure on
enters the working chamber from the top and, in exerting a
of the two
these impellers, causes them to rotate. The relati- 2 position
fitted on their respective shafts, and it
impellers is determined by gears
they ar arpnlways in contact with each
will be seen that, ow-in to..
necessitates their passing
other. Each complete revolution of the impeller
-
through the vertical position twice, and each time a pocket of gas (shown
hatched in Figure 2-45) is trapped. Hence, the volume of gas passed for
portion multiplied
each revolution of the impellers is four times the hatched
by the length of the impellers.

>51 11M1d, pp. IZ4-125. He

WADD TR 61-67
114
VOL I REV 1

..
*-..* *._" ,..
 " & '.-

The working range of these meters is

from 1 to 10 times the minimum accurately measurable flow and over-
load of from 50% to 100% can be allowed. Capacities range from 333 cfm
(6" gear diameter by 18" impeller length) to 21, 530 cfm (32" gear dia-.
meter by 96" impeller length), the head loss being approximnately 2. 5 psfd
and the working pressure 1440 psfg. These meters have been designed --
for working pressures up to 43, 200 psfg.

(2) Velocity Meters

Meters of this type obtain a measure of the velocity

of the flow; the volumaetric flow is inferred as being equal to the velocity
multiplied by the cross sectional area of the flow. The moving element
is usually a helix, fan, or turbine rotor. Minimum flow rates which can
be measured with acceptable accuracy are generally higher than those for
displacement meters, depending on the frictional and in inertial charac-
:." ~teristics of the particular device. Lower total pressure loss, lower cost,-..-'
and the ability to handle a variety of corrosive fluids containing suspended
matter are some advantages. It is important, however, that a velocity
meter be calibrated for the specific fluid and conditions encountered in use.
Velocity meters are commercially available from numerous manufacturers.
Two modern types are discussed herein.

(a) Turbine Flowmeter (Ref. 152)

The "Pottermeter, " illustrated in Figure 2-46

consists of a housing with end fittings to match those of the piping in which .' -"
the element is to be installed. A hydraulically, self-positioning rotor is sus-
pended within the housing, A permanent magnet is sealed inside the rotor of
the standard frequency Pottermeter. High-frequency meters utilize a reluc- y'
tance type magnetic pick-up with a permanent magnet built into an externally -
mounted coil.
As the fluid flows through the element, the
rotor spins at a speed determined by the fluid velocity and the angle of the
rotor blades, inducing an ac voltage in the pick-up coil mounted externally-
to the housing. In standard frequency meters, the frequency of this voltage
is a function of the rotor speed and the number of magnetic poles. High-
frequency meters produce a frequency up to 10 times greater for use in trans- ..-
ient flow studies, digital flow rate indication, and telemetering.

152 "Engineered by Potter," Potter Aeronautical Corporation, Union,

New Jersey.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI RE•V 115

>. , *, gv,.
'.-. -".,..
_,,, ---.- . .. .. ... ......... -.. .. .. . .- ., . . . . .- , . .. -. .. ..... .-. .. . . ..-... -:
 .~~~~~-
.' .. . . . .

PI'ck-up ("Oil Alm -c M agn't •_.]

It'

Fig. 2-46. Turbine Flowmeter

The design of the rotor and its supporting

members is such that fluid flow through the element establishes upstream A--

thrust components which exceed the downstream drag factor, so that the
rotor spins freely without thrust friction midway between its upstream and
downstream supports.

At point A (See Figure 2-46), the upstream

end of the unit, fluid flow is assumed to be at line velocity and pressure.
This flow encounters a restricting cone, held rigidly in place, which causes
an increase in velocity with a corresponding decrease in pressure in the
area between the rotor an(-I the stationary cone at Point B. The restricting
cone attached to the upstream support is slightly smaller in diameter than
the body of the rotor, and therefore absorbs the impact of the downstream
flow velocity so that only a limited amount is permitted to be impressed LA
upon the rotor. Since the rotor itself is shaped like a cone with the base
upstream, there is a decrease in fluid velocity along the body of the rotor
with a corresponding pressure recovery at Point C, which tends to force
the rotor upstream into the low pressure area behind the stationary cone.
There is actually an excess of upstream thrust so that the rotor moves up- L
stream to a point where the flow past the smaller, fixed, upstream cone ,.,

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 116 K-e

A.'........
begins to impinge on the forward edge of the rotor body, limniting the
amount of upstream movement.

When hydraulically centered in this osi-

tion, the rotor spins without slippage or thrust friction. The error is
approximately ±0. 5% of the actual flow.

The meter is inherently linear over most

of its range of operation. Some non-linearity will be encountered when
operating at minimum flow rates, at which the fluid velocity is not high
enough to produce sufficient upstream thrust to overcome the drag on the
rotor. Even at these low flow rates, the element has a high degree of
repeatability.

The meter can be installed in any position, . .

horizontally or vertically, with the flow either upward or downward so
long as the flow is in the direction indicated on the housing. However,
linearity over the widest possible range of operation will be obtained
when the unit is mounted within 150 of the horizontal. Because the rotor
spins freely, it responds rapidly to flow changes and will fully indicate
a transient change within the time required for the rotor to make one com-
plete revolution. --

Table 2-6bis representative sizes, capa-

cities, and flow ranges; however, many other sizes are available.

Table Z-6. Typical Ranges of Turbine Flowmeters

Rated Max.
Repeatable Linear Working Flow
Meter Size Performance Performance (1728 psfd
(Inches) Starts At Starts At press, loss)

1/8 0.08 gpm 0. 17 gpm 1.4 gpnm

1/2 1. 2 gpm- 2.0 gpm 25. 0 gpinL
1 3. 7 gpm 6.0 gpm 94. 0 gpn"
6 180.0 gpm 350.0 gprn 6400. 0 gpm . -,"
12 650.0 gpm - Z120. 0 gpm 26, 000. C gpm'n

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 117

- - -- -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -
 (b) Vortex-Velocity Flowmeter

The Vortex-Velocity flowmeter is illus-

trated in Figure 2-47 and its principle of operation is shown in Figure
2-48. (Rotron Controls Corporation, Woodstock, New York. ) .

This meter type has a continuous flow

range of 10 to 1 regardless of meter size. It will measure liquids, at-
mospheric air, or compressed gases. Temperature limits may range
from 32,°F to 200°F.

The Vortex-Velocity flowmeter consists

essentially of a piece of straight pipe with an offset cylindrical chamber.
When a fluid flows through the pipe, an eddy or vortex forms in the cham-
ber. The rotation of the vortex is inherently proportional to the main
flow in the pipe, A rotor mounted in this vortex senses the vortex promptly
and maintains its stability. The rotor merely rides with the vortex as a
means of counting its revolutions. A magnetic coupling between the rotor
shaft and the register eliminates the need for packing glands.

Counting the number of revolutions, or

speed of the vortex, produces an accurate volume total or flow rate indica-
tion of mass flow at line conditions. The meters have an error of 0. 5%
and a flow ranee of 20 to 200 gpin for liquids, and 10 to 100 cfrn for gas.

Fig. 2-47. Vortex-Velocity Flowmeter

(3) Differential Pressure Meters (Ref. 153)

Differential pressure meters consist either of a

probe or a constriction in a conduit. There is no limit to the size of these

153 Linford, A., op. cit., pp. 131-138.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV! 118

4. 17 .k t 2 - . .
 OFFSET VORTEX CHAMBER
9R
METER TUBE""

MAIN
FLOW
BY-PASSF -- - - "- -____
FLOW _

CALIBRATOR

Main flow produces vortex in offset chamber.

Vortex. motion is sustained by engagement of portion

of vortex periphery and adjacent streamline of crowded main
flow. Relation is "pulley on a belt."

Rotor turns with vortex which has a regulated diame-

ter larger than that of rotor. Main f doew not
-es en-age rotor -.
blades.

Shunt flow, not shown, supplies fluid to center of vor-

tex. Resulting radially outward flow component provides neces-
sary relative motion to avoid tangential slip between rotor and
vortex.

By-pass flow is regulated by calibrator to change rela-

tion between rotor revolutions and total flow. Thus, meter
factor can be adjusted to unity.

Three parallel flows have common pressure drop and

operate in turbulent range. Hence, measured flow is constant
proportion of total flow.

Fig. 2-48. Principle of Vortex Velocity Meter

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 119

. . ... ,
 o. -

meters, and they have the ability to handle corrosive fluids containing
large amounts of suspended matter.

A flowing fluid has a total (ram or stagnation) -

pressure which is the sum of its static and dynamic pressures. These
terms are often referred to as total, static, and dynamic (velocity)
head, respectively, when the pressure is expressed in feet or inches of
the working fluid.

if
P total pressure (lb/ft 2 )

2
Ps = static pressure (lb/ft )

2
Pd= dynamic pressure (lb/ft )

"• P = fluid mass density (ib-sec-/ft4)

"V = fluid velocity (ft/sec)

Pt = Ps + Pd (2-13)

where

Pd= (i/Z)PV'
therefore

"Pt PS + (1/2) P V2 (2-14) C

thus

V= 2(P - Ps)/P (2-15)

Fli
T- X1 Late is prpct ria to fluid
l-
1uwIJ a di rectly pootýrlt
velocity and therefore to the square root of the differential pressure, as
shown by equation (2-15). 6

(a) Pitot Tube

The Pitot tube may be used to measure the

differential pressure for the determination of velocity or volumetric flow.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV 1 120

4.-. .~ - ; --- - -. - - - - °--

Two configurations are shown in Figure 2-49.

S TSTATIE
C PRESSURE HOLE$

IL STAIC PRESSURE HOLES

Fig. 2-49. Pitot Tubes

The Pitot tube is inserted into the stream

of fluid. Fluid is brought to rest in the center tube giving total pressure.
Static pressure is obtained by the concentric outer tube. A differential
pressure gauge is used to measure Pt- P. which is proportional to the
velocity of the flow at the point in the stream where the Pitot tube is loca-
ted. To ascer-tain the total flow throujgh a conduit, it is necessary to
relate this velocity to the mean velocity of the flow. It is usual to locate.--
a Pitot tube at the center of the conduit where the velocity distribution
curve is flattest. The ratio of mean velocity to center velocity is a func-
tion of Reynolds number.

(b) Venturi Tube A

Of the various forms of volumetric flow

meters, those which employ a detecting element operating on the following
differential pressure principle havr tho xAvidea nP-li.-tio,. Th'lp-C at-"pu
of the detecting element is based upon increasing flow velocity (dynamic
pressure) causing decreasing static pressure. Thus, if total pressure is
assumed coInstant between sections 1-1 and 2-2 (Figure Z-50), equation . -

(2-14) becomnes

P5 + (/2) p 2 V2 = P5s + (I/2) PlVl (2-16) - _

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 121
"".-

'hk N ,
 S2

A - --. -_ a------

Fig. 2.-50. Venturi Tube

When dealing with compressible fluids,

the density at section 1-1 is not the same as the density at section 2-2
due to the change of pressure. However, in a correctly designed dif-
ferential pressure producing device, the error involved is negligible.

From (2-16), it may be seen that -

2 -(P -
V- _ V1 = (2-17)

since

A1 V 1 A V, (2-18)

by substitution

r-2 2
V2V2 (3P -P
5 )/ (l-A 2 /A, (2-19)

Thus, the square root of the static pressure

difference is a measure of the volumetric flow rate.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVI Izz1

%,.... .
 In addition to the Venturi tube, there are
other devices available for rnete.-ing fluid by this principle. The cri.-
terion for such a meter is the ability to produce a high differential pros-
sure with a low total pressure loso. Typicai devices of this type arc the
orifice and Dall Tube.
(c) Orifice Meter

The orifice meter shown in Figure 2-51

is a thin metal plate with a central hole. Pressure taps .-re provided on -.-
each side of the orifice plate. Being simple and inexpensive, the orifice

CAR RIER
/ ORIFICE
PLATE

%
-,

AA

UPSTREAM ,DOWNSTREAM
CONNECTION CONNECTION

Fig. 2-51. Orifice Meter

generates a large differential pressure, but has the disadvantage of a

large total pressure Loss, primarily due to downstream turbulene".

(d) Dall Tube

The Dall tube, illustrated in Figure 2-52,

combines the high differential of an orifice with the low los3 of a VenYiutui._I

WADD TR 61-67
4VOL I REV 1 123

. . ''''• - "% • % .-.. °- % °••% . % . .-. . •-

' - . . . F "•" ,. -. , "°' ' ' " ","-"* ' ••"*"%
""U • " . ',' -
 Q~ THROAT SLOT

THROAT
Q UPSTKEAM CONNECTION

Fig. 2-52. Dali Tube

It is shorter (1-1l/2 to 2 pipe diameters) and has less pressure loss than r.7

the Venturi.

(e) Comparisons

Table 2-7 presents a comparison of the

efficiencles of several differential pressure meters.

Table 2-7. Comparison of Differential Pre ssure, Meters

Type of 7 Pressure loss in -uer cent of differential produced

Meter for various throat dia/inlet dia. ratics.
11 0.4 0. 0. l
Orifice 98%62% 40%

Nozzle 94% 7 4% 50% --

Short Venturi 3107, 6% 10% 10%
Long Venturi 15% 110/ 10% 10%
1Dal1_'rube 9.W/, 4% 3%/

WADD TR '6 -0`7%

VOL I RV
Lýý 124
 II

b. Mass Flow Measurement (Ref. 154) --

Devices to measure mass flow or weight flow have aroused.

great interest during the past few years. This interest sterns from the t., K
need in industrial process control and military fields for more accurate
and faster ways of metering fluid than is possible with conventional in- "
ferential-type flowmieters. Inasmuch as missile thrust is measured in
terms of the weight of propellant delivered, mass fb)w or weight flow
information is of infinitely greater value and importance than the volu-
metric: flow rate.

Because of their simpler construction, conventional infer-

ential meters such as area or head meters have been used extensively in
the past. To obtain mass rate of flow information from these meters, the A-4..
reading must be corrected for related fluid properties such as density and
viscosity as well as such environmental conditions as temperature and
pressure. With present highly developed computational techniques, it is
theoretically possible to correct these quantities automatically, and any
inferential type meter can be made to measure mass rate of flow by
correcting, with svitable transducers, the effects of density, viscosity,
pressure, velocity, etc. Unfortunately, since these quantities are often
interrelated in a rather complicated fashion, a high degree of accuracy -•.

over a wide flow range cannot be obtained easily. The situation is com-
pl..cated fu'th±r wvhen the fluid is nonhomogeneous (i. e. , compressible
fluid, multiphased fluid such as inists, slurries, foams, emulsions) and.
when the flow is not steady (i. e., pulsating flow).

A true mass flowmerer, on the other hand, is one that can

produce a signal which corresponds to the mass rate flow directly and is
substantially independent of various fluid properties y.nd environmental
conditions. Since modern power plants and missiles are frequently sub-
ject to appreciable transient variations in fluid properties, the relative
independence of mass flowmneters on these variable conditions assures
better accuracv over a widehr range of omeration than ct•pe sat.d- -
ential meters.

The basic types of flowr.-nters are listed in Table A`8 along

with several of the most %;videlty used sub-classifications.

154 Miesse, C. C. Studcl of Mass Flowmneters, Armiour Reseazc3i

Foundation, Final Report (ARF Project D173), July, 1959.

WADD TR 61--17
VrOL I RZV 1 U5
 Table Z-8. Classification of Mass Flowmeters

Classification Sub -Clas sifi cation

Conventional Inferential Meters Head or area meters with density

with Automatic Compensation and possible viscosity compen-
sation. Velocity meter with den-
sity compensation.

Transverse-Momentum Flovnneter Radial Flow Type

Axial Flow Type
Gyroscopic Type

Forced Circulation Flowmeter Constant displacement pumnp

Flow Acceleration Flowmeter Magnus effect

(1) Transverse Momentum Flowmete r

Utilization of the momentum force of the fluid stream".

to measure flow rate is a relatively simple matter. Unfortunately, the
force produced is not merely a function of the mass rate of flow, but also a
function of density of the fluid. This difficulty can be overcome by super-
imposing a known velocity in a direction perpendicular to that of the stream..
The force required to accelerate or retard the fluid stream is equal to the
rate of change of momentum in the transverse direction, which in turn is
proportional to the mass rate of flow. Mass flow signals obtained by this
method are substantially independent of fluid properties such as viscosity,
density, and homogeneity and environmental conditions such as temperature, b"-:
flow patterns, etc. The linear relationship between the mass rate of flow
and the force output is also a very desirable feature. The three different
a rangements which have been developed are known as the radial flow tyjq e,
axial flow type, and gyroscopic type.

(a) Radial Flow Type

The radial flowineter, also known as the

Li mass rate meter, is shown in Figure 2-53. Its flow sensing element
is in the form of a tube or a turbine impeller. The fluid flows in the radial
direction relative to the sensing elerrment, and each fluid particle traces a
spiral-shaped path in space. The sensing element is forced to rotate at a
constant angular velocity, and the torque cequired to rotate the sensing ele-
ment is a linear function of the mra.ss rate flow.

WADD TR 61-67 . -

VOL I REV i 126

....................................................
 .17

Fig. 2-53. Schematic Diagram of Li Mass-Rate F].owmeter

K--..--1•-- 'rL

V 0_

Fig. Z-54. Description of Op-niaion of IA Radial. Flowmeter

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 12 7

.4-:?':
 The -,peration can be described most readily
by referring to the special il.lustration of Figure 2-54 where the fluid is
assumed to flow uniformly through a straighFt tube, the motion of each par-
tical being parallel to that of the others. The tube is assunmed to be rotated
at a constant angular vel.oc(ity w about the axis 0 intersecting the axis of
the tube. at right angles. The Coriolis acceleration, which is then uniform
verywhere in the fluid, is given by the equation:

a= 2V <!. (2-20)

where

V = fluid velocity relative tc the tube.

From this, it can be shown that the monment about 0 due to the Coriolis
force is given by
2 0
ML Ir-7 - r! ' W (2-21)

Hence, the moornent or torque is a .unear function of the mass rate of flow,
w.
It can also be shown that the shape of the
flow o•.shig eirmnent is of no importance, nor are the properties of the fluid
or the nature of the flow pattern within the vessel The
' only significant re-
quirement is that the entrance and exit velocities relative to the vessel be
radial. If this condition is not fulfilled, an a.dditional inornent wvill be pro-
duced by the tangenatial conx.,nents of the velocities as in the case of a radial
flow turbine, and the linea1 r re.ationships for force and mo)enent will no longer
apply.

Practical arrangemiecnt embodying this prin-

ciple is shown in Figure Z-55. The flow sensing elenment in this case
resembles the impeller of a c.entr-,.fugPl pump It is enclosed in a housing
that also resenmbles a pu.upn] housing except that it rotates with the impeller
an.d is niechanicaJ.ly conrected to it by an elastic rucrnber whose distortion
serves to mneasure thf-' nony.c-.nt. exeited on the ir"pehe r by the fluid, and
therefore, the mnass r?,te flow. The wfho>kt assenmbly is rotated at a constant
rate by an external motor, atIO connections betwveen the incoming and out-
going fluid lines are nad.o through any suitable type of rotary seal. The
impeller is provided with a siafficiý-:nt nimnber of radial vanes to ensure

WADD TR 61-67
VOL1I RE-V 3 I8.
'" 'I-

]. . -'.%
."- "/ ,: ," -: : .:'- =' •'.--..-,- . ,:- : -. : -'°, : -- v : : -'"-: : ,: - . .. / ,-": :
 o< >.~-'-4-?

that the flow is substantially radial (See Figure Z-56), so that the output,
taken from a device that measures torsional deflection with respect to
the housing, will be an accurate measure of the. mass flow rate.

It is interesting to note that in the arrange-

,ment of Figure 2-55, the torque required to drive the flow sensing element
is recovered in the guide vanes in the housing, with the result that the only
torque which the driving motor must supply is that necessary to overcome
bearing and seal system friction and windage. It should also be noted that
the signal output is independent of this frictional torque.

-s Such a device as depicted in Figure 2-55,

unlike some other types of flowmeters, can be used bidirectionally; i. e. ,-.__"
if the flow reverses, the torque produced also will reverse. Similarly,
the torque can be reversed by reversing the drive motor, or the scale fac-
tor can be changed by changing the motor speed. .7>

Basically, the only source of error in this

flowmeter is the possible tangential component of the relative velocity at
either the inlet or the outlet of the impeller. If the relative velocity can
be held truly radial at both inlet and outlet of the impeller by a suitable
N arrangement of vanes, the meter can be very accurate. This is true even
if the fluid is compressible or nonhomogeneous.

Thc flowr.etey is aiso very useful for pui-

sating type flow measuremnent, since the basic momentum equation is valid
even when the flow is not steady, As the fiowrneter is basically linear,
"4 the average output signal is a linear function of the average flow rate.

"(b) Axial Flow Type

In the axial flow type, a sensing element

having a series of parallel flow passages is made to rotate about an axis
"parallel to the flow passages. The fluid flows in an axial direction relative . -.
to the sensing element, and each fluid particle traces a healical-shaped path,
in space. The torque required to drive the sensing element is also a. linear
S function of the mass rate flow.

One flo.wneter of the axial flow type is the

General Electric Mass Flowmeter which consists of two similar cylindders
placed end-to-end so that the two arts coincide (See Figure Z-57). The

"WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVI 19.-

................ ..
S% t£

.,,......., - -

-- ",,v,:-;-' v ---: , *..,:--.- ,-.- .- ", " .;-.vs;-. .-- ". - ,.-. -" -" -- v v.--..- .,.-..--... .. ".--.. "-.. -'- .- -:'--' .- - --- '-
 GUIDEHOSN

TUBE

FLOW-SENSING
ELEMENT

Fig. 2-55. Schematic Diagram of Coriolis Type Mass

Flowmeter (Control Engineering Corporation)

Fig. 2-56. Particle Path Through Flow Sensing Element 1'

WADD TR 6] -67
VOLI REVi1 130

A* .- ** * .
 JI

CII .-
0II

UP,)

U)U
w '1-

00

F44

Z
0 '*

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVi 131
 instrument housing closely fits the outer diameter of the cylinders.
Around the periphery of the cylinders are located a number of passages,
the axes of which are parallel. to the axis of the cylinder. Fluid moving "
through the pipeline enters the passages in the first cylinder, proceeds
through the passages in the second cylinder, and continues along the pipe-
line. By driving the upstream cylinder, termed the impeller, at a constant
angular velocity about its axis, the fluid is given a constant velocity at
right angles to the fluid flow. This arigular velocity constitutes a change
in momentum of the fluid. The second cylinder, termed the turbine, is
designed to remove all the angular momentum from the fluid. In so doing,
a torque is exerted on it in accordance with Newton's second law of motion. .-
This torque deflects a spring which restrains the turbine. The angular de-
flection of the turbine is a measure of the mass rate flow.

The equation relating the mass rate flow

and the torque output can be derived by using the law of angular momentum.
The rate of change of angular momentum of the fluid leaving the impeller is
Ww( K 2 , where K is the average radius of gyration, the value of which de-
pends on density distribution as well as on velocity distribution. In this case,
ro > K> r 1 , where ro and r 1 are the outside and inside diameters of the
openings, respectively.-"7_7,

If the turbine is placed very close to the im-

peller, the assumption can be made that all the angular momentumn generated
by the impeller is absorbed by the turbine. By the angular momentum prin-
ciple, the torque produced on the turbine is equal to the rate of flow of angular
momentum. Thus, if the angular velocity w can be maintained a constant, and
if K can be assumed a constant, thg torque acting on the turbine will be a
linear function of the mass rate flow. This torque can be measured conven-
iently by the use of a mechanical spring and a dial, as shown in Figure 2-57
or converted to an electrical signal by a suitable angular displacement trans-
ducer.

In operation, there is some coupling effect

between the impeller and the turbine even when the flow rate is equal to zero.
This coupling effect is due partly to the viscous drag of the fluid and due
partly to radial flow caused by centrifugal force. This latter action is very
similar to the fluid coupling in an automobile. It is found that by placing a
plate, ternmxed a decoupling disc, between impeller and the turbine, the coup-
ling effect can be reduced appreciably. However, the plate covers only the
central portion of the conduit; consequently, the viscous drag acting on the

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV I 132

S:..:. N . . .. . . .. :-:: ::-::-::-::.:::..%

 outer periphery of the turbine still exists. The coupling effect is probably
one possible source of error, especially when the viscosity is high and
when the temperature range is large. Another likely source of error is -
the possible variation of K due to non-homogeneity of the fluid. When the
fluid is compressible, the density at the outer periphery undoubtedly will
be higher because of centrifugal force. When liquid flow is measured,
any air or vapor that is trapped in the liquid will tend to collect at the
inner side of the passages. Both conditions can cause a higher value of
K. Variation of velocity distribution in the passages can also cause var-
iation in K.

This type of flowmeter is simple compared

with some other methods of obtaining true mass flow, but becomes inac-
curate at low flow rates, where extraneous torques exert their influence. L
Furthermore, it can measure flow in only one direction, and cannot follow
rapid changes in flow. ..

The Avien flowmeter shown in Figure 2-58

also operates on the axial flow principle. It contains two impellers driven L
in opposite directions at a speed proportional to line frequency. This ar-.
rangement permits measurement in either direction of flow. A sensing
wheel, restrained by an electromechanical torquer rather than a mechanical
spring, removes the angular momentum fron), the fluid. The torque motor
providing the restr;int receive• an amplified potctionieter sign.al. which is
proportional to the angular position of the sensing wheel, and thus propor-
tional to the mass flow rate times the angular velocity of the impeller.

To make the flowmeter output dependent only

on the mass flow rate requires a constant angular velocity. But the angular
velocity, being proportional to line frequency, varies with changes in line
frequency. Such variations can be compensated by feeding the transducer
output signal into a line frequency correcting network and using the resulting
output to drive a servo amplifier-recorder. When the line frequency varies
from nominal, the attenuation of the correcting network changes in the proper
direction to compensate for the change in impeller angular velocity.

A twin-turbine mass flowmeter (Ref. 155) is

shown in Figure 2-59. It incorporates a rotor having two sets of turbine
blades with different blade angles, coupled by a spring and capable of rela-
tive ngu!,tr motion with respect to each other. As a result of the blade

155 "Engineered by Petter," Potter Aeronautical Corporation, Union,

New Jersey.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 133

. . . . . ..-- '- " N. . . . ....-

" ','-", "".".- 2-2".2.? l•> i.."" : ' ' ' " " . .
.. .. .. . . . . . . . . .-.....-. .,,-,.,.-. .,.,,,.,...-.. ."- '"" !
, - .v" " , .v -. - . - . .-. -¾., ,-- -.-.- ,--' .-.- ...- ..- . -, .' .. . .'.-.,.. . ." "" -
 zN

g UH

0 I0

4
w

P4

w $

El.
......
. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . .
 Fig. 2-59. Twin Turbine Mass Flowmeter

angle difference, the two sets of blades tend to rotate at different speeds,
but cannot because of the spring coupling. They thus take an angular
displacement with respect to each other, the magnitude of which is pro-
portional to the flow momentum. However, the rotor assembly, consi-
dered as a unit, functions as a volumetric turbine meter rotating at a
speed proportional to the average fluid velocity.

In terms of the equilibrium period P be-

tween the two-rotor systemn,

O= Zr t/P= 2'rrtf (2-22)

where t is the time for the two-rotor system to sweep the deflection angle,
f is the frequency of the system, and 0 is the phase angle between turbines.
On t'he ni-hr h;an

e= Tk (2-23)

where T is the torque and k is the spring constant for the coupling spring.
From Equations (2-22) and (2-23),

t k T (2-24)
Zirf f

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 135

- -.-. - -. - -. - - - - - . ,,, - . . - . - - . -. -- - .- .- .-
 where the term in parentheses is constant. -

From hydrodynamnical considerations

T Fr = P A V2 r (2-25)

where F is the hydrodynamic force and r is the effective radius.

lien ce "0

Sk) P A v 2.
t= ( -• P V(2-26)
2wr f

--. V
Since
V
f = (2-27)
c' k r
t= ( )pA V (2-28)
"Zn E-

Thus by measuring the elapsed time taken for the phase angle displacement
to traverse a reference point, a direct measure of mass flow rate is effected.

The signal output is generated by bits of

magnetic material (which arc part of each turbine assembly) as they move
past the coil. Most conventional time interval measuring instruments can
be used to record its output.

(C) Gyroscopic Type

In the gyroscopic type of meter, the trans-

ducer is in the form of a circular or square loop that is made to rotate about
an axis in. the plane of the loop. No net torque is required to rotate the sen- ..- -,
sing element, but a torque acting in a direction perpendicular to both the
p.1------.-------
------- -nt---t--n-- - .- P-r -, -,- -- c--
-----

linear function of the mass rate of flow. L..

The gyroscopic meter derives the name from-

the similarity of its operation with a mechanical gyroscope. Figure 2-60 -
shows that the meter consists of a fluid conduit bent in the form of a circle ."

(or a square) and driven at an angular velocity w about the A-axis. The

WADD TR 61-67 -.
VCL I REV i 136

•4 ,.- .' . -.- , .- ' ,N " . ' .- , "."- , , -, N '. N."-'--N'- ' -.- . ..-. .. ", : /- :' i :
 whirling fluid produ-:es a flywhe(el effect similar to I-hat of a mechanical

gyrroscope rotating about the C-axis. Similar to a 1 jechanjical gyroscope,

T FLOW

IR FLEXIBLE
I COUPLING

Fig. 2-60. Gy-roscopi.c Mass Flowmeter

a moment T acting about on axis perpendicular to both A and C is pro-

*duced. This moment can be. sbown to be a function of the rnaiiFs flow rate
* through the flowrn~er.

To simplify the discussion, the assumptions

are made that the fluid is incomprersible and h-omogeneous and that the flow
iE la-minar and evenly distributed acrcss the cross-section of the conduit.

Thý nm,.riient produced about the B-axis. can

be found by the well known gyroscopic equation:

Wt),DD T11 61-67 .-

VOL. 1 1EIV i 137

-- -- -- -
 . P , .. ,

T = I2 wa (2-29) - 'A

T W 2r r 4 (2-30) L.*,

where

I polai moment of inertia of fluid in conduit ,

about C-axi':

avert.ge angular velocity of fluid in conduit . -.

w angula.r wvlocity about the A-axis

r;. average radiu: of conduit

W mass rate flow -

The above equation shows that under assumed

conditions5 , T is a linear function of the mass rate flow and is independent
of the densiýt.y and viscosity of the fluid.

(2) Thermal Flowmeters

Mass rate of flow meters have been developed which t

are based on thermal concepts. The fundamental idea is to subject a heat
sensitive element (thermocouple) to the fluid flow and measure the cooling
which takes place. The instrument is a mass flowmeter if V'RKp is a con-
stant, where K is the thermal conductivity, S is the specific heat at constant
volume, and P is the fluid density. For many fluids, this term is constant
over wide ranges of pressure and temperature allowing the instrument to be -,-.
calibrated directly in terms of pounds of gas per hour passing the sensing "-"N
element.

The Trans-Sonics Type 1994 Mass Flow Transducer

shown in Figure 2-61 consists of two platinum temperature probes extending L
from a case (Ref. 156). The platinum resistance windings, located at the -.
ends of the probes and protected by stainless-steel cages, are the active
elements in opposite arnms of a dc resistance bridge.

156 "Mass Flow Transducer, " Trans-Sonics General Catalog and

Transducer Handbook, Special Product Note No. 1994.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV1 138 "tiW
. . ,

44

Fig. Z-,61. Trans-Sonics Mass Flo%,wneter

The Platinum resistance windings make the basic

temperature measurements fr-nin which the total mnass flow in the duct is
determined. Whau the transducer is installed, tho.. longer probe places a
Nwind~ii at the ccnte-l1ne of the duct. This reoistance is heated by a re-
iatin •,iy high steady-state carrent anJ, in accordance vith laws of heat

transfe:, makes the fundamental density-velocity measurement as it ;s

cooled by the mass floh, in the duct.

The other platinum resistance winding on the

shorte-r probe is unheated and is therefore i.ot significantly atfected by
mass flaw. Its purpose is to compeinsate for changes in the gas ten.pera- -.-
ture in t•e duct by introducing a¢ volta;_ge which dancels out any bridge un- - 9
balance caused by the gas temperature's effect on the longer sensing e ,-
probe.
Input voltage is r.eguiated by ,ener diodos, ,thus
ntIaintaining a (:costant i.-nput power to the heated probe an3 restricting
heat transfer rate to a depenldence of mnass flow tate only.

Tht6, mass flow rait. output signal is typically

calibrated for a r.ass flow range from 20 - 180 bjti/minn , although other -.--
range calibrations are, available without n-odification. When displayed on :..-
a. dc nicroamnneter, the instrunment err'or is 3% of Skill-scale range or
!0% of the actual mass flow, whichev%,,r is grcater.

WADD TR 61-67 I

VO L I RIE V 1 l 3q , . -

LA::,
 (3) Summary

Specifications, operating principles and advan-

tages of several true mass flowmeters are summarized in Table Z-9. . 0

2-6 MEASUREMENT OF ROTARY SPEED

a. Introduction (Ref. 157)

The systemns that are presently used for measurement of

shaft rotary speed in aircraft engine auxiliaries are ac induction tacho-..
meters, dc tachometers, and drag-cup or drag-torque tachometers.
These conventional tachometers systems are adequate for many applica-
tions and have many desirable features, including long development and
service histories, and a minimum of auxiliary circuitry required. How-
ever, in planning advanced weapon systems, there is a need for improved
techniques for measurevent of shaft speed, particularly in regard toraditi
abilite to operate in severe ranges of temperature and nuclear radiation
environment, operation over wider speed ranges, and with greater ac-.

curacy.
A. complete tachometer system includes a rotary speed trans-
ducer, auxiliary circuiits, and an outpwit device. The transducer portion N

of a tachometer system consists of an element or elements mounted on,

attached to, or embodied in, the shaft which is to rotate, and a fixed ole-
ment or elements in proximity to the rotating elements. The functions of
the transducer elements are to effect an exchange of energy or to modify
an exchange of energy between the fixed and moving elements which is

functionally related, in some manner, to shaft angular velocity, and to

convert the speed-modified energy to an eletrical signal. It is clear then, .2
that the transduccr portion of the tachometer system must perform in the
same environment as the rotating shaft.

The auxiliary circuitry, as here defined, consists of clectri-

cal excitation sources, amplifiers, demodulators, counters, special power
supplies, or other circuitry required to convert the electrical output of the"
transducer to a useful form and level. The auxiliai-y circuitry need not be
in the shaft environment.

157 Viskanta, V. Z. , "A Study of Rotary Speed Measurin~g Techniques,"'' I'" i

Armour Research Foundation (WADD TR 60-210), February 1960, pp. 1-3.
AD257998

WADD TR 61 -67
VOL I REV 1 140

*=11
 ILI

'0 0) U

0(e
Q)H

U)) 0 c~

;4)~ 411- -:4

-H -fH

d H.

fZ4

* 0 0

* U) 0

UC .0

00 A 0
-2 4 Id

m U

044
Cd0 C) o

WADD TR 61-67
VOLtI REV 1 141
 The output device rmay be an indicator, recorder, or signal
converter (The latter to convert a geneerally usable electrical, signal to a
specific form suitable as an input to a specific device, such as a sub-
carrier oscillator or multiplexer of a telemetry system. 'I
lRotary speed transducers may be c.lssified, as either analog
In an analog type transducer the amplitudie of the intelligence
ordiital.Innanlgt
signal is a function of rotary speed (usually proportional ovcr the useful
speed range); in a digital type transducer, the frequency, repetition rate,
or time interval between peaks, of the intebigence signal is Froportiorna.i.

to the iotary speed. Most conventional tachomneter systemrs are of the

highly-developed analog type. However, sic.ce digital tacho)ýneter transducers
are nauch less sensitive to environmental variations, the emphasis of"
this discussion will be placed on digital tachometer developmrlent.

b. AnaloL Transducers (Ref. 158)

(G) .General

Tachometer systems which have been most w.d-ly

used in the past employ analog transducers, i. e. , an electrical signal is -"
gene.ratd. o. an ecitation .oltage is modulated in such : y t 1 l a 1..ý
output voltage or modulation amplitude is a function of shaft rotary s- .d.
Through the years, these instruments have been irrprove.d to meet in--
creacingly stringent performance requirements. Is a result, thesC de--
vcees are satisf.ctory for many applications, and inay be preferred fo-
some, since minimum tachometer system size and complexity mYay be
attained using analog techniques.

Amoug the electrical tachometer transducerý; of

importance are 'me ac induction tachometer, the drag.-torque tacchoi-ieter,
the de tachome " and the permanent magnet alternator.

(2) AG Induction Tachometer

The conventional ac induction tacho-eterxs es-

sentially a variable coupling transformer in which the coupling coeffi'-ient
is proportional to rotary speed. One phase winding of the unit i0 exiJted

158 Ibid. pp. 5-6.

WADD TR 6,--67
VOL I REl" i 142

,q ,'_
by an ac voltage (line or supply frequency), anid an ac voltage at excitation.
frecuency and proportional -in amplitude to the rotary, speed is obtained at
the output phase winding. Rotation with the shaft of the rugged squirrel
cage or drag cup rotor produces the shift in flux distribution on wiiich the
principle of operation of the device is based. For auxiliary equipment,n - -.
the device requires a source of excitation voAtage that is stable in ampli-
tude and frequency.

This tachometer is not suited to telemetry appli-

cations and, therefore, will riot be further discussed herein.

(3) Drag,-T:orque Tachormeter

The drag-torque tachometer consists of a perma-

nent magnet mounted on the rotating shaft and inside a metallic dish or
cup. The rotating magnet produces an eddy current torque on the cup
which is proportional to the shaft speed. If thu cup is mounted on good
bearings and is restrained by a precision spring, the angular deflection of
the spring may be rneasurecd electrically to provide an analog representation
of shaft speed.

Since this transducer requires, a second transducer

I
to convert displacement (angular defliection of the spring) to an electrical Y-I

sig,,al, it ia not well suited for telemetry purposes and will not b further
discussed herein.

(4) DC Tachometer Generator

T'e conventional dc tachome'er is essent'Illy a

small permanent magnet or separately excited generator. The permanent
nmagnet type requires no au:.li;ary equipment; the separaely excit.eýd type 4
requires a dc source. Oije of the chief advantages of the ac tachometer is
h oh grn- c, r J..... lt"-'...""-"
high- ... per i-jan, 10 to e& volts pet 1000 rpn attainable) in a
very small size. One of the nain disadv,,antages is that a commutator and -"
brushes are required. Brushes involve operating problerils (britsh vibra-
tion, and arcing, particularly at altitude) and maintenance problems (mois-
ture, deposits ofbrush carbon on the commutator, brush a,-.d conmmutator
wear).

For applications where thh- directiun of shaft rota-

tion must be telemetered, the dc tachometer generator is uscful since its

WADI) TR 61-67
VOL I REV L 143
output polarity is dependent upon rotational direction. The output voltage
of the permanent magnetic type may be calibrated to provide an aczcuracy
"of 0. 25 - 0. 1% of the maxim~uam rpm rating.

(5) Permanent Magnet Alternator .,_-.

The permanent magnet alternator is similar to

a constant field synchronous generator and produces a linear output volt-
age proportional in amplitude and frequency to shaft speed. Performance
is said to be poor at low speeds. With rectifier auxiliary circuitry on the
output, dc voltage proportional to speed over a wide range (not approaching
zero) can be obtained without brushes or sliding contacts.

The frequency characteristic of its output provides

a more accurate measurement of rotational speed since it ib unaffected by
loading-, temperature variations resulting from ambient conditions and
self-heating, and armature misalignments caused by shock and vibration.
converted to a N"
Through use of external circuitry, the frequency may be
proportional dc voltage. This voltage may be utilized for controlling a
voltage-controlled oscillator of a frequency-division telemetry system or
applied to the multiplexer of time-division systems. Figure 2-6Z shows two
possibilities wherein amplitude variations (as a function of rotational speed)
are removed by a limiter or multivibrator. The output of this device may
then be fed through a dc restorer circuit, an integrator, and a filter to •3
provide a single-ended dc voltage which is linear with generator speed and
has zero ouLpuL at zero speed. Figure 2-62 also shows that the amplitude-
limited signal may be fed through a low-pass filter to a frequency discrim-
inator. The filter eliminates harmonics of the fundamental frequency which
result from the amplitude limiting function. The discriminator output may
provide a double-ended dc voltage with zero output occurring at a specific
frequency (speed of rotation). Thus, variations about this pre-selected
frequency may be telemetered, rather than the actual frequency. Of course,
numerous variations of the circuitry shown in Figure 2-62 are possible and
the complete frequency-to-dc convext sion may be accomplished in an ex-
tremely small volume through use of transistors and miniaturized packaging
techniques.

The permanent magnet alternator may also be used

for the measurement of speed differences by connecting the outputs of two
speed measuring circuits to a differential bridge as shown in Figure 2-63.
The indicated difference speed is independent of the actual speeds.

WADD TR 61.-67
VOL I REV 1 144
 0~~A 0

o 0

'-4

0 01
w 0

k- nj

WADD
61-6
T
VOL REV1 14
 :.9:L

S
eC)4--

C,):.- _

7. - -i=

,• Z •,- ..-

il

•o-

H:.,:__.
WADD R 6167 C ,'--
vo;.,• RE • •4 4 ,'-.:-

•" ,.'

•- .-- ..•- ,-.- .-, .--

- . ,,.',-. •• .. .- ,•-•o.-
,• •-,.,• .... • -. . • .. .
 c. Digital Transducers (Ref. 159)

J1) General

The units of measurement of shaft speed are events

per unit time. The units most often used are revolutions per minute (rpm),
4 With the availability of electronic counting circuitry and precise time in-
terval measurement circuitry, digital measurement of shaft speed can be
accomplished readily. If a reference mark or some discontinuity in a
readily measurable physical property is placed on or in the shaft, the speed
of which is to be measured, the number of passages of the reference mark
or discontinuity past a fixed sensing element in proximity to the shaft per
arbitrary unit of time will provide a measure of shaft speed. If a number . -
of reference marks or discontinuities are placed uniformly around the
periphery of the shaft, fractions of a revolution can be detected and counted.

For purposes of description, a digital tachometer

-: system is considered to be composed of a transducer, esse~ntial auxiliary
circuits, and optional auxiliary circuits (such as indicator or encoder) as
shown in block diagram in Figure 2-64.

The function of the transducer is to convert -shaft

rotation into an electrical signal representing rotary speed. For a digital
tachometer system, the transducer consists of an appropriate sensing ele-
ment in proximity to the shaft, and reference marks or discontinuities in-
corporated in or attached to the shaft. The essential auxiliary circuits or
devices include ani energy source and any circuitry required for proper
sensor operation. The optional auxiliary circuitry is that required to
obtain a digital indication, an appropriate digital code at the proper sampling-
rate for input to other digital equipment, and/or digital-to-analog conver-
sion or frequency-to-voltage conversion for analog input to telemetry ' "'""-
equipment.

The energy source is generally an essential auxiliary

circuit, although it may be part of the transducer (as in the case of a perma-
nent magnet generator). The transducer performs the functions of modifying
the energy supplied by means of the discontinuities on the shaft, and of
sensing the modified energy. Only the transducer need be in the region of
extreme temperature and radiation environment; i. e., part of the transducer

1.59 Ibid., pp. 9-13.

WADD TR 61-67
N VOL I REV 1 14.7

................................................. *.
 H0' Q0 "

Z4 ýl U)

H Z4 HcnwQ'

o 0 z0N0
14
14
H Na<ýH
~2 H<~H~fl
aJ2
c)

o *- N C'h

0< r4

P4-

-I-

4>

0 0

HIL HoV
 -. - - -" - ° "

is on the shaft (the discontinuities) and part is in proximity to the shaft

(the sensor). The essential and auxiliary circuits and devices can be
remote from the shaft environment without significant degradation of
information from the sensor.

(2) Features of Digital Tachometer Systems

An ideal digital tachometer system would consist -.

of a transducer which would produce one pulse or one cycle of alternating
current for every time a shaft discontinuity passed the fixed sensor ele-
ment, with signal amplitude constant, independent of shaft speed, environ-
ment, and circuit variables. The essential auxiliary circuits, in addition
to providing excitation or power to the device, would consist of mneans for
recognizing one pulse or one cycle of the transducer output. If signals '*94
are of constant or near constant amplitude, the recognition circuits can . ,
be much simpler in design than if the signals vary widely in amplitude. ..-. ,

A choice could then be madc of appropriate optional circuitry to count and N

display or encode the number of pulses or cycles per unit time, or to con-
vert the signal repetition rate to an analog voltage amplitude.

If the signal amplitude varies due to extraneous

factors such as environmental changes, the system will remain operative
and accurate as longs as th..e signal -am.plitude does not drop below the level
of system noise or below the threshold of the recognition circuits, and as
long as the signal amplitude does not increase to the point where auxiliary
amplifiers are overloaded. This allows a wide range of operating conditions
inherently, which an analog transducer system, in general, does not. In
addition, feedback techniques may be employed in some situations to extend
the operating range by adjusting transducer excitation or signal preamplifier
gain to maintain the signal level nearly constant or at least inside the range
of the recognition circuit. "

Imoortant criteria for digital shaft speed transducers

are the signal-to-noise ratio and amplitude difference between the two states
of the transducer (pulse and no-pulse, or maximum and minimum values of
alternating signals). As long as the auxiliary circuitry can distinguish be- K9
tween two states, the number of changes of state (that is, shaft revolutions
or sub-intervals of a revolution)can be counted per unit time. Therefore,
*• the accuracy, resolution, and dynamic range of the tachometer system will
depend to the greater extent on the characteristics of the auxiliary circuits
and not on the transducer. Although the transducer, being in the shaft en-
vironment, may be subjected to environmental extremes, the auxiliary

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 149
°, . - .

-. . . . ..-. ... . .o..'. ¾' '.

 S~~~~~~~~.
. . . .. .. . . . ....... . . -.-..-... -. . .. %..'. . .- ,. '".i'......'"

circuit can be located at a distance from the transducer in a more rmod-

erate and, possibly, controlled environment. Amplitude or phase
degradation of signals due to the leads or line,: between transducer and
circuits will not affect performance as long as the degradation is not so
extreme as to mask the signals entirely. -

In summary then, the digital technique applied to

tachometer systems permits some further design freedom on the trans-
ducer and broadens the range of signal amplitude variation that is per-
missible, at the expense of some additional external circuitry.

(3) Transducer Types

The most important distinguishing feature in the

various types of transducers is the type of energy that is utilized. Sen-
sors using electric (ac capacitive), electrostatic (dc capacitive), mag-
netic (eddy current, variable reluctance, permanent magnet), electro-
magnetic (microwave, light) acoustic (sound waves, pneumatic impulses)
and nuclear energies have been devised; however, son-ie are not suitable
for use in military flight vehicles. Several types are discussed in the
following paragraphs. A comparison of digital rotary sensors is presented
in Table 2-10 (Ref. 160).

(4) Capacitive Tachxorneter Transducer (Ref. 161) ' ..

(a) General

For measurement of rotary speed, a dynamic

capacitor or capacitive transducer element with capacitance a function of
shaft position can be constructed in a number of ways, A simplified sketch
of a complete capacitive transducer is given in Figure 2-65. The capacitor
is formed by the metallic stator plate and a rotor plate which is attached to
the shaft. The capacitor has maximum capacity for the shaft position illus- .- ,
trated in Figure Z-65, and minimumxi capacitance for a shaft position ,ro.ttd.
1800 (corresponding to the broken line). To convert the cyclical variations
of capacitance into an electrical signal, an excitation source E and resistor
R are also shown.

160 Ibid., p. 90. .. ¶4

161 Ibid. , pp. 19-36. [

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV1 150

::-~~~~~...-.-..--....-....
..........-............. ... ... ..
" " --..-
"•" ', " ." , .'. •- .-'. .-' ','' -: -'.:.- ' ." - -'2'-.-: ',--," " ,- -, " , -- • . . ,, - .. • .. . . .-... -' .
 E* 0

0.c

U ý4 -- I.

ci~~C ~
uu- ' Z o c cco

X4 7U
0, F---0 Nog4 4 4

4,~1 4 u 00
0

r 4)O .~ 5 -.

q,~ > CLc 4)

. 04 '44 "Sc -
0
X4 EE C . '4) > 4
'd'f. wf

.4., H 2)

C74. 4) (4 O 4)--
4
.4 -U ---- --- - ce4 a
aý 3. *0 aU42) P; ' u

rd-C 40' 2V>? 4(

* .0 M .,.

S ~ ~ 0 ~ 0UU ~ o 00. U N

--- 4

'4(c
- 4 -1 -- -
0 0 0

'U L4

WAD 610 0R 0 0 07

VOL I RE 1 151ao o
 i!o .-.; o ~ ~ •".• '- ,- -- • " ".-- •- -- - -- - -, , , . , -. -'. , • - ". -., , ¾,. U
- . - -. -. J. - - .. -

ROTOR STATOR
PLATE PLATE

ROTATINGEC
\
SHAFT • ~~SOURCE,'-•
EXCITATION

TO
DETECTOR
S[ ~R V '" N?,

•BEARING--"
UA
Fig. 2-65. A Simplified Sketch of a Variable
Position Capacitive Transducer

(b) Transducer Structures

There are two techniques that can be used

to produce capacitance variation as a function of shaft position: the rela-
tive position of the capacitor plates can be varied, or the dielectric constant
between the plates can be varied. The capacitor shown in Figure 2-65 is a 4

simple variable position capacitive transducer element. Such a capacitor

can be used only where the rotating shaft makes electrical contact through
the bearings to some stationary part of the equipment which is electrically
grounded. Since an electrical connection through a bearing is generally ..
unreliable, a split-stator capacitor which does not require electrical contact
with the rotor plate(as illustrated in Fig. Z-60 is preferred.

A variable dielectric constant transducer

results it, instead of a metallic plate in the split stator configuration, a rotor
h-,,r, a hignher dieplertri e rcnnstant than the ambient fluid ruedi rnm btiwecpn the
i
plates is used. In this case, the effective dielectric constant is a function of
rotor position and the capacitance varies cyclically for every revolution or
fraction of a revolution. Since dielectric materials are more affected by
changes in environment than are metals, the following discussion will place
emphasis on the split-stator variable position transducer.

'1-'l

- , WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 152

yr ..-

]< . .--

4%

-, - , - ,"- - ." ..-, . 9.-

, -"... . - - * ."-,- i-'.'.'-- - "-. --. - < -- -" > -- "--- " .
 The number of transducer structure geo-
metrics or configurations that can be used is virtually unlimited. Sketches
of a number of configurations are shown in Figures 2-67 through 2-70. In
all the diagrams, the capacitance rotor consists of a modification of a
portion of the shaft. Since a given shaft mnay have a smaller diameter, "1
lower electrical conducfivitv, or higher interfering magnetic permeability
than would be desired for the transducer, the shaft geometry modification
can be obtained by attaching a disk of appropriate shape and material to
the shaft.

The sketches show only variable position

capacitors. However, for the split-stator arrangements, the rotor cruld ,2
be replaced by a high dielectric material, producing a variable dielec:ric
transducer.

(c) Transducer and Auxiliary Circuits

There are three basic techniques that can

be used to convert capacitance variations to voltage: (1) the dc excited
capacitive transducer which can be considered as an electrostatic genera-
tor, (2) the ac excited transducer which involves measurement of impedance, ",
and (3) the use of the transducer capacity in the tank circuit of an oscillator
thus obtaining a frequency modulated signal. The intelligence signals can A
"thenbe amplified and demodulated to provide an appropriatc;_ ignal to a.
telemetry system.

"A general capacitive transducer circuit using "

ac excitation is shown in Figure 2-71. This is essentially an electrostatic
generator because the voltage across the capacitor increases as the plates
are separated. A
An approximate solution of the circuit shown
A in Figure 2-71 can be obtained if it is assurned that the charge on C remnains
approximately constant during one cycle of capacitance variation. This con-
dition rcquires tlhat the time constant RC in seconds should be much larger
than 60/nP which, at low rotary speeds, may be difficult to fulfill. Assuming
that capacitance varies sinusoidally and initial capacitance is C., the ampli-
tude and frequency (but not the wavc form) of the generated ac potential is ... -,
•given by A
-AA
2EC 3 C (
.•V = Cos (L)mt - 1).= .,
Cmax min

"WADD TR 61-67 A
VOL I, REV 1 153

S. . , ,-, -
% .
 TO
STATOR DETECTOR
PLATES
R V

FZ771

RO TOR

Fig. 2-66. A Simplified Sketch of a Split-Stator Capacitive Transducer

I-D
Fig. 2-67. Sketch of Simple Structure

Fig. 2-68. Sketch of Gear Type Structure

WADD TR 61-6715
VOL I REVi1

"s22.2 -Z
%7. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Fig. Z-69. A Simplified Sketch of a Variable Position Capacitive Transducer

77 1
Fig. Z-70. Sketch of Split-Stator Gear Type Structure

Fig. 2-71.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1
Electrostatic Type Circuit Schematic Diagram

155
'
 where

V = generated signal in volts

E excitation potential in volts

G = C0 + C cos (w)t

Co= 1/2 (Cmax + Gmin)

"C = 1/2 (Cmax - Cj)

Cniax maximum transducer capacity

"Cmin= minimum transducer capacity

mO
m = (ir/30) nP in radians

n = speed in rpm

P = resolution or number of capacity changes

per revolution

Thus, the amplitude of the output signal for an ideal transducer at high shaft
speeds is determined by the percent change in capacitance and is constant.

If the peak to peak ac component of the voltage

across the transducer capacitor is snmall in comparison to the dc component,
(short RO time constant), the generated voltage is
6 TrA A -0
-0- nE P C R sin wot (2-32)
L m
30

where

RiL = load resistance in megohms

Experimental work by the Armour Research

Foundation has shown that equation (2-32) is approximately valid at low speeds, -.
and therefore, the amplitude of the generated signal at low speeds is propor-
tional to the change in capacitance and to shaft speed (Ref. 162). From analysis

162 Ibid., p. 26.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVi 156

,- • at

~ -. x% --C. -. .-. . . "--..- :..

 and experiments, it has been found that the dc excited capacitance rotary
speed sensor does not meet the requirement of the ideal sensor for a digital I.0
sensor at low speed, even though signal frequency is proportional to shaft
speed, since signal amplitude varies with speed. Thus, the lower limit of
dynamic range of this class of sensor in a digital system would depend onr
the voltage threshold of the signal recognition circuit rather than on the least
count of the optional auxiliary circuit. The dc excited capacitance transducer
can be used as an analog system, since peak to peak signal amplitude is pro-
portional to shaft speed, but only in the speed range above the point where .
signal amplitude is great enough to be readily measurable and below the re-
gion in which signal frequiency approaches the reciprocal of the time constant
of the circuit.

A simple ac excited capacitive transducer is

shown in Figure 2-72. A physically small transducer will necessarily re-
sult in small voltage variations because of the inherent low percentage change

Cfr

V RL

Fig. Z-TZ. Schematic Diagram of Simple AC

Excited Transducer Circuit

in capacitance. For this reason, a sensitive impedance measurement cir-

cuit i" dred. ,G A paralicl resonant bridge may be used; however, it is sen- !ix
sitive to environmental changes because the impedance of the arms depends
on the Q of the circuit elements- A simple circuit for detection of ampli-
tude modulated signals is shown in Figure 2-73. The detector circuit is only
given for the purpose of illustration. In case small changes of capacitance
must be measured, additional stages of amplification may be required.
Since the modulation frequency is pruportional to shaft speed, and modulation 0

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I RE\T 1 157

.. . • . •

.- .. ,

"-
- -- -- --- - -- -- -- - - - - - l l-i-i - i--- - - - -,- -,-,-
 I t:
I U,

0 0

- 0 0-

IUQ-

wN

[-4"

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 158

L'
iu
 frequency is proportional to shaft speed, and modulation amplitude is
relatively constant with speed, the ac excited capacitance transducer
meets the general requirement for a digital-type tachometer system.

In the oscillator-type circuit, the trans-

ducer capacitor may be used in the tank circuit to cause frequency mo-
dulation of the oscillator's output signal. In this system, the oscillator
frequency varies with shaft position and shaft speed is indicated by the
rate at which frequency changes. In addition to the oscillator, auxiliary
circuits are required to demodulate the fm signal, to count the number
of frequency changes (maxima to minima) per unit time, and to convert
the count to a digital code which is suited to telemetry systems.

tAnother technique using the oscillator- ,.1

type circuit is to utilize the change in Q due to capacitance change wvith - ,.
shaft position. If the nominal oscillator frequency is much higher than
the frequency equivalent of the shaft speed, the oscillator gain may be se-
lected such that oscillations are sustained only when the tank circuit Q is ,
a maximum. In this mode of operation, the oscillations start and stop
as capacitance varies due to shaft rotation, A count of the number of bursts
of oscillations per unit time provides a measure of shaft speed. The var-
iable Q circuit is not suitable for a nuclear radiation environment because
the presence of neutron flux causes a decrease in the capacitor's leakage -
resistance and a corresponding decrease in Q occurs.

(5) Variable Reluctance Tachometer Transducers

(Ref. 163)7

(a) General 0,..

The reluctance of a high permeability magne-

tic circuit of uniform cross section can be approximately expressed by

R eA (2-33)

7--9.
where .<:•

R = reluctance (gilberts/maxwell)

A cross-sectional area (cmZ)

163 Ibid., pp. 37-48.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 159..r

'2
.* .. .". . .

....................................
""'"".. "" "".""." ". '"""".".".
.. .. "" "".""".. '" . .. .'" ..
. " ........
i
i .
 I, = average length of the core (cm)

I= effective permeability of the circuit

(gauss/nersted)

In this application, it is con\venient to cotnsider

that ite is varied by bringing magnetic material in proximity to the mag-
netic circuit. The length of the core 2 and the cross-sectional area A are
assumed to be fixed. In order to produce large percentage changes in re- 0
luctance, it is necessary to have an air gap in the high permeability rnag-
netic core. The approximate effective permeability of such a circuit is

U e (2-34)
1+ • n•

where

P m= permeability of core material (gauss/oersted) kn

ae = effective air gap length (cm)

The effective air gap length can be varied

by introducing high permeability magnetic material in the gap or in the
proximity of the gap.

If a coil is wound around the core, the poten-

tial induced in it due to the rate of change of flux is

V -10- = _108 Nd- (2-35)

dt .. ..

where

V potential induced in the coil (volts)

N = number of turns

F = NI = magnetomotive force (gilberts)

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 160 "".-

* . rs.4
 The coil indactance may be expressed by

L N 2 /R (2-36) , 6

whe re

L = coefficient of inductance

It is seen from equations (2-35) and (2-36) 0

that reluctance can be determined from induced potential or inductance. ,".
Bridge and oscillator circuits may be used for the mcasurenient of induc-
tance. They are similar to those previously described for the measurement
of capacitance and, therefore, will not be described in connection with var-
iable reluctance transducers. v.
(b) Transducer Structures

A variable reluctance transformer type tach-

ometer transducer is illustrated in Figure 2-74. For the rotor position
shown in Figure 2-74, the reluctance is minimnum and the potential induced
in the secondary winding is maximum. Numerous other configurations may
be used. Figure 2-75 shows a gear type chopper structure and Figure 2-76
shows a differential transformer with a similar type chopper. -

Assuming sinusoidal variation of permeability,

regulated cu-rcnt source, and equal permeability of the chopper and core,
equation (2-35) for a dc excited transducer can be reduced to

A
V = (1
(0-8/) N1N, IA
A,. C )u sin n,)t (Z-37)

where

I excitation current (amperes)

N 1 = nunmber of turns on the excitation winding

N 2 = number of turns on the outlput winding

0),, (2r/60) nP (radians)

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 161

-S N. ~ N~QX'QN-S.:.:..

....
4....
'" "'
""..........
.. ,-
."
" .""""
- . . .. S...b."...,".
............
" " N'.." "-.".¶ , """'-<. """;.:'.s"" ""
...- ,..... .•"................
" " '.-
""""• ..,..'.,..'.,.z'..'.
.,',> w .. -" S....'...,.,.
> > '.v.> ,-'-.'-- ,.-.-,".'.-". ",
 S TAT OR

____ ___TO ____

--

ICIRCUIT
T~DETECTOR

aV

ROTOR' ROTAT1ING SHAFT

AIR CA7- 1

tERROMAGNE TIC L

MATERIAL

END) VIEW OF THE ROTOR4

Fig. 2-74.. Variable Reluctance TransducerI

WADDTR 61-67
VOLIý REV 1 162
N
 .- . . . 9

Fig. 27.Gear Type Chopper Transducer Structure

.IeP resolution or number of reluctance changesI

* per shaft revolution

peo +A. rOs 0) --

P e t

Ae (0/2-) Q max 1%4min)

/eo lV)ie max + 11emrin)

For high permeability core and chopper,

i. e., for ILm > (1/a), ue can be calculated from equation (2-34) and
ia approximately equal to

A -b( + a)
Za (a. b) (-8

where (See Figure 2-74)

a actual air gap length (cm)

b =thickness of chopper (cm)

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 163
 Fig. 2-76. Differential Output Transducer Structure

For the ac excited transducer case, the

induced potential in the secondary is a 'Unction of the effective permeability
and is approximately equal to
r4
V= 8
(10- /, )N N 2 Ac
I /eo [c( si (i)ct

/eo

sin t s in( t+ .)](22..39)

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 164
 whe re

I W Ct excitation current (amperes)

For measurement of low speeds and/or

low resolution, it may be assumed that U C >> Wrn and equation (2-39)
reduces to

V= (10-8/f) NI N A Ic eo
eo Uc . :

4 ~AN
Ve
sin W) t 1 + e cos )t (2-40)
c m"
Pea /

Equation (2-40) is for an amplitude rnodu-

lated signal and the modulation index is (See Figure 2-74)

A
e ab +b (2-41)
/eo 2a + ba- bf

It is seen that the percent modulation is

limited by the minimum spacing between the rotor and stator. For an ideal
differential output transformer (See Figure 2-76), the steady-state compo-
nent of the output signal (the component of the output which is independent
of rotary speed) is cancelled and the unity in brackets of equation (2-39) drops
out. The output voltage from an ideal differential transformer, therefore, is
a suppressed carrier type signal. Smaller percent changes in reluctance can
be detected using the differential output transducer than the ordinary trans-
former circuit.

(c) Magnetic Sensor (Ref. 164)

From the preceding discussion, it is apparent

that the variable reluctance transducer requires both a chopper and sensor.
The following paragraphs provide information on a particular type of sensor.

164 Elam, David and Lloyd A. Thacher, "Magnetic Pickups -- Operation

and Applications," Electrical Manufacturing (June, 1960).

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 165

JL

q _._•.. -...
... ... ........-...
,...,.......
,•__ . . ...... -:. .' -..........-.........-.-... ..-......... I
This is presented by way of example, and it is not implied that the des-
cription or characteristics are typical of all such sensors available from
manufacturers.

A magnetic sensor consists of a cylindri-

cal permanent magnet with a coil of copper wire wound around it, as shown
in Figure 2-77. Generally, to save space, the coil is not wound directly :4

Pole piece---
Insuloe
0, ol0• i~

•e i Shell . . .

Coil of codper wire Mogne,

Fig. Z-77. Cutaway View of Magnetic Sensor

on the magnet. but on an insulated spool which slips over a smaller-

diameter pole piece that is attached to the end of the magnet. This assem-.
bly, typical of those manufactured by Electro Products L.a..ratries, is __

resin-potted in a stainless steel, threaded, mounting shell. A special high-

temperature cement is used for the potting material if the pickup is to be
used in extreme environments.

The magnetic sensor generates an electrical

voltage whenever the magnetic field around it is disturbed. The details of
this operation are shown in Figure 2-78 where the dashed lines (b) and (f)
represent the normal lines of force created by the magnet when there is no
extraneous magnetic material in the vicinity. When a piece of magnetic -
steel is brought near the head of the pickup, the lines of force shift. as re--
presented by the solid lines (b') and (f'). As the lines shift position, they
cut across the coil wound on the pole piece and generate a voltage in it.

The output voltage depends upon the rate of

change of the magnetic field. This in turn, is dependent on three factors:
(1) the clearance between the pickup and actuating medium, (2) the rate of

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV1 166

A -'. . P.

"- -- -J- .
 Magneticti
Mateiel

(b)-- f forc

o12N

*windin 1coil
~Bobbin

-80

10
S

12020
.600

%90 0
0 0.3 04 005 06 0700 0 200 50 607-
0N0 . 24
0 ) 0 0
Go-oci.
ufc ped e e

o 0.0d 0tpu
of0 1 is0
.400,007%
assme for- feroanei 70th
gea with
clearancece
of0.00 n. 0.001 le rance. Loadd inprse

clearance.............................ce.
Load .is

.~ . . .. .~ .
movement of the actuating medium, and (3) the size of the actuating
medium. As shown in Figure 2-79, output voltage tends to be inversely .,-
proportional to the clearance between the head of the sensor and the ac-
tuating medium. Output versus speed, for several sensors manufactured
by Electro Products Laboratories, is shown in Figure 2-80.

In actual applications, the sensor is ac-

tuated by the teeth of a gear, the blades of a turbine, spokes on a wheel,
or a steel part such as a screw mounted on or inserted in a moving, non-
magnetic material. The most common application is the measurement of
rotary speed from the teeth of a rotating gear. Small-tooth gears (20- _4
pitch or higher) produce an output which is practically a sine wave.
Coarser teeth produce a more distorted output, but the peak-to-peak volt- . ,.
age values are higher (Figure 2-81). The outputs for single activating

Sensor I Sensor 2

0 ((joY)::::!

1t001J\

Output of Sensor I Output of Sensor Z

Fig. 2-81. Output Waveforms Produced by

Fine- and Coarse-Tooth Gears

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV 1 168

::w~tv .jj-Zj:--
%N
 masses of two different sizes are shown in Figure 2-82, and it is seen
that the sidcs of the projecting mass influence the shape of the output
wave. A straight-sidcd projection produces a sharp waveform and a pro-
jection with a relativety large flat top will produce a waveform having a
time interval between positive and negative peaks. ,

Activating Mass Activating Mass

Sensor 1 Sensor 2 *

Output of Sensor 1 Output of Sensor Z

Fig. 2-82. Outputs Produced by Two Sizes of

Single Activating Masses

It is desirable to actuate a magnetic sensor

with a protrusion from a metallic surface rather than with a keyway or slot
in the surface. When one of the latter is used, the sensor is closer to the
entire mass of the exciting material and more vulnerable to unwarranted
4
background signal due to varying density or eccentricity of the material.
On the other hand, when excitation is from a protrusion, the sensor is a
relatively greater distance from the exciting material aid less likely to
pick up stray signals between excitation periods.

With any given speed and clearance condi-

tions, maximum power output results when the field of the sensor is filled
with a relatively infinite mass of magnetic material at one instant and a -
complete absence of such material at the next instant. Using the notations

WADD TR 61-67
Vo LI REV i 169

,:-4''-"•" " " .. . . "' . . . . . . .". . . . .. -.. . .

Witi
.. .. .
.-'""•-.- -•'#" "-
" .. . . " °- • " " " . j .. - "" ... .. . - " - " " - -N •.. '- ' " ' . . .
4I . . I 11c> ;. -
 in Figure Z-83, this condition can be achieved by making A equal to or
Sgreater than B, B equal to or greater than D, and C equal to or greater
*than 3 x D. These are the optimum conditions.
-4° 4--

Magnetic Sensor

C%

Fig. 2-83. Diagram for Determining Dimensions for

timeum Operation of a Magnetir- Senor
OpDa

It is possible to excite magnetic sensors

through thin sections of non-magnetic substance. This type of barrier is4
often desirable when the exciting means is in an environment of undesirable
liquids or gases, when it is necessary to provide a seal against pressure,
or in extremely hot environments. With non-metallic separators, the output
turn efet icIdycretis aresindued inecte metaltic separaors.Li"
of the sensor is affected only by the increased clearance due to the thicknes's
,,~ ~ of the
Ls ofte separator
oututirab
I".
itself.
reawhes whxithn
ouptfequnsciyi and benvionment ver sevesrabe "-a"t I
Metallic separators between the sensor and
the actuating device reduce the output appreciably. This is due to allshorted

'4, -r ineteml
iassiudso
hn ti ncsay opovd

fthsesriafetedonl.
o e *ionet.*

Cvct'h
b inrae .. ear...e
ea gintpesue
eaaos

-u to th
h

th
upt!2

ns
H:t:'

. .. . .. . .. . tsel..
. . . . . . . . . . . .

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 170
 (6) Eddy Current Tachometer Transducers (Ref. 165)

(a) General

The parameters of interest in eddy current ---

transducers are inductance and resistance of the air core coil sensors. A
conductive element attached to or part of a rotating shaft effects parameter
variations as a function of shaft rotation. The current passing through the -. ,
transducer coil creates a magnetic field and this field induces eddy currents
in the highly conductive element which passes near the coil. The eddy cur- .. .-
rents, in turn have an associated magnetic field which opposes the original .' -

field. The superposition of the two fields reduces the effective inductance
of the coil. For an element with finite conductivity, there is a power loss
due to the eddy currents flowing in the element. As a result of this power
loss, the effective resistance of the coil is increased.

A detailed treatment of the eddy current type

transducer will not be presented herein. For a detailed analysis and some
experimental data, the reader is referred to the above listed reference.

(b) Transducer Structures and Circuit

The structure of one eddy current transducer ,

suitable for measurement of rotary speed is shown in Figure 2-84. The
structure is simple since no magnetic materials are used in its construction.
The conductive chopper element is attached to a shaft so as to rotate in the
proximity" of the sensor coil and thus effect a change in inductance.

A gear type structure is shown in Figure 2-85.

This has been found to be most suitable from the standpoint of mechanical 1.
strength and stability, maximum resolution, and minimum effect of temnpera-
ture on transducer performance (Ref. 166). In order to increase signal level,
multiple coils (up to as many in number as there are teeth on the chopper) .
can be 1ncatcd around the periphery of the chopper and connected in series.

165 Viskanta, o2. jir., pp. 49-72. -

166 Tbid. p. 64.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV i 171

............................................
.,- :'-:"2_-

. . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . ",,.
 S0

METALLIC i

CHOPPER
COIL-

DIELECTRIC
FORM V SHAFT

4K- 0
TO DETECTOR

( CHOPPER

/ 0

- COIL

CHOPPER POSITION FOR CHOPPER POSITION FOR

MINIMUM COIL INDUCTANCE MAXIMUM COIL INDUCTANCE

Fig. 2-84. Sketch of Simple Eddy Current Transducer

WADD TR 61-67
VOLT REVI 172
 * .t ,-. ,

-p

Fig. 2-85. Gear Type Structure .

When a secondary coil is placed in proxi-

mity to the primary excitation coil and chopper, a mutual-inductance eddy --
current transducer is formed. In this case, the mutual inductance is a
function of the chopper position.

A schematic diagram of an experimental

circuit is shown in Figure 2-86. A bridge type detector is used in order
to detect small percent changes in inductance. Both bridge arrms are tuned
to parallel resonance by capacitors in parallel with the coils. The bridge
output is an amplitude modulated signal and 50% modulation has been obtained -
during cxp-eii-cixl work (Ref. 167). Experimental results indicate that an
eddy current sensor having high resolution and speed range from zero to
50, 000 rpm can be designed. I
2-7 MEASUREMENT OF FUEL QUANTITY

Operational characteristics of high-performance aircraft, missiles, -

and rockets have created the need for accurate fuel measuring devices that
can be applied to all types of fuels, tank configurations, and attitudes. Fur-
ther, the environmental conditions may vary over wide ranges during flight.
Fuel systems and measuring device's have been subjects of continuing
studies and experimental work. Some of these techniques are discussed in
,-

.-. I

the following paragraphs.

167 Ibid., pp. 69-71. "1

WADD TR 61-67 .. -,
VOL I REV 1 173

2.4

;i:...
i::i::!:i
?!i~i:iii!?ii;::i!!ii~•!i•!i~i!i;:i•.;iT
... ... .... . . . .ii•:i~i!?•!•i:?!::i;i~~i!•i•!i!i~•:iii:2•?!ii•`
. . . . . . ,........
. . ...
. . . . . . . 44..-- - - - ,:!i::i i.-:!!!?!??
 0 w 1

t-44 4-

0 L.4

Lf) eq ::

1-4

IIIq

WADD T 61-6

VOL
EV17 I
 a. Optical Discrete Point Fuel Measuring System (Ref. 168)

The optical probe is based on the principle that light will be

transmitted through a glass-liquid interface and will be reflected back from
a glass-air interface. This principle is illustrated in Figure 2-87. Each
sensor probe is made up of three basic parts as follows:

1. A light source
2. A short glass rod
3. A photosensitive element

These parts are positioned so that the light is directed into

one end or surface of the glass element, and the reflections from the air-
glass interface are received by the photosensitive element at the instant
the fluid meniscus breaks away from the tip of the glass rod or when the
liquid recovers the glass surface.

By using the proper amplification and coupling techniques, it ,-

is possible to use the output signal of the photosensitive element to modulate
a telemetering subcarrier oscillator. Thus, a transmittable signal is avail-
able, by which an accurate measurement of the liquid level at a discrete
point can be made.

Apparent limitations of the discrete point optical device are as

follows:

1. Erroneous signals occur when sloshing fuel

alternately covers and uncovers the probe.

2. The device requires a large amount of wiring,

both to light sources and to the photocells.

3. The device is essentially a level indicator and .

is not read~ilyr -- dapt+abk1 to rnc rnesaernn

4. Any coating action by the fuel on parts of the [4

optical system may decrease the sensitivity of
readings and cause erroneous readings.

168 Lucic, A. and R. C. Beckwith, Fuel Quantity Measuring Techniques

Development Study , Autonetics, a Division of North American Aviation,
WADD TR 59-785, January, 1960. pp 8-18.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 175

%N
 LIGPR ROT ClTF
LIGETCOVER

PHOTOTU1BE

PHOTOTUBE

See Detail ''A''

LIGH-T GLASS ROD

PHOTOTUT3E REFLECTED BEAM

DETCTOLIHT ATHPATH
WiTH1
LIQUID

Detail "A"

Fig. 2-87. Operating Principle of Optical Mo(ýnitor System

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 176

-.- '~: '.. ... ... . . .... . .

 b. Continuous Typc Optical Fluid Level Sensor System (Ref. 169)

Expe ritnental work toward the development of a continuos-...-

type optical fluid l.evel sensor system has been carried out by Autonetics,
a division of North American Aviation. The necessary characteristics of
this system were defined as follows:

1. The light source must have uniform light output throughout

its length, must be capable of being produced in different
ct

lengths compatible with tank dimensions, and must be con-

toured or contour masked to compensate for tank dissynime- -
tries. The light source must also be capable of being.
fastened intimately to an optical surface and sealed to per-
mit immersion in liquid fuels or oxidizers. Further, it
must be capable of withstanding temperatures in the range
of -55' to +70'C, which should be extended to -247' to -
+3500F to meet extreme environmental conditiojns.

2. The system must have good optical properties and the capa-
bility of being produced in lengths which are compatible
with tank dimensions.

A contiTnuoucs tpe optica3 fluid level system may consist of

the following parts:

1. A 45' prism with optically ground surfaces whose length is a "

function of tank depth. .

2. A light source capable of being intimately attached to one-

half of the prism surface which is opposite its 90' angle, and
whose length is also a function of tank depth.

3. A photovoltaic strip cell capable of being intimately attached -

to the remaining one-half of the prism s-urface which is oppo-."
sit.e its 90' angle. The strip cell length is also a function of -
•depth of the tank.

169 Ibid., pp. 19-32.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I IR'EV 1 i77

NA

I X-'.*.•.*
 Figure 2-88 illustrates this system wherein the prism, elec-
troluminescent (EL,) light source, and photovoltaic cell are located within
the tank. Light paths are shown in Figure 2-89

B-17 PHOTOCELL

EL LIGHT SOURCE

Fig. 2-88. Continuous Type Optical Fuel Level Sensing System

When the prism, light source, and photocell are immersed in

a liquid whose index of refraction is near that of the prism, a large portion
of .he light diff•.use through thc liqu-id. Howeve...r, when the p rim 1
posed by liquid level changes, the light is reflected internally within the
prism to the photocell in accordance with the law that the "angle of incidence L.--; -
must equal the angle of reflection." When light passes from any medium to
another in which the light velocity is greater, refraction greatly diminishes
and reflection begins at a critical angle of incidence 0 such that

sin 0 1l/n (Z-42)

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV i 178

•. ..- .-? '.:-? - % "- .? . ... < " ['; ' - " .. . .' "- .. - • -- - .-- -". '
,'[[ ii-- [: f -- /[21?.:i, 1[9 • . ' 'il . . /;i,
7'2: ;) i 22 27 . ~ i? il -i~ i"-i' -i ' • ;;;2:; -i •. 1!2i; i• )
 +LIGHT PATH WHEN PRISM IS SUBMERGED
ANGLE OF REFRACTION - I

LIGHT PATH WHEN

PRISM IS EXPOSED

o••-- ANGLE OF
INCIDENCE

EL LIGHT SOURCE B-17 PHOTOCELL

Fig. 2-89. Light Paths in Continuous Type Optical

Fuel Level Sensing System

where

nx the index of the first medium with respect to

the second medium

With the prism uncovered, the second medium.

is air, thus

n n 1 /n 2 (2-43)

For zinc crown glass, ni = 1. 517;

therefore

n 1. 517/1

and

sin 0 = 1/1. 517 = 0. 662

0 = 410, 27 minutes

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 179'
 If the angle of incidence is 45' and greater
than the critical angle, then theoretically total reflection will occur.

When the prism is immersed in water

n = nl/n 2 = 1. 517/1. 33 = 1. 135 (2-44) -.-

therefore L

sin 0 = 1/1. 135 = 0.88

and

o 610, 39 minutes

When the prism is immersed in benzine,

n2= 1. 526

n= 1. 217/1. 526 0. 995 (2-45)

therefore

sin O 1/0. 995 1. 00

and

0 = 900

In the above examples, the critical angles

are larger than the angle of incidence and reflection will be very small.
The incident light will pass through the prism and be diffused in the liquid.
Thus, the light received at the photocell will be at a minimum when the
assembly is completely immersed in the liquid.

c. Ultrasonic Discrete Point Fuel Measuring System (Ref. 1.70)

(1) Operating Principle

The presence or absence of a liquid at a predeter-

mined tank level mnay be monitored by means of a system employing a
6 -v

170 "Ultrasonic Liquid Level Switches, Document DO 550B,

Acoustica Associates, Incorporated, Los Angeles, California.

WADD TR 61-67 ,
VOL I REV 1 180

---------------

-%~'.%S.~.¾\.%.$.~X<~.p~X%'X - -. -. , -. ~ .. .... ...

 crystal oscillator circuit with the piezoelectric element positioned at
the desired measuring level. The oscillator-type level switch is somne-
times referred to as an ultrasonic level switch if its circuit oscillates
at an ultrasonic frequency in the absence of a liquid surrounding vhe pie--
zoelectric probe. A frequency of approximately eighty kilocycles is used
in systems manufactured by Acoustica. Associates, Incorporated.

The level switch system consits of a piezoelectric

probe connected by a cable to a control unit containing the oscillator cir-
cuit and a relay. A block diagram of the basic system is shown in Fig-
ure 2-90. Incremental changes may be detected by employing several
systems with probes located at various levels.

The level sensing probe is basically a piezoelec-

tric crystal bonded to the inside of the probe tip. This crystal is a part
of the oscillator resonant tank circuit and vibrates at its natural frequency
when the probe is exposed to air or gas. Under this condition, the acousti-"

Tank

Ultrasonic / /-i

Probe Cc Oscillator Relay Telemetering

N• ~ ~Circuits..
Control Unit"':'1 ;

Fig. 2-90. Block Diagram of Oscillator Le...l Switch

impedance experienced by the crystal is relatively low, and therefore, it

is free to vibrate so that continuous oscillations occur. When immersed
in a liquid, the probe's acoustic impedance increases and oscillations
cease because of the damping effect of the liquid. The relay is coupled
to the oscillator circuit, and its contacts may open or close to provide
the desired switching action when the oscillatory state changes.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 181

........................
 Probes which are hermetically sealed and have
very low input power are considered to be practically exploajion-p roof.9
They have been manufactured to operate over a large temperature range
(-320o to +3500 F) and are accurate to within 0. 1 inch in a wide variety
of liquids.

(2) Mounting.

The accuracy with which level can be sensed is

influenced by probe placement. As indicated in Figures 2-91, 2-92, and
2-9 3, they can be mounted in three basic ways: vertically, horizontally,
or inverted.

The vertical mounting affords the most accurate

switching. Switching action always occurs at point A (Figure 2-91) re-
sulting in accuracies as great as o1/64-inch. This accuracy is limited
by meniscus effect, which can result in slight lags in switching during --
rank voiding operations.

A k
The* .cuaywt hc level' is -aesne

Fi. -91. Horizontally Mounted Probe

WADD TR 61-67
VOLTI REVi1 182

7,.......
 The horizontal mounting is used in operations
that require mounting the probe through the tank wall. With this type
of mounting, the switching action occurs between points B and C (Fig-
ure 2-92) which may be approximately 3/8-inch apart. The exact
switching point will, vary from probe to probe. With the horizontal

Fig. 2-92. Vertically Mounted Probe

mounthig, however, the switching point on an individual probe will remain" "

constant for both vciding and filling operations.

Aprobe. o•-luuii-d in the inverted position (such as

mounting through the bottom wall of the tank) will not provide the mea-
surenrent accuracy of the vertically mounted probe. Switching action will
not occur exactly at point A. (Figure 2-93). The effects of side-loading on
the piezoelectric probe, resulting from the liquid mediumn around the probe
between points A and D, cause variances in the switching position from one
probe to another. However, as with the horizontally rnounted probe, there
is no variation in the switching position of an individual probe in voiding
and filling operations. Switching will occur somewhere between point D and
a location slightly above point A.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 183 ..-.

- -~.-.
; .c '-.- -- c.. " .-.--- .""." " " -- " .'" .".-. , .- '.-¼. " • "-- -. "'--- "---."
-- --- " " -.' . ' ",.". - -
" "-¾
 A

A " :

Fig. 2-93. Inverted Mounting

Regardless of the probe mounting position, care

mlust be eert-seod in the tc.-ligan of the installation to ensure optimum per-
formance. Air bubbles entrapped about the probe, adhesion of liquid to
the sensitive surface through surface tension, sloshing, vortexing, and tur-
bulence effects must be avoided or compensated. If air bubbles are en-
trapped about the sensitive surface of the probe, a dry condition could.'
possibly be registered even when the probe is immersed in the liquid rne-
dium. The adhesion of liquid to the probe, even when the level of the liquid
is below the probe, can result from locating a vertically mounted probe too
close to the bottom of the vessel. The liquid, especially a liquid of high
viscosity, will adhere to the probe by surface tension and will cause a wet
condition to register when the probe is actually dry.

Sloshing and vortexing effects represent a problem

that is not so easily overcome. Liquids splash on the sensitive surface of
an otherwise dry probe and cause a momentary wet condition to be registered.
To minimize this effect, stillwell assemblies may be designed for damping
out turbulence. The probes can be mounted in a stillwell to maintain the true :',
level of the liquid 'under severe conditions of vibration and sloshing.

WADD TR 61-67 .
VOLI REVI 184

-2'.......
 -:-..:-.-:
S.... J l
• ,.o- ,.'°•

d. Ultrasonic Continuous Type Liquid Level. Sel.•sin•: .'-•.:!a]

System (Ref. 171) . . .

This system, manufactured by Acoustica Associates, Incor- .%-'.',

porated, consists of two Invar rods placed in a stillwell. Lead zirconate [•.•,
transducers are affixed to the top of the rods. A pulsed 100-kc square
4.
wave is applied to one rod, and the time required for the pulse to travel •-.•-G
the length of the rod, across the liquid interface, and return through the .•.•.•.•
length of the other rod, is measured• The time mea.surement is propor- .'.'-'F-'.
tional to fuel height. "'•'"-'•
,'4":-1-:
The transducers and rods are capable o[ operation at 350•C.

e. Gulton Industries Sonar System (Ref. 172,) ':i:1:-•

An ultrasonic system developed by Gulton Industries has its .•-.• ,,

transducer mounted externally on a tank at a spot that has been machined:•,."',"'-"
to a thickness that will prevent undue attenuation of the signal, An ultra- .•.•
sonic pulse generated by the transducer is reflected from the fuel-air["'-*•'-...
surface back to the transducer and retriggers the pulse transmitter. The,.\.,•*"'*"',"
repetition rate of the pulse transmitter is a direct measure of the height •'.•"::

of the liquid level. '..\-.,,

Accuracy of this system during static liquid conditions is about [:•'•J•

0. 1% using digital output. In converting to analog output, the accuracy drops .:-. -,
to about 2%. At some sacrifice to accuracy during slosh, it is possible to "•'•""
• • • •,:
use a wide sonar beam up to 30° and obtain liquid level indications that would ". :,'J,
be otherwise impossible to obtain. Attitude changes above 30° will give no •':7•'•
return signal and the system becomes •noperative.

f. Bogue Electric Company Sonar System (Ref. 173) "'•'""

%" °.'°-

This system employs repetitive ultrasonic pulses to obtMn true .•.•.-.•.•

rc•easurement of liquid height. A sinusoidal voltage pulsed at a 60-cps rate : ...... •'

171 Luci, op. cit. pp. 35-36. -'.-'-"'

17Z Ibid., pp. 36-39 -""..-

173 •Ibid" , pp. 39-52 ...,.-

" - •.-,.
-.-.q-£

WADD TR 61-67 ".5"-2""

VOL I REV 1 185 •-•"*'*O
.:-<<.

S... . . . . . . . . . . .,-,-- -, -: -•-. > -..... - '.: .- -.- -' . >'-:-.'-:,'-V %',-
 is impressed on a barium titanate transducer. In response, the transducer
directs an ultrasonic pulse to the liquid-air interface. The time interval
required for the pulse to round-trip the liquid path is converted to a voltage
which is directly proportional to liquid height. A second transducer spaced
exactly one foot from a metal reflector provides an exact calibration facility
for any given temperature. Figure 2-94 shows the relative positions of the
transducers and calibrating reflector plate.

CALIBRATING TRANSDUCER

QUANTITY SENSING TRANSDUCER

CALIBRATING REFLECTOR

Fig. 2-94. Sonar Transducer and Reflector Assembly

g. Rocketdyne-Autonetics Sonar System (Ref. 174)

Rocketdyne and Autonetics divisions of North American Avia-

tion have done some research in a ornmmon effort toward the anppication of
a sonar fuel measuring system. The system operates on a sound ranging
principle in which a pulse of electrical energy is converted to a pulse of
sound energy by a sonar sensor.

The primary frequency of the electrical pulse is 400 kc, the

pulse width is 20 microseconds, and the pulse repetition rate is Z5 pulses per

174 Ibid., pp. 52-59.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV1I 186 ,

.2-.'.-

% , .:.%. " "" ' .* .. [" .% .~-.' .. '•". .% -. .. . ..- •.. . . .....-- , --- -. .. .........
second (pps). A sonar sensor is located at or near the bottom of each
propellant tank and is directed toward the propellant surface. When an
electrical transmit pulse is applied to the sensor, it is converted to a
sound pulse which travels through the propellant to the surface. It is
then reflected back to the sensor and reconverted to an electrical pulse.
For calibration purposes, a small portion of the transmit pulse is con-
ducted over a known path length within the propellant and returned to the
sensor. The transmit, calibrate echo, and surface echo pulses are used
to trigger a telemetering subcarrier oscillator. The system has been
used in conjunction with fuel and oxidizer tanks. In this case, the fuel
and oxidizer sensors are pulsed alternately, each at the rate of 25 pps.
This procedure allows the use of a common tuned receiver, telemetering
subcarrier oscillator, and telemetering output for both propellant level
measurements.

h. Radiation Sensor Fuel Measuring System (Ref. 175) .

A radiation fuel gauge basically consists of a source of gam-

ma radiation placed on one side of a container filled or partly filled with
liquid to be measured, and a measuring cell located directly on the oppo-
site side of the container. (See Figure 2-95). Gamma radiation is partly
absorbed by the liquid and this absorption is measurable. This measure
is a function of the liquid's density. _

137
Two types of radiation emitters may be used: (1) Cs has
a half life of 33 years and a low gamma radiation ( 0. 662 MEV), and (2)
Co 6 0 has a half life of 5. 3 years and a high energy radiation ( 1. 17 and 1. 33
MEV).

Because all the measuring components are located on the out-

side surface of the tank, the functioning of the radiation gauge is not affected '<:1
by temperature, pressure, viscosity, abrasion, corrosion, fungi, conduc-
tive additives, flow, and agglomeration. Furthermore, since it has no -- "-
moving parts, the life of the gauge is practically unlimited and maintenance
requirements are practically nil.

175 Ibid., pp. 72-166.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV 1 187

%-

% %
 OUTPUT SIGNAL t. "

/V •r_'•

SOURCE OF CELL STACK

GAMMA
RADIATION t

Fig. 2-95. Radiation Gauge Principle

(1) Advantages

Some of dh e advantfaoe in us na the radi-a tion fuel!

gauge are as follows:

a. Direct application to exotic fuels and oxidizers.

b. M-Aeasures fuel mass directly, so there is no need

to convert volume to mass. Mass measurement
is independent of fuel temperature; therefore, tem-
perature compensation is not necessary.

c. Reliable operation in the presence of fungus or

other impurity.

d. Attitude compensation is accomplished without added

weight or electronic complexity.

e. Fuel quantity measurement is independent of fuel

type.

WADD TR 61-67

VOL I REV I 188

 f. All components may be located externally'"-"
to the fuel tank, thus providing greater sime- -:.
plicity in comparison to other fuel mass''"
measuring systems. ,'' ..

(2) Disadvantages ii:i-

Disadvantages in using the radiation fuel gauge .•.'
include the following: .. ''

a. In very large fuel tanks where depth of fuel ,-•..

exceeds 3 feet, the choice of detector posi- •:.il
tions becomes less flexible. In most cases,
it will probably be placed internally at selected •••!
locations. This procedure is necessary to con-.-..'-
trol attenuation due to radiation absorption.

b. Linearization of out-put in complex-shaped tanks___''° -

requires the use of computer techniques or in
the absence of a computer, trial and error methods."'"

c. The system at the present state of development is '"-,

inoperable in strong nuclear fields or in the Van "'
Allen,, bclt at 40.0 to 5•00" xx' above the earth. .••

d. At moderate altitudes up to 100, 000 feet , cosmic ''

radiation compensating circuits may be required...-.'
if currently available Geiger-Muller (GM) tubes "":'
are used as detectors. The presently used photo- -. ,.-
nmultiplier tube or the proposed multicellular tubes •••
have inherent characteristics for separating cosmic i
ray counts from gamma ray counts.

e. The use of the photornultiplier tube at temperatiires-1c: -

over 150 0 F requires additional cooling. GM tubes
are proposed, however, which will operate at -
350 0 F and will withstand 750°0 .,'

i. SONARAD (Ref. 176)

A fuel measuring system, known as SONARAD has been developed !:::

by Autonetics, a division of North American Aviation. It combines the best•:.--

176 Ibid. , pp. 167-198.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 189 ."--"

- -- - - - - - --- - - - - -7- - - - N ihj-w

."- " -"

. ••"""
"" " "" • .- " '-'X : " -' ' '' '' '" . -'' .. ,, . • -€ . - . - • ' . ' ," . .. ' ' . . . x ~ '4 .• ,.. - " .", ". .
 features of ultrasonic and radiation fuel quantity detection systems. In
its ultimate configuration, it can always be in operation regardless of the
attitude or level of the fuel in the tank. The radiation portion of SONARAD
is particularly effective during slosh condition and attitudes above ± 10*.
The ultrasonic portion is inherently a very accurate system and is capable
of measuring 0. 01 inch in 24 feet. The maximum usefulness is during
filling operations and during level flight conditions. :

A complete description of this system and test results are .-

given in the above listed reference.

2-8 MEASUREMENT OF AC POWER -- THE HALL WATT TRANSDUCER

(Ref. 177)

a. The Hall Effect

If a conductor carries a current at right angles to a magnetic

field, a charge difference is generated on the surface of the conductor in
a direction which is mutually perpendicular to both the field and the current.
This is known as the Hall effect which was first discovered in 1879. The
development of very high mobility semiconductor compound such as indium-
arsenide (InAs) and indium-antimonide (InSb) has made possible the practical
application of this laboratory phenomenon. As an example, the Westinghouse
Electric Corporation has designed a Hall generator consisting of a thin wafer
of InAs. It is essentially a solid state multiplying element which provides an
output voltage proportional to the product of two electrical quantities. Fig-
ure 2-96 illustrates the principle of the Hall effect wherein the electrical
quantities are the cv.rrent passing through the semiconductor and the magne-
tic field perpendicular to it. -

The multiplying characteristics of the Hall generator are best

described by the Hall equation which is as follows:

vH= (R ic B/d) 10-8 (2-46)

177 Barabutes, T. and W. J. Schmidt, "Principles and Considerations

in the Design of a Hall Multiplier, " Paper No. CP59-875, American Insti-
tute of Electrical Engineers.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 190

. . . ' ." .
'.."% .. - .. '- ,' '-.- A. '- -.- -.• .- "- ....
. "- "-. ." .". '. " ' '. ',"-.... -.. '".- " -' "-.- -..-. .... ". " --
 HIGH CONDUCTIVITY
METALLIC OHMIC CONTACT

MAGNETIC
FIELD

/ / ¾ ,. -
:.4-,

I-. '(-... .

.N.

Fig. 2-96. Principle of the Hall Effect

where

v = instantaneous Hall voltage in volts

i = Hall constant iii ohnm-crn3/c(uulomb[

ic = instantaneous control current in amrperes

I
BD = instantaneous flux density in gauss

d thickness of Hall generator in cm

It is possible to have an output from the Hall generator with
only control current applied. This output, called the null voltage, is due

to the ..
hhrication. difficulties countered in connecting the Hall output leads
to the generator. The magnitude oi this null voltage- depends upon the -- ag-
nitude of the control current and how closely the output leads are connected
to equipotential points on opposite sides of the generator wafer.

"It is possible to have an output from the Hall generator with only
a field applied, if this field is varyinc. This voltage may be induced in the

"WADD TR 61-67 191

VOL I REV 1 191

%S

S..
• .. ;• .,-,.
'. . , ,. .¢ .- j .. ., ,• ,",,..j .c •".-",... - -- . ,. - ...-
".. . .-- . - ... •- ... " . '-'..- . ',v
.. - -"-'
. . . . ... " '-;
. - ".'",....'-' - -j '
output by flux linking the output leads. It can be minimized by making
the plane of the loop, formed by the output leads, parallel to the magnetic
field.

b). The Hall Multiplier

In order to make use of the Hall generator's multiplying

characteristics, the generator must be placed in a magnetic field. Fig-
ure 2-97 illustrates the basic components of a Hall multiplier. The control
current iic) is applied directly to the generator while the magnetic field
ane, the air gap of a "C" shaped magnetic structure is produced by a cur-
rent if.

I---.

•" " • ~~OUTPUT,,""

IC

Fig. 2-97. Hall Multiplier

If the magnetic structure acts linearly, the flux density in

thu air gap will be given by

B = K i (2-47)

where

K1 constant of proportionality depending on the

design of the magnetic structure in gauss/ampere.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVi 19Z

: •:..':. ,:.,:.,:.-,:.
-.•;•g- ;:::-.:.,..,.:.......................................................,.v....., ..... ,,...,,...,...
 i instantaneous field current in am -es.

Substituting equation (2-47) in equation (2-46) yields

v= K> jf
1 (2-48)

where

K? (KI R/d) i0o 8 ; a constant depending upon the -

parameters used in the design of the various
elements.

The development of equation (2-48) shows that the device illus-

trated in Figure 2-97 will produce an output voltage proportional to the pro-
duct of two input currents.

c. The Hall Watt Transducer

An ideal application for the Hall multiplier is the measure-

rment of ac power. Figure Z-98 shows how the multiplier is connected to
perform this measurement. The field is energized by the current in the

LOAD

LINE

Fig. 2-98. Hall Watt Transducer

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 193

-. .*w*
I. C .. -~ *>~- *g . -,
. . . . . . . . . . .~ . "C.", "o
 line, and the control circuit is energized by the line voltage. The re-
sultant output from the transducer is proportional to the power bcing
delivered by the ac circuit. The Hall Watt Transducer shown in Fig-• ,
ure 2-98 is connected to measure single phase power. To extend its
application to polyphase power measurements, two or more such de-
vices may be used with their Hall outputs connected in series.

The above described conditions may be ex-pressed mathe-

matically by equation (2-49) which states that the field current is pro-
*' portional to the line current, and by equation (2-50) which states that the
control current is proportional to the line voltage.

if = K3 iL (2-49) -_

where

i instantaneous line current in amperes,,,,

eL= instantaneous line voltage in volts

3= constant of proportionality between if and'-.

K4 constant of proportionality between ic and eL,

Substituting equations (2-49) and (2-50) in equation (Z-48) results in

Vl = K2 K 3 K4 iL eL (2-51)

It may be assumed that the line voltage and current are given by

iL = max sin dt -i E0) (2-52)

andi

e Emax sin t t (2-53)

Substituting (2-52) and (2-53) in equation (2-51) giv3.3

vH Kz K 3 K I nimE sin (CU t +- 0) sinmat (2-54)

H 34

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 194

X *s~-~~¶. %\ .'.~*-',.
By expansion of equation (2-54) it is seen that

v K K K (I E 12) [osn - cos (Ztdt+) (2-55)

Since the frequency response of the Hall generator is in the order

of one megacycle, the output will follow the instantaneous power wave which is
expressed mathematically by equation (2-55). Inspection of this equation shows
that the transducer output contains dc and ac components. The dc term,
(I E /2) cos 0, is proportional to the true power in the ac circuit and is,
thereFore, a measure of this power.

2-9 MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION (Ref. 178)

Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity. Most acceleration K

measurements are made to determine the forces involved, which can be "-
computed, since F = ma. If deflection is the quantity required, as in vibrations.
the measured acceleration can be integrated twice to obtain it.

There are two general types of accelerometers, linear and

angular. A linear accelerometer is a mass which is free to move in one direction
only and against a restraining spring. If the free period of oscillation of the
accelerometer is less than that of the acceleration, the deflection of the spring
is proportional to acceleration. The free period of the accelerometer decreases
as the mass is reduced or the spring stiffened, either of which results in a
decrease in sensitivity. The sensitivity is defined as the deflection of the spring 14
per unit acceleration. To measure accelerations occuring in shorter time interval.,
greater sensitivity in measuring deflections is required.
In angular accelerometers a symmetrical mass in the form of a '.
disk is mounted so that it may deflect about its center of gravity. The angular
deflection, restrained by a spiral spring, is proportional to angular acceleration.
The angular deflection, which is kept small by choice of spring stiffness and
the moment of inertia of the mass, is detected by an electric pickup, such as
a differential transformer an E-type inductance pickup, or an electric resistance.
Liquid damping is usually used. Response to rapidly imposed accelerations can
be secured only by decreasing the period of oscillation, thus decreasing the
sensitivity.

Figure 2-99 (Ref. 179) shows a schematic of a fundamental linear

accelerometer in which a mass is suspended from the accelerometer case by

178 Mc-Graw-Hill Encylopedia of Science & Technology, Vol. 1, p. 27 & 28

179 Eugene B, Canfield, "Accelerometers and Their Characteristics," _

Ordance Dept. , General Electric Co., Pittsfield, Mass.

WADD TR 61-67 195

VOL 1 REV 1
 . 0°

means of a spring. Damping is accomplished by either mechanical or electrical

means and the case is mounted rigidly to the device whose acceleration is
desired. The relationship between acceleration of the case and motion of the
mass can easily be developed. See Appendix IV for detailed derivation. Assuming - -

the accelerometer damping constant is close to unity, the accelerometer will

give an indication of acceleration if moved at frequencies from zero to
approximately the resonant frequency. At excitation frequencies above resonance,
the output no longer is proportional to acceleration. 0

The diagram in Fig. 2-100 shows an adaptation of the basic

accelerometer of Fig. 2-99 to a problem requiring relatively low accuracy.
The mass is supported on a rod and restrained at either end by slightly corn-
pressed springs. Damping may be accomplished pneumatically or by means
of oil flowing through the small clearance between the mass and the case.
Output is available from a potentiometer pickoff. The advantages of this class
instrument are:

1) low cost
2) simplicity and reliability
3) freedom from cross talk

The disadvantages are;

D nnnr th reshold level due to friction

2) poor resolution due to type of pickoff Va
3) poor repeatability due to hysteresis in spring plus .-

friction effects
4) low resonant frequency (in order to provide maximum
travel of mass).

A more sophisticated version of the same type of accelerometer

is shown schematically as Fig. 2-101. Here the mass is surrounded by oil
or other fluid to give damping. The oil may also act to reduce friction. A
stiff magn-edic or possibly h-ydraulic suspension may be used to keep friction
to a minimum and prevent the mass from rubbing the guide rod in some
applications. Unfortunately, in order to accomplished this, the suspension
means mast be very stiff if the instrument is subjected to large accelerations
along axes other than the sensitive axis. Instead of a mechanical spring, an
electrical spring is used to restrain the mass. The electrical spring is made
up of a pickoff such as the E-type shown, an electronic amplifier and a linear
motor. Since the motor produces force on the mass as a function of its current,
the current into the motor is directly proportional to acceleration. Accelerometer
output is usually taken as a voltage across a resistor in series with the motor
winding.

WADD TR 61-67 196

VOL 1 REV 1

S. ... .. ,,~..
, ... .... .... ...... ;...-.. . .....-... -.... . - ..
..... . ....... . . ..-.... .- - .-- .- - --- ,-, /.,. '---
A¾'* . . .. . . . .

4. . . . . - - . .- .. - . . .
 Direction of motion

Accelerometer (ase

S Moss
Spring
SupPort rindl
V m
'i
Spi~ng

2Fi. 2-99 Fundamental linear accelerometer. Fig. 2-100 Adaptation of basic uinit shown in
Fig. 2-99 for relatively low accuracy use.

,~-#,,. Oil filled

Guide rod

Fig. 2-101 Accelerometer with mass floated in oil to minirnizo. fric~tiont and
prevent mass from being forced against guide rod by accelerations along
axes other than the sensitive one.

Series

4*755 P'C'loff Amp/rfiv, mlrO

MaE, I Y

Fig. 2-102 Block diagram of accelerometer shown in Fig. 2-101.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVi1 197

.............................................
 Equations relating the motion of this device are presented in
the Appendix IV. The advantages of this type of instrument are:

1) high resonant frequency possible

2) hysteresis effects eliminated, excellent repeatability
A 3) low threshold level
"4) good resolution and sensitivity to small changes in
acceleration
5) freedom from cross talk

This device is more complex and costly than the simple instru-
ment of Fig. 2-100. Unfortunately, the mass cannot be floated to neutral
buoyancy as in the pendulous accelerometer, and adequately stiff suspensions
often are not practical. Therefore, the friction deadband level may run
higher than in the floated, magnetically suspended pendulous accelerometer...
Absolutely accuracy of this accelerometer is dependent upon the linearity
of the force motor, the stability of the output resistor, and the friction
deadband.

An accelerometer of intermediate quality between that of Fig. 2-100

and 2-101 is shown by block diagram in Fig, 2-102. The schem atic is as in
Fig. 2-101 but the mass is not suspended or dan ped. Cost is reduced at
sacrifice of threshold level and resolution and lack of damping must be com-
pensated for in the electronic amplifier. The equations for this type
accelerometer are given in the Appendix IV.

Another class of accelerometers is represented by the pendulous

type shown in Fig. 2-103. 1-
.4

In this instrument a pendulum is suspended on an axis so that it

is free to move through an angle with respect to the accelerometer case.
Damping again is accomplished by either mechanical or electrical means and -',Wa
the pendulum is restrained by a torsion spring. See Appendix IV for derivation -,
of equation.

,N In actual practice, the pendulum is of the compound type shown

in Fig. 2-104. This type is broken down into two components: a mass whose
center of gravity is concentric with the axis of rotation, 0, and a small mass
"onthe periphery of the pendulum. This small mass provided the unbalance
"-, of the compound pendulum and is assumed to be concentrated at a point. Thus,
this unbalanced mass is assumed to act in exactly the same way as the mass of
a simple pendulum. The force of linear acceleration of this mass, when
multiplied by the radius arm, becomes a torque which attempts to accelerate
- the balanced mass about the point of suspension. The acceleration of the balanced

"WADD TR 61-67 198

VOLlI REV I

.4".. -'.1
.41

- - .t-..-.--,

S:;!: iii~i
~...................................................-. . . . . . . . . . . . .; :ii
F<?2,
... ::',,•,•,'/,•~i :': '.'2 ','''':';'':fL':::''': 4,,.. .4 % 7 .''':' - .. .""."-.L " - " " - . . . .
 Dumping' ,,-.

BN

Spring"

.. 4*

Direction of motion
X"-
Direction of motion .';
Fig. 2-104 Accelerometer with compound pendulum.
Fig. 2-103 Pendulous accelerometer.

4- - - - -.- . . .-

Fig. 2-;05 Two simple pendulums fastened together by a collard to

reck;ce crosstalkc and maintain low resonant frequencies.
:§2:K--&;i12cs§V - * --- .

WADD TR 61-67 199

VOLI REVi
.* ,. •• , • . - -. . . . ,, , , . ". ti~ - ' - ' ' .-.
-' . -" ... ''. - "' -- . '-.•-~. ,, % / . -._- -.-. ',- . . •- . - -..' .• '. '_ •

mass is resisted by its own inertia, the damping and the spring constant.

Pendulous-type accelerometers are generally chosen because L. .-

they transfer linear force into an angular rotation. A great many devices
have been developed for sensing angular motions or producing torques about
an axis of rotation. In its simplest form, where a spring or torsion wire is -"-

used for restraint and a potentiometer becomes the pickoff, the advantages
and disadvantages are about the same as for the non-pendulous accelerometer .
of Fig. Z-100. However, there is one notable exception: pendulous accelerometer
are subject to cross talk. The slightest rotation of the pendulum due to --
acceleration in the sensitive direction permits the accelerometer to acquire
sensitivity to acceleration in other directions of motion. Therefore, resonant
frequencies of pendulous accelerometers must be kept high in order to reduce
the cross talk as much as possible.

One design technique sometimes used to reduce cross talk

and still maintain low resonant frequencies is shown in Fig. 2-105. Two -' C'$-

simple pendulums are mounted in a single case and are free to rotate in the
ball bearings or other support. The stiff arm of each pendulum passes
through a collar which is free to slide along each arm. Rotation of the arms
is also permitted inside the collar so that the motion of the arms is not
impeded. However, the forces acting between the pendulum prevent the
motion of either pendulum except from acceleration along the sensitive axis.
1-ickoff may be a potentiometer or other transducer esingthe angular
rotation of either pendulum, or the linear displacement of the collar which v-w-
moves in the direction of the sensitive axis.

Manufacturers of high-quality, floated, single-axis gyros have -"

one of the best reasons for developing a pendulous accelerometer. Inside
the gyro case, ready for use, is a floated, damped gimbal with a torque
motor on one end and a signal generator on the other end. The gimbal carries -
the gyro wheel. It is quite expedient to replace the gyro wheel with an unbalanced
mass to produce one of the highest quality pendulous accelerometers. An
an--n •rn•ie - J c nne cted betwfeen the signal generator and torque motor. Cross
talk is minimized by high amplifier gain, causing high resonant frequency.
Output voltage is usually obtained across a resistor in series with tbe torque
motor much the same as shown in Fig, 2-101.

Piezoelectric accelerometers are still another class of instrument

in wide use today. In these devices, the piezoelectric crystal becomes the 4
spring restraint and converts a portion of the mechanical energy into electric db
energy. While having excellent characteristics out to very high resonant

WADD TR 61-67 z00 A'-'

VOL I REV I

- . ... .. . .
... . . ., -.. . ... . . . . . .
 -7-- -- -. -- N-

mas)

Fig. 2-106 Accelerometer with mass supported

by two wires in tension.

weight
IA

Servo ampifer

Fig. 2-107 Highly accurate pendulous gyro accelerometer including servo.

WADD TR 61-6720
VOLI REVI 0

-N A.
 I ' -- - . . . . . . . . .
""N

frequencies, output under steady-state constant accelerations is unfortunately

not available and the devices have little use in inertial guidance. However, they p
make vibration pickoffs of the highest quanlity with extremely small size and
they are widely used in evaluation during missile-system development.

Another accelerometer configuration is shown in Fig. 2-106 where

a mass is supported by two wires in tension. Damping again is provided by
electrical or mechanical means. As the case is accelerated along its sensitive
axis in the direction of the arrow, the tension in the upper support wire is
increased, while that in the lower wire is decreased. If a strain pickoff is -',
associated with each wire, the sum of the output of the two pickoffs is pro-
portional to acceleration. The device is insensitive to cross-axis acceleration
because the tension of each wire is changed by an equal amount.

In another type of accelerometer, the support wires are made to

vibrate at their natural frequency. As the tension of one wire increases, its
natural frequency increases while the decreased tension in the other wire reduces
the natural frequency. A comparison of the natural frequency of the two wires by
the magnetic pickoff or other means leads to an output proportional to acceleration.

The pendulous gyro accelerometer of Fig. 2-107 represents one

of the more complex (although highly accurate) devices that may be used. It ,
conzists of the conventional single-axis, floated, damped HIG gyro modified so
that the gyro gimbal is unbalanced by a known amount. A servo amplifier
accepts the error from the gyro signal generator and, by means of a servo motor,
drives the gyro about its input axis to null the signal generator output. See
Appendix IV for further details. 3.
2-10 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

a. Introduction (Ref. 180)

Heat is a form of energy and temperature is a measure of its

level. All materials that we know today have the characteristics whinu C".an_.ge
with temperature. Chemical reaction, motion, pressure, stress, ionization and
light show important effects related to pressure. The methods for measurement
of temperature may be grouped into categories depending on the physical
principles involved. One group would contain devices that function by coming to
thermal equilibrium with the substance whose temperature is being measured.
A second group would function in relation to the laws of radiation, and immersion .-
or contact with measured material may not be necessary. A third group would

180 J. C. Hedge, W. J. 11. Murphy, H-I. J. Nielsen, J. A. Granath,

H. Zucker, Armour Research Foundation, Temperature Measuring Techniques,
WADD TR 60-487, Volume 1, June 1960. AD 253483

WADD TR 61-67 202

VOLI REV-

S-
. . . ..- ,. .. . .

• v,,,"
":.\-,'.••'..... ......... _v•" .. ....- '.""-----.-....-•--.. 4 .. ... , . ...
. •• •.. -• , ---_ ., -- - --_m - .' . *-" -- .¸ • • - 4" ' '¸''. .'.'. • - "--
-'" ' . . •-- - - ,,--• -. . . • -. "

cornprize miscellaneous methods for specific temperature measurement

problems such as high gas temperatures, where deliberately cooled probes are .
used and temperature of gas calculated using laws of heat transfer or thermo-
dynaamics,

b. Thermal Eq-uilibrium Category

The largest and most common category of measurement devices

fall under this group. Some physical property of the probe which is accurately
known as a function of temperature is used to determine the temperature of the
material in which it is immersed, Physical properties used with these devices
are: thermal expansion, vapor pressure, electrical resistance, thermal emf,
thermionic emission, magnetic susceptibility, and thermal noise. Pyrometric ¶
cones and temperature indicating paints, crayons, and metals are also included
in the thermal equilibrium category serving to indicate if a certain temperature
has been exceeded.

When using the methods in this group, care must be exercised to

insure that the probe actually does come to the temperature of the material in
which it is immersed. Thermal conduction can sometimes cause the probe to
assume a different temperature. Radiation losses and stagnation heating also
lead to errorswhen probes are used to measure the temperature of gases. In '2-
many capses these errors cannot be elimiated complctely and a correction
calculated from the laws of heat transfer must be applied to the temperature
indicated by the probe.

(1) The linear expansion of solids due to a temperature change

can be used for a temperature indication and application of this principle in a
temperature sensing unit is thermostatic metal, commonly called bimetal.
Bimetals form the primary element in many devices that indicate and control
ternpe rature.

The action of a bimetal depends upon two metals that arc

bonded together having different mean thermal linear expansions. The bonding
of the two metals has been accomplished by casting, riveting, soldering,
brazing, or welding. The method of bonding is important, since a uniformly
good and strong bond is necessary toresist the high shearing stresses when the
metal is heated and cooled. The component metals are quite often bonded
together in the form of two plates, this is reduced to a thin sheet by rolling.
It is then cut and formed to shape. The bimetallic strip is straight at the
particular temperature where their lengths are identical. When the temperature
is altered one metal will expand or contract at a different rate than the other

WADD TR 61- 67 203

VOLI REVl

-,..-. . . . . . . . . --....
. - .-. -- 4 : "- "' "'""-"" "

I 4 ~ ~ 4. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 w .~.
and cause the strip to curl. By holding one end of the strip in a fixed position, 0
thle displacement of the opposite end can•, after calibration, be used to indicate
to rope rature. 0.,1'S
Bimeals re frmedintothe
olloing onfiuratons
helical coils, spiral coils, disks and strips. These may be used under conditions
of: free deflection (little force involved), restrained force or torque (little".'-_.
deflection involved), and combined deflection and force...i".
:::04'
The majority of bimetal temperature indicators use the ['"'
spiral or helical coil operating under free deflection conditions. The angular "- '
rotation of a pointer at the end of a spiral or helical coil under free deflection",..
conditions may be calculated by the use of the formula; ..... %

A = Ci (T 2 _ T1) 2 (Z-561 L;"-'

whe re""-..

A = angular deflection in degrees ?

C1 = deflection constant for coils"
T = temperature before deflection _.e•
•Z= temperature after defle ction ... [•,
e = active lengti• coil
0f .. ),
t = thickne ss of strip !,.•

Thus angular deflection changes inversely as the thickness of the material and -.- '
directly with the deflection factor for the strip, the active strip length, and the .•.."'
temperature change. Values of C1 may be found in the manufacturer's catalogs ' -
for a particular material and temperature range. • :,'

The bimetal thermometers are self-contained instruments •]••

requiring no external power. They usually contain three components: the bimetal, ,.
the indicator, and ac~onnplig merhnni si. Sqince they are mechanical devices, ... •,
the pointer can carry contacts, mmi-max hands or can position a small telerrete ring '--'
trans mitt er. ""-'

(2) Liquid Expansion Thermometers . "9)'

The volumetric expansion of liquids and solids can be used :ii•!ll

to indicate temperature. A relatively large quan~tity of liquid is held in a bulb ",.%.- -

 There are two principal types of liquid expansion
thermometers. One of tihern is the liquid-in-glass thermometer; the other is
called a liquid filled thermometer. .

The liquid-in-glass thermometer is probably the most

common of all thermometers. It consists of a glass bulb filled with a liquid,
usually mercury, and a glass capillary tube attached to the bulb. Mercury hass - -

several properties which make it desirable lor use in a good grade liquid-in-- "
glass thermometers, It has a large and fairly uniform volumetric coefficient
of expansion, its low freezing point -40 0 C and high boiling point 3560C make
it usable over a wide temperature range. This range can be extended by
increasing the internal pressure which increases the boiling point of mercury.
Other liquids used are toluene, alcohol, and pentaLne; the latter having a
freezing point of -200oC.

The second type of liqaid expan.sioi, thLirnometer consists

of a metal bulb and capilli. ry tube which is usually attached to a bourden tube
or bellows. The system-n is filled with a suitable liquid for the ternperature
range required. As the temperature of the bulb changes, pressure or volume
of the liquid changes and this change is noted by the change in position of the
bourdon tube or bellows. The system can be calibrated to indicate temp~eratur,.

(3) Gas Thermometers

Gas theernoixitry is based on the tact that for ideal gages,

the pressure and volume vary with temperature according to the law:
-J

PV nRT (2-57)

4 where P is the absolute pressure, V is the volume, n is the number of mols

of gas, R is the universal gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature.
, Many gases approach the ideal gas and, for gases such hydrogen, helium,
"* nitrogen, argon, oxygen, and others it is possible to measure the deviations
from ideal gas behavior so that a PVT-equation car, be obtained to an accuracy
of better than 0. 1%. Temperature can be accurately determineld w"t-l eitheI tile
constant volume gas thermotnetex or the constant pressure gas thermometer.

A typical gas thermometer consists of a bull) containing

gas, a pressure measuring device, and a capillary tube connecting the tube.
F'or laboratory use, a simple nercury manometer is used to measure press;ure.
In induutrial u;ses the pressure is usually me: a.stzed withL a bourdon tube gage,.-
although other types of pressure transducers can be used.

WADD TR 61-67 ?05

VOL I REV i

-I
. . .. ".-.'

- ... . . "

,[ .-v,. , .-:, .%
. . . ,...- .< -..i .... - :- •-. . :..
 The constant volume gas thermometer is simple, self
contained, inexpensive, rugged, accurate and has a vast response. It is
subject to errors caused by the fact that as the temperature rises, thermal -s-'
expansion and increased pressure slightly increse the bulb volume and, secondly,
increased pressure cause more gas to flow into the capillary and bourdon tube.
The development of gas thermometers for measurement of high temperature
presents difficulties due to the need for rigid, gas type container. At high 1

temperatures, it is difficult to find bulb materials which will confine the gas
without gradual loss by diffusion of gas through the bulb walls.

There are two forms of the constant pressure type gas

thermcmeter. One form consists of a definite mass of gas enclosed in a bulb
of variable volume at constant pressure. The second form, a definit, mass
of gas is enclosed in a bulb of fixed volume. Equipment for use with the
constant pressure gas thermometer is similar to that used with coastant volume
gas thermometer except the change in volume of the gas in the bulb is measured.
The constant gas thermometer is less convenient to use than the constant
volume gas thermometer. For this reason, as well as the fact that it has an
accuracy comparable with the constant volume gas thermometer, it has seldom -
been used.

(4) Vapor-Pressure thermometers make use of the pressure

CXy' atura&c vapLor ±in p.u±iuL±UL wit'- a vo±atic; liuquid. This fact can

be used to measure temperature if the relationship between temperature and

vapor pressure of the material is known. A simple expression for relating
the vapor pressure and temperature of some materials is given by:

l.og TP = A + B/T (2-58)

where A and B are constants. Additional terms in the equation are required
to adequately represent many liquids. It can be seen from the above equation -- ._

that if B is large, then small changes in temperature will cause large variations ""t-
in the vapor pressure.

Vapor-pressure thermometers, like gas thermometers,

are usually connected to a bourdon tube gage or similar type of pressure measuring
instruments. The principal advantage of vapor-pressure thermometers is the
large change in pressure for small temperature changes, which results in high ,
sensitivity. Also, the bulb size can be made much smaller than those required
for gas. thermormeters. The disadvantage of the method is the relatively small "

WADD TR 61-67 206

VOL I REV 1

,%.%-.
 • .,-°c . ..-- -..•,• '. .- •' . •, ., . . . • . -. .. .. - i•. -- . • ' .." . .- " . .'". " -'-. - -".- - - - - - -""
" .-
"" "." " - :.-.:

temperature range over which any particular liquid can be used, although
various liquids can be used to cover different portions of the temperature --.
range above. Extention of the method to higher temperatures is limited by
the availability of suitable liquids.

(5) Temperature Indicators

Among the temperature indicating types are pyrometric

cones, sometimes called Seger cones. These are slender pyramids of triangular
cross section made from mixtures of clay, felspar, whiting, flint, and fluxes.
When subjected to high temperatures the cones soften the deform, the upper
end of the pyramid curls over to form an arc until finally the tip touches the
mounting surface. When a pyrometric cone is heated at a definite rate it
"goes down", i. e. , its tip touches the base at a definite temperature. If the
heating rate is more rapid, the cone "goes down" at a somewhat higher
týemperature. Hence, the cone does not measure temperature, but rather the
dumulative effect of time, temperature, and atmosphere. Each cone when
heated in air at a prescribed rate will go down at or within a few degrees of a
given temperature. The size of the cone also has a bearing on the deformation
temperature. Small cones have higher deformation temperature than large cones
of the same composition.

AnIother type temperature indicator are bars of ceramic

material (Hold Craft Bars) mounted horizontally and supported at their ends,
and are somewhat similar to pyrometric cones. Bars are supplied with
different softening points. As the temperature is raised, some of the bars
soften and sag under the influence of gravity. The temperature is indicated
by the bar which just begins to sag.

Still another group of ceramic temperature indicators

operate on the principle of progressive shrinkage of certain ceramic formulations
as they are subjected to higher and higher temperatures (Watkins disks and
Buller rings). After removal fromn the furnace, the diam tco ofaole in te
specimen or the outside diameter, is measured. The shrinkage serves as a
measure of the combined effect of the temperature reached and the duration
of exposure. Additional temperature indicating devices are pellets, liquids,
lacquers, and crayons. They consist of mixtures of minerals havins definite
melting temperatures ranging from 40 0 C to 1480 0 C. The melting temperatures
A
correspond to the particular numbers in the series and are indicated by the
advert of a wet or molten appearance. The various temperature sensitive ' 01
indicators aie sprayed, brushed or placed on the part whose temperature is to
be measured. Visual observation during heating will allow a rough temperature

WADD TR 61-67 207

VOL I REV 1

..............................................................................

...................................................... *.

.- . . ...- . .,N-..-
-.--..--.. v.-'... ..- .-. ..-. .-.-.--. . .-- . . .-- '."-".'.
. .. . .".'." . ".. . . .-...- .- . ..- .-.'.-"..,.,-- v".,..f
" --:.:--
-. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --.--..------ -.- -.-
v-.---v- -.- --..----.
: -:...:.< --- ---.- -:
:-5--:2 -. ,":--% : -: --
 . . - ?' . ' • .r . -- . _ . ..• .. - . %.. .. .- ' 2- . ....

measurement, or an inspection after beating will allow the determination of

the maximum temperature achieved within the limits of the indicators used.

(6) Resistance Thermometers

The operation of a resistance thermometer is based on the

fact that the electrical resistance of materials varies with temperature. The . 9
resistivity of most metals increases with increased temperature. The resistivity
of electrolytes, semiconductors, and insulators decreases with increased
temperature. The rnain factor causing the rise in resistivity is the increased
inner action of electrons with atoms that are displaced from their positions in
the metal lattice, resulting in a short"mean free path" for the electrons. First
use of the resistance principle is credited to Siemens in 1871. This thermometer
was constructed of platinum wire. However, unfavorable results were obtained
with it due to his choice of material for mounting the platinum wire. Callendar, .. "
in 1887, devised a superior platinum resistance thermometer and is credited with .-

laying the foundation for modern resistance thermometers.

A resistance thermometer system consists of a resistor

mounted on a suitable frame, a resistance measuring instrument, and connecting "
leads between the two. The resistance measuring instrument is usually a
Wheatstone bridge or a potentiometer.

Since the resistance element is usually at a remote location . -

from the measuring instrument, the connecting wires are usually subjected
to various changing temperatures along their length. This results in a variation
in their resistance which must be eliminated if the system is to be accurate.
Three types of connections have been devised to overcome this difficulty. These
are shown in Fig. 2-108.

The Siemens three-lead method of compensation, Fig. 2-108a, ,--.

is shown connected to a Wheatstone bridge in Fig. 2-109. When the Wheatstone
bridge is balanced so that the gSvainolntcir G does ]ý-ct defl•ec•t

then R + C/r 1 = X + T/r 2 (2-59)

The lead wires of the resistance element T and C are made to have equal
resistance. The ratio arms r 1 and rZ are set so that r1 = r - Theni by the
above equation, R = X. Thus the measured resistance is othe re"sistor only,
since the lead resistance is eliminated.

WADD TR 61-67 208

VOL I REV 1

- . - ...-.

NN
 Ctc CCCc

'I- t t -
(a) (b) )

Fig. 2-108 Three Types of Connections Used

in Resistance Thermometers

-40

G.

CC

x0x
Fig. 2-109 Siernen's 3 Wire Lead Compensation Fig. 2-110 Cal lendar's Lead Compensation
M~ethod with Wheattstone Bridge Method with Wheatsitone Bridge

WADD TR 61- 67 40O9 -

VOL I REV 1

..................................... W-
 i04

The Callendar method, Fig. 2-110, makes use of a pair of

dummy leads, Ct in Fig. Z-108b, that are connected in the measuring arm R of
a Wheatstone bridge. The dummy leads Ct are made equal in resistance as the
leads cT from the resistance element. The leads c and T and resistance element
X are connected in the adjacent arm.

Then we have R + C + t X + T + c (2-60)

rl r .. J2.

If r 1 is made eaqal to r 2 , then R must equal X, thus eliminating the lead resistance
from the me asurement.

In the four wire method, Fig. 2-108c, two leads CT arc

current leads, and the other two leads ct are potential leads. These are connected
to a Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 2-111, The resistance Ra and Rb aire
adjusted to balance the bridge in Fig. 2.-11a. and 2-111b. respectively. Then, -

the equation for Fig. Z-Illa is,

R a + C' X + T • ±.Z
____-
rl
,(2- 61) is.i.•
r
:i''

and for Fig. 2-l11b.

Rb I T X+C

The ratio arms r- and r 2 are again made equal. Adding the above two equations
we have

X R + Rbi/ (2-63)

The change in connections from 2-1.la. to Z-1lb. are made witP' A comnu.tator,

Fin the potentiometer method, the resistance thermometer X, L

Fig. 2-l12, is connected in series with a standard or known resistance P, and a
battery B. Precise mea9,lrements of the potential drops E anrid F across the
two resistors R ano X are made. Since the same current is rnaintained through
two resistors, the unknown resistance can be casily determi.xed by '"

X t L' RIE (Z-64)

X r

Further details on the use of bridge circuitry techniques in temperature

measurements is presented in Appendix YV.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1
 ,1 /

rr
z. -
.,j .,
(3 1. 2 c

RR
Rb

TT C" .

x x
(a) (b)

Fig. 2-ill Four Terminal Lead Compensation Method with Wheatstone Bridge

IIA
Bx

_ L____

Figq. 2-i112 [Potentiometer Method of Meusuring Resistance

WADD TIR 61-67 211

VOL I REV 1

, ,•°,'-,:','-"._•"•-c,•,',,~~~~...'.•._
. . . . ", -'•:
. .,'. - .' . ..... ".'- - . - . - . - ..- - - . " ".. -.. .. .-. .. . .
- ...-. -- -.... - -. .- . - ...-- - - -- - - - - - - S...
--.-. .. . . . ---. ., ..- . - . " . " ."-.-."..
".°-. .".. ."-, 'o "

The potentiometer method is very useful when the resistance

varies over a wide temperature range. The precision of measurement is kept
nearly constant over a wide temperature range. This method is capable of as
high a sensitivity as the bridge methods; however, it is generally not as convenient -"-
to use. Another difficulty is the problem of eliminating stray emfs. which cause
errors in measurement.

The resistance thermometer has several advantages over

other types of temperature measuring devices. Its excellent accuracy makes
it especially valuable in measuring small temperature differences although
it is also suitable for measuring large temperature differences and high
temperatures. Well-designed resistance thermometers have excellent stability.
Unlike thermocouples, they do not need a reference junction. In general, this-
is usually the reason resistance thermometers are used instead of thermocouple
in some industrial applications.

Disadvantages of resistance thermometers include relatively

large volume compared to thermocouples which results in an average temperature
over the length of the resistor rather than a point temperature, and the need
for auxiliary apparatus and power supplies. The resistance element is usually
considerably more expensive than a thermocouple. The electrical current
through the resistor must be kept as small as possible in order to minimize error
due to self-heating of the rcsistor. (tA current o, less than 10 ma ib desirable
to prevent sizable errors from self-heating). These errors may be considerable
when the resistance thermometer is used to measure temperature in slow
moving gas streams.

(7) Thermocouples

The principle operation of a thermocouple is based on the

discovery by Thomas SeeBeck, in 1821, that an electric current flows in a
closed circuit of two dissimilar metals when their junctions are at different
are at different temperatures. Thus, by measuring the emf developed and knowing
the variation of emf with temperature, a thermocouple may be used to measure
temperature.

Three fundamental laws governing the operation of thermo-

couples have been formulated. These are:

The law of the homogeneous circuit. (a.)

An electric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of L
a single homogeneous metal however varying in section, by the application of
heat alone.

WADD TR 61-67 212

VOL I REV 1

Midi
 (b.)
The law of intermed..iate etals. e
The algebraic sui-, of the thermoelectromnotive forces
in a circuit composed of any number of disjsinilar metals is zero, if all of the
circuit is at uniform temperature.

(c.)
The law of successive or intermediate temperatures.
The thermal emf developed by any thermocouple of ,
homogeneous metals with its junctions at any two temperatures T1 and T
is the algebraic sum of the emf of the thermocouple with one junction at and
the other at T a and the emf of the same thermocouple with its junctions at T and . . .
T3"

A. simple thermocouple circuit is shown in Fig. 2-113. It

consists of two dissimilar metals connected together at each end and an instrument
for measuring the electromotive force (emf) developed when the junctions are
maintained at different temperatures. If the instrument is kept at a uniform
temperature, then all junctions in the instrument will be at the same
temperature so that the emf developed will not be affected by the introduction
of the instrument into the circuit. The reference junction of the thermocouple -
is usually maintained at a constant temperature, normally 0°C. The thermo-
couple is then calibrated to determine emf output as a function of temperature.
c•h.isCC is known, hcn t"he c. can be -ue to Yn-eabu-e tei dur.L-•e.

Two methods of measurement of the emf generated by an

thermocouple are direct and null methods. The direct method employs a high
resistance meter to measure the emf and the null method depends on balancing
one voltage against another in parallel with it. The direct method is inherently
less accurate than the null method using the null method or potentiometric
Method. There is practically no current flow in thermocouple circuit when the -
potentiometer or is balanced. Therefore, variations in the thermocouple wire
resistance are not as important. Also the galvanometer in the null method is
used only to indicate zero current flow, while the meter in the direct method
must accurately measure voltage and it, accuracy depends on the inherent meter
accuracy.

A special arrangement of thermocouples, called a thermopile,

consists of two or more thermocouples in series. They are principally used to
detect small amounts of radiant energy and are used as detectors in many radiation
pyrometers. In this application a lens concentrates the radiant energy on the hot
junctions through an aperature that shields the cold junction.

WADD TR 61- 67 213

VOL I REV I

~ -M V .r C.. . --
 ,%4CtILIA etal1

In triIin for

measuri-i ine

Tk

.00
 Thermocouples, in general, have advantages for use in
temperature measurements such as: very stable, small size, an electric signal
output, operation over a wide temperature range, flexibility as to mounting, case -"
of application, and low material cost. The principal disadvantages in the use
of thermocouples are the need for cold junction compensation and the relatively
small dc electrical output. Other disadvantages are the need for electrical
measuring apparatus, calibration curves are based on empirical measurements 5s
although the curves are repeatable to tolerance accuracies, gradual change in
readings due to alloys changing composition, and the need for potentiometer
readings when good accuracy is required.

(8) Semiconductors

The theory of semiconductors rests upon the concept of

energy bands in solid state materials. A brief discussion of the origin and
significance of these energy bands are included in Appendix IV and further
reference maybe found in the Handbook of Semiconductor Electronics, (Ref. 18i). -

An increase in temperature increases the conductivity of

a semiconductor and vice versa. Semiconductors are therefore said to possess
positive temperature coefficients of conductivity or conversely, negative
temperature coefficient of resistivity.s-

Most semiconductor temperature measuring devices

fall under the thermistor type and a discussion of these will follow shortly.
However, a low temperature thermometer has been developed utilizing arsenic
doped germanium, a material quite dissimilar to those used in ordinary thermistors.
See reference 182 for a complete report and Section III of this handbook for
application and description.

The semiconductor temperature measuring devices offer

advantages of extremely small size and the relativelv simple apparatus it -,-
requires for operation. The only significant dis -. -. tag-- appai-enl at this time
is that its response cannot be given by a simple equation, making calibration
curves a necessity.

181 L. P. Hunter, Handbook of Semiconductor Electronics, McGraw-Hill

Book Company, Inc.

182 Kunzler, J. E. ,T. H. Geballe and G. W. Hull, 'Ge-rmanium Resistance

Thermometers Suitable For Low Temperature Calorimetry", Review of
Scientific Insturments , Vol. 28 n 2, Feb. 1957.

WADD TR 61- 67 215

VOL I REV I'

S~~~.........................:.......t....,................,........:......,...'...'...'...:+-..........,.....'......v ,..... ..... -...... -.... ,-'-"-.=-.

4-.|'"'"... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Proposed work on this type thermometer includes a study
of its stability upon cycling from room temperature to liquid helium temperature,
a determination of its upper temperature limit, types with higher resistance
ranges and a study of functional characteristics at lower temperature.

(9) Thermistors (Ref. 183 and 184)

Thermistor is a name given to thermally sensitie resistors *

made from sintered mixtures of metallic oxides such as TiO 2 , MgO, NiO, Fe 3 0 4 ,
etc. The energy band theory used to describe the conduction mechanism in
semiconductors does not apply to thermistor materials. Theory indicates that
in their pure state they should be metallic conductors because of their unfilled
valence band. Actually they have the properties of insulators.

In their mixture form, these elements have thermal pro- -

perties similar to semiconductors since for limited ranges, their resistance ' .
is given by the following equation:

R = A eB/T (2-65)

where

R = resistance B = nearly a constant for a given material

A = constant T = abusuLe ttlliperLtuu-

Compare this to the semiconductor equation for resistivity:

e =A' eB'/T (2-66)

where

e resistivity
A' = constant
B' = E/!k

Figure Z-114 shows a typical thermistor specific resistance

variation with temperature.

183 Same as Reference 180

184- Sapoff, Meyer, "The Thermistor--A Specialized Semiconductor Sensor",

Military Systems Design, July/August 1961 "" '

WADD TR 61-67 216

VOL I REV ]"
10 R

10
4

10O.2030 -10 0

..
- - I . 1.. - - - - - ,--.
.,6
Tenpe-rature, 'C

VOL I REV
 There are many ways in which thermistorr- are used to
measure temperature. All systems, of course, utilize the therimistor's
property of varying resistance with temperature. One straightforward and very
sensitive method employs a thermistor in a simnple Wheatstone bridge. The
resistance measurements are correlated to temperature by means of calibration
curves which, because of a thermistor's non-linearity, should be made for
each thermometer. This method is quite accurate (0. 001"C), but because of
its need for a calibration curve, it maybe less convenient than other methods.
Using suitable shunting resistors, to compensate for differences in thermistors
resistance-temperature characteristics, one may construct a bridge circuit"
temperature measuring device corresponding to a single calibration curve. See
Section III on Applications for detailed discussion of thermistor compensation
to arrive at desired resistance verses temperature characteristics.

Still another method eliminates the need for separate

calibration curves. Connecting a thermistor in series with a fixed resistor results
in an inflexion point in the curve relating current temperature. If a Wheatstone "
bridge with an arm consisting of an arm and a series resistor is balanced at
this point of inflexion, bridge output will be linear with respect to slight variation
in temperature. The accuracy of this method is somewhat better than the previous
one (0. 04 0 C); however, the temperature range is substantially reduced.

Thermistors possess many advantages over other temperature

measuring devices, the foremost being their extremely high temperature
sensitivity. It is about ten times higher than metallic resistance thermometers,
and it enables thermistors to be used in comparatively simple measuring C.:
circuits. Another advantage that thermistors offer is that they can be manufactured
in any size and shape. The three most common shapes are rods, discs, and
beads. The bead shape has been made in sizes as small as 0. 010 cm in
diameter. If fast response times are desired, flake thermistors can be made
with thermal relaxation times in the order of a few milliseconds.

Thermistors can also be used for remote indication, since -

their resistances at normal operating temperatures are high enough to mNake lead1,,[1U
resistances appear negligible. Their stability at normal temperatures is
also good for they hold their original calibration for long periods of time.

The chief disadvattage appears to be their non-linearity, . -

but many systems have been devised to compensate for this. The low temper,+ure ..- -
limit of the thermistor comes about by the insensitivity that occurs in the
measuring system when the thermistor's resistance becomes too large- The
upper temperature limit is set by an instability that results when thermistors
are subjected to sufficiently high temperatures.

WADD TR 61-67 218

VOL I REV I

. .
 "Materials of ceramic composition belonging to the alkali-
aluminum-silicate family, exhibit resistivity characteristics similar to those
of thermistors, even to the similarity in equations, but their most valuable
fer•ture is that they can be used at temperatures as high as 1500 0 C and possibly
higher. Further study and development of these materials is needed to
control in their manufacture, the many sensitive variables such as composition,
impurity concentration, time of firing, and temperature of firing of the ceramic.

(101 Sensitors

Sensitor is the trade name given by Texas Instrument Inc.

"to asemiconductor product which exhibits a positive temperature coefficient
of resistance. They achieve this by introducing carefully controlled amounts
of Boron impurities into Silicon semiconductors. At temperatures below
-150 C, the Sensitor has a negative temperature coefficient much the same as
-,' other positive and the element acts as a highly sensitive metallic resistance
the rmorr. ete r.

"Sensitors are used in almost exactly the same circuits and

applications as thetmistors, The advantage of Sensitors over thermistors is
that they can be easily manufactured to close tolerances. Further comparisons
"9., between Sensitors and thermistors indicate a slightly better linearity in the
former, but a slightly higher sensitivity in the latter. The lower temperatur'e
limi
is-150GLde to thec tem~iperature coefficient chanigro positive to
negative at this point, Instability determines the upper limit at 200 0 C.

(11) Thermnnonic Emission

Electrons in the valence band are free to travel throughout

a material, but at the boundaries of the conductor, the potential energy barrier
rises to a value large enough to prevent electron emission from its surface.
By heating, however, it is possible to raise the energy of an electron to a
value sufficient ot overcome the barrier. The difference between the energy
required to overcome the barrier and tint Forrn; n-,rgy level is called the wo rk
function of the metal. It is possible to develop expressions for the number
of electrons that a rive per unit time at a unit surface. See Appendix of this
-report for a detailed discussioa of these expressions and relations. With
"furtherderivation one may arrive at an equation relating the emission current
density with temperature.

•
WADD TR 61-67
..............................................
VOL I REV 1
219
-. .- -.

•. .- •.. -.... . . . . . .... ...-. .".

".",..... ..-. '-:_. .-..-. ". .-. . . .. .-.': ;':.-. -; . .'"---"%
. . ..-.- .- :--'
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 A fundamental circuit of a vacuum diode is shown in Fig. 2-115.
No beater is shown since all the heat is supplied by the object whose temperature . "
is being measured. The voltage supply is necessary to direct the electron flow 'C'-
from the cathode to the anode, and the current reading on the ammeter is a.... ,
measure of the cathode temperature. ' -

The advantages to be found in thermionic emission thermometry

include high temperature measuring capabilities, linear operation, and simple
operational circuitry. A major disadvantage is the fact that the characteristics
of a diode change after it is used for a sufficiently long time. This would tend
to affect the accuracy of the device. Also affecting the accuracy would be tile photo-
emission aand field emission effects of a low work function cathode.

The area of thermionic emission thermometers have many

problems that must be solved before they can be considered practical. One of
these problems is the development of cathode materials that are suitable for
various temperature ranges. Along with this, the materials must have extremely
long life expectancies to prevent the inaccuracies that result from cathode
evaporation. Another problem is the development of convenient and compact
enclosures which allow for anode cooling.

(12) Magnetic Techniques I

fhý--re are three distinct forms of magnetism: ferromagnetism,
paramagnetism, and diamagnetism. Externally they can be distinguished by the
value of magnetic suscFeptibility in a material. A. ferromagnetic substance has
a susceptibility that is not constant but is often very large. This differs from a
paramagnetic material which has a very small, positive susceptibility, and a
diamagnetic material which has a very small negative susceptibility. The
susceptibility of diamagnetic materials has been found to be almost independent
and will not be discussed inconnection with temperatu-re sensing. A represe.ntative
paramagnetic temperature measuring system may consist of a orje-inch sphere
of paramagnetic salt, chromic methylammonium alum; a mutual inductance
bridge; a low frequency signal generator; a galvanLometer; and an amplifier. The A

schematic diagram is pictured in Fig. 2-116. The salt, represented in the figure
by S, is used as the core of a mutual inductance M 1 , which is put in parallel
with a variable mutual inductance M . They are both fed by a low frequency --
2
(200 cps) signal generator, If the mutual impedance of M do not equal of 1 ,
a signal will appear across the amplifier where it will be amplified and sent to a
vibration galvanometer to indicate a deflection. Variations in temperature will
vary the mutual inductance M 1 because of the variation in magnt-tic susccptibility

WADD TR 61-67 ."-'"-"

VOL I REV 1

" "'" .," " ".,', ""' -""-"""-"""....... ".

 Diode

A Ammeter

voltag~e fiupply

Figq. 2-115 Simple Diode Temperature Measuring Circuit

Sigiial gencrator

-- J

Galva noneter

Fig. 2-116 Mutual Induciunce Bridge

WAD D TR 61- 67 221

VO.L I RI&V 1I

N'. . .. .. ~ '. . . . .7- .: . . .

 of the pararnagnetic core. After adjusting the variable mutual inductance M.i,
ans the variali-e re'istox R (to accoaunt for phase shift in M1 ) until the galvantometcr
nulls, a reading can be taken o. lh-i anid interpreted in terms of temperature
by means of cal-.ration curves.

The nuk-ncipa2 advantage of this systemn is its extreme

accuracy anld :,ensitivity at very low; temperatures. While it is true that resistance
thermometers can be used a.t ,-quiv-a.lent ten-,peratures, they do not posses the
linearity of the paraxagnetic alt.

The vý-ry inar'row tenmperature range may be the most important

disadvantage of this system end it is a. minor one. The upper limnit of the
temperature range would have to be set by the loss of magnetism and its consequent
adverse effect upon the sensitivity of the system. The lower temperature will
theoretically be set by the Curie Poinl., although physicists (Ref. 185) believe that
it will probably be determined by the crystalline field splitting of the ground
state spin quadruplet.

Ferromagnetic techniques concern the u.3se of ferromagnetic

substances such as iron, cobalt, and nickel. The graph in Figure 2-117 shows
that the relative mnagn.etization of a ferromagnetic mnaterial decreases as the
temperature is increased, and eventually approach-es zero at the Curie temperature. ,..
This agrees very well with experi.mentaal 'vj.,lc,.,:, - ..thohiug it ha.-s been found that
a ferromagnetic material does not lose ali its mnagnetisro but becomes paramagnetj c
at, and -bove the Curie Temperature. The invers7e relationship of magnetization
to temperature ..s an. indication that thermal vibratioi. of the molecules oppose
their alignment of their magnetic moment. A. simpla temperature mneasuring
system, Fig. 2-118, employing ferromagnetic te,.hrdqum consis"s of two coils
wound on a ferromagnetic core. A lo•w fr (quency ,ignal is supplied to one of the
coils which ix turn induces a voltage acr,.ess the other. The induced voltage is
directly related to the magnetic susceptibility of the ferrom: netic core, which is
inversely proportional to the temperature of rh- core. Here there is an inverse
relationship between the inrduced voltage and the temperature. The voltage is
taken off the second coil by a voltmeter and is translated to temperature by a
calibration cirve.

185 Davis, T, P., TrThe Carbon Arc Image Furnace", Proceedings of

3S-mposium on High Temperature, A Tool 1or The Future, 1956, f3erkelcy, Calif.

WADD TR 61-67 2 ?_2

VOL X REV I.

...............*~*..b.,.. . . . 4...
.
.- .:•>
::::::::: :::: ::::. : :- : :::.> . . . . . . .
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....
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 10-

6. 0 ..
(T/9

(V I

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 The primary adv,antages of this technique are its usefulness
at moderately high temperatures and its simplicity of construction. F'rom the..
relative magnetization versius temperature curve it can be seen that a ferromagnetic
material has a very large temperature sensitivity near the Curie point, but the
sensitivity decreases rapidly as the temperature is lowered. It hlas been estimated
(Ref. 186) that the useful temperature range is limited at the lower end by
temperature of approximately 5000 below the Curie point. This lower limit is
set by sensivitity considerations and the upper limit is of course set by the Curie '- 0
point. The Curie temperatures of iron, nickel, and cobalt are 770°C, 350 0 C,
and 11200C respectively. To adjust the Curie pcints and hence the useful
temperature range of these materials, various alloys are used. With such
alloys, Curie points as low as 60 0 C are common. The low temperature" usefulness
of ferromagnetic materials and alloys is curtailed at temperatures lower than
-750C because of their irreversibility.

(13) Thermal Noise Thermometer

Thermal noise is a fluctuating voltage or current of

random amplitude and phase. Such fluctuations are associated with any resistive
element which is at an absolute temperature T. The thermal noise in resistors
is generated by the random motion of conduction electrons which result from
their collisions with the crystal lattice. The random motion of the electrons
corresponds to random electrical current or voltage and hence to a noise
source. The mean square value of thermal noise current, or voltage output
from a resistor in thermal equilibrium at a temperature T, has been derived W. -'
by Nyquist (Ref. 187). The mean square noise voltage is proportional to the
absolute temperature and this noise voltage can be measured ve--y accurately.
Experimental measurements of noise output from resistors have been performed
by J. B. Johnson (Ref. 188) in the tenmperature range from -180 C to 100 C.

186 Jackson, L. R. and H. W. Russel, "Temperature Seinsitive M14agnetic

t
A1nloy -,•.d Their iTses , Instrumi.ent F,; Vol. ii _ -1 Novemnber 1938

187 Nyquist, ih. , "Thermal Agitation of Electric Charge In Conductors",

Physical Review, Vol. 32, July 1928

188 Johnson, J. B., "Thermal Agitation of Electricity In Conductors",

Phyical Review, Vol. 32, July 1928

WADD TR 61-67 Z24

VOL I REV 1

-- - - -. - ~ - - .P- ' - .. - A..~-.

- - - A ..--.. . . . . ..

. . ... . . . .
 Recently at Armour Research Foundation the linearity of the noise output of a
resistor as a function of temperature was measured up to 1300 0 C (Ref. 189).
All the experimental measurements confirmed Nyquist's relation within the
experimental error. A noise thermometer for high temperature and high .
pressure have been designed by Garrison and Lawson (Ref. 190). The accuracy
of the noise thermometer has been reported as 0. 1 percent up to 1000 0 C. A
similar noise thermometer (Ref. 191) has been investigated by the National
Bureau of Standards to determine its applicability for measurements in the 700CC
to 1200°C temperature range with three place accuracy. Recently a low tempera-
ture noise thermometer (Ref. 192.) has been designed to measure temperatures as
low as the boiling point of liquid helium. At that point a deviation on only
8 percent from the accepted value has been reported.

The noise thermometcr has possibilities as an absolute

(requiring no calibration) temperature measuring device. Very high accuracies
have been obtained. Limitations of the accuracy and hence the usefulness as f
an absolute temperature standard is primarily dependent on the accuracy of
the noise thermometer is determined by the temperature stability of currently
resistive materials.

c. Thermal Radiation Method

$E1
.4

(1) Radiation Detectors

Electrons can bc excited to higher energy levels by iight as
well as heat, For photoemission to occur, the photons falling on a conductor
must impart to the free electrons of that material enough energy to overcome
the potential barrier at its surface. The minimum energy of the photon must
therefore be the work function of the material. By lowering the work function,
the frequency needed for photoemission is also lowered, and if the work function
is lowered sufficiently, a electron emission will take place for frequencies in

189 Zucker, H., et al., Design and Development of a Standard White Noise
c tor an ose nuzdcatiiig Instrument", !RE Trans. On instrumentation,
Vol. 1-7, Dec., 1958

190 Garrison, J. B. and A. W. Lawson, "An Absolute Noise Thermometer

For High Temperatures", Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 20, 1949

191 "High Temperature Thermodynamics Technical Re.port II" NBS Report 4

3431, NBS Project 0301-20-2674, July 1954

i192 Patrone's, E. T. , et al. , "Low Temperature Thermal Noise Thermometer",

Review of Scientific Instzrmcnts, Vol. 30, July 1959

WADD TR 61-67 225 ''2

* VOLI REVl

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the infrared region, thereby enabling the device to be used as a radiation detector.
The only difference between photoemissive cathode does not have to be brought
to the temperature of the test object. A photo tube circuit is very similar to
that of a thermonic diode circuit. Because of the extremely low currents (micro
amps) that result in photoemission, it is easier to measure the voltage drop
across a large resistor than to try to measure the current. Large currents can - -;
be obtained by the use of photomultiplier tubes, which are simply carefully
designed phototubes employing the principle of secondary emission.

The fact that phototubes do not have to be in thermal equilibrium

with the test object makes them ideal for the measurement of high temperatures,
They are used in optical pyrometers and in radiation pyrometers. However,
somewhat limited by the fact that their spectral response does not extend very far
into the infrared region. Their fast response time also increases their usefulness
in temperature measurement. Disadvantages of optical pyrometers include the
precautions that must be taken in clearing obstructions such as smoke, fumes, ,,-
etc. from the radiation path, keeping lens free from dirt and grease, and the --
relatively high cost of the optical systems. The lower temperature limit of
visible light (about 760°C) sets the lower limit upon optical pyrometer systems
using phototubes. Their highest temperature is limited by the emission saturation.
of the tube. The temperature extremes of a phototube radiation pyrometer would
have to be set by the spectral response of the tube.
Lightphotons Qf s" fII .. .. . . -ut
o I C. C.•. 61= gy, upon. St .L-d -- a S,JU
--I--
material, are able to excite electrons across the forbidden energy
conducting
gap, therby increasing the conductivity of the material. Semiconductors with
small gaps car be used for frequencies in the infrared region and are therefore-
useful in radiation pyrometers. A photoconductive cell acts somewhat as a
remote action thermistor, and seemingly can be used in the same types of
circuits as thermistors (bridge circu;Ls, series circuits, etc.). Lead sulfide is
1
a material which Exlhnbi -s photoconductive properties at radiation frequencies
as low as 500 cycles per second. The advantages of a lead sulfide photocell are
its extremely small size, rugged.aess, and infrared sensitivity. Temperature .
limitations upon a photoconductive cell are dependent upon its spectral response.
A third type radiation detector is the photovoltaic cell, It operates on a principle
sinillar to that of contact poLcntial in metals. A N-type semiconductor with a
Fermi Level soafl!-vbat higher than chat of a metallic conductor is placed in
contact with the iete~l2 conducto:., Electrons flow from the semiconductor to the
* n),ýtai ilntt' the two Eerrji Tevsl"ý are equal, making the semiconductor and
metal a sir. te thermodynam.nic systen. k- doing so, a poternrtial barrier is formed
at the junction of tkh-.s metal and the semiconductor, which halts further flow of __--_

el.ctro:s between the tV-wo. UJpon illumination, the light photons excite electrons ..--

WADD TR 61-67 226

,%rQLaI REV I

[, , ,,".,-..'.,.-
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across the energy gap, thereby greatly increasing the electron and hole conccntra-
tion in the semiconductor, and also upsetting the thermodynamic equilibrium of
the system, Since these excited electrons are unable to flow across the junction '-
barrier and neutralize the effect of the illumination, thermodynamic equilibrium
is again achieved by a rise occuring in the semiconductor's energy levels. The
rise continues until the free electron and hole concentrations in the semiconductor
equal those at the same energy levels in the metal. A voltmeter across the metal 0.
and the semiconductor will indicate a voltage drop equivalent to the difference
in Fermi Levels of the two. The maximum voltage drop is practically realized
to be the voltage equivalent of one half the forbidden energy gap in the semi-
conductor. As was the case in the other photoelectric devices, photovoltaic cells ""
have a radiation frequency dependence. [
(2) Line Reversal Pyrometer ."½.

The line reversal pyrometer is a device for the measurement

of gas temperatures above 1000 0 K. In principle it is somewhat similar to the -
optical pyrometer in that it compares the radiation from a gas with that from a
calibrated reference source. Unlike a solid, a gas emits or absorbs radiant
energy at only certain descrete wavelengths. When a black body is viewed
through a gas and the gas is at a higher temperature than the black body, the gas
will appear bright against the background of the black body at the wavelengths
that the gas emits energy. If the gas is at a lower temperature than the black -
body, the gas will appear dark against the background of the black body at the
wavelengths the gas absorbs. By adjusting the temperature of the black body
until no difference in brightness exists between the gas and the black body, the
gas temperature is equal to that of the black body, and the gas temperature may
then be determined by measuring the black body temperature. The determination
cf the point of equal brightness is most conveniently made by using a spectroscope.
Radiation from a black body appears as a continuous spectrum and the radiation
emitted or absorbed by the gas apprears as bright or dark lines. At the points
of equal brightness, the lines disappear against the background of the continuous
radiation.

The upper temperature which may be measured by the line-

reversal method is limited by the calibration radiator. Tungsten ribbon lamps
cannot be used beyond 3000'K. Improvement in this respect depends on the
development of radiator sources to work at higher temperatures. Another
improvement would be to eliminate the need for manual adjustment required for
matching the gas and lamp brightnesses. (Ref. 193)

193 Buchele, D., A Self-Balancing Line-Reversal Pyrometer, NACA TN 3656,

August 1956
227.
WADD TR 61-67 227
VOL I REV I

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_,
 (3) Optical Pyrometers

An optical pyrometer is a device in which the temperature of

an object is determined by comparing the visible radiation from the object with
that from a calibrated reference source. The commonly used optical pyrometers
consist of an optical system which forms an image of the object viewed in the
instrument. A lamp is used as a reference source and is positional so that the
lamp filament is in the focal plane of the image. The lamp filament and the object
whose temperature is to be measured can be seen simultaneously through the
eyepiece of the optical pyrometer. The temperature of the object is measured by
adjusting either the brightness of the lamp filament or the image of the object
viewed until they coincide. At the point of equal brightness the lamp filament
disappears against the background of the object viewed. '.

Two types of disappearing filament pyrometers are marketed.

In the type made by the Leeds and Northrup Company, a slide wire resistor is
used to adjust the filament current in the lamp to make the brightness match.
A potentiometer in the instrument is calibrated to give the temperature of the
object when the potentiometer is balanced against the slide wire resistor. In the
optical pyrometer made by the Pyrometer InLstrument Company, the brightness of
the image of the object whose temperature is being measured is adjasted by
rotating a wedge shaped absorbing screen placed between the lamp filament and
the object. The absorbing screen is calibrated to give the temperature of the
obiect when the brightness match is made.

With either optical pyrometer, at the point of equal brightness,

the color of the filament is not necessarily the same as that of the object viewed.
Since this would make precise matching of the reference source and object brightness *' N
Sdifficult, most of the better instruments include a monochromatic filter. With
this arrangement the brightness match is made in a narrow bank of wavelengths
which is usually located in the red end of the visible spectrum.

The most important advantage of the optical pyrometer is

that it can be used to measure the temperature of a material without being in contact , .
with it. The disadvantage of the optical pyrometer is that the emissivity of the
object can be obtained, and that the instrument does not measure temperature
automatically, but requires a manual adjustment. Use of photo tubes for automatic
balancing are under development. (Ref. 194)

194 Blum, N. A., "Recording Optical Pyrometer", Review of Scientific

Instruments, Vol. 30 n 4, April 1959 LIE

WAND TR 61-67 228

VOL I REV 1 .

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 ,

(4) Total Radiation Pyrometers

A total radiation pyrometer consists essentially of a sensing

element for detecting tttal radiation energy and usually a mirror or lens for
focusing the radiation on the sensing element. The sensing element can be anything
that gives a consistent signal from the radiation received. Thermocouples and
thermopiles are most often employed, but in some cases thermistors, bolometcrs,
and spiral wound bimetallic strips have been used. These sensing elements
produce a signal by undergoing a temperature change frome the radiant energy .'
received. Since some time lapse is required for the temperature change to occur,
the signal from these devices lags behind the radiation received. By making the
mass of the sensing element as small as possible with respect to the surface area
of the element, the response time has been made as small as possible with respect
to the surface area of the element, the response time has been made as small as
0.4 seconds. A

The temperature range over which the pyrometer can be used

does not seem to have any theoretically limit. Commercial instruments are
available which taken together, can be used from ambient to 4100 0 K. They indicate
temperature remotely and therefore do not require physical contact with the
material whose temperature is being measured. Another advantage is that they
do not require manual adjustments, as optical pyrometers do, but give temperature
readings directly. A disadvantage of a radiation pyrometer is that the emissivity
of the object whose temperature is being measured must be known if the object is
not a black body.

(5) Two- Color Pyrometer

The two-color pyrometer does not respond to the intensity

of radiation received by the instrument, but instead is calibrated to indicate a
temperature in terms of the ratio of radiant intensity at two different wavelength
bands. As a result this instrument has a smaller dependence on emissivity than
the optical pyrometer. The two-color pyrometer is also suitable for automatic -
process control because it does not require manual adjustmnent.

A t-rn- color, pyrom eter usuallyr consists of tw~o filter.. which

transmit in the red and blue portions of the visible spectrum. In the pyrometer
made by the Shaw Instrument Company, the filters are mounted on a rotating disk.
A photocell placed behind the disk delivers a fluctuating output due to the
difference in radiant intensity transmitted by the two filters. Feed back in the
electrical ciicuitry causes the average amplitude of the amplified signal to be
constant. The fluctuation of the amplitude is then a function of only the ratio of
the radiation received at the two wavelengths. The amplified fluctuation of the

WADD TR 61-67 229

VOL I REV 1

----------------------------------- -- - -'----'---- -

......................................................................

. . ', . -.. . '. .. ,. . '. ' .'% - " .". % "." -'. '- ': , ". ' -,. . ". ' ,' - . . . .. - . -. ".. - " . . -\'

* . - . I. 4
 signal is then fed to a meter which is calibrated to give the temperature of the
object. The Shaw Instrument can be used to measure temperatures in the range
from 7600 to 3600 0 C.

(6) Microwave Radiometer

The microwave radiometer is based on an extension of Nyquist's

theorem of thermal noise in resistors which also include the resistance of an
antenna. The radiation impedance of an antenna is a function of its surroundings. - -
"Forinstance, if an antenna is surrounded by a perfect conductor, its impedance is
zero since no power can be transmitted. If an antenna is surrounded by a perfect
absorber its radiation impedance is equal to that which can be calculated for the
,* case of the antenna in free space. If the surrounding of the antenna is at a
Z; nonuniform temperature, the radiometer will measure an effective temnprature .-. -

which will. also be function of the antenna gain. The effective tempe rature is
obtained frot i the power delivered by the antenna when connected to a matched load.

A block diagram of a microwave radiometer is shown in

Fig. 2-1i9. The device is known as Dick's Radiometer (Ref. 195). The radiomreter
is a comparison instrument which compares the noise received by the antenna
with the noise produced by the rotating absorbing wheel which acts as a resistive
termination for the waveguide. The absorbing wheel is driven by a mnotor at a
30 cps rate., and is so shaped that it produces a signal with nearly square wave
modulation. The square wave is symmetrical such that the waveguide is terminated
half of the time by the resistance of the absorbing wheel kept at room temperature,
and half of the time by the antenna resistance, If the noise received by the
antenna is of the same magnitude as the noise of the absorbing wheel, no 30 cps
noise modulated signal is fed into the receiver. The advantage of the method is
that it is possible to discriminate between tl.e noise generated by the receiver
which is not modulated. With a 13 db noise figure of the receiver and a time
constant at the output of the second mixer of 215 seconds, the accuracy of the
temperature measurements has been with 0. 4 0 K. Greater accuracies have
been obtained with a radiometer at 8000 mc using traveling wave tube amplifiers
(Ref. 196). The applications of radiometer have been primarily in 1 adio astronomy
to determine the temperature of various planets. A microwave radiometer could,
in principle, be used to measure temperature of small objects which are in thermal
'"LjttJLL•±±'1i. ±JJ advantage Li
te ±-- i Iaul
ixinete± W .iould e tlat iL does nui require

direct contact with the object, and therefore could measure very high temperatures.
However, the beam width of the antenna would have to be very small and hen'e
would require very short microwave wavelength and complex instrumentation.

195 Dicke, R. H., "The Measurements of Thermal Radiation at Microwave

Frequencies", Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 17, July 1946.

* 196 Drake, F. D. and H. I. Even, "A Broad-Band Microwave Source

Comparison Radiometer For Advanced Research in Radio Astronomy", Proc. of
IRE, Vol. 46, January 1958.

WADD TR 61-67 230

VOL I REV 1

.-'.vS •.&-.-
%. -.\ . .'..xf.-.
.- -" . * < -"
"- - -.- "-. - -" -" "N. . -" -.-- -.- -- -... .. .
 30 cps 7
generator

30cp

duI o

Modulator

U yrixc r rnplilieA mrpliiirr

Lmpiie

Fig. 2-119 Schematic Diagram of Dicke's Radiometer

WADD TR 61-67 231

VOLI REVI
 (d) Miscellaneous Methods

In this section a few miscellaneous methcds for temperature

measurements will be discussed.

Cooled probes are devices for measuring the temperature of gases.

The purpose of cooling the probe is to overcome the temperature limits of uncooled
probes such as thermocouples and resistance thermometers. The maximum
temperature that can be measured by an uncooled probe is determined by the ,r -
material of which the probe is made. Cooled probes, however, do not come to the
temperature of the gas, and can therefore be immersed in a gas at a temperature
that would destroy an uncooled probe. Two types of cooled probes are the cooled
gas and pneumatic pyrometers. A cooled gas pyrometer is describes in Ref. 197 . ----
and a sketch shown in Fig. 2-120. This device consists of a water cooled tube
through which the gas whose temperature is being measured is aspirated. A
thermocouple is placed near the outlet end of the tube where the gas has been
cooled well below its inlet temperature. The temperature of the entering gas is
calculated from the temperature of the gas at the thermocouple. A knowledge of
the variation with temperature of the thermal properties of the gas (thermal
conductivity, specific heat and density) is required up to the temperature to be
measured. A cooled gas pyrometer cannot be used in gases where a chemical
reaction is in progress. If combustion has taken place it must be complete where
the probe is inserted or the combustion may continue in the probe and, by the heat
rpl-Pnqpd
srn1; ;ii qp fli. i nriirn-tpc teninerahilre. to be in error. The measurement of i
gas temperatures in excess of 22000C may be possible if the thermal properties
of the gas are known up to the temperature of the gas. Above 30000C, however,
the gas may begin to dissociate. A dissociated gas would start to recombine in
the cooled tube and release heat. This would cause the indicated temperature to
be in error.

Pneumatic probes are used to measure gas temperatures. They L

consist of two flow constrictions connected in series and separated by some device
for reducing the temperature of the gas before reaching the second constriction.
The flow constrictions are either nozzles or orifices, and the gas is drawn
through them by a vacuum pump. Subsonic flow of a gas through any constriction
is determined by the total temperature, total pressure, and static pressure of the
gas at the constriction. After the gas passes through the first constriction, it is .. •.-.
cooled from its inlet temperature down to a value at which it can be measured
by a thermocouple at tLe second flow constriction. By measuring the total
temperature, static and total pressures at the second constriction, the mass flow --

197 Krause, L. N., R. G. Johnson and G. E. Glawe, A Cooled Gas Pyrometer

For Use In High Temperature Gas Streams, NACA TN 4383

WADD TR 61-67 Z32

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4.j

S"'%
v ., .v "v~ - "''., '.."," ."--" ",• -v '. •.•. v ,-,,.-" .: .. *. -. - -. ,: . ". : "-"- :'
 t
wa Water
out) tt 1-le0
I Vac kturn
I pL inp

Thermocouple jun'ýt~vn

Fir. 2-120 Sketch of Cooled Gas4 Pyrornoter

WAUD TR 61-67 233

VOLj, I REV 1
of the gas can be determined. The principle involved in the operation of pneumatic
and sonic flow probes is that since the flow constrictions are connected in, ýeres
the mass flow is the same in each unless the gas is cooled to such an extent
that condensation occurs. However, if condensation is avoided once the mass
flow is determined, all that is required to compute the temperature of the entering
gas is the measurement of the total and static pressures at the first constriction. ,
The temperature may then be determined.

Pneumatic pyrometers have been used successfully to measure the "' C_

temperature of exhaust gases from the combustion of hydrocarbons up to 1840 0 C
(Ref. 198). It has also been used to measure temperature in rocket combustion
chambers (Ref. 199) and as an in-flight instrument for measuring jet engine .
exhaust gases (Ref. 200). The dissociation effects at high gas temperatures
complicate the determination of an effective specific heat ratio making this method
of temperature rmeapsurement more difficult.

Another method of temperature measurements is concerned with

microwave absorption and is based upon the principle that increased microwave
continuation in a gas, e. g. , a flame, will occur when thermally induced ionizations
occur. Furthermore, the density of free electrons and therefore the attenuation
created by this effect: is functionally related to the absolute temperature of the
gas (Ref. Z01).
A system employing this technique would consist of a microwave
transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter may consist of a 1000 cps modulated
microwave X (3 cm) or K (1. 25 cm) band generator followed by a high directivity
antenna which may consist of a pyramidial horn followed by a lens to increase
the directivity. The receiver may consist of an antenna lens combination similar
to that of the transmitter. The received signal is rectified by a square can detector

198 Simmons, F. S. and G. E. Glawe, Theory and Design of a Pneumatic

Temperature Probe and Experimental ResuILs In A High Temperature Gas Stream,
NACA TN 3893
199 Trent, C. H. , "Investigation of Combustion In Rocket Thrust Chambers",
Industry and Engineering Chemicals, Vol. 48, April 1956

200 HavilI, C. D. and L. S. Rolls, A Sonic-Flow Orfice Probe For The In-
Flight Measurements of Temperature Profiles of a Jet Engine Exhaust With After-
Burning, NACA TN 3714 ,.-
Z01 Kubns, Determination of Flamer Temperatur2 From 2000 0 K to 3000 0 K y ..
Microwave Absorption, NACA TN 3254, 1954

WADD TR 61-67 Z34

VOL I REV I

U-
 amplified by a 100 cps amplifier, which is followed by an indicator. The minimumn
spacing between the antennas is to be such as to avoid interaction between the two
antennas. The flame is placed midway between the antennas. The temperature of
the flame is measured by comparing the output of the receiver with and 'Vi thout
the flame and relating the difference in the received signals to the flame temperature.

A. number of approximations are normally necessary, to relate the,"

temperature to the equivalent conductivity of the flame medium. And again .O
approximations are. necessary to determnine the effect of the finite size of the
conductive flame, such that the accuracy of the temperature measurement is
therefore limited. Accuracies of ibO'C have been reported in the temperature]i-
range 1600 to 21.00 0 C. The upper limit of the instrument is that temroperature where
almost all the atoms are ionized. The lower temperature limit depends on:. the
ability of the microwave receiver to detect smanall changes in received signals.

From standard works en acoustics we have relationships which

"provide a means of determining the temperature of a gas from sound velocity
measurements, if other terms are known or reasonable values can be assumed or
assigned. The methods of measuring the sonic velocity of a high frequency wave
to determine gas ternperat-ure can be grouped into two categories. First category
V..
uses optical methods corrbine with photography. In Lhis method, the wavelength A --
.sound wa'Us in "the gas are deternined at -a.knowvn and unknown temperature.
Of tihe1,C
These sound waves are generated by a crystal, driven by a known frequency
oscillator. The unknown Lemperature may bc calculated from the relatio-

A = 2 (2-67)

The second category consists of rneasuring the transit time of a transient

acoustic signal across a gas path of a given length. Several other measurements
referred ito in this].
literature as sonic t(-rl" urP measuremen,'t,' use vc- caused
by spark discharges and might better be considered sheck wNave measurements.

The use cf the veiocity of sound a!3 a method of measuring

temperature, was .:rigge- ed by A. N. ,ayer in 1373 (Ref. Z02) and subsequently t9
by various investigators in the field. The following references suggest use of

202 Mayer, A. M., Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 45 n 18, p. 1973

WADD TR 61- 67 235

VOL I REV 1I

led
this technique in various applications: (Ref. 203, 204, 205, 206) "

Some advantages of the sonic method are: I! is inherently fast, so

rapidly changing temperatures can be followed. The lag normally caused by the
heat capacity of the thermometer element is absent. The measured temperature
is not dependent on the properties of another material. The chief disadvantage of
the technique is that point temperatures are not measured, but instead an average. ,
temperature over the path between transducers is obtained,

To measure high temperature with reasonable accuracy using the

sonic method, consideration should be given to these factors:
1. Values for the molecular weight and specific heat ratios of gases
will have to be known more accurately.
2. The gap length over which the sound wave travels may increase due
to ablation of the probes.
3. Since the sound velocity increases with increasing temperature,
the time needed for the sound wave to travel the distance between two probes
becomes smaller.

2-11 VIBRATION AND SHOCK MEASUREMENTS

V ibratien may be defined as a tern relating oscillatory motionn

in a mechanical system. In the Glossary of Telemetry Transducer Terms
(see Appendix II) vibration is defined as: motion due to a continuous change in
in the magnitude of a given forcc which reverses its direction with time. Vibration

203 Marlow, D. G., C. R. Nisewanger, and W. M. Cady, "A Method for

the Instantaneous Measurement of Velocity and Temperature in High Speed Air
Flow", Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 20, 1949, p 771.

204 Barrett, E. W. and V. E. Suomi, "Preliminary Report on Tempera-

ture Measurement by Sonic Means", Journal of Meteorology, Vol. 6 n 4, August-.
1949.

205 Edels, H. and D. Whittaker, "The Determination of Arc Temperatures

from Shock Velocities", Proc. of Royal Soc. (Series A), February-June 1957,
pp 239-40.

206 Taylor, C. F. , "Development of a Method for Measuring Gas

Temperatures in the Combustion Chamber of an Internal Combustion Chamber
of an Internal Combustion Engine", MIT , June 1953 - July 1954, ASTIA AD 41 455.

WADD TR 61-67 236

VOL I REV 1 ':9
11,
.'

"-*'" *'-
is generally interpreted as symmetrical or non-symmetrical fluctuations in the
rate at which acceleration is applied to an object. And a closely related term
"shock" is defined as: an abrubi change in applied energy. Shock is often considered
a transient function of vibration. Terminology in this area can overlap as the .
period or function of time is considered. Oscillatory motion for several milli-
seconds may be considered shock.

Measurement and study of vibration and shock includes considerations

of displacement, velocity, acceleration, rate of change acceleration (jerk), and r
frequencies. Vibration may be periodic, sometimes defined deterministic in
that the variation with time is predictable from repeated past history; or random
such that the parameters are not predictable from any recognized repeated
pattern,

Newton's laws of motion clearly relate the vibration parameters,

acceleration, displacement exciting force and mass involved. The fundamentals
of acceleration measurements presented earlier deal with these basic relatio`Lnship.
This subject is treated in great detail in many texts and is the basis for derivations
of relationships in translational and rotational motions. Mr. Ralph E. Blake,
(Ref. Z07) preselnts an excellent review of motion analysis fundamentals in,
Chapter 2, "Basic Vibration Theory" in Volume I of the Shock and Vibration .7
Handbook.

Vibration measurement in practice becomes an. analysis of a •:ysten

whereby various forms of the basic laws f rncLion are duplicated electrically,
by interpreting the analogies and choosing the more appropriate measurements
desired. Displacement may be measured and if related to tirme define 'he parameters
of vibration, velocity by differentiation, and double differentiation for acceleration.
Similar velocity or acceleration may constitute the basic measurement employ-
ing integration or differentation to obtain other parameters, Thus the measuring
device may be chosen for its ease and ability to obtain accurate results, Low
frequency vibration may increase the difficulty of velocity or acceleration
measurements and measurement of displacement may offer the greater advantage.
Usually at the higher frequencies the excursion or displacement range becomes
quite small and therefore more difficult to measure; and furthermore the frequency
response of the displacement device may not be adequate. Acceleration of
velocity pickups may then be the answer with integrating circuits or manipulation
employed to arrive at the displacement parameter. However, acceleration,
velocity and displacement are only correlated easily when the vibration measure-
mrent is a simple sinusoidal motion containing one frequency. The normal more

207 C. M. Harris and C. E. Creud, Shock and Vibration Handbook, In

Three Volumes, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.

WADD TR61-67 237

VOL I REVl

-Ar
complex vibratory nmotion requires that data be analysed isolating each specific
frequency or employ more exotic measurements and analysis.

The simplest vibratory sys.mevn sho'wn in Fig. 2-1.21 is call-ed a

single degree-of-freedom ,system, since a single malass, m , displaced in a
constrained direction so that its. change oi position is fully described by the
single quantity x, The- deg.rses-ojf-freedomn of a, systemi indicate the number of
independent parameters required to define the distance of all masses from their
reference positions. A single.mass, ni , con~strained to move only in x and y-
direction would be constitute a - deg r;,.e-of-fircedom system. A continuous system .
sul-ch as a beam, wherein ir,.finitely thin cross--sectional slices represents each"
mass, is considered to havc an). infinite numberr of degrees- of-freedom,.

if a mass is a systeem is displaced from its i.nitial reference, h-enli

the force of displacernent rercloved aand the nmass is allowed to vibr-ate free, without
external acting forces, it is e-.xhibiting free v•bration. Forced vibration is the
condition when a continuing force acts on the mass, or the foundation is un-.der
continual mci-ion, 'The natural frequency is the free vibration frequency of a
system and nmay be deifined by

f n =1
\v..
g"(Z-68)
A.
fn = natural frequency
k = spring constant
W = weight of rigid body
g = acceleration of gravity

The reciproca.l of the natural frequency is the period or time inter-val of cne complete
cycle of sinasiodal oscillation.

Damping is defined as the dissipation of eergy with time ri

It is the characteristic, of the measuring device or the vibrationial system, to ..
resist continual or free vibratian. hn a simple vibration measuring device th.'
dan-ping is usually controlled, or specified to improve the performainc--, of the device
over a selected band of frequencies. The relationships of dampirig in sirnple
harmonic systems are wve.ll d-.fined in many text. Practical methods of damping use
gases, liquids, resilient solids, magnetic fiieids and au.xil-.ary moass or counter--
xdbration subsystems.

WADD TR 61- 67 238

VOL, I REV 1

•?"
"
 dt.

M X -AX IS"
---

Figure 2-121 Single Degree-of-Freedom System

DISPLACEMENT
-- -. VIBRATING
"PAR"

FIXED REFERENCE

Fic4dre 2-122 Fixed Reference Device

,

ADD IR
UV 61-67
67 239
1 f. ,1U I .V
0!, t(• V !
•" % °f'
 Vibration measuring instruments are of two general types, one in
which the paramretezs are measured with reference to a fixed point in space, and ....
the other related to the response of a mass-spring sustem. Fig. Z-IZZ illustrates
a simple fixed reference device. Displacement is indicated by direct observation.L 9
or use of displacement transducers monitoring the vibrating part. The mass-spring
type instrument is attached to the vibrating member and the relative motion.
Incorporated in the device is a displacement transducer to generate a signal relative
to the mass versus case motion. Fig. 2-123 (a. - h. ) illustrate principles of the
various types of mass-spring type devices. They differ mainly by the type of.
displace•nent transducing element. The general types are: potentiometric, variable
inductance, variable capacitance, unbonded strain elements, bonded strain gage,
piezoelectric, piezoresistive, light modulated, and electrolytic. These type
elements have previously been discussed and miscellaneous types are: electro-
chemical, mcchanoelectonic, optical interferometer, vibrating wire, tuning
fork, gas-disclhnrge, reflected wa,'e interference, and servo accelerometer.

The piezcelectroc type vibration transducers are very widely used.

They are of the su;lf-gen-rating type producing an electrical output signal in
relation to the deforn:atioli Of pieznýelectrwc elr,,n. The piezoelectric element
rm, y be maxae -f natural ol" synthetic crystals, c.•rr~wic mate.xials (barium tetnate) a
and some-conductor r.-ateria s. Tylpes of devices may be classified as compressive
cr bending. Normally higher frequency response (natrrai frequencies to 1.00 kc)
are obtainable when el-mrents r& in compresssi.,

In chcp'.r 16, Volume I, Shock and Vibration Hai.dbook, (Ref. 208).

A. 1. Dranietz and A. W. Orlacclio present an e~ectrlcal analog ofT the piezo- 0
electric accelerometer. This is useful in deriving force disllacement and motion
relations and in cal.c-xlating performance characteristics of at measuring system.

Piezoelectric transducers are usualiy smil and lightweight (i gram

to sevea! cunces). Larger units may have gieater sencJttivity or lower frequency
response incoiporating several elements in a system arrangenment to enhance a
particular function. Packaging and mounting are vairied to suit application, Prime
importance, of cw,.rs, is the ability of the device to respond to the v±'ating
member b1uing measured and therefore mounting a-rrangcf~cflts froin 'studs to epoxy
celncnted areas mnake up an appreciable porti-on of the ;,liysical design of the
vibration instrument. "-A

Electrical characteristics of the piezoelectric transducer ace

concerned with output signa!. The sensitivity (output per urdt of measured
paramneter) may be e;pressed as a voltage or charge sensitivity. Units are usually

208 Samne as Reference 207

WADD TR 61-''l
VOL I R2ZV 1 240
 (Il
z U-

0~~F - - -- j'
-~ LU

-Li 0

u~0 Lu
UF -- I

U U

LDLU
-jZ
< Uz
w LUJ

V-)

U.1

LU _ _ _ _ _ _ _-

LLLI±Fd

I-j-

< 0

LU LU]

LU

LUz

- Lu
LU,
LU Lu LU

0z
0~0

F~gure 2-123 Mass-Spring Devices Employing Various Displacement indicating Elements

WADD TR 61-67 241

VOL, I REV 1
millivolts per g or coulombs per g, where acceleration and time relate vibrational
information. Typical sensitivity values range from 5 to 125 mv/g with load of
20 k to several 100 megohms (some require electrometer type amplifiers). The 'v1
output impedance may indicate the low frequency characteristics of the device.
The resistance and shunt capacitance of the transducer and the input resistance of
the signal conditioner result in a time constant limiting the low frequency response.
High input impedance amplifiers are usually necessary and with th2 great .
advancement in solid state microminiaturization many vibration pickups include
output amplifiers. The high frequency response depends primarily on the natural
frequency and the damping employed. Commercially available transducers employ
damping ratios such that vibrational frequencies of . 2 to . 7 of the natural frequency
may be followed with 5% or less variation in sensitivity. A virtually undamped -
system may operate at frequencies up to about . 2 the natural frequency with
approximately 5% variation in sensitivity (Ref. 209). Transverse sensitivity is the
characteristic of the device to generate an output signal when acted on by force or
acceleration in a plane other than the plane of motion being measured. This "-
characteristic is normally specified in percent of maximum sensitivity. Typical
values for transverse sensitivity are 1% to 10%.

The piezoelectric transducer normally has a wide acceleration range

of operation. Typical units may operate from 0. 02 g to 1000 g. Upper limits are ,
#j
usually determined by calibration unless maximum g value is dependent upon .
kcnonxi pys~icrail limita.tions of case or mounting fixture. *

Temperature effects onpiezoelectric transducers are largely dependent ;

on the piezoelectric element and of course, the packaging for any beneficial
cooling at the elevated temperatures. Instruments are available for vibration -"-
measurements at ambient temperatures from -300°F to over 5000F maintaining -.
t5% sensitivity variations. The charge sensitivity and capacitance of piezoelectric
element materials are temperature dependent. Thus voltage sensitivity and
frequency response can be related to temperature changes for the various materials.
In particular cases the damping characteristic may be temperature dependent at
extended temperature ranges. J

High intensity sound environments may effect the characteristics of

piezoelectric vibration transducers. Peak outputs will result at the resonant
frequency of the seismic system. Damping will lower this output. One type k .t'
vibration pickup produced a signal equal to 10 g acceleration in presence of 170 db
acoustic noise and approximately a I g signal at 150 db noise and a 0. 1 g signal at
130 db noise. -.

209 Same as Reference 207'

WADD TR 61-67 242

I
VOL I REV 1

~¾ V%. %4~
- --N% - . ~
- .- - N - . - - - - -- o
 The electrochemical types include the electrolytic potentiometcrs
and other devices using electrolytic cell, where ions in the solution carry the
electric charge. They require low power and have essentially no moving parts.
Disadvantages of some types include temperature sensitivity, frequency limit
atoms, and possivility of contamination of cells. Solion (Ref. 210 and 211) transducer
produce a signal as shock or vibration induces movement of the electrolyte, which ',
disturbs an ion concentration, established by an external voltage source, around ,- "5
the electrodes of the cell. This causes a change in current flow in the external ": -
circuit. Solion transducers are low frequency devices (0 to 200 cps) and temper ture 71
dependent operating in the range +Z8°F to +90 0 F. Temperature compensation is . -:
usually employed. --.

The porous disc transducer (Ref. 212 and 213) is another electro-
chemical ty-pe based on an electrokinctic phenomenon that occurs when a polar
liquid is forced through a porous disc. When the liquid flows through the pores,
a "streaming" voltage potential is generated across the disc, in phase with and
proportional to the differential pressure across the faces of the disc. The
electro-osrnotic cell uses this principle. Polar liquids used are water, methanol,
and acetonitride. The frequency response of devices of this type may be flat
within ±3 db from 3 cps to 60, 000 cps (Ref. 214). Sensitivities depend on cell
liquids and column length, ranging from a few mv/g to 500 mv/g. The operating
temperature range is determined by the boiling and freezing points of the polar
liquid. Higph imnedance lnoad rna- not require temper'ature compensation, but
for load impedances comparable to the cell impedance external circuit compensation
is required, The operating characteristics of this type transducer may be made
to vary over extremely wide range by selection of working fluids.

210 Hurd, R. M. R. N. Land and 11. B. Reed, "Solion-principles of

Electrochemistry and Low Power Electrochemical Devices", U. S. Naval Ordnance
Laboratory, 1957..

Z11 "Solion For Industry", Electronic Products Engineering Bulletin, National

Carbon Co., 1957
212 Hardway, Jr. , E. V. , Instruments, 1953

213 "Electro Kinetic Measurement of Dynamic Pressures", CEC Recordings,

November, December 1956

214 Bulletins 1600 and 16002, Consolidated Electrodynamics Corp. _,_

WADD TR 61-67 243

VOLI REV1

...........................................................................
......................................
 The mercury-electrolyte transducer is still another electrochemical
type. Fig. 2-124 shows a basic type whereby alternate slugs of mercury and
electrolyte solution, such as potassium iodide or sodium chloride are contained in A
a capillary tube. A voltage is generated between the electrodes when the tube is
shaken, causing relative motion between the capillary and mercury-electrolyte
system. This phenomenon is called the Latour effect (Ref. 215) or V-effect II
(Ref. 216). The output voltage is a function of the number and length of slugs,
vibration amplitude and frequency, These devices have high sensitivity combined
with high power output, may be self-generating, low internal impedance, and can
be quite small and light weight. Disadvantages include temperature sensitivity
and sensitivity to shock damage.

The mechanoelectronic type transducers employ the application of

an electron tube with variable relative spacing of its elements, such that a change .
of current or voltage is indicated at the output proportional to relative movement
of elements. Very small displacement can be sensed, the moving elements can
"be quite small, frequency response can be high and the many applications of electron
tubes and associated circuits may be employed in more complex transducers.
There are problems of drift and zero-shift which must be compensated and the
difficulty to fabricate vaccum sealed shell through which displacement or vibration
must be transferred. Acceleration, vibration, displacement and pressure .
sensing transducers of this type have been developed. (Ref. 217, 218, 219)

Optical electronic transducer types include many types, but

essentially measure displacement without requiring contact with moving element,
sensing the reflection or transmission of light controlled or modulated by the
moving element being measured. The Optron Corporation (Ref. 220) has a system

215 Fain, W, W., S. L. Brown and A. E. Lockenvitz, Journal of Acoustical N

Society of America, 1957

216 Podalsky, B. G. Kuschevics, and J. L. Revers, Journal of Applied

Physics, 1957

217 Olson, H. F. Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 1947

Z18 RCA Tube Manual, Radio Corporation of America

Z19 Ramberg, W., Electrical Engineering, 1947

220 "Optron, Displacement Follower", Optron Corp.

WADD TR 61- 67 244 "-.-

VOLI REV1

* . . . . . -.. .. . . . . . .-.-
. . . ".-
 TERMINAL

CAPILLARY TUBE

ELECTROLYT/

MERCURY

DISPLACEMENT

Figure 2-124 Mercury -Electrolyte Vibration Transducer

WADD TR61- 67 245

VOL I REV 1
for vibration measurements that uses a controlled spot from a special purpose
cathode ray tube focused through a lens system onto a reflected area of a
vibrating member to be measured. Aý photocell is placed to receive the reflected [
light and the photocell output drives a servo amplifier which controls the bias - .- ;,

to the cathode ray tube. The control loop is adjusted so that when no light is
reflected the cathode ray tube spot is directed downward and when reflected light
is received it is directed upward, Thus, the spot is held on the edge of the
reflected area. When the member is di-placed or vibrated the edge of the reflected
area of course follows follows and the projected spot will track the displacement.
The electrical signal driving the spot is proportional to the displacement. Full
scale displacement ranges of 0. 001 inch to 10 inches are available with frequency
response to 10, 000 cps. Accuracies of 0. 1% are attainable.

Another type optical electronic transducer used in vibration rI -

measurement is the optical interferometer. (Ref. Z21 and 222) A beam of light
from a monochromatic source is directed onto a half silvered mirror which
reflects part of the beam along one path and transmit part along another path.
These beams are reflected by optically flat mirrors to recombine in a viewing ,4
telescope. One of the optical falt mirrors is fixed and the other permitted to
move along the axis of the light beam, its movement actuated by vibrating member
to be measured. If the effective length of both light paths are equal the recombined
images will result in a light beam of the same intensity as the original beam. If
huwever the movable mirror is displaced such that the effective light path from.
one mirror is a half wave length longer than that from the other mirror, the re-
combined image will produce a dark field. Displacements as low as 4 microinches
can be detected using a monochromatic light source of 5, 641 angstroms (mercury-
vapor light with filter). The interferometer is used for calibration of vibration
measurements in the 30 to Z0, 000 cps range.

The vibrating-wire transducer consists of a taut wire supported

between two knife edges, an oscillator driver and a detector. The natural frequency
of the wire varies with length and tension. The motion being measured is coupled
to one sunnort causing the tension of the wire. to vary in reIltin to the rnnTinn Th-
oscillator driver is adjusted to operate at the natural frequency of the taut wire
indicated by a maximum output of detector. Detector output is amplified and fed
back to control the frequency of the oscillator driver so that as the tension changes,
the oscillator driver changes frequency to maintain operation at the wires resonant
frequency. The output of the control circuit or a detected change in frequency

221 Hunton, R. D., A. Weis and W. Smith, Journal of Optical Society of

America, 1954 -.-
-

22? Edelman, S., E. Jones and E. R. Smnith, Journal of Acoustical Sceyo

America, 1955

WADD TR 61-67 Z46

VOL I REV I

"- I-"
 may be used as the signal output denoting rneasrued motion. Displacement,
vibration, pressure, strain and torque type devices have been developed using
this principle. (Ref. Z23, 224)

If a gas discharge type tube containing two electrodes is placed

in a radio frequency electric field, a dc voltage will be developed between the ...
electrodes, when the electrodes are not syminetrica~ly located in the field. Sensitiv-
ities as high as 0.05 volts/rmicroinch have been attained with dc outputs as high
as 60 volts.

Reflected wave type vibration measurement systems consist of

a transmitter and receiver or special sensing device. In one type a microwave
frequency is transmitted along a wave guide, with open and toward the vibrating
surface being measured. By tuning the wave guide and adjusting the frequency, a
standing wave pattern can be established that is very sensitive to the portion of the
reflecting surface being vibrated. The demodulated output of the VSWR indicator
is proportional to the motion of the surface being measured. Displacements
less than 1 microinch and at frequencies to 1000, 000 cps have measured using this . -

type technique. (Ref. 225)

A transmitted microwave beamed toward a vibrating surface will

reflect a wave phase-shift modulated in proportion to the vibration amplitude
and frequency of the reflected surface. At frequencies around 1 cm wavelength,
maximum
0. displacement
1 microinch has been measured. (Ref. 226) with 1% accuracy and resolution to
range of 1 wavelength ?.

Power from ultrasonic transponders reflected by a vibrating surface

has been measured and the amount and phase related to the vibrating motion. The
Doppler-frequency shift in an ultrasonic carrier reflected from a vibrating
surface from the transmitter/receiver, but only on the velocity of the motion ol
the reflecting surface. (Ref. 227 A) '

223 "Remote Measurement and Control With Vibrating Wire Instrument",

-' Electronics, June 1945.

224 Allen, W. H., U. S. Pat. 2,725,492; Reviewed in Journal of Acoustical

Society of America, 1956.

225 Cohn, G. I., and B. Ebstein, "A Microwave Non-Contacting Tracing

Technique For Automatic Contour-Following Machines", Proc. of National
Electronics Conference, Vol. 12, 1956.

226 Steward, Chandler, "rProposed Massless Remote Vibration Pickup",

Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 1958.

* 227 A Hardy, H. C. , H. H. Hall, D. B. Callaway, and D. J, Schorer, Journal

of Acoustical Society of America, 1955.

WADD TR 61-67 247

VOLI REV 1

i "m • m . .. i " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .m
 Servo type transducer systems are a type normally associated with
lower frequencies (below 100 cps) but may be made very sensitive, accurate and
stable. Characteristics of transducing element are electronically controlled or
modified by servo loop control and although this type usually infers a more complex
measurement system, it offers a point or connection to obtain signal indication
and develop a control signal. The control signal is usually of the error type
where the measured value is compared with a pre-planned, standard or programmed
signal and further used in the loop to compensate and improve the measuring
system.

2-12 MEASUREMENT OF THRUST (Ref. 227 B)

Precise knowledge and control of thrust levels is of prime concern

is missile and space probe systernts. Accurate and independent measurements
of thrust and acceleration provide data for precise space maneuvers as well as
flight performance monitoring.

There are two general categories of in-flight thrust measurements.

These are direct, where u3e is trade of vehicle motion or where actual forces are
measured; and parametric, in which motor parameters are measured and used
in thrust calculations.

a. The in-flight thrust of a vehicle may be determined by measuring

the characteristics of its motion ?.s devined by the terms on the right hand side of
the following dynamic equation:
n
T (?-Th - (2-69)
•"
i =1

where

T = the vehicle thrust vector to be determined

M = the total instantaneous mass of the vehicle
r= the total inertial acceleration vector of the vehicle
= local gravitational acceleration vector
= the i th external force vector acting on the vehicle
*-)e
) designation of differentiation with respect to time
t=
1=i
designation of the summation from i=l to i=n (a number)

Major emphasis is given to various methods for measuring the vehicle

acceleration 7.

227 B Martin, T., Scharres, E. 11., Sperry, W. and Zimmerman, F. J., .-

"Thrust Measuring Techniques," WADD TR60-488, Armour Research
Foundation of Illinois Institute of Technology, July 1960. AD253148

WADD TR 6!-67 248

VOL I REV I

V .... % .v ...- ,tv- ,--.,. --.v.- - • "

 ~r .- - r - I- - z - 4- , , """ ,. - - -,-•

"-"- i.

1. Accelerometer Technique

This technique makes use of accelerometers mounted on a

gyro stabilized platform to obtain vehicle acceleration conditions relative to a - .
non-rotating, space oriented, coordinate frame of reference. In general, three
accelerometers will be needed and must be mounted such that the output of each
corresponds to the acceleration comporents along each of the three platform b-,l
oriented coordinate axes. Combining this information with that obtained from
the external force sensors and a mass flow meters, a computer can be mechanized
to solve for both the magnitude and direction of the vehicle thrust. See Appendix
for further details of this technique and a discussion of signigicant external forces
"effecting thrust calculations. KSLUE

Advantages in this thrust determination technique are: no

special measurement of gravitational acceleration is required, it makes use
- I
of a number of components that are already included in the guidance system of
vehicles that most likely would require an accurate knowledge of the thrust, and 2
it is a passive technique requiring no external reference information. It may
be necessary, however, to make either continuous or periodic celestial fixes
to gyro drifting, thereby tempering the latter advantage somewhat. -'

The disadvantages in the system are (1) the probiem

involved in adequately determining the acrodynaniic forces acting on the vehicle
and (2) the problem of designdng special rnass flow meters for the various types
of propulsion unit configurations.
Other methods employing vehicle acceleration concern
acceleration measurement using external references, For such measurements
to be useful in determining vehicle thrust, it is essential that they provide
information that is compatible to the reference frame in which the thrust equation fl.21
is valid. A gyro stabilized platform aboard the space vehicle is normally be %.I
used and by preset orientation, a coordinate system is established, referenced
to the earth or a similar planet near the flight path. In rennote regions of fl- gh
it may become necessary to establish one's own external reference. An example L O
of this would be the release of an object from the vehicle at some time, prior
to an anticipated thrust maneuver, and the continuous traching of its motion
relative to the vehicle, using suitable tracking devices aboard the vehicle.

2. Combined Accelerometer - Force Transducer

,-44

The object of this technique is to combine the best properties

in each approach to eliminate some of the troublesome vcriables whdch are
present when considering an individual method The var.ables of drag, when

N WADD TR 61-67 249

VOLI REVI - -"

.f- ' - - -- - . .

%. %
- - *-'-. .

•-""
" ."""" " " " "---"""--
- - - - - - -" "- . """
N"""' -"-"- ' " """""- - - """"" -"- ' '"- "" - ""' '"" . - '
 -.. .-. - - - - - .- . . .- ..- - -- .

operating within an atmosphere, and changing mass, due to the discharge of fuel,
complicate thrust calculations considerably. Values for drag can be determined ,
through many additional measurement's, air density, angle of attack, velocity,
frontal area, drag coefficient, etc. , with many inter-relations. Careful examination
of the particular application should allow approxim.ation of drag with a minimum
of measurements, realizing that a certain sacrifice in accuracy results. However,
the usual case in further analysis makes very clear and need for thrust measurements
independent of drag or in which drag is felt directly eliminating the need for .
* separate determination.

The changing mnass problem. cuj difficulty in measurement of

instantaneous mass, forces one to keep track of tE-: departure of each portion
of mass from the vehicle. The many variables i avalved in such an attempt, with
instruments, now available or in development, in..icate undersirable or impractical
inaccuracies.

The combined accelerometec-force transducer technique is

independent of drag and changing mass. It will work equally well within and
without the atmosphere and is unaffected by varyirg gravitational fields. It
depends only on precise measurement of acceler tion (possibie with the present
state-of-the-art) and precise measurement o- th, force between the motor and the
vehicle. It is especially well suited to liquid pr,:pellant engines; however, it is
applicable to any motor. An additional feaaure of the system is that it will measure
thrubL direction as well as magnitude whetex directional changes are obtained from
vectoring systems or gymballed nozzles or whole motors.

An interesting application example based on data from V-2

rocket system is discussed in the Appendix. Also thrust equations for liquid
propellant and solid propellant systems are presented.

In brief, the mass of the vehicle is separated into mass M.

of the rocket motor and its contained fuel, which is assumed constant during powered
flight phase, and mass M 2 , consisting of the remaining portion of the vehicle
(pavload. fuel. instrumentation; etc. )_. See ?--123 ?n 1-. The rocket

motor thrust accelerates both masses equally and a proportional amount is

transmitted from the motor through the mounting brackets to propel M 2 . A force
transducer measures the compression load for force (P) in the mounting brackets
and thu s:

T =M a + P (2-70)

Then in atmosphere the total drag force acting on the vehicle is assumed to act

WADD TR 61-67 250

VOLI REVI x.--.

, ..- , ... ...-.. -.. -.. .'t .'..,..,.' . . -.. .......

 'A-10 7Z7e Maa'r,417 9AfCkIt'7Z

ANY 0,40 < .v-Zle r4 YvAC-S >

Fig. 2-125 Separation of Mosses Consideration for Liquid Propellant Systems

Fig. 22-126 Simplified One-Dimensional Example

A A,
LAFv0.,M7A, ACO~ZWT6-Z41A

Fig. 2-127
oc Orne-Dimr-enionlExampe wthra Forciqe
Apid t

Solid Propellant Rocket Motor

WADD TR 61-67 25
VOLTj REV 1

.. :1.0.......
%..............................%-'..''
 RC~KE1MOICR

YŽ K;<: :::-K

Fig. 2-129 Diagram of Rocket Engine and Thrust Cradle

2420RUST ----
AD K
Fh g 2-12 DJ agh6 ' o4C En i "okeeF .d Tr'7/Q/7C o l ":
/0/1? TI,2//
1q, -I

1.3 ,. < .-

2)
01 I /Mt F/I / ' .12•'
Y
/A /A , lflv. ///. . t,. .,m-

f ,;/RE C A 'IW .
"POAM S ,9
,<'
jT, -r/. V " -/ ,.Z,I".V T,
' . .''

) ' tIr/-. X, - Z. > AIW1 / . X1A (

(? -

!I',ZH C f,-
- ', P1J.,,,4
(1
',?l X U
YAW Y411•
;.AO'i.'
,,. I ½." ,.-_____-

CI._4 W,. .,..

f . ~c, XZ, >Afý414' x'7/ y7r)/
1uzz ______
A

Fig. 2-130 Mechanical Arrangement of Force Sensois

&J '-7x
41-•-,---" o '--:-

Fig. 2-131 - - 4.'-

Computer
-%
for.'-. Direct Thrust
t. -
Measuicmcnt System.,..Z
T ---

WADD TRt 61-67 252-.-•":<-

VOLI[ RE¥ i
'"-

.Ž- - . . .. .- . . . . " . . . .
 only on M and again the thrust determination is independent of drag measurement.
If the loadlor force (P) and the acceleration (a) are sensed continuously by
. appropriate instrumentadion, it is then possible to calculate thrust (T) knowing
"onlymass of motor (M 1 ).

"In solid propellant systems whl re fuel is part of the motor,

"mass M1 may be interpreted as the mass of the nozzle and the force measuring
transducer placed such that force (P) is actually that force produced in the nozzle
acting on mass M., in this case, the reminder of the rocket motor, solid propellent
fuel and payload. (See Fig. 2-1Z8) A careful analysis of the production of thrust
in the nozzle is necessary to insure measurement of valid force (P) for use in thrust
calculations. See Appendix for further details.

3, Direct Method - Force Measurements

The bonded resistance strain gage has had wide-spread use for
thrust component measurement in static test stands for engines and vehicles. A
number of these force sensors can be integrated both mechanically and electrically
into complete thrust measuring systems. A number of such systems monitor the
forces produced at the attachments of the motor to the vehicle. Fig. 2-129 shows
diagram of rocket engine and thrust cradle. The accompanying Fig. 2-130 indicates
mechanical arrangement of force sensors and force vectors measured. Block
diagram in Fig. 2-131 indicates computer logic yielding direct thrust measurement.

These systems are sensitive to acceleration forces in the

directions of thrust components as well as in the pitch, yaw, and roll axes. The
motor and its suspension is, in a sense, a large triaxial accelerometer and hence
will sense the acceleration forces on the vehicle.

Accelerometers could be used to sense these accelerations

and these signals used to cancel out the undesirable forces in the system. To
accomplish this cancellation dynamically it is necessary to match very closely the
dynamic characteristics of the motor suspension system so that the compensation
is effective at all times.

A method of accomplishing the compensation which is related to

the method of using accelerometcLs is to conbtruct a dynamically similar model
of the rocket motor and its suspension. This model is then placed in the vehicle
and is subjected directly to all of the forces except the thrust. Thus, measurements
can be made on the model to compensate for the cornponenits of thrust which are
sensitive to the inertial and gravitational forces.

WADD TR 61-67 253

VOL I REV 1

,,,;
. "-.,
--. . ,' -. ' .' , . '. . .' . ' . ,.*. ....
, -.. .'. .',* ... ,- . , .-....,(
. , . . ... , ...........
' . . , - . ' . , .. . - .,% '

"-' P¢ ' i i i I i
 -°..

b. Determination of Thrust Py Parametric Methods

1. One of the general methods available for thrust determination

incorporated the use of engine paramr.,,rs. If a satisfactory means can be found
for measuring the various parameters which can be used to determine thrust,
some important advantages may be gained. Namely, many of the available
parameters are independent of the enviionment, or the effects of the environment
are felt directly in the measurement making separate measurement of individual 20.
environment properties unnecessary. This can be a decided advantage when
operation both within and without the sensible atmosphere is anticipated. Addition-
ally, some monitoring of engine parameters will no doubt be necessary for such
things as safety and determination of fuel used to aUrive at instantaneous vehicle
weight. Output from these measurements can be used to arrive at rocket thrust, "'
obviating the need for a separate measuring system.

Among the many engine parameters which are available,

the following appear to offer the greatest potential for thrust determinations:

Fuel flow rate (mn) 6.

Specific impulse of the propellant (Isp)
Exhaust velocity of the discharge gas (Ve)
Rocket motor chamber pressure (Pc)
Characteristic nozzle dimensions (At and Ae)
Chamber temperature (T)

The preceding list contains the basic engine parameters which

can be used to determine the thrust of the rocket. There are a number of other
parameters available such as temperature at the throat or exit of the nozzle,
pressure in the same locations and chemical and physical properties of the pro-
pellant. Through suitable relationships the latter can be us.A to determine the
basic parameters which, in turn, can be used to determine thrust. These
parameters appear to be more important for thrust determination schemes since
they are generally less extreme and more amenable to measurement. However,
there is a greater possibility that some of these parameters will introduce larger
errors in the thrust determination because of less sensitivity to perturbations.

The many forms of the thrust equation must be analyzed for

the particular application to determine if it is practical to measure, to the . . f'

required accuracy, the determining parameters. For example the simplest form
of thrust equation may be:

T = m Isp (2-71)

WADD TR 61-67 254

VOLI REVl

~ft r.
" - - *I fX . . % .
.%~ I2.f I: I . . * It- . ~
 whe re

m weight flow rate lb/soc I-,,

Isp = specific impulse of the propellant

To determine thrust from this equation it is only necessary to measure two para-
meters, and if it can be assumed that Isp is a relatively predictable term for
varying altitudes for a given propellant and nozzle configuration then only mass
flow rate rh must be measured. This is a very important parameter in rocket
systems instrumentation and the degrees of accuracy and ease of measurement
varies greatly with specific vehicles and application of vehicles. In liquid fuel
types the easiest approach may be measurement of a volumetric flow rate of
fuel and oxidizer before entrance into the combustion chamber using standard
flowmeter in the propellant feed lines. Temperature compensation is necessary
in the mass flow rate calculation and inaccuracies are likely due to temperature
transients and lag in sensing. Probably the best accuracy to be expected in
mass flow rate measurement using flowmeters is 2 to 5%.

There are many schemes for measuring mass flow rate,

such as: tracer introduction and detection; use of thermodynamic relations using
known cross-sectional areas, thermodynamic coefficients, pressures and temper-
atures; measurement of surface burning rate of solid propellent; or depletion
rate of fuel. There are advantages, disadvantages and degrees of inaccuracy
associated with each. By-products of the many other normal and special
measurements made in a system may be correlated to improve or compensate
inaccuracies.

The term Isp, specific impulse, in our simple thrust equation

is the impulse, or pound-seconds available from the combustion of one pound
of propellant in a rocket motor. Although theoretical determination is readily
available using known eq:iations, its value is limited in that in practical systems
the theoretical maximum is never achieved. Analysis of Isp in practice reveals ,
other relations in the determination of Isp using measurements of back pressure
into which nozzle is exhausting, true an exit area of nozzle (not always constant
as for mechanical exit area), and exhaust velocity of gas at nozzle exit.

Other forms of the thrust equation which suggest use of

other parameters are:

T = Ay Ve + (Pe -Pa) Ae (2-72)

WADD TR 61-67 255

VOL I REV I "P

- . --
' ------
. ..-.,- -- ,V ."."--"----".,.,-
,.-.-.. ... ....-. ,'' -..
" ---....' " ----.
.-. ",
. '"-,-.-..
........ . ' ... - . .""'' . .. . ' ...' '.-- .. -----. " : - ... ,-,• '
• --"."..--.
- -.-
-,. '." .-. -,--.... -" - -"---- - - -,--..'-,--
- - ---. -.-- - - -.- -..- - - -- ,--.-- .- - -, ,-'.-'"
- -- .'F -- 'F - '- -. "I", "
 whe re

T thrust
rii= mass rate of discharge
Ve = true velocity of the exhaust at exit
Pe = pressure of exhaust at exit
APa = external pressure

= factor correcting for divergencc of the nozzle at

the exit.

T =Dd At Pc Isp (2-73)

where

Dc =discharge coefficient
At = area of nozzle throat
Pc = chamber pressure
Isp - specific impulse

T = At Pc Isp g (2-74)
C*

whe re

g is substituted for Cd

and g = gravitational constant,

C* = characteristic exhaust velocity

T = Cf At Pc (2-75)

where

Cf is called the thrust coefficient

and Cf= •ZKZv I'l- K + P P3 AZ

K-i Kl ' P1 At
. L - -(

WADD TR 61-67 256

VOLI REVi i ~.

.- . . . . .

% % %-
 using inlet pressure and area and exhaust pressure and area. This theriro-
dynamic determination is based on a number of simplifying and error-introducing
a assumptions and Cf can more successfully be deoterni'led on the thrust test stand,
since it i6 a characteristic of a given nozzle.

N2. Indirect Parameter Measurement

There are m.any- phnomni. asociated \Nith rocket motor

t,..

performance, that may be utilized in determining thrust measurements. M\/uchi

inve-stigation is going on to dote rmine practical relations and useful measurement
technique based on optical, infrared,. and u~ltraviolet radiation and elect romiagnetic
attenuation.

Fig. 2-132) and 2-133 show block diagram and relationship of K~

K possible use of electromagnetic attene-ation techniqu-. The transmitter and
receiver m-ay be mounted near the, rockets exhaust directing the-ir antennas .

L% ~ rearward. Adjustable reflectors are, provided to direct transmnittal signal through

the exhaust plume and back to the receiver.

The field ofinagnetohydrodynamies sugjgests another technique

involving the interaction of a moving conductive gas (the rocket exhaust) and an
V applied magnetic field, inducing an emf proportional to the gas velocityr and the
magnetic flux. (Ref. 228).

uAnialysis op shoclk wrde

aves in rock exhaust yi llelo"thrus"t
direction information and use of an optical sensor might provide a practical
parameter measurimdsent.

ThrStudy of visible flame of the rocket exhaust yields many

nrelations concerning nozzle geometry, the degree of under- expansion, the
Peatmosphericpressure, chemical composition, vehicle velocity and aerodynamnic
vehicle configurations near the nozzle. Flame length be related to the thrust .ay
- produced.

N 28 Sears, VThR. "i''Magnetohydrodyrnatic- Effecttsin Aerodynaric Flows",

ARS Journal, Vol. 29, No. 6, June 1959
Almysi n o rckeMlckwavsehaut ,icd hrut4
direcion i---r..ion.nd .us
..
f -*.o.ti.-. s nsor.-- - - - - o-- d- - -pr. tica. . . . . .- '.
N
r-te ~ a -',pu-- -.-- •] t,-... - -- -. .
- -- - -- - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - -- - -- - - - - --
:[i~e - - - - - -e-aust-yilds-Stdy of vi ible flae---th--
- -any.-...,. .

relations.........n nozzle~* geomtry sthe of une-2

degreeSCt~ an.oth2 --

WADD TR 61-67 257

VOLI REVl
 N%.

Fig. 2-132 Electromagnetkc Attenuation/'Thrust Relationship

Fig. 2-133 Diagram of Electiamagnetic Attenuation Technique of Thrust Measurement

WADD TR 61-67 5
VOL. I REV I
 The study of the rlationship of noise to jet-stream.
characteristics, (Ref. 229, 230, 231, .32) initiated principally because of
noise annoyance created by jet aircraft and concerning acoustical fatigue problenms
has revealed a qualitative noise and nozzle exit velocity relationship. Since
thrust is also related to velocity an acoustical method of thrust nieasure•,.eert
is strongly sugge-sted. Only limited work has been performed along this direction
but with availability of high temperature acoustical pressure, measuring probes
this method may offer more promise.

c. Advanced Propulsion System

Thrust measuring requirements and methods concerned with

some of the more exotic propulsion systems indicate emphasis on direct thrust
measurement techniques. Inter-relations and inaccUracies involved in any
--
simplification are greatly enhanced in employing parametric methods in ion.
and plasma propulsion systems. In nuclear propulsion systems Parameter i
measurement devices are subjected to extreme environmental conditions as well
as the equation for thrust becoming more involved.

229 Lighthill, M. J. , "Ol Sound Generated Aerodynamically. I. General

Theory", Proceeding of the Royal Society (London), Sec. A, ?]1, 1107, March 20 . .,
1954, p. 564. -,1

230 Lighthill, M. J., "On Sound Generated Aerodynamically, IIL Turbulence

as a Source of Sound", Proceeding of the Royal Society (London), AZZZ, 1, 1954

Z31 Callaghan, E. E. and W. D. Coles, "Far Noise Field of Air Jets

and Jet Engines", NACA Report 1329, 1957.

232.lw•es, b X. L., E . " .Callagha.. , XYVr. D- Gales, andH. INP-. Mull,

"Near-Noise Field of a Jet Engine Exhaust", NACA Report 1338, 1957.

WADD TI?. 61-67 259

VOL I REV 1

'N . t . .

-. ¾ .. 2 . * . -_
 - -

VOL . I 260
AV
 2-13 BIO-INSTRUMENTATION

a. Introduction ?..4

Bio-Instrumentation has experienced a rapid

growth sinc'- World War II. The environments experienced and
physical performance demanded of air crews have changed with
every advancement into the space age. Manned space flight and
the now present race-to-the-moon has focused attention on phys-
iological function and life support measurements to insure man's
safety and optimum performance during travels into new and unknown
environments.-

Bio-experiments with animals and man concerned L

with flight tests have been conducted with ever increasing emphasis
since World War II. Sputnik II launched November 3, 1957 carried
test animal "Laika" (a dog) instrumented for temperature measure-
.1
ments and effects of pressure. Discoverer III, launched June 3,
1959, carr.ed four black mice in a re-entry capsule. Sputnik IV ý24
launched May 14, 1960 carried a "dummy" instrumented space man.
The Russians launched a 5-ton spacecraft December 1, 1960 carrying
two dogs, other animals and biological specimens. Another similar
Russian craft with one dog was launched March 9, 1961. The United
States Discoverer XVIII capsule contained human cells and was
successfully retrieved Dec 10, 1960. The MR-2 space vehicle *
carried a 37-lb. chimp named "Ham" to a peak velocity of 5800 mph
and on re-entry experienced 14G forces. -.

A major step came on April 12, 1961 when Yuri

Gagai in made the first orbital space flight in the 5-ton spaceship
Vostck. Shortly, thereafter, on May 5, U. S. Astronaut Alan
Shepard traveled 115 miles into space and 302 miles out to sea in
a 15 minute Mercury-Redstone flight. Then again on July 21, 1961
U. S. Astronaut Virgil Grissom rode a Mercury capsule to a 118
,Mile alxLude and u303 miles ouL in the Atlantic Ocean. Then on August
6, 1961 Major German Titov traveled 17-plus circuits of the globe
in space ship Vostok IL His flight lasted 25 hours and 18 minutes
and of prime interest was the report of some air-sickness due to
long periods of weightlessness. -.- '

WADD TR 61-67 261

VOL I REV I

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C". . . .. -.-" .' . .- . ."":".. . "". . "" . .- .-- ." .-

.""., C .'.
- --, "-- C C" ' -- "-, . . . -. . .". - - '...
 . . ..---

"The highly successful orbiting and recovery of

the Project Mercury Friendship Seven manned space capsule
on February 20, 1962, with Col. John Glenn making three 0'
orbits in 4 hours and 56 minutes highlighted the manned space
travel to date. There are some 18 manned space flight and"
support launches scheduled in 1962.

Table 2-11 MANNED SPACE FLIGHT AS OF MARCH 1962

Man Gagarin Shepard Grissom Titov Glenn

Date April 12,'61 May 5,'61 July 21 '61 Aug. 6,'61 Feb. 20,262
Type of Earth orbit Suborbital Suborbital Earth orbit Earth orbit
Flight
Altitude 203 115.696 118 159 162
(miles)
Distance 25,000 302 303 435,000 3 orbits ....
(miles)
Flight 108 rmin. 15 min. 16 min. 25hrs, 4 hrs,
Trime 18 rain. 6 min.
Peak 17,400 5100 5280 17,750 17,100
Velocity
Vehicle Vostok 1 Freedom 7 Liberty Bell 7 VostokII Friendship 7
Name
Spacecraft 10, 395 4031.7 4040 10, 430 4050
Weight *_ . _ . __ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _-__ _ _ _-_°__•_

b, Physiological Measurements

In most cases clinical methods of performing body 4

function measurements are not satisfactory or entirely feasible •-,,41
for space-vehicle application. A survey conducted at Martin-
Denver (Ref. 233) pointed out that some sort of equipment was
available to measure nearly all physiological parameters but that
many of these devices were not suitable for the requirements of
p rolonge space flight. Tney were rarely of low power, light weight,
small, rugged, comfortable, non-restricting to subject and capable
of accurate and reliable operation in abnormal environments of
temperature, pressure and acdeleration. Some of the more common
physiological measurements are: blood pressure, skin temperature,

233 Gleason, G. W., "Bio-Instrumentation for Space Flight,"

Proceedings of National Telemetering Conference, 1960

WADD TR 61-67 262

VOLI REVI -i

-- ,-: -. . . . . ..- ' I

. . . . . . . . ". ".. . . .
"q.,+ . % . " ..% " ,%" '" '' " `% -% "" %.+• ,-o . .. . . *' ..
 -z

Q) W

C -c

(U
CL)n 2 -

.. t
c~

ILI

WADD R 26 61-7
LJ.. 0<

E.
VOLT RET

- *.-. - -- -
.................................................................
......................................................................

jo. . . . r . ..
M -11
heart beat, electrocardiogram (EKG), electroencephalogram
(EEG), galvanic skin resistance (GSR), and respiration.

An associated group of measurements applicable

to manned spacecraft are termed "life support" measurements.
They consist of measurements of: oxygen concentration, carbon
dioxide concentration, other gases, gas pressure, gas flow, and
liquid flow. Typical over-all instrumentation requirements for a
manned orbital type space vehicle (Ref, 234) are given in table
3-6 (See Section III) .
To understand the approaches to the application of
transducing elements to physiological measurements, a brief
description of some of the bio-.signals are given. (Ref. 235)
Needle electrodes in direct contact with single nerve fibers
register about 20 microvolts. Skin electrodes over a large -t..
muscle give a wide range of less than 2 uv during practiced re-
laxation to 3000 uv in voluntary exertion. A range of 50 uv to
300 uv of signal are obtainable from surface scalp electrodes.
Eyeball electrode potentials vary from 50 uv to 3000 uv depending
on efficiency of placement. Electrodes placed just under the
eyebrows or just under the eyes may have about 25 uv or more and
can indicate eyelid response. EKG signals are relatively high from
500 uv to 2 i-nv. GSR changes on the palms of the hand and soles
of the feet can be as high as 25% following sudden mental stress.
re C -
-ýe .....
V- o136
r o.....
muscle fiber impulse. TIM
commonly accepted frequency types in EEG are: alpha rhythm at -.
8-13 cps, normal for resting subjects with eyes closed; beta rhythm
at 14-30 cps occurring during periods of mental effort; delta rhythm
of 0. 5 to 3. 5 cps associated with extreme physical stress; and
theta rhythm appearing during mental stress periods. See Figure
2-137 indicating electrical response from human brain. Normal -,
pulse frequency is around 72 pps. A response of 0-50 cps is con-
sidered adequate heart-beat analyses. Rate of breathing is normal
at about 16 inspirations per minute for resting individuals.

Blood pressure measurements consists of two discrete •

pressure measurements; "systolic," a higher pressure, and "diastolic.B T.

234 Ellis, A. B., "An Airborne Data Collection, Telemetering,

and Ground Data Processing System for Development Flight Test
of an Orbital Type Space Vehicle, "Proceedings of National Telemetering
Conference, 1960

235 Fo d, A., Foundations of Bioelectronics for Human Engineering,

NEL Research Report 761, April 1957

WADD TR 61-67 264

VOL I REV I

. - .. ...
%.
 - - . "

Figure 2-136
Electrical response of a single muscle fiber. Impulses ore nearly constant
in amplitude, and have a spike-like form without sinusoidal characteristics This
bioilectricol record was made by Dre. Eldred and Tokinane at the Veterans Admin-
"istration Hospital, Long Seach, California,

Figure 2-137

tlectrital responses from multiple mu"ue Ilberi, Left, stress during met ta work. Right, raoaxsiaoin
level (about 4 microvolts). From the Lehigh University Illoulectric Laboratory.

I . I

Figure 2-138 r _9
Electrical response from this human bruin. Left, alpha rhythm during relaxation. Right, brain
wave during arithmetical calculation, from the Lehigh University B.oeiectric Laboratory.

WADD TR 61-67 265 r-M -

VOL I REV 1

-' d '••"l:'|]"•Y "•'• "i •'-j" i":" ", - • ', , "' "" ........ .. ..... .
 Both must be known to diagnose properly. The best method is
cannulation--pressure measurement by direct insertion into the
artery. Practically, indirect methods such as arm cuffs, finger
cuffs, ear cuffs, and artery indenting probes are used in manned
space vehicle application. These methods are relatively awkward
and a really good, all-purpose method is yet to be developed.

In a study by Webb Associates (Ref. 236) for NASA,

the state-of-the-art for automated blood pressure measuring
devices was investigated for evaluation in choosing such devices
for application in the Mercury Program. Blood pressure devices
iaade for measurement under conditions of acti-vity exist at the
Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine, the Ames Research
Center, Edwards Air Force Base, Wright-Patterson Aeronautical
Systems Division, at AiResearch and at the Systems Research
Laboratories. All these devices make use of a microphone
pickup to detect the escape of arterial occlusion as a blood pressure
signal.

A brief description of each of these devices and its

advantages and. limitations may be found in Appendix IV.

Development studies are being carried out at the

Stanford Research Institute and at MIT using a very sensitive
capacitance pickup applied to the radial artery, which is capable
of detecting mean arterial pressure with systolic peaks and di-
astolic lows. At the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards
a method is being studied involving continuous measurement of
P -
pulse-wave velocity. The measured del.y between each R pulse
of the electrocardiogram and the arrival of the corresponding
pulse wave at a chosen anatomical location is related to blood
pressure, and may be most useful for following rapid transient
changes in pressure.

Heartbeat or heartrate signals can be obtained from

cardiac
. -ncroph"one
.. o• y be exttacted flu
roin the complex
electrocardiogram waveform. The main disadvantage using a .AL
microphone pickup is its sensitivity to other mechanical vibration,
movement of clothing against pickup, and in many cases, subject
speech sounds. Proper signal conditioning (selective frequency
response) and directional isolation and shielding to gain better signal
in presence of high environmental noise is necessary in this application.

236 A Survey and Evaluation of Methods of Measuring Blood

Pressure for Immediate Space Flight Programs, Final Report on
Contract NASr-51, Webb Associates, June 1961

WADD TR 61-67 266

VOL I REV 1

""--
- .-- " . . -. . .. . . .
 In electrocardiogram (EKG) the 60 to 80 millivolt
heart measureincnts to ample potentials are attenuated to 1 to 5
millivolts depending on the location of the electrodes on the body,
necessitating the use of high gain amplifiers. Care must be
exercised in employing adequate shiielding to obtain usable signal
to noise ratios. At Boeing (Ref. 237) in instrumentation for
EKG is provided by a transistorized differential amplifier,
miniaturized to 7. 6 cm by 4. 4 cm by 1. 9 cm weighing 94 grams.
Gain levels are 1000 x and 2500 x. The frequency response is 9
uniform up to 150 cps and the the phase and gain at low frequencies
are controlled so that a step impulse of two seconds duration is
reproduced faithfully.

In medical evaluation, this amplifier was found to

give records identical to those produced with large type clinical
electrocardiographs.

In field work, electrocardiographic data taken

with the miniature instrument has been used in combination with
heart sound data (also taken with the miniaturized equipment
described in the next section) to study heart rates and phase re-
lationships of heart excitation, contraction and blood ejection. An
antero-posterior (front electrode on chest, rear electrode on back)
electrode lead is usually used to reduce the amount of noise and
base line shift which is caused by body motion and the consequent
stretching of the skin whore an unwanted piezoelectric -like effect occurs.

It is thought that analyses of the brain waves of an

astronaut can yield important information about the state of conscious-
ness, about hyperventilation and about abnormal neurological dis- -.
turbances. Low blood sugar levels and high body alkalinity and
acidity levels are thought to be ascertainable, as the existence of
these abnormal chemical conditions produce characteristic brain N"

wave patterns. --,

In electroencephalogram (EECG) easurtments a high

gain amplifier is again needed and their associated problems are
a disadvantage in space craft use. The Boeing Space Medicine Section
has medically validated a miniaturized electroencephalograph am-
plifier 10 cm by 7.6 cm by 1.9 cm weighing 168 grams. It has a
gain of 100, 000 x, a low frequency time constant of 170 milliseconds
and a frequency response up to 100 cps.

237 Edmunds, A. B. Jr., Megel, H., Bark, R. S., "Space

Physiology and Miniaturized Space Medical Instruments," National
Telemetering Conference, 1960

WADD TR 61-67 267

VOL I REV 1

.-C. .
.**~~~ .- ~~..*
. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . ,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.A.

:-• .
°I'..
"" . . . . . . . i . -. . . . - ..I - ,I. ..-.. 1 ! I I
 Skin temperature measuremnents may be made using
thermistor devices. These should be tested for high repeatabilily
characteristics and their accuracy will depend greatly upon
mounting arrangement arid thermal insulation from external en-
vir onxnent.

The average body temperature is usually thought of

as the familiar value, 98.6'F. This value has been obtained by
averaging thousands of oral temperature readings at different
times for different individuals. A more reliable indicator of body
temperature is the rectal temperature, which is usually one degree
F Higher than the normal oral temperature. Temperatures vary
"throughout the body. Temperatures taken in any one place vary
slightly during the twenty-four hour day and also vary from day te
day. Small variations such as these, however, will only be of
incidental significance for the space medical monitor. Marked U-
elevations or depressions of rectal or peripheral temperatures
will be of greater interest.

Temperature elevations of several degrees may be 9

caused by bacterial or viral infection, emotional states, ingestion

of toxic substances, dehydration, excessive cabin or space suit
temperatures and high relative humidities. Depression of temperature
may be produced by shock, bleeding and other related types of
incidents.

Bead thermistor rectal probes have been designed

and used but have time constants in the order of several seconds.
,1 Using a thermal insulated thermistor under the arm gave readings,
which on the average paralleled rectal readings within 0. 3 0 C. ,.
.%
Galvanic skin resistance (GSR) measurement changes
can be interpreted to indicate mental stress or alertness, and
sweat rates. A moisture-sensing element (Ref. 238) has been em -
ployed in measurement of thermal sweat.

Respiration measurements involve rate and volume

determinations. Chest expansion devices are common and where
properly fitted so slippage discomfort are not problems, offer simple 691
measurement solution. One type employs a chest band with a spring J

Z38 Roy, 0. Z. , "An Electronic Device for the Measurement I

of Sweat Rates," IRE Medical Electronics, Vol. ME-', No. 4,
October, 1960

WADD TR 61-67 268

VOL I REV 1

. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..... "N
. . .""
• ".',""-',." ".''.'-. . .""......"""
'-'"-"-"'". .'" ."..""..
" -'--" "". -". " .".". . "'-",
,".'.". . . "i-'"P,.
.- ... ....... .-.-..
... .. "... ' .".-. . .."..--".
.-.. •' - '.,"".
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-
return potentiometer so mounted that expansion of elastic band
moves rotary wiper arm of the potentiometer. Disadvantages arc
that a different calibration curve is obtained for each individual and
for each of his general body positions. Strain gages are also
used in chest expansion measurements. Gulton Industries Model
MF-401 respiration transducer employs a cantilevered strain
gage mounted in a face mask to be worn over mouth and nose,
to sense breathing rate and depth.

At the Aerospace Medical Division at Wright-Patterson

(Ref. 239) a small unit was designed to monitor both heart rate
and respirati6n rate. Dry silver cloth electrodes were chosen for
chest electrodes and placement selected for minimum inter-
ference from muscle action potentials. (Ref. 240). Three electrodes
were used, one ground and two for EKG voltage pickup. Since only
heart rate was being determined frequency limiting was employed
in the amplifier decreasing further the response to other signals.

The respiration rate transducer consisted of a non-

elastic chest band, with an electrolyte-filled rubber tube as the
expansion link. See Figure 2-1 39. A 1/8 inch inside diameter,
3 inch long tube, filled with a copper sulphate solution (5-101/)
was used. The tube was sealed with two pure copper electrodes at
the ends. This resulted in a completely reversable electrolytic
system for a limited operating time. (Electrolytic action on
electrodes limits operating time-ac excitation would eliminate this
factor).

The resistance range of this transducer depends on the

dimensions and on the concentration of the electrolyte. A wide
range of resistance can be made (about 300 to 20,000 ohm) for the
given dimensions with varying electrolyte concentration.

To protect the rubber tube from being squeezed when

used inside a pressure suit, a steel wire spring was wound around the
tube. The transducer is fastened to a nonelastic belt, so that the

239 Marko, A. R., Monitoring Unit for Heart and Respiration

Rate, WADD Technical Report 60-619, August 1960

240 Tolles, W. E. , Carbery, W. J. , A system for Monitoring

the Electrocardiogram During Body Movement, WADD Technical
Report No. 58-453, April 1959

WADD TR 61-67 269

VOLI REV1

¼ - - .- - - . - - - - - - - - - . . .- :2- --

-.-
 STEEL WIRE SPRING

COPPER17
ELELPRODE

SOLUNON EATCBL

a AROUN CHaESTom

WAD TR61- 270CCPE

LETOE

VOL I REV 1

%%%.*
whole extension of the chest extends the tube. Normal breathing
gives a resistance change of 5 to 20 percent, heavy breathing ..
gives up to 150 percent. %'.-.

The electronic system of the monitoring unit is

shown in the circuit diagram in Figure 2-140. The first tran-
sistors (T 1 , T 2 ) are of a differential amplifier stage, with a voltage
gain of 10. Simple selection of transistors for equal current S.]
provides a common mode rejection of about 300:1. The base-
to-base input impedance is 25, 000 ohms. Capacitors on the input
(C 1 , CZ) limit the lowest frequency to about 1. 5 cps for a 6-db
drop. In the second stage, the resistor-capacitor combination
(R 7 , C 3 ) in the emitter reduces the lowest frequency to 8 cps
for 6 db. This frequency limitation removes interference from
body movements and electrode rebistance changes to a high degree,
but does not attenuate the QRS complex of the EKG significantly
(main frequency about 20 cps).

A potentiometer (Pr) is located in the second-stage

collector. It is paralleled by the electrolytic respiration transducer
(Rt). The output from the respiration signal can be properly
adjusted with the potentiometer. The third stage is a feed-back
stabilized amplifier. In its collector circuit, a capacitor (C 6 )
limits the high frequency cutoff to 40 cps for a 6-db drop. This
removes interference from muscle activity poLentials. The amplifier S

voltage gain for the 3 stages is about 6, 000 over a frequency band
of 12 to 30 cps. This amplifier modulates the frequency of the
blocking oscillator (BO), producing a tone with a frequency of about
800 cps. Modulation by the QRS part of the FKG occurs in the form..
of short blips creating high or low pulse tones, depending on the
electrode polarity. Respiration causes slow shifts in the frequency
corresponding to inhalation and exhalation. The secondary windings
from the transformer (TR) employed in the blocking oscillator
deliver a signal amplitude of 8 volts peak-to-peak. This signal
can be used to modulate a standard transmitter for tele-n-etering
purposes (proper amplitude is adjusted with potentiometer (P 2 ), or
may be connected with a telephone line or tape recorder). Monitoring
heart rate and respiration rate is performed in the simplest way
by listening, or if direct recording is required, by using a special
discriminator circuit.

WADD TR 61-67 271

VOLI REV1

. q-.. .

4.~ - - N.. 9 ,"

 R R2 R3 RT

R R

I 2 R5 T t II

EKG~CE ELCRO
C1 APAITOS
3 TNTAUM MF2V R R2 R* .2Ml 14T
C 5 TANTALUM
CAPACITOR4 5F5 5 15~ /
R 0 .K~
SOF5 /

Ril1
CTA T L MC A CI O
C 6 TANTLUM
* APACTOR1.75F25V~ ~* 27K'(64
C 3,CAACTO Fio c.0 7 5K /

RT~~R REPRTOXTASUE Re1 2.2Kfl 1/4 W

P3 15Ka 1/4

Fig. ~ DWga~ ~ C1ru4

2-14
fMnioigUi ~ ~ 1

WAD TR 261-67 4v
VOL 1/47W 51REV
C,
100 CAACITR 0.02 M

..... .... .... .... .. .... ....Re.-.. .... ....

T, to- Ts TRNISO 2N43
.m R, 1/ W
TR IER urc DO 25N -- 'SO~ - -- - - .V-

RT~. TOREPR TR. . . . . . . . ....... ...........

 C, Diagnosis and Display

Use of the telemetered' data from physiological

sensor in a space vehicle is primarily to mnonitor the physical
condition of the man to insure his safety. It also has great
documentation value for use in planning the succeeding missions.
However, during the real time receipt of data it will be analysed
to determine if the man's condition is normal or as planned, to
sense any developing conditions that could lead to harmful or
abnormal physiological functions. It is desirable that data, be
presented to monitoring console such that a meaningful indication
is given on the astronauts physical condition. Voice communication ... t
and television, preferably color, are highly desired by monitoring
physicians. More sophisticated displays and indicators are really
needed such that the many physiological measurements may be
monitored and related to each other in real time and compared to
predetermined patterns of such data to determine normality of
over-all body functions. By use of programmed measurements and
computer diagnosis (relating and comparison with stored information)
an output single indication could be given satisfying real time
monitoring operator. Deviations from normal output would be
used as error signals to indicate alarm, progranm various physiological
measurements to be made and/or displayed in greater detail and
where feasible to initiate corrective operational changes or procedures
(shift body position, alter body cooling, exert aiding pressure to
body alras, eLc.)

To supply time correlated data for computer type

diagnosis physiological sensors must be integrated with a number
of the measured parameters of the space craft imnmediate and
predicted operation. Thus as in many complex instrumentation
problems, the ability to employ real time analysis of large airounts
of related data, will return answers only available through indirect
nieasurements.

At.
.. .. Clini
. ..Le i........t 4' - AI I Di-. All erL
Ax and George Zacharapoulos have designed a system for high-speed
analysis of psychophysiological data (physiological reactions to
psychological states). The design goal was a practical method of
analyzing multi-channel recordings of variables such as heart rate

241 "Medical Instrumentation Today," Readout, Volume 3,

No. 4, Ampex Instrumentation Products Co. IN,

WADD TR 61-67 273

VOL I REV 1

r-7r-7

. .... ... :: . . ...

skin ternperature, palmar sweating, muscle potentials,and so on.
These variables would be subjected to both statistical and functional
analysis with respect to each other and to specific research questions.

The system is composed of four main sections: the

physiological transducers, a 24 channel polygraph (for visual
monitoring in real time and for editing), a data logger(for converting
to digital and recording on m-agnetic tape) and a digital computer.
The Visicorder polygraph is equipped with high-gain amplifiers and
other modifying circuitry required to match the several transducers
to the system. A cardiotachometer converts the period between
heart beats into an analog voltage. Finger pulse pressure is
picked up by a piezoelectric transducer, processed by a peak detector
and hold circuit so as to present a continuous voltage for sampling
by the data logger. Muscle potentials which indicate muscle tonus
and contracticis are integrated arid recorded once per second. Bridge
circuits measure skin tempeiatures and the palm skin conductance
(as measures of skin blood flow and palmar sweating). Respiration
is obtained from a strain gage displaced by changes in chest and ab-
domen circumferene.

The transducer signals are also fed into the EPSCO

data logger. A high-speed 29 channel electronic commutator samples
each variable at least 10 times the maximum expected frequency of
the variable. For example, respiration, which might reach a max-
imumn rate of one-per-second, is sampled 10 times-per-second. The 1'7"
slowest sampling rate is one-per-second. An analog to digital (A to D)

4
converter accepts each sample from the commutator and converts
it to an lI-bit binary number. Format programming circuitry
enables digital recording on tape in a format acceptable to the Bendix
G] 5 computer for later analysis.

By enabling simultaneous consideration of data from

these various systems of the body (behavioral, physiological and
biochemical) it is hoped that more fundamental paramneters may
hr_. . . .. ..... arc uocul-A.- fo.r esc-iuiLiig tlec eumotional and mo-
tivational systems that are disturbed in mnental illness. •.4

WADD TR 61-67 274

.1VOL I REV 1

• tk . '3
 °- No.-

SECTION HII -

TRANSDUCER APPLICATIONS ..

3-1 INTRODUCTION "-

A sizable volume could be written about the use and application

of transducers in rocket sleds, sled tracks, aircraft, missiles, satellites,
and future spacecraft. In this section an attempt will be made to present
a few examples of over-all instrumentation requirements encountered in .
tests and operational flight programs. The nature of the following in-
formation ranges from generalities to specifics. Many general applications
are indicated, and operational characteristics pointed out in Section II
under associated transducer measurement fundamentals. In this Section ,
general infornmation is repeated relating to basic usage of transducers,
and where information is obtaý.nable, unique applications of transducers
and unique usage of measurement principles is reported. The aspects
of selecting a transducer are briefly discussed. Evaluation remains to
be an engineering test and analysis problem for each particular application, -
References will be noted where applicable indicating detailed studies
of instrumentation to solve measurement problems.
3--4
3-2 GENERAL

a. Selection Criteria

The selection of a specific transducer for a particular application

remains more of an art than a science because the choice between available al-
ternatives nearly always represent a compromise between desirable and undcsir- %
able characteristics. Transducer discussions in Section II have included some
of the characteristics which must be considered in the selection of each type;
however, they have not been presented in a consolidated listing. Table 3-1
presents such a list, by broad categorias, to assist the transducer user in
the analysis of his requirements and selection of transducers which most nearly
satisfy them.

Not all of the criteria set forth in Table 3-1, of course, are
applicable in every instance of transducer selection. In fact, the assessment ..

of the relative importance of the various criteria, and the extent to which each is : ]

WADD TR 61-67 275

VOLI REVi

- -4

. . .. . .- .- . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , -.. .. -. .. . . -. .• - o•°, . _ -.-. •. . -

+: .-°.:',-.,,,:
. " -'.:---.: --- ,::.-:° . -"".- .-, .'..'-'-. .-. .-.
:'.--.' 9.------- - ': % -.: ". - .:..-',,-.-",'.-' .- ".-' ,'.",
 Table 3-1. Factors to Consider in Selecting Transducers

Factors Which Depend on the Characteristics of the Expected Input Variable:

Range (maximum and minimum values to be measured)

Overload Protection
Frequency Response
Transient Response
Resonant Frequency

Factors Affecting the Transducer Input/Output Relation:

Accuracy
Linearity
Sensitivity
Resolution
Repeatability
Frict-'n
Hysteresis/Backlash
Threshold/Noise Level.
Stability
Zero Drift
Loss of Calibration with Time

Factors Relating to the System of Which the Transducer is a Part:

Output Characteristics
Size and Weight
Power Requirements
Accessories Needed .
Mounting Requirements
Environment of Transducer Location
Cross Talk
Effect of Presence of Transducer on Measured Quantity
Need for Corrections Dependent on Other Transducers

Factors Relating to Measurement Reliability:

Ease and Speed of Calibrating and Testing -'

Time Available for Calibration Prior to and/or During Use

Duration of Mission
Stability Against Drift of Zero Point and Proportionality Constant ..-

(co ntinuLed)

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 276
Z276

' -. -.. -_--=_-

 Table 3-1. Factors to Consider in Selecting Transduccrs (cont;nuation)

Vulnerability to Sudden Failure (Probability of proper performance

for a given lifc time)
Fail Safety (Will transducer failure represent system failure, or
invalidate data from other transducers?) '-
Failure Recognition (Will transducer failure be immediately ap-
parent so that subsequent erroneous data can be rejected?)

Factors Relating to Procurement:

Is Item Off-the-Shelf? Must development be done to make it

operational?
Price
Availability and Delivery
Previous Experience with the Vendor
Availability of Calibration and Test Data from Manufacturer

%.•

.. . .. . .. . .... . . . . ..

'---.4......
WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 27
.. ... ' .. . *..-.-. - .*. . .

:. ' , •_ •.,.:- .'.•7.. •: "•2:.,.

•),.',• :,::. .. .?.2 .,,.. ,,-. t.• .......
., .'.. .'...,.'..,.,.... ,....'...'....
.-.....-.... ..
 ÷N,

satisfied by the available transducers, are points which must rest upon the t,4.
judgment, of the responsible engineer. Many of the items in this table are
selE-explanatory. For others, there are so many different definitions that
a fair cornparison of transducers requires careful attention to the way in
whlich each term is defined by the manufacturer. Typical of thl. ire such .(,".

items as accuracy, resolution, and linearity. This problem area has re--
sulted from the fact that standard definitions have not been established and
adopted by both users and manufacturers. However, within the next year or
so, it is expected that standard nomenclatures and definitions will be prepared."-
and accepted through coordination between major u;3ers and arnufacturers

b, Mounting Considerations

A fundamental. question which should be kept in mind when

considering a transducer for a given application is "will the transducer out-
put really correapond with the physical quantity which is to be measured?"

To some degree, the addition of a transducer will affect the.

behavior of the system itself. For example, insertting a fiowimeter into a line
will normally introduce additional fluid friction, which will result. in an alter-
ation to the flow rate. Similarly, the attachment of a vibrationi pickup to a
thin plate may alter the natural frequency of the plate, and hence its response
to certain vibrations. Finally, a temperature probe attached to a surface con-
stitutes a local thermal inertia which may tend to snmooth out the temperature
variations wn-tch would otherwise be sustained. To be sure, with proper pre-
cautions, th'. alt:oration which the transducer imposes on the measura:-tnd can
usually be n:ri-de negligibly small, and this is often. precisely the obligation on
the system engin4-er.

In some cases, the "feedback" into the physical system from,

the transducer ij not objectionable. Thus, if the flowmeter of the above example
is to e. pre.senL..
h. Ž- instance of the physical syst... (.. g. , as parL of a con-
trot loop) thci i,s effect on the system is simply a systemn design parameter,
and n-st a souvree of measurement error. On the other hand, where the transducer
is inserted in only one model (as for test purposes), one must be careful in ac-
cepting the mneasured results as being representative of the performance of other
models without transtlucers.

Even where feedback is of no concern, serious me asurement

errors can re-ult from improper mounting of transducers. While it is imprac-
tical to attempt to set up mounting criteria for all types of transducers, the

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 278

. . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . .
following questions point out certain common pitfalls of transducer installa- ,.,,
tion:
1. Acceleration and Vibration: Is the accelerometer ,
or vibration transducer rigidly attached to the mass
whose acceleration or vibration is to be measured?

2, Pressure: Is the pressure transducer at the end of

a connecting cavity or tube whose added path length
can cause transient errors, standing waves or a
hydrostatic pressure difference? In pressure mea-
surement of moving fluids, is the presence of dyna-
mic pressure accounted for?

3. Flow Rate: Is the flowmeter protected against

jamming by solid particles entrained in the fluid?

4,. Temperature: Does heat flow through the transducer

to or from the environment to the extent that a signi-
ficant temperature differential exists between the
transducer and the material whose temperature is to
be measured 9 Are the junctions between thermocouple .--
wires and attached leads always kept at equal tempera-
tures? If the measured temperature is that of a moving
fluid, are the stagnation effects accounted for? Does
the transducer exchange radiation with walls which are
at a different temperature from the fluid?

5. Voltage and Current: Do slip rings or other commuta-

tive devices introduce noise voltages which are signi-
ficant with respect to the signal? Are coils in resist-
ance thermometers, galvanometers, magnetometers,
etc. adequately shielded from extraneous magnetic fields
emanating from other equipment?

Prior to implemnenting a measuring system the engineer must ask

himself numerous questions like those listed above so as to minimize the chances
of wasted time and funds which could be directly attributed to a lack of engineer-
ing forethought. "-

WADD TR 61-67 -_
VOL I REV ! 279

-- V , '..' . ."::-- .'. -, - :.," - :- . -

-, - :'i * 1 -
- . . . - -
 4. •

--"-
-

C. Environmental Effects

A knowledge of the transducer's output characteristics

while exposed to a laboratory-type environment cannot be used to corn-
pletely predict its suitability for the intended application. From previous
telemetry records, or extrapolations, or theoretical analysis, the engineer
must list the types and ranges of environments to which the transducer will
be exposed. Further, he must take into account their durations and the t q
magnitude versus time profile. In many instances, he can only estimate
these parameters, and may later find such estimates to be off by 100% or
more; nevertheless, it is essential that he begin with an estimate which is
based on something more than pure intuition.

After establishing a set of environmental conditions, it be-

comes necessary for the engineer to make decisions, based on his experience
and an awareness of results from other test programs, regarding the sub-
jection of transducers to simulated environments in the laboratory. If it is a -
question of evaluating the transducer from the standpoint of drift, hysteresis,
noise, etc., or testing it to destruction, he has a choice of whether or not to
carry out such tests. However, if he is striving for accuracy in meass urement
during a missile flight, for example, he has little choice but to run the trans-
ducer through the simulated environment so as to prepare a calibration curve.
Once he has assured himself that transducers of a certain type, batch, or manu-
facture, are consistently identical in environmental effects, lie may elect to "
run calibrations only on random samples. Such procedures are, however, gen-
erally applicable after the missile program goes into a production phase. They
are not suited to research and development programs.

The selection and simulation of environments is a major engi-

neering function within all organizations which are designing aircraft, missiles,
space vehicles, and rocket sleds. In particular, the simulation of combined
environments is taking on greater and greater importance as more is learned
from telemetry recordings and laboratory investigations. Some facilities can
provide combined temperature and vluraLluin tests, and other combinaiiont will
shortly be available (See Section V).

The transducer engineer must have an inquisitive mind. He

must explore for the "not obvious" and investigate what he considers to be possi-
ble areas of difficulty- in the final application. For example, the dynamic res-
ponse of an oil-damped accelerometer may be as advertised by the manufacturer
providing that it is vibration tested with the sinusoidal force exerted in a direction

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 280

". '-'-% -- - ' , ,-,--.....,. .. ... -....- - - .- - - -.- - -"..-..- - -.------.--- - .--- .- ---.-- - - - -, ' -- v . -, ,.• -, ,- •
 parallel to both the earth's gravity vector and the sensitive axis of the accol-
erometer. However, the dynamic response may change radically if the ac-
celerometer is turned on its side so that the gravity vectoi is perpendicular
to the direction of the moving mass within the accelerometer (sensitive axis).
In the latter case, the accelerometer is vibrated horizontally so that the sinus-
oidal force is still applied along the sensitive axis. Another case is that of
pressure transducers which are exposed to high-level acoustical noise. Where
such noise is expected, and sensitive pressure measurements must be accom-
plished, the engineer may discover that he is highly limited in his choice of
transducers or he may elect to investigate the performance of certain other
transducers when exposed to noise. Another consideration with which the tele-
metry engineer is being confronted more often is that of the radiation resistance
characteristics of transducers. With the discovery of the Van Allen belts and
forthcoming nuclear propulsicn systems, the engineer must familiarize himself ...- ,

with radiation terminology, effects on materials, testing techniques, and test

facilities.

d. Operating Time

Depending on the type and purpose of the vehicle, the "mission

time" may range from a few seconds to years. In the case of those with very
long mission time, this w:ill constitute the greatest percentage of total operating -
time required of the transducer. For short mission time vehicles, such as
ballistic missiles and rocket sleds, the required total operating time with satis-
factory performance will be much greater than the mission time.

In the case of sleds, some of the transducers are not considered

to be expendable and must be used for numerous repeated tests. Further,
operating time will be consumed by calibrations and normal pre-run checkout
procedures.

The actual flight of a ballistic missile may be preceded

.. by lit-
..
erally hours of operational time requiring stable and reliable transducer per-
formance. Upon delivery by the manufacturer, the transducer may undergo
incoming electrical tests by " 4 ncoming inspection" personnel. Following this,
it may receive electrical and environmental tests prior to installation in the
missile. Missile checkouts at the factory require overall telemetry testing on
more than one occasion. Following an initial factory checkout, the missile may . -
be shunted aside to await repairs or installation of other components. Prior to
its shipment, it would be given a final checkout. Upon arrival at the missile
test range, the vehicle generally receives another series of tests while in a

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVi 281

- .. .4 -- . .-.
. . . . . . . -.

t. -. t,
-.-.-- . . . . . .. . .. ..-- .. . -.-. ,- - ,, .,..-- .

i.W -
% % * % %~*.- . -. 4-- -
 I-'4

4.. .4

horizontal position in the contractor's hangar. Erection at the launcher is

followed by one or more tests against console checkout equipment and the
ground-based telemetry system. Firing "holds" may necessitate additional
checkouts before the launch actually takes place.

The engineer must take into consideration the duration of

operating time which the transducer will be subjected to. At the beginning, he
may realize that the transducer which he must utilize has a life-time which is ,-A
short of the requirements. In this case, he may have no choice but to procure
test, and calibrate extra transducers which are shipped with the missile as
replacement components.

3-3 AIRCRAFT APPLICATIONSri

a. General

Operational aircraft utilize numerous transducers which enable

the pilot and flight engineer to adjust controls, evaluate safety conditions, and
determine distance-to-go capability. Many of these transducers are not consi-
dered herein since they are not intended for telemetry purposes. Others,
although not used on the aircraft as telemetry transducers, are useful as trans-
ducers for telemetering purposes (e. g., air speed, rpm). Still other transducers
Prp iaPl in r-nniunrtinn with qirhnr-ni- irnuer_ fnr? ýrnrnniit% Mach nu-mber and
distance-to-go.

Transducers are employed quite profusely in drone aircraft and

test programs for the development of new aircraft types. For example, engine
measurements may run as high as sixty during a given flight.

The following paragraphs present only a small portion of infor-

mation which could be written concerning the applications of transducers in air-
c raft.--•

b. Examples of Applications
-4

Tables 3-2 and 3-3 present some measurements, measurement

ranges, accuracies, operational time, and outputs of transducers used on drone . .
aircraft and test programs for jet fighter aircraft. Since this information was
received from single sources, it cannot be said to be typical and, in fact, it is -'.n
questionable that a set of typical conditions may be set forth. Although the
types of measurements may be common to many programs, the ranges,

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV1 282

.- - - - - - - - -
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WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVi1 285
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WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVI1 287
 accuracies, and operational times will differ because of differences in
mission requirements which are reflected in aircraft operational capabili-
ties, such as maneuverability, fuel consumption, air speed, etc.

c. Temperature Measurecments (Ref. 242)

(1) Ambient Air Temperature t-j

j
The ambient air temperature T, which is one of the
main parameters in performance flight testing, is the ten-i- rature which
would be measured by a thermometer which is at rest relative to the ambient
air. If, as is the case for a thermometer attached to an aircraft, the ther-
mometer is moving through the air, the measured temperature Tm will be
higher than this ambient air temperature.

The magnitude of this temperature rise can easily

be calculated if the thermometer is placed in a stagnation point on the aircraft.
At these points, the air is brought to rest by a very nearly adiabatic process
and the resulting temperature Ts (stagnation temperature) may be calculated
by use of the following equation:
v2 y-l./
Ts =T T (1 + MZ) (3-1)
?rg P

where

T = ambient air temperature ]

V = true air speed

cp = specific heat of air at constant pressure

g = acceleration of gravity

7Y ratio of specific heats at constant pressure

and at constant volume

M = Mach number

Z4Z Pool, A., "Temperature Sensing Techniques, AGARD Flight Test

Manual, Vol. IV, Part IIA4, pp. I1a4:4 -IIA4:8. .. '--I

WADD TR 61-67
A VOLT REVi 288

- *. .-.- . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... X . . ..-. ... . . . -.-:_-.-

 At all other points of the surface, the temperaturc
rise will be lower, because of no adiabatic processes in the boundary layer.
Since both stagnation points and boundary layer will be present on the ther-
rnornetor body, the temperature Tm measured by the thermometer will
have some intermediate value between Ts and T. This is expressed by
VZ '- .
Tm =T+e(T 1
- T)T +E =VT (+eY M2) (3-2)
2Cpg 2

The coefficient c is called the recovery factor of

the thermometer. It has been shown both theoretically and experimentally
that for a flat plate placed at zero incidence in an airstream, the recovery
factor is independent of Mach number, pressure, etc. It is only affected by
the stage of the boundary layer and has a value of 0. 85 if the boundary layer
is laminar and of 0. 91 if it is fully turbulent. If other shapes of the thermo-
meter body are used, or if the plate is at some incidence to the airflow, the
recovery factor will change with Mach number and pressure. These effects
are generally small for low subsonic Mach numbers.

When the recovery factor is known, it is possible

to calculate the air temperature just in front of the thermometer from the
measured temperature Tnm and the Mach numb er or true airspeed just in
front of the thermometer. This recovery factor can be determined by wind
tunnel tests.

In connection with flight testing, the term recovery

factor is defined in a slightly different way. It is the factor which makes it
possible to calculate the ambient air temperature if the measured tempera-
ture and the true airspeed or Mach number of the aircraft are known. These
two recovery factors rrm ay differ appreciably if the local true air speed Vt
at the point where the thermometer is pli.ced is not equal to the true airspeed
* ~of the aircraft V. The change of state from V to Vt occurs by an adiabatic
process, the measured temperature Tm is derived from the local state of the
air by a nonaqrlinhafni rnrocs-s.

It can be shown that the "flight test" recovery factor

C' is related to the recovery factor c determined in the wind tunnel by

Vt 2

WADD TR 61 -67
VOL I p.Ev 1 289

. . . ... .
 If c is appreciably less than unity and if Vt differs
from V, the difference between c and E' is considerable. In such cases, it'a
is essential to determine E in actual flight. w.

In flight testing aircraft which do not fly faster

than about M = 0.5, the normal thermometer placed in the airstream is
generally used because of its simplicity. The recovery factor is determined
by flight tests. No accurate knowledge of this factor is necessary at these 01
low speeds. For an aircraft flying at 200 kts, the temperature rise will be
approximately 5*C. If the ambient air temperature must be known with an s---"
accuracy of ±-IPG, the accuracy required in the recovery factor is ±20%.

The sensing elements used are nearly always re-

sistance thermometers shaped as a flat plate or a tube. To insure rapid
response, the resistance wire is usually in direct contact with the air. It is
however, surrounded at some distance by a shield which prevent heat radia-
tion effects.

At higher airspeeds, the accuracy with which the

recovery factor can be determined becomes too low for the accurate calcula- '-
tion of the temperature correction, which rises to more than 40°C at M=l.
At those speeds, stagnation temperature probes are used, in which the sen-
sing element is mounted inside a stagnation chamber which is open in the
diU-•cliu• of flight, so that it is fully surrounded by air which is very nearly
at stagnation temperature. Recovery factors of better than 0. 99 can be attained
by careful design. Special care must be taken that the heat losses from the
stagnation chamber by conduction and radiation are very small.

Resistance thermometers are often used in stagnation

temperature probes, but they have the disadvantage that they dissipate a rela-
tively large amount of heat into the small stagnation chamber.
taken away by a larger amount of flow through the chamber.
This must be
Therefore, ther-
niocouples are sometimes preferred because they produce much less heat. A "
A
-•

great advantage of the stagnation therr•nometer is hlint the diffefrence e e4,

"wind tunnel" and "flight test" recovery factors becomes negligible (See equation
3-3 for c -- 1), so that the recovery factor can be determined once and for all by
any one of the available methods. It should be noted here that equation (3-2) ap-
pliewvs in souceSbsonicbyandthsupersoniarcrat flows, even if the probe is placed behind shock i'..("i

waves produced by the aircraft.3

Large errors may result from using the two above-

mentioned types in air supersaturated with water vapor (so that water may con-
dense on the sensing element) and under icing conditions. Normal flight tests "

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 290

.............
 will hardly ever be executed under these circumstances, but they will pre-
vail, e. g., during tests to study ice accumulation on aircraft. In these
cases, a reverse-flow thermometer may be used. This is essentially a '. '
reversed stagnation temperature probe which is open to the wake behind the
instrument and in which a small flow is induced in a direction contrary to
that of the main flow around the aircraft. The probe has a low recovery
factor (about 0. 65) which is not very constant, but it has been found to func-
tion well even under extreme icing conditions.

For all previously mentioned types, the ambient

air temperature has to be calculated from the measured temperature, the
Mach number and the recovery factor. The vortex thermometer, however,
can be adjusted to indicate the ambient air temperature directly. In this .-•
device, the so-called Ranque-Hilsch effect is used, which states that the
temperature in the core of a vortex decreases with increasing speed of ro-
tation of the vortex.

The probe consists of a tube placed perpendicularly

to the flight direction, in which a vortex is generated by introducing stag a-
tion pressure through a tangentially placed intake. By changing the surface
of the intake hole, the speed of rot ttion can be adjusted so that the axially
placed sensing element indicates ambient air temperature.

(2) Temperature Measurements in Engines bow

Temperature measurements in reciprocating

engines are hardly of importance in flight testing. Cylinder head thermo-
meters of the thermocouple type (usually copper-constantan) are used to,'"
check engine cooling, but are not essential in the assessment of aircraft per-
formance and stability. Ambient air temperature, the measurement of which
is discussed in the previous paragraphs, is the only temperature which in-
fiuences engine performance. .

In turbine engines, the tempe ature of the combus-

tion gases in the jet pipe is of primary importance both for the engine control
-' and for the determination of the engine performance. The measuring problems
encountered here are similar to those of ambient air temperature measure-
ment in that the thermometer is exposed to a high-velocity gas stream; however,
there are some complications, as follows:

(1) The temperatures encountered are very

much higher (of the order of 1000 0 C in

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV i 291

-•.." "-
 normal jetpipes and up to 2000 C in
afterburners).
(2) Radiation, which increases with the fourth L
power of the absolute temperature, re-
duces the attainable accuracy.
Because of these facts, thermocouples usually of
the chrornel-alumel type, are universally used for these measurements.
Thermocouples used for the control of the engines are often simply placed "
in the gas stream, and engine performance is given as a function of the in-
dicated temperatures0 For the accurate assessmrent of engine performance
in flight, however, the true temperature of the gas stream must be mea-
sured so that recovery factors, radiation losses, and time constants of the __-_

instruments used must be accurately known. A large amount of research

is being expended on the determination of recovery factors and time constant
of suitable probes. Radiation shielding is achieved by using multiple metal
or ceramic shields.

(3) Measurement of Surface Temperature

An important part of the flight testing of modern

aircraft is expended on temperature measurements all over the aircraft,, -
The strength of the main structure may be endangered by conduction or radia-
tion of heat from the engines or the armament, by the impingement of engine
jets on the luselage or tail skin, and by aerodynamic heating of the aircraft
skin at very high Mach numbers. Moreover, the large electric currents in
electric and electronic accessories may also produce so much heat that their -
service life is dangerously shortened, In most of these cases, surface tern-
peratures must be measured to determine that the limits of safety are not being
surpassed. ,

Sensing elements for these purposes must meet the

following demands;

(I) They must be in very good tthermal contact

with the parts whose temperatures are to
be imieasured.

(2) They mist be effectively shielded from ra-

diation and from airflovs which are the cause
of the high temperatures.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 29I

. - .- -. -. - - - - - -. - - --.. - . . .-
 (3) They must neither weaken the structure to "
any appreciable amount nor disturb the air-
flow around it.

The construction of the sensing elements largely

depends on the shape of the structure and on the environmental conditions.
Both resistance thermometers and thermocouples are extensively used.
Thermocouples have the advantage that they may be brought into direct
metallic contact with the structure if suitable precautions are taken in the
ne asuring circuit. Shielding can easily be provided by pieces of asbestos
cloth or similar materials glued to the sensing element.

A very convenient method which may produce very

good results is the use of paint or crayon streaks which change color or sub-
stance when heated above a certain temperature. Maximum temperatures
0
can be indicated in this way at intervals of about 5 C, in the range of about
50 - 150°C, and at greater intervals up to about 800°C.

(4) Thermostat.--

Many instruments require a constant temperature

if accurate results are desired. Examples are piezoelectric transducers .'-
(barium-titanate), the sensitivity of which changes appreciably with tem-
perature, and instrunments using oil as a damping medium, the viscosity of
which varies with temperature. These instruments may be enclosed by an
insulating case in which a constant temperature somewhat above the highest
ambient temperature is maintained by an electric heating coil controlled by
a thermostat.

The most generally used type of thermostat is a

device consisting of a bimetal strip which closes a heater circuit when a tern-
perature falls below the preselected value, and breaks the circuit when this
temperature is exceeded. For aircraft applicatitns, birnetals with snap
action are often used, in which contact is made or broken by a quick and re-
latively large displacement of the moving contact surface. In this way,
contact chatter due to vibrations at near-contact temperatures is prevented, -
so that contact wear and radio interferenace are much reduced. A disadvan-
tage of this type is that there is a small difference between the temperatures
at which contact is made and broken so that temperature constancy generally
is less than in the normal type.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 293

%,,,, " ,-* . . - .. . . .. -- . - -- " -.. .%

 3-4 MISSILE APPLICATIONS

a. General.

Missile measurements by way of transducers and telemetry

systems may be divided into the general classes shown in Figure 3-1. Each
of these classes involves a large number of individual types of measurements. I.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROPULSION
MEASUREMENTS MEASUREMENTS

ATTITUDE AND FLIGHT SEQUENCE

TRAJECTORY MEASL, 1EMENTS -
MEASUREMENTS___ _____

SPECIAL
MEASUREMENTS

Fig. 3-1. Missile Measurements

For example, propulsion measurements include fuel level, fuel quantity,

flow rate, fuel temperature, tank pressures, fuel pump pressure, motor
chamber pressure, thrust, coolant temperature, turbine rpm, flame
shield temperature, currents through solenoid valves, and many others.
Furthermore, each measurement type may involve two or more ranges
which must be instrumented by individual transducers. By way of exam-
pie, Table 3-4, and Figures 3-3 and 3-4 are presented to show some
transducer applications in aerodynamic and ballistic missiles.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 294

,.-.- -. --. .:-.: :

" ":""-"'a• • """""..... ".............
VOL I
 As explained in the introduction to this section,
"ithas not been possible to compile, write and edit a thorough text on 41
transducer applications. Jhe following material is limited in scope in
that it applies primarily to some of the work which has been carried out
by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency.

b. Environmental Measurements (Ref. 243)

"(1) Temperature

Four principal temperature measurement areas

normally required are: (1) surface or skin (2) temperatures resulting from
rocket engine exhaust (3) propellant, and (4) ambient air at various criti-
cal points within the missile. Four types of gages may be used for tern-
- nerature measurements: resistance thermometers, thermistors, thermo-
couples, and thermopiles.

(a) Resistance Thermometers - -

"Earlyin the history of telemetry, resis-

tance thermometers of platinum wire with ceramic backing were used
where low-range surface measurements were required. The adapters
"used to convert outDuts to values suitable for telemetry were very crude.
There was no amplification, and only deflection-type Wheatstone bridge
circuits were used. Where temperature ranges were high, special types of
resistance thermometers were required. These were usually very fragile ,
"2 and difficult to work with, and many temperature ranges could not be covered
adequately.

While the resistance thermometer was help- f.1

"fulin obtaining certain measurements, its use was limited to temperatures

below 800 G. Its fragility was a definite problem; however, resistance
thermometers are still widely used to measure aerodynamic heating effects.
"* For measuring skin temperatures, they are generally made of nickel wire ,
a little larger than 0. 001 inches in diameter. Some are backed with silicone
rubber and are simply clamped to the missile skin. The upper limit of
measurement for this particular device is about 5000C because of the tern-
perature limits of the insulating material. .4

Z43 "Measurement and Telemetry Systems for Missiles, " Army Ballistic
"Missile Agency, Vitro Engineering Co., Report No. 2331-Z-59, pp. 8-17.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 Z96

*-. . ~ - .

• "%'"A
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VOL I REV 1 297T-
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1.4 0 299
VOL RE
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VOL! REV ~ 1U L' 01.

 TANK DIFFERENTIAL -

* PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

ENGINE PERFORMANCE-
TELEMETERING PACKAGE PRESSURE' TRANSDUCER
FulRto(Propellant Motion)
Fujel Ratio
Combustion Pressure
Turbine Presasure
TANK LEVEL TELICMETERINC 5
TRANSL.ATOR
ACCELERATION PACTOR TE LEiImFTFRING
LINEAR TRANSDUCER ýSustainer -TRANS I.ATOP
Actuator Autopilot Feedback) TEMPERATURE TFLEME'TERING
TRANSLATOR

ROTARY TRANSDUCER (Vernier

Actuator Telerretering Pickoff)
-. PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
(Propcllant Motion)
TANK DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE -
TRANSDUCER (For Contri Console
Indication or Readout and Telemeteringi ENGINE PERDFORMANCE TELF1MET7ERING
INIPAC(ACEIn"R
TELEMETERING PACKAGE (BoosterFulaoTemtrig (u)
* 1.LVernier Actuator Position) Fuel Ratio Tcleonetcring (sdar

Booster Pitch Telemetering Tranulator obsirPo tr

* Booster Yaw Telemetering Trnnslator
Vernier Fitch Telernete ring I ranslacor )
(from lineatr transducer) ROTARY TIIANSDUCEI' (Pro1 ,oliant
Val-,c Pickoff)

PRESSURE TRANSDUCER (Autopilot-

Actuator Feedback Damping)
/
rROTARY TRANSDUCER (Booster
imbal Pickoff, Ground Monitoring)
* PRESI URE TRANSDUCER

-ROTARY TRANSDUCER (Gimbal

*ROTARY TRANSDUCER (Valve Auton)ilot Feedback)
* Position Pickoff)

LINLAR TRANSD)UCER (Vernicr

Ground Meornit~oring Ios tiot ue otat;-)t
5 .T?4EARI TR AMýDUTCtE5 (V-nrru.-
Actuatoi Serve :'ickoff)
L.INEAR TR1ANSDUCER (Vet nier
Actuator Servo Pickoff)
]ROTARY TRANSDUCER (Control
Surface lPiclkofE)

Fig. 3-4. A Typical Missile Configuration Showing Representative

Applications of Transduc.:,rs

* WADD TF. 61-67

VOL I REV 1 U2

64-
 (b) Thermocouples

The low output voltage from a thermocouple

requires amplification before it can be used as an input signal to the air-
borne telemetry systern. Amplification may be accomplished through use "-1
of dc amplifiers or chopper-amnplifiers. These intermediate circuits are
often called "signal conditioners. " How.:. •r, it should be noted that this
terminology applies to all types of circuits which are used to convert trans-
ducer output signals to -a form (e. g. , voltage level, ac to dc conversion,
etc. ) which is compatible with the input requirements of the telemetry sys-
tern.

Thermocouples are normally used where the

temperature change will produce an output large enough, after being amnpli-
fied, to cover the 0-5 volt dc range of the telemnetry system input. Normally
this means temnperature spans greater than 300t. An example would be tern-
peratures measured on missile skins subjected to aerodynamic heating.
Thermocouples used for this purpose are welded directly to the skin.

The use of thermocouples for missile tern-

perature measurement involves the choice of a location for the reference
or cold junction, which must preferably be at a low fixed temperature, to in-
crease the over-all range of the device. This is done very easily in the
laboratory by placing the reference junction in an ice bath. This is obviously
impractical for missile applications. To solve this problem, ABMA developed
the "zone box" which is a device for providing an artificial reference junction
temperature for each thermocouple and eliminates the use of long thermocouple
leads.

(c) Thermopiles ,__

In some cases, the output of a thermocouple, "' ""

even after amplification does not have an output in the 0-5 volt range necessary "'A:
for Co_-nratnb1-y ,wit-h- thc tclcrnctry system. With a thermopile composed of
two thermocouples, it is possible to get tvice the output of a single thermo-
couple. Thermopiles, however, cannot be used if the thermocouple junctions
are joined to the m~issile skin. In such an instance, a resistance thermometer ",
is often preferred.

(d) Thermistors

Thermistors are thermally sensitive resistors

that exhibit a resistance change of about 4% per degree Centigrade at room
temperature.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 303

- - -, - -, - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - ,- •--.%'-,r..,:,--.-,,
% -----------------. ,-,--.. .- ,,.-, ,-... . -. ,..,-..-----.,. .,..-,.. - . .,,
• , ... .. .. . . , . . -. , --... , . ,. . - . . - . ,. - - .. ... ; . .. . '; ,; . . , - . . - ' V..
,,•.•. ,;., ...- -I.;
. ,-..... , . , .• ... . ; "...•--.. . .
 The high temperature coefficient of ther-
mistors, about ten times that of typical metals, makes these devices use- i ,
ful for temperature measurement. The temperature coefficient of a ther-
mistor is negative; that is, the resistance of a thermistor decreases as -.-
temperature increases.

Thermistors are particularly useful to

cover narrow ranges of measurements at extreme temperatures, such as
those of LOX, which normally vary from minus 185 to minus 170'C. At .
these temperatures, thermocouples and resistance thermometers do not . .
have sufficient output after amplification for the 0-5 volt measuring range.
Fuel and air conditioning temperature measurements also require the use - .
of thermistors. A .

(2) Vibration

Transducers which are commonly used in missiles

for the measurement of vibration are the unbonded strain-gage type, the
piezoelectric type, and the velocity (magnetic) type.

(a) Unbonded Strain-Gage Vibration Transducer

,jne type of strain gagc tra0nsducer is shown

in Figure 3-5 wherein four equal length strain-sensitive wire filaments are
attached between a stationary frame and a movable mass. The filaments
are connected to form a Wheatstone Bridge circuit as shown in Figure 3-6.

A - AVV~vWv -:.::

MASS
C "A/VA /V .:-.-

-D

AXIS OF
MOTION

Fig. 3-5 Strain Gage Vibration Transducer

WADD TR 6 1-67
VOLI REVi 304
vo, : .
 BIAS

VOLTAGE

AMPLIFIER VOTG

Fig. 3-6. Strain Gage Circuit

This transducer is used to sense tow-frequency

vibrations within the range of 0-300 cps. When the mass is at rest, the bias
voltage causes a 2. 5-volt output of the amplifier. The bias is necessary to
prevent the transducer's output from going negative, because the direction of
vibration is both plus and minus.

(b) Piezoelectric Transducers

This self-generating transducer type is used to --

measure vibrations in the approximate range of 10 cps to 2 kcs. They have a -
high output impedance and a cathode follower is necessary for impedance .
matching purposes. The application of piezoelectric material in cantilever
beam construction had been used to develop an extremely light weight low '.
cost vibration transducer (Ref. 244). Barium titanate crystals were erm-
ployed and final design yielded a device of approximately 0. 35 gram using ,-' c.
adhesive cement type mounting, and having sensitivities in the 4 mv/grange 3
Linearity was within a 10% variation and indications of easily obtaining 2%1
or less variations. Repeatable frequency response of ± 1. 5 db were obtained.
Lead zirconium was also tried for high temperature applications.

Z4,1 Smith, Thomas D. and Spence, Harry R., "Designing a Lightweight He

Vibration Transducer." Parts 1 and 2, Electronic Industries , January and
February, 1961. -.

WADI) TR 61-67 305

"MGLI REV 1

: : :- > -: : ::
:-." ::;:-:
., -, :•. :,:.:-.,-. :: :: :: :: ::-:: ::::: : :: :: ::: : : :: :: ::: ::::':: ::::::::::::::'3- 1
 (c) Velocity Vibration Transducer

This transducer type is used to measure vibra- 7"-1

tion frequencies between 10 cps and 2 kcps. As compared with the accelero-
meter type devices which are dependent ofn the magnitude of the displacement,
the velocity type sensor is dependent of the frequency. A wire wound core is
placed between two permanent magnets. As its case is vibrated, the core and -
wire move back and forth, cutting permanent magnetic lines of force set up by . ..

the magnets and inducing a voltage in the coil wire. The output voltage is then
calibrated against the vibration frequency. This device does not require a " -
separate power source since the voltage induced in the wire is caused by the
magnetic field of the permanent magnets.

c. Propulsion Measurements (Ref. 245)

Some of the transducers which are used in propulsion

measurements are flowmeters, flowmeter converters, pressure transducers,
pressure switches, continuous and discrete liquid level transducers, and
accelerometers. The operating principles of several of these transducers
are given in Section II of this volume. -
A thrust measuring system for aircraft engines has
been designed by Schaevitz Engineering (Ref. 246, 247) from the measurement -
of engine exhaust nozzle pressure ratio. The system is intended for installa-
tion in aircraft and gives a continuous indication of gross thrust, both on
ground and in flight. It consists of three major components: a servo-driven
indicator, an analog computer and a pressure probe set. The computer
receives exhaust nozzle inlet pressure, and ambient pressure from an
altimeter line or other source. From these inputs it computes gross thrust, *.

producing an electrical signal output to drive and position the indicator. A

pressure rake is installed in the engine to obtain nozzle inlet total pressure -
averaged across the exhaust gas flow path. Theory of operation and cornpu- '
tational analysis on the Thrustmeter Systemn is presented in detail in the
Appendix IV-3 Thrust Fundamentals.

245 Same as Ref. 243, pp. 23-29 .

246 System, Thrustmeter, Aircraft Engine, WADO Technical Report ''

No. 53-30Z, November 1953

247 A Flight Thrustrneter for Turbo-Jet Engines, Schaevitz Engineering

TR-100, November 1961 -

WADD TR6l-67 306

VOL I REV I

"- .* . •2

....................... ....... ..................... .

.- x
2-~'2N -~0.'C
~~-.A
. . * *~~ *N .. ~ \ *
 (1) Flowmeter Gonvcrter

In the turbine type flowmeter, the output .

signal is usually in the form of electrical pulses or a sinusoidal voltage
whose frequency is proportional to the flow rate, For normal flow rates,
the frequency may be 300 cps or greater. Because of the large amount of data
which must be carried on high frequency channels, it is sometimes desirable -.
to use a lower frequency channel for flowmeter signals. In such cases, an
electronic count-down circuit may be used to lower the frequency to the - -

desired value.

(2) Pressure Transducers

Many pressure transducers used in connection

with propulsion measurements are Bourdon-tube type pressure transducers.
They are used to measure pressures ranging from 100 to 3500 psig. Pressure
measurements below 100 psi are often made with a capsule type transducer. A
lever attached to the movable end of the tube or capsule actuates a wiper sweep-
ing over a standard 5-volt wire-wound potentiometer, thus giving a dc output
corresponding to the pressure. Since this measurement does not require
a high frequency response, it is the most direct method of obtaining the pres-
sure information.

(3) Pressure Switches

In many cases, a spiral type Bourdon tube is

used in pressure switches to obtain a large actuating force per unit pressure. ,.. .-*
The spiral normally has 4, 6, or 8 turns,, depending on the actuating force
necessary. When the pressure attains a predetermined value, the Bourdon
tube opens ot closes a relay which in turn energizes some other device such
as a pressure regulator. Only the opening or closing of the relay is teleme-
tered: and as this is an on-off type measurement, it is normally superimposed
on another measurement.

S. T aq
-veT u .. . I aA t tdtJ.

One of the ABMA methods of continuous level

measurement, uses a transducer consisting of a long cylindrical capacitor
open at both ends and standing on end in the liquid, which serves as the di-
electric. The gage forms one leg of a balanced bridge. As the liquid level
falls, the total dielectric value changes and the bridge becomes unbalanced.
The unbalance signal is amplified and transmitted to a servo motor which
drives the balance potentiometer and continuously re-balances the bridge.
The output is in the 0-5 volts range for telemetering.

WADD TR 61-67 307 '" -

VOL I REVlI

*' .•% . . "- -. k'.' . .". ." .

4.... ' . "- . . . -.. . . . . . ..-. ..-.-. "- ..-. " "- ".'-. ". . -.-. . -.. . - -' .--.
/-
_.
 U U

41)
s-44

a U)
0

, 04

Q)

-- I-

Nd m

~ (U

a-

WADD TR 61-67
VOLT REVi 308
 2' 7. C
- - WN v-\t .

Figure 3-7 depicts a discrete point liquid level

measuring installation using an optical system similar to that described
on pages 175 -- 177 of this volume (Ref. 248). ,

As previously discussed in SecviJ..:, t1 under

Thrust Measurements, many propulsion relationships involvc acceleration
measurements. A performance report (Ref. 249) evaluated a typical "
linear, seismic type accelerometer. The instrument tested was the
Donner Model 4310. This device is comprised of a seismic system, position- .
error detector, restoring mechanism, and servo-error signal amplifier.

This type device is small., moderately accurate,

low power consumption and readily available. Tests indicated adequate
operation for many missile and space applications to measure acceleration, L -wj
velocity (integrate output over a period of time for trajectory calculations, "
sensing pre-set acceleration levels to generate a shut-off signalfor control
as well as indication of performance of rocket engines. :g..&.,

- ACCELERlATION •R••

interest to aerospace iistru- EXCITATION

mentation is the application

of the photoresistive techni- J1
que to produce a high output K "
accelerometer. (Ref. 250)

signed such a device with a

*microminiaturelight source, C,,Lrs PHrO-" - "

a can.lever pendulum acting _ MAT.JAL

transistors. Fig. 3-8 OUTPUT

illustrates the operating ,
principle. Figure 3-8 Accelerometer -Data Sensors, Inc.

248 Same as Reference 168, pp., 8-18

249 Judge, H. R., Performance of Donner Linear Accelerometer --- 1

Model 4310, Space Technology Laboratories, Inc., STL/TN 6.0000-09117,

June 1960 ..

250 "The Photo Transducei-A General Description", Data Sensors, Inc.

Technical Bvlletin

WADD TR 61-67 309

VOL I REV 1

""A
A Nr-.A
","-"-,' ','"'%-...-...."• ': """• • "• •• -" ,-",• .. -•. .'-"- " ",. ' ," " .-. ",- ."-. . . -"""-
 An excitation of 10 volts will produce a +Z.5 volt or I. 0
0-5 volt signal for operation directly into telemetry systems. Excitation
voltages as hiigh as 100 volts may be used to obtain higher output signals.
Units have been packaged in as little as 1.3 cubic inches, weighing approx-
imately 2 ounces. Extremely small movement of cantilever pendulum acting
as a shutter to modulate light results in reported high natural frequency
characteristic and very low (0.25%) hysteresis figure.

d. Angle of Attack Measurements (Ref. 251)

Attitude is measured by angle of attack transducers.

Three types are the free air stream type, local drag vane type, and the S
local probe type.

(1) Free Air Stream Type

The free air stream type transducer is mounted

on a boom at the top of the missile. This device has four vanes which
keep the probe aligned in the air stream. Because this device is located in
the free air stream it is unaffected by turbulence which exists around the
body of the missile during flight. The vanes are attached to a universal
mounted ogive. When the vanes are displaced by wind forces, two wipers
move across two potentiometers causing the outputs to vary accordingly.
Pitch and yaw may be accurately determined by using this device. In
some cases, a static probe is used at the front of the free air stream type
meter to determine the static air pressure. Data for one such transducer
is included in Volume II of this Handbook.

2-.J

WADD TrR 61-67 310

VOL I REV 1 ,--.

• ,""" .•"" "."-" . ""•,**J

" "• • " "*"*h"- - . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .

.'- ,,. . .
•..'•- .... . .- . ..
'.... ,.'. .'. -" .- ".. ."'. .- . ."."- '-".
... .. .". .. ...... -. *..
.... .. '.. .,.-.*.--.t-. -. -,,.-,,',.' -.- ' . ,
 (2) Local Drag Vane Type 9
This type of angle of attack transducer has a
vane at the end of an arm which is mounted so as to be in the airstream.
around the nose of a missile (See Volume II of this Handbook). A po-
tentiometer or synchro may be mechanically linked to the arm to give
a signal which is proportional to the angular displacement of the arm. "

(3) Local Probe Type

Local probe angle of attack transducers are

normally flown in groups of four: two for yaw and two for pitch. They
consist of a probe having two slots placed 800 apart. Differential pres-
sures between each of these slots is a result of the angle of attack.
Pressure is directed into these slots, and fed into an inner chamber di-
vided into two parts by a butterfly valve. If the pressure increases in
one slot and decreases in the other, a differential pressure exists on
each side of the butterfly valve. This valve moves until the pressure on
both sides are equal and the 800 slots on the probe are again lined up in
the air stream. The motion of the butterfly valve and probe is converted -. -
into an electrical signal through a potentiometer wiper connected to the
shaft of the valve.

3-5 TRANSDUCERS FOR RE-ENTRY BODIES (Ref. 252)

The transducers discussed in the following paragraphs have been

recommended in the above listed reference for use in re-entry bodies and
other high-speed vehicles wherein high temperatures are encountered.
Some of the devices are still in the development stage while others have
been proven satisfactory in high-speed flight.

. z__._i*eraLure Measurement

For high-speed vehicles, the Tungsten-Irt thermo-

co iple is suitable for the measurement of stagnation temperature and a
thin metal resistance thermometer may be employed for surface tempera-.
ture measurements other than stagnation.

252 Wacholder, B. V. and E. Fayer, Study of Instrumentation and

Techniques for Monitoring Vehicle and Equipnment Environments at High
Altitudes, Radio Corporation of America, WADC TN 59-307, Vol, III,
pp. 33-45.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV1 311

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

." •," .". . ." r. ." .. .'. .'. .. , .- - - '. -,.'• 4

Z . " . " ' . -' .- . ' ' " " ' . . - - '- , . " "" '" " " ' ... . -. ."- o " -
 (1) Tungsten-Iridium Thermocouple

Tungsten-Iridium thermocouples are capable of.-

satisfactory performance in the temperature range of 30000 to 4000°F.
They have good repeatability characteristics and an accuracy on the order
of *-576. The only significant drawback is their relative instability in the
presence of oxygen. With proper insulation and protection, these thermo-
couples can be designed to function for lengthy periods. Temperature re- 6- .
sponse of 2000' in a few seconds have been obtained with the bare thermo-
couple. Insulation from oxidative atmosphere will reduce the response
time somewhat.

Protection of the thermocouple from oxidation

and corrosion may be accomplished in several ways. The usual methods
include gas tight metallic or ceramic wells or tubes. An ideal method
would be to make the thermocouple an integral part of the surface material
and located just below the surface in order to minimize response time.
Another method would be to locate the thermocouple in a groove and cover
it with a thin sheet of surface material. Available ceramic bonding cements
are good to 2000 0 F. Another method of attachment makes use of a small
disk of the skin material as one half of the thermocouple junction. The disk
is electrically insulated from the vehicle by a ceramic insulator.

(2) Thin Film Resistance Thermometer m

Thin film resistance thermometers are well suited

for monitoring temperatures at critical structural regions because of their
rapid response (on the order of microseconds), size (in the order of 1/10
micron thick), and sensitivity (temperature fluctuations of less than IPF).
They are about 75 times more sensitive than thermocouples and their sansi-
tivity can be varied by varying the energizing current in the film. Further,
they are easier to install than the thermocouple and do not require a reference
junction or reference temperature mneasurement.

Resistance thermometers constructed of platinum

paint on a glass insulator have given satisfactory performance in the tempera-
ture range of Z00* to 300 0 F (Ref. 253). The main problem in the use of thin
film resistance thermometers is that of providing a suitable bond between the
insulator and the surface to be measured.

253 Vidal, Robert J. , "A Resistance Thermometer for Transient Surface

Measurements," Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc., presented at the ARS
Meeting, September 24-26, 1956, Buffalo, New York.

WADD TR 61-67 312 --

VOLI REVI 312

.,-
 b. Pressure Measurement

(1) Dynamic Pressure Loading (Ref. 254)

The impact pressure transducer offers an attiac-

tive means for monitoring surface pressures on a hyper-velocity re-entry
vehicle. The diaphragm of this transducer is an integral part of the vehicle's"- .
surface and it is capable of sensing impact pressures to several hundred psi. ?..
In the application and fabrication of this transducer,
a surface hole is located at the point where the pressure is to be measured.
A tailored plug is inserted in the hole and plated simultaneously with the rest
of the surface, except for a thin annular ring around the outside edge of the
plug's end. In this manner, a rigid-center fixed-edge diaphragm is produced
and a mechanically stiff combination results in small surface deflections with
corresponding deformations distributed over the entire plug area. Deflections
are on the order of microinches. A piezoelectroci crystal may be attached to
the diaphragm for sensing the deflection; however, this has the undesirable re-
quiremnent for a high shunt resistance which necessitates the use of an elec- .
trometer tube which is subject to the effects of shock and vibration.

(2) Internal-Pressure Transducer

The detection of small leak rates on the order of

0. 005 psi/sec (0. 254 mm 14g/sec) may be a realistic requirement in some
re-entry and space vehicles. The Haven's Cyclic Pressure Gage (Ref. 255) is
attractive for this purpose because it is rugged, has a small volume, and
covers the range from atmospheric pressure down to less than 10-5 mm Hg.

The gage works on the principle that an ac signal can

be obtained from a dc pressure transducer by cyclically changing the pressure
at a given frequency. The ac signal amplitude is primarily a function of pres-
sure alone, The gage contains two bellows which are each open to the pressure
to be measured through a small hole (approximately 0. 5 mm diameter). They
are physically driven in a push-pull manner by an eccentric shaft attached to
a small electric motor. Resistance wires within the bellows are used as

Z54 Wrathall, Taft, "Measuring Inmipact Pressures of Re-entering Missile

Nose Cones," ISA Journal, Vol. 5, No. 1], November 1958.

Z55 A Study of Flight Instrumentation for Vehicles Operating in the Fringe

of, or Outside of the Earth's Atmosphere, Vol. IV, "Investigation of Sensing
Techniques," Bell Aircraft Report No. 6009-001, WADC TN 59-567, Vol. IV,
Part III.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV 1 313

%
sensing elements. Because the air flow to and from the bellows is restricte"'1,
by the small holes, the pumping action of the bellows causes the gas to give ,
up heat under compression, and to take in heat when it expands. These tem-
perature variations of the gas cause corresponding changes in resistance of
the sensing elements within the bellows to create an ac signal. The tempera-
ture change of the gas (and resistance elements) is a function of the mass of
the gas and hence of the pressure.

c. Vibration Measurement

-' Vibration caused by boundary layer and power plant noise

can be best monitored by piezoelectric vibration transducers. Frequencies
up to 4000 cps demand an instrument which has a natural frequency of at least
Transducers are available with sensitivities up to 50 rnv/g. Frequency %70
10 kc.
response from one cps to 15 kc is typical of commercially available units. By
use of high-temperature materials, the piezoelectric transducer is capable of
operating continuously at temperatures up to about 500'F. The temperature
range may be extended by use of cooling methods, such as water jackets.

d. Acoustic Noise Measurement

The condenser microphone is well suited for the measurement

of acoustic noise in high=specd vchicles where very high temperatures are en-
countered. Condenser microphones work on the principle of conversion of
mechanical to electrical energy via an electrostatic field. One such transducer
is constructed of stainless steel and glass compounds. The diaphragm is a
clamped glass plate whose thickness varies from 0. 004 to 0. 013 inch, depending
on the required sensitivity.

Temperature limitations of condenser microphones

are imposed by the physical properties of cable insulation. Long-time expo-
sure may be limited to approtimately 300°F. For use at high temperatures,
a probe tube may be threaded onto the end of the microphone to provide a point
source pickup. By using a heat shield between the source and the microphone ,,
it has been possible to operate at temperatures as high as 1400* F. Higher
temperature operation may be possible through use of a water jacket surrounding
the probe tube.

Due to the high impedance of condenser microphones,

it is necessary to use an impedance transformer device, such as a cathode
follower. Other associated equipment includes an amplifier and a power sup-
ply.

WADD TR 61-67 "-.. 4

VOL I REV 1 314 I- - -

-. , .-...
 00',

NASA PHOTO NO.

61-S3-1 (Delta 6)
Fig.3-9 5-3 (Delta 6) Satellite

Upper left: The Delta is more than 40 miles high und 90 miles downrange when the
second stage fires. Forty seconds later explosive bolts tear away the fairings which
enclose the S-3 satellite,

Upper iight: After coasting to about 1300 miles downrange and reaching an altitude
of 160 mles, explosive bolts and retro rockets separate the second stage, and the
third stage is spun up and fired.

Lower left; Yo-yo weights despin the third stage and S-3 satellite, and exhrust
gases di-sipate, during a 2 4 -minute coast after third stag ý L -nout, which occurs
almost 2000 miles from Cape Canaveral when the engine and S-3 are traveling at
a velocity of more than 24,000 miles per hour.

Lower right: The four solar paddles are released when an explosive-actuated cutter " -

severs a nylon lanyard after the coast period. The Delta's third stage is separated
from the S-3 by explosive bolts and a spring mechanism.

WADD TR 61-6"? 315

VOl, I REV 1

-, -- ' " - . '. •' . . . ,

3-6 SATELLITES AND SPACEPROBES

a. General

The following material pertaining to instrumentation

and data telemetering from space vehicles is presented as examples
of present and future requirements which will be imposed on the
scientist and engineer.

From statistics prepared by NASA (Ref. Z56) a list of

United Staces and Russian satellites, lunar probes, and space
probes during period 1957 to June 1960 is presented; and where
known, an indication of their payload instrumentation function is " -

stated. See Table 3-5. 'wz

Table 3-6 lists minimum instrumentation requirements

for a manned orbital type space vehicle. (Ref. 257). For initial
flight tests, the instrumentation system should provide useful and
detailed information concerning:

1. The mechanical, aerodynamic, and thermodynamic integrity

of the vehicle.

2. The operatioa of the control, guidance and navigation

systems.

3. Environmental factors related to humnan existence

and performance.

4. The psychological and physiological functions of the

pilot (passenger),

As the program progresses and many orbital flights with

successful returns are 'nade, the -ftnctioij. of the instrumentation of

tne vei~icie will change. Accumulating engineering, physiological,

and psychological data will, for the greater part, be changed to
monitoring the integrity of the space vehicle and the well-being cf
m-an. As basic infcrnma.tion is gained and new problems are encountered,
new instrumentation requirements will be added. For some time to come,
however, each trip or orbit can be considered a new expiuration.

256 iNASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1962, Part 2

257 Ellis, A. B. , "An Airborne Data Collection, T'lernetering

and Ground Data Processing System for Development
Flight Test of an Orbital Type Space Vehicle. "Natio" al
Teleinetering Conference, 1960_

WADD TR 61-67 316

VOL I REV 1

;.~ * * ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 ....
...

NASA PHOTO No.

61
-M-Scout-4
* ~F9.3-10 This is on artist's conception of the Mercury-Scout
I satellite built to test
Project Mercury's world-wide tracking network.
The cigar-sfhaped vehicle contains
transmitting and receiving equipment similar
to that used in Mercury spacecraft.

* WATDDTR 61.6 7
*'VOL I REV I
 Table 3-5 United States and Russian Satellites Lunar Probes and Space Probes, 1957 to June 1960,
(obtained from statistics prepared by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

Name Type Scientific Instrumentation Results

Weight Experiments
In lbs.

Sputnik I Russian Satellite 184 Internal temperatures, pressures,

and other data.

Sputnik II Russian Satellite 1120 Cosmic rays; solar ultraviolet The available acceler-
and X-radiation; test animal ationof this satellite led "-
"/Laika" (dog); temperatures: to the discovery of signifi-
pressures. cant solar influence on"
upper atmosphere densities

Vanguard United States 3. 25 Micrometeor impact and geodetic Vehicle lost thrust after
(test veli-- Satellite measurements. 2 secs. and was consumed
cle 3) in flames.

E:-plorer I United States i8. 13 Cosmic rays; micrometeorites: Explorer I is credited with
Satellite (a) microphone; (b) gages; what is probably the most
temperatures: internal, rear skin, important satellite dis-
front skin, and nose cone, covery of the International
Geophysical 'Year; i. e., a
radiation belt around the
Earth identified by Dr.
Janmes A. Van Allen, head
of the University of Iowa -.
Physics Department.

Vanguard United States Same as Vanguard (test vehicle 3) After a successful liftoff
(test vehi- Satellite an-' 57 eec. ef flight, a
cle 3 backup) connection between units
of 1st stage C"ntrol syttein
failed to function.

Explorer IT United States 18. 83 Cosmic ray count; rricroneteor Last stage failed to ignite.
Satellite impact count; cosmic ray Vehicle did not achieve
measurement. orbit.

Vanguard I SatelliteStates
United 3.25 measuremaents. and geodetic
Temperatures The uf
T ,solar-powered radio • -'

should transmnit indefinite-

ly. The satellite is being
used for more exact %% "
determination of the EarthI's
-shape. '1
Explorer III United btates 18.56 Cosmic rays with tape-recorder Explorer yielded vu-iable "..
Satellite feature; micronieteor gages: ata on the radiation belt
teinperalurcs, (a) skin and (b) cisco..ered by Explorer I
ilte, nat. as well as data on micro-
meteor impacts (density
of cosmic d ist) and intcreal -
end external temipe ratore
of tie sat-l:ite.

Vanguard Ulnited States Z 1. 5 Measure X-radiation from the Couipoiienit malfunction

(test vehi- Satellite suc. caused failure and Zd and
cle 5) 3d stages inmpacted 1, 500
miles from... launch site.

WAI)I)T'l 61-67 318

VOL I REV I

"- %%'. ° ''' " """* "" "-".... " . .- .. ..-- -.. ... .,. .-.-..-.
.,•.,. ,,-.'-,... . ..-. ... .... ' . '. - . ... •
 lable 3-5 -- Continued

Name Type Scientific Instrumetation IResults

Weight Experiments
In lbs.

Sputnik III Russian Satellite 2, 925 Atmospheric pressure and

conipos ition; concentration ofa
positive ions; satellite's elec-
trical charge and tension of
earth electrostatic field; tension
of earth's magnetic field; intensi-
ty of sun's corpuscular radiation;
composition and variations of
primary cosmic radiation; distri-
bution of photons andheavy nuclei .
in cosmic rays; micrometeors;
temperature measurements.

Vanguard United States 21.5 Solar lyyman-Alpha radiation Malfunction causedl failure.
vehicle 1 Satellite and space environment. 3d stage of satciiit, reached
(no name) peak altitude uf 2 200 miles - -
and traveled 7, 500 rniles.3
from Cape Canaveral. lay d-
ing near cast coast oi Union -
of South Africi.

Vanguard United States 21.5 Measurements of X-radiation Second st;tgs motor cut oil
(S,V2) Satellite from the sun. preniaturclo due to low
(no name) Ehanib,:n" pressure and
termInated the fi,-ht.

Explorer IV United States 25.8 Two Geiger-Mueller counters Valuable data on radiatio!
Satellite and 2 scintillation counters to belts was o.cqcired.
measure corpus cular radiation
at several intensity levels. The
subcarrier oscillator was cali-

tore mneasurem~ents. k

No name Untied States 25 Measurements of radiation Engine faqure i. lst stage "1
l.unar probe in space; magnetic fields of caused vehicle blow up 77
Earth and Moon; density of sccord, atft-r launch.
micrometeoric matter;
internal temperatures;
electronic scanner.
IJ.'plorer V United States 25.8 Measurement of corpuscular Orbit was urt ed,
dchi.
Satellite radiation at several intensity flight time: fih9 seconds.
levels.

Vanguard United States 21.5 Two Infrared photocells to scan It is believed tu have n:l t0e
(SLV 3) Satellite earth's cloud cover. 1 complete orbit of Earth
before ariling back and burning
up over Africa.

Pioneer I United States 39 Measurements of radiation First ousorsatioc that radia-

Lunar probe in space; magnetic fields Of tion is a baod. Mapped total
Earth and Moon; density of ionizing flux. Jst ob-ervatiun"
micrometeor matter; internal of hydromagnetic oscillatjons
temperatures; electronic of nmagnl.tic field (A Earth.
scanner. Discoveredtd..rlu e of &
magnetic field f"om ileojrelical
predictiui. tat determination
of the denie2.ty of rnicromnteors
in interpl-e itzryr cpzAce. 1st
l'easourcntents ot Lhe lint rc-'
planetar,,, magnetic. field.

WADD Tit 61-67 319.

VOL I REV I

•._ .- •.s '-v-.. -;"-pr" "-pcv -:. .- >xr-yv

".- . 'x..•.5',," -.",•..
".-.o'-t,. , .' ::r - "
" - .
.•" -r.
-
-'
.
-".,..'<v
" - . . . - - - , -"..,
-.,. - . -. -
"..
-.-.-
%... . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 3-5-- Gontinued
t
Name Type Scientific Instrumentation RCsu 6s
Weight Experiments
In lbs.

Beacon U.:ited States 9. 26 Ejection of sphere from payload Part ol th,' cluster, includ- *.
Inflatable package; sphere itself would be ing payload, separated fromn
Satellite used to study atmospheric density the booster prior to booster
at various levels during lifetime burnout.
of about 2 weeks.

Pioneer I1 United States 34. 3 Total ionizing radiation; cosmic 3d stage failed to ignite.
-unar probe ray flux; magnetic fields of Earth Evidence that equatorial
and Moon; density of micrometeoric region about Earth has
matter; internal temperatures; higher flux and hibor '.
electronic scanner. energy radiation than
previously considered.
[Suggestion that mnicrometeor
density is higher around
larth than iný space.

Pioneer III United States 1Z.95 Mes.sarcment of radiation in Discovered 2d radiation

Space probe space. belt around Earth.

Project United Statcu 150 Twin packages of radio trans- 1st time a human voice has
Score (Atlas) Satellite mittirig, secording, and receiving been beamed from outer
apparatus, each weighing 35 lbs. space.

Lounik or Ruscia 3, 245 li,-tran,ents to measure tempera- In orbit around Sun on 15-
Meehta Space probe tu.e and pi'essur'e .;nsi.d -,ehicie; I-o. cycle,
(Dream) ii strumencs to study gas corn-
ponents . f interplanetary matter
apd corpuscular radiation of the
3wi; :••agnetic fields of Earth Moor;
rn:Ž.teoric particbes in space; heavy
"nuclei in primary ccsmic radiation .4m
anid other properties of cosmic
rays.

Vanguard II binled bSates 20. 5 Cloud cove . In general the satellite, and .- \
Satelirte its instrumentation function-
ed as planned. thowever,
interpretation of cloud cover
data has been difficult be-
cause satellite developed
a wobbling (precessing)
rn otion.

Discoverer I United Sta.tes 245 Chock out propulsion, guod- Difficulty in stabilization
Satllite arnce, sJtagIng. conimniuni.catia.ns, caused tumbling which
hampered consistent track-
ing acquisition.

Pioneer IV United Siat:.s 13.40 Measurem-Ent o;f radiation in Probe achieved its primary "
Satellite s pacc. 'lest photoclectri,: .,eetor mission, an Earth-Moon
in vicinity"of Moor. trajectory, yielded excellent
radiation data and provided
a vatuable tracking exercise.
While the probe reached the
vicinity of the Moon, it did

(/00, 000 miles) to trigger

ptkotocloctric sensor or
samipte Mourns martiaiiorr.

WADl TII St 67 31,0

VOL, I iEV I

-. -. 4 4. .. - . ..- ".-"
 Table 3-5--Conti...d *
Name Type Scientific listrtiin.."tation
Weight Experiments lResu Its
In Ils.

Dis coverer United States 1, 610 To reecovcr capsule; maintain All equipin elt worked ais
SSatellite temperature and oxygen sufficient progra..med excepl tinier 4
to sustain life; emulsion packs to which ejeeted ,11apsule.'. "---
measure radiation. Capsule, 'Which l0 aimil'I'd
radiation cm olsi , p ks".. .
is . ....ot i funl..i.

Vanguard United States 23. 3 Vanguard 3A contained a precise Id stage failed 1t o...-,te
2 Satellites n1agiietonmeter to be used to nap prope rly which , .i'. I a-
Earth's magnectic field. Vanguard tumbling miotion. Playload
313 was to measure drag in space. aiid 3d stage I-I1 -lo
Allanti, Ocean.'

Discoverer United States 440 Measo' em eni of cosmic radiatimi , Tracking statiois did iot
III Satellite and bonmedical cvi ronm ental research, receive tceltinetry f1o0 .
nose cone re- amd capsule recovery teclhniques satellite; doubtful it
entry capsule. by C- 119 aircraft patroling achbitevl orbIt.
recovery area.

Vanguard United States 22.5 Mlesasrturments of solar-eartb A faulty 3cl stage pressure
(S1,V-6) Satellite heating process which goncr~tcs valve caused failure, and it
weather. plunged into Atlantic Oceaii
sir.. 30t. n
.i.lea
-theast
of Atlantic Missile Range.

Discoverer United States 1, 700 Capsule contained telemetry Failed to achieve orbit.
IV Satellite and equipment to measure its Insufficieut velocity caused
nose cone re- performance failure to orbit.
entry capsule..

Explorer United States 91.5 Mvieasurements of (1) earth's Vehicle was destro]yed by
Satellite radiation balance, (Z) Lynman- range safety officer after
alpha X-rays, (3) heavy primary 1; 1/2 sees. wheii it tilted
cos,,mic rays, (4) micro.metet rites, sharply.
(5) cosmic rays, (61 satellite
tenperature, and (7) erosion study-
of exposed solar (silicon) cell on
outside of satellite.

Explorer VI United States 14Z (1) i-easarement of 3 specific Valuable data transiitted
Satellite radiation levels of Eartlh radiation on distribution of dust"
boll; (2) TV-like scanning device to particles and coeentcrationi "V -
relay cloud cover picture; (3) solar of low-ene. rgy particles.
cells (8, 000 in all; 1, 000 on each
side of 4 paddles) to create voltage
to recharge the sateliita 's chemnical
batteries in flight (electronic gear
in satellite includes 3 t cr. .itte,-rs
and 2 receivers); (4) micrormieteor-
ite detector; (5) 2 types of magne-
tonmeter to mnap Earth's niagmeitic
field; (6) 4 experimnents to stud)y
behavior of radio waves, all aiimied
at Icy niniiig om ore about deep space
Communications.

Discoverer United States I, 700 Same as Discoverer IV. -3atellitc went into orbit, all ., ,
V Satellite and '-quiilpmlit working as liero-
nose cone re- grarmed. loewever, recmltry
cntR-' .:apsule. capsule was not -cc oveterd
due to cnalfulictiumi following
its ejc ktiuil fl olo, satellite-.

-S

WADD TIt 61-67 321

VCL I REV 1

"-- -" C
"•"'" ' ' ""•"", ' ": '"-•"" " -" , " ,"-:&- "-& ""t"" "-K"":t" . "" - .": ".--- . . ., "- "- .- .- -'
 3
Table -5--Continued

Name Type Scientific Instrumentation Results

Weight Experiments
In lbs.

Beacon United States 25.8 Inflatable satellite of Mylar Payload failed to achieve
Satellite plastic film and aluminum foil. orbit due to premature fuel
Satellite itself contains no depletion in booster and
instrumentation. ýnalfunction in attitude con-
trol system for upper stages.

Discoverer United States 1, 700 Same as Discoverer IV. Same as Discoverer V.

VI Satellite and
nose cone re-
entry capsule.

"Lunik II" Russia: 858. 4 Instruments to measure tempera- 58. 4-lb. lunar probe hit
Lunar probe ture and pressure inside vehicle; surface of the Moon at
instruments to study magnetic 5:02:24 p. ni. e. d. t 1 rmin.
fields of Earth and Moon; rnetoric 24 sec. later than predicted
particles in space; heavy nucleii by Russia scientists.
in primary cosmic radiation and
other properties of cosmic rays.

Transit I-A United States 265 Transmitters: (a) 54 inc .; (b) Satellite failed to achieve
Satellite 162 mc. ; (c) 216 rue.; all at 100 orbit, the 3d stage did not
rMw. fire.

Vanguard Ill United Slates 50 Measurements of earth's mnag- Provided comprehensive

(SI.V-7) Satellite netic field, solar X-rays, and survey of Earth's magnetic
environmental conditions in fields over area covered;
space. detailed location of lower
edge of Van Allen Radiation
Belt; accurate count of
nrllomlleteors. ,

Lunik III Russia 614 Two cameras, developing When satellite was about
translunar mechanism and automatic devices 40, 000 miles from Moon's 'N
earth satellite for triggering cameras, develop- surface, the cameras were
ing processes and transmission triggered. Tht&y produced
picl,1res to earth. Also automatic photographs of high precision
temperature control mechanismr. showing 70 percent of Moon's-"-
Other experiments not disclosed. backside. Cameras were
operated on Oct. 7, 1959,
for 40 ruins. Pictures were
transmitted to Earth shortly
before reaching perigee on
Oct. 18, 1959. Z.

Explorer VII United States 91.5 Radiation balance; lynman-alpha Provided significant geo-
Satellite X-ray; heavy primary cosmic ray; physical inforiat:on on 6L-
micromreteorite; cosmic ray; radiation and magnetic
exposed solar cell; temperature storms; demonstrated
iiieasurcemcnts, muethod Of controlling""
internal teripe ratures;
first iimicroineteorite pene-
tration of a sensor ini flight;
detection of lI. rg.- scale
Aeathi cr patterns,

Discoverer United States 1,700 San e ats Discoverer IV. Satellite went into orbit,
VIli Satellite and however, reentry capsule
2nose cone re-
entry capskic.le,
was :iol releanied due to
allfunction oh electrical
system and possý le lac•l -

of stabilization.

WADD TI 61-67 32-

VOL I REV 1

!. n .
 3
Table -5--Continued

Name Type Scientific Instrumentation Result

Weight Experiments
In lbs.

Discoverer United States 1,700 Same as Discoverer IV. Satellite went into orbit, L. ,
VIIi (AR PA) new'ver, although reentry
capsule was ejected it was
not recovered and search
was abandoned.

Pioneer United States 372 To obtain basic measurements Malfunction in Znd stage
Lunar probe of the lunar en..sronine nt. (1) guidance started failure
Measurements of 3 specific energy and satellite did not go into - 0
levels of cosmic rays; (2) TV-like orbit.
scanning device to relay lunar sur-
face picture; (3) solar cells (8, 800
in all; 1, ZOO on each side of 4 solar
vanes to create voltage to recharge
the probe's chemical batteries in
flight (Note. Electronic gear in
probe includes 2 transm:tters and %
Z receivers); (4) micrometeorite
detector; (5) 2 types of magneto-
meter; (6) radio wave experiments.

Discoverer United States 1,700 Launching technique, propulsion, Vehicle rose from pad as ." -

IX Satellite and communications, orbital per- programed, Telemetry was

nose cone re- formance, recovery techniques, lost soon afterward. Radar
entry capsule. and advanced engineering tests. showed that the Discoverer
failed to achieve orbital
velocity and fell back to
Earth, %

Discoverer Same as San-e as Discoverer IX. Vehicle rose from pad as

I
A n wcuv
DI er. i IA I v l±d4,i~tI L i,•
u t i~ f
course at Z0, 000 ft. and
headed for nearby seacoast -
cities. Range safety officer
destroyed vehicle 52 sec. "
after launch.

Midas United States 4, 500 Payload: Infrared, telemetry, It is presumed that 2d stage
(Missile Air Force communications, and other separationi did not occur and
Defense advanced engineering test equip- the vehicle burned up upon
Alarm nrent. Experiments: To estab- reentering the atmosphere
System) I lish workability of the Atlas - about 2, 500 miles downrange
Agena comnbination, launch from Gape Canaveral.
procedure, -nd tracking and
conAmunications svstemns. The
Midas program is designed to
detect heat radiating from the Ar ;
exhaust of ballistic missilos and
to feed detections into the air
defense warning neta

Pioneer V United States 40 Mission: To provide information Many "firsts" in long range
(1960 Alpha) space probe about space betwc2n the orbits of connmunications, gauged
Venus end Earth; to test the feasi- solar flare effects, particle
bility of long-range intorplanetar-'- energies and distribution,
type corninunications; and to ini- and rnagnietic field plhenomneiia
prove irtthods for measuring in interplanetary space.
astronorrical distances. Rxperi-
ne..its: Measuri•..enits uf radiation,
magnetic fields, 11nicroructe, oruid
activity, and temperatures. '4

WAI)D Tit 61-67 323

VOl, I REV 1

S. . . .... ......-. > -.b.

,- -" -." v '.--......... ..... -. . ..... , - --- --. '--.. -...---.... '--V V --.- -.- ---- :
 'A. -.- - P., .r

Table 3-5 Continued _"_- ,__

Name Type Si itiil istruieiitatioc iesults -,

Weight Ex.,per,•.ents
n ibns.

Explorer United States 12. 19 Nlissiolz: To analvze til energies Ground stations lost ,
Satellite .I.i
of electron aid protoin rad;atioji .. i...ieati....s with th Ze.
in the Van Allen Radiatioii vehicle
oones, after 2d stage
Experiiinets: Detailed .. asure- burnout.
ilicnts of energetic plarticlis il tie
Van Alleni Radiation Zones.u.d of
teniperatures inside and outside
the payload.

Tires (Tele- United States Z70 Experimlents: Z IV systeiis-1 Because of an apparently

vision and meteorological wide angle, I narrow angle, imoperative relay, inier-
infra-lied satellite photograph cloud cover and tl'eos- rogation was ceased Jule
Observation mat images to Earth, Other 28, 1960, after- reception
Satellite) I instrunieniis: Telert etrv,
co-timand, of Z2, 952 highly sucCessfnl1
(1960 Beta) and aii attitude sensor sys tent. cloud cover photographs.tls

Tr ansit I-B United States 265 Satellite instruments: (a) 2 ultra- In. orbit April 13, 1960. "
(1960 Garnma) Navy satellite stable oscillators (radio frequency with estimated life of 16
generators) in temperature- Imoniths.
resistant Dewar flasks. Each
oscillator can transmit oien2
frequencies. (b) Infrared scanner
to isore satellite's
*e rotation.
(c) Z receivers. (d) 2 telemeter-
ing gathering and sending devices.
Experiment: To doterminie the
feasibility of and improve equip-
roent for pi oviding a global all-
weather navigation system that is
more reliable than systeinms now i.'
use under any weather conditions.
Ouch a sys.tem woul eliauie ships
and aircraft to locate precisely
their positions on earth regardIless " - - -

of weather.

Discoverer XI United States 1, 700 Same as Discoverer IX except that Zd stage easnig with capsule
(1960 Delta) Satellite and about 10 lbs. of instrum.nits were went into Polar orbit.
nose cone re- installed in the 2d stage casing Capsule was ejected. The
entry capsule. (satellite) for a tracking experi- capsule was not observed as L
ment connected with the Transit descending iito the recovery
develUplnteiit progranl. The 'I ransit area, aiid recovery was not
instruinieit package consists of a attempted.-
Doppler beacon and external lights
for optical tracking by IBaker-Nunniii
cainermaa of the Srnithlsoniai Astron-
physical Observatory. (See T'ra.nst
1-B. ) Discoverer prograni
objecties are to gather data on
satellites and their behavior, on"
stabilizatioi of a satellite ie orbit, - - -
and on techniques of recove ring
objectives that have golle into orbit.

Echo United States Z40 Telemetry l,camon in 3d stage; Did not achieve orbit dueito
casimg desigited to follow sphire apparu'lt mnalfuction iin th,
into orbit. Op ratiiig at 108. 06 attitude controls on 2d stagc
3
in , continuou1 s fir 6 to 10 days Imitd foilore 'of ,1 stage tc,,- -

(est.) at 60 row; powered by rce'ive ignitiom s.gmial.

Mercury battcrica; designmcd as - . ,
passive corimnmiiiiieatiomms satellite - .
with allmiuim oatinmg to pidovde
radio \vave reflet tivity of 98 per- I ,
cenit up1 to frequeimcie,-s of 20, 000 --.
iti C. "."

WADD TIt 61-67 324

VOL 1 REV I

N-Nbc ".,--- " """,""'' '"'''''""' - "". ""'"a '' . .,,.. . -..... ,.., . -" ,. "''"'"" .- " " ' ...- '" ,,," ' '' - '
S,'
--
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-
--
t,•
. " • .
- - - -
'.
', - -'--- .'.
• "
'.-.',
i
,"
•
"-- -'"-.---.-%
' ' iI
,,.- -- - ..- - - -,. -. -- v-:--
I
..
II
- , -- .. - -• .- ... ",--."-- .-- .,.-.a
Table 3-5--Continued

Name Type Scientific Instruin ietation tesults

Weight Experiments
In lbs,

Sputnik IV Russia 10,008 A 2-part craft with undisclosed l-aunch and near circular ,
(1960 Epsilon) shape and dittuetusions. ''Dummy orbit achijeved. After
"Spacecraft" spa- eman" with environmental retrorockei firing on May
c ustrol system. 19. 995 mc trans- 19, 1960, pressure vesseL-l
nmitter for both telemetry and apparently separated from
j
"telephone" systemi-s. Tape oI cabin but due to orientation
voice transmitted to ground stations, fault went into lops'ided
orbit instead of ree..tering
the atmsospherc. .

Midas II United States 5,000 Instrumentatioti details not re- Orbit achieved. 2 days
(1960 Zeta) Satellite leased. Includes infrared after launch, data link
telemetry and coi-niunications telemetry tranan ittuing
equipmcritt. infrared scanner iifvoruna-
tion to ground statins
ceased functionintg.

Transit 11-A United States 223 Two ultra-stable oscillators; Two satellites placed ini
(1960 Eta) Navy plus 42 lb. infrared scanner to measure Earth orbit. Both traits-
pickaback satellite's rotation; electronic mitting clearly.
satellite clock as time standard; Cana-
dian receiver to me..asure galactic
noise. 42-lb. pickalhack satellite.
with insturments to nmeasure solar
radi- tion and other information on
ionosphere.

Discoverer Same as Same as Discoverer XI, except Failed to achieve orbit,

X1i Discoverer XI extra instrumentation was added reentered the atmosphere
in ani effort to determine the causes and burned up over the
of previous Discoverer failures. South Pacific.

. . . . . --. . . . '. - .. . --..... . .

5- % Ni:-:- ';-c% **- U : 2_

WADD Tit 61-67 32ý5

VOLT IREVlI

%,-- - ---- __-__

 T

A-A

-4- --..-, . . ...-

----. - ...
- --.
Fig.3-11 Launch of a NASA 4 -stage JUNO 11 Rocket carrying a 90 pound satellite
designed to make a d~rect measurement of the Ionosphere, launched into orbit at
12:23a.m., EST, Nov. 3, 1960.
o
WADD TR 61-67 326
VOL I REV 1
Table 3-6 Minimum Instrumentation Requirements for a Manned Orbital
Type Space Vehicle

Vehicle Integrity

Number Pre-orbit -Orbit Re-entry

Temperature measurements M X X
Stress and Strain measurements M X X
Vibration and Flutter measurements M X X
Meteorite impact 1 X

(other factors included below)

System Monitor and Operational Evaluation

Pitch Acceleration 1 X X X
Body Angular Rates 3 X X X
Linear Acceleration (two ranges) 6 X X x
Attitude Indications 3 X X X
Elevon Positions 2 X
Actuator Pressure 2 X
Control Current to Reaction Units 12 X
uVet valve .osition I? X
Fuel Rate of Flow 12 X -- 2
Fuel State 1 X
Command Receiver Signals P X X X
Outside Air Temperature I X X X
Outside Air Pressure 1 X X X k

Stagnation Temperature 2 X X
Wing Leading Edge Temperature 10 X X
Position Data 2 X X X -i
Radio Altimeter Signal 1 X X X
Programmer Signals P X X -
Power Supply Voltages P X X X t..•
Power Supply Frequencies P X X X
Ram Air Pressure 1 X
Static Air Pressure 1 X
ON-OFF Signals
Roll Control I X X
Pitch Control 1 X X

WADD TR 61-67 3Z7

VOL I REV I

"4." ... $" "" .. -,

 Table 3-6 (continued)

Number Pre-orbit Orbit Re-entry

Yaw Control 1 x X
CO2, Level Warning 1 X X
Cabin Decompassion 1 X N
Attitude Control System Failure 1 N
Environmental Control System Failure 1 x N N
Electrical System Failure
C02.° I x N N . .

Radiation Warning 1 NX
May Day 1 N N

Environmental Factors "k2as

Cabin Wall Temperature N x x X
Cabin Air Temperature . X .,
Cabin -Air Pre ssure 1 N N
Suit Pressure I N N "Ks
Radiation Rate 1 N X
Humidity (Cabin) 1 N
x
Acoustic Pressure (Cabin) N N N
CO? Partial Pressure I X X x
CO ilter VObe
Status 1 reortN ObiRe-ntS
N ,..l
02 Reserve .~~~~ . 1 . . N . N N

M = Number of measurements determined by test phase and progress of

the test. U-.--

N =Number
- - - -- - - - - - -
of- measurements
-. io
determined 1~.'NC
.
by the cabin
Xi
-
configuration
X and " •:
Wttitude progress Coto of test.
Sysem ailre 44¶.::--. -X
P =Number of measurements determined by system configuration. -
Table 3-6 Pumnan Factors Continuous recording and monitorinig

Name Rang c

EKG (Electrocacdiograrn) (2) 0 - Z 5 nyv

IRieispiratory Rate 0 - 60 tp0n
Respiratory Deptb 0 - 50 cps
Hleart Rate 0 - 300 cpm :2-•

Heart Sounds 20 cps to Z kc

EEG (Electro-unceo,halograrm) 0 - 50 cps
GSR (Galvanic Skin Respoonse) 5,000 20,000 ohmus
Blood Pressure
Systolic -11]"
Dia stolic..-
Muscle Aclivity 30 cps to 5 kc -
Eeba.ll Movement 0 - 1.0 cps
O1 Flow Rate 2 - .2 cft/2riin
Body Temperature (7) 60 -- 115 Y'

71

'4

N. :4
I•tli

¼
d
"'A

WADI, TPV 61-67 329

VOL. i REV 1 .

- - 4'-4 .* .-. "

§4~* t.- - 4
 %e

Fig. 3-12 A pho togruph Ic conc epti on of the 78 pound payload (P-14
Magnetometer -Plasma Probe) on its journey to oute-r space. The P-14 probe
is progr~immed for a four-day 100,000 mile orbit and return to the edge of the
earth's atmosphere . The heart of the payload is a 1.5 pound rubidijrm vapor
magnetomneter, two fluxgate magnetorneters, weighing about one pound each
and a plasma probe, and an optical aspect sensor weighing about 2.5 pounds.
The experiment is expected to determine more pre:zisely the nature of the
inter-action of magnetic fields and solar corpuscular radiation.

WADD TR 61-67 330o

Vol, I REV 1
 b. Experiments

(1) Erosion, Impact, and Piercing (Ref. 258)

Erosion of a satellite's shell ihrough bombard-

ment by dust, nmicrometeorites, ions, molecules, and atoms may be
recorded by chromium-strip erosion gauges on the satellite's surface.
Electrical resistance of the guages changes as their surfaces are changed

I
by erosion. Cadmium- sulphide cells may be used as photoze.tsitive .
detectors. Such cells, when coated by an opaque coverinig o.. Mylar
plastic and deposiud aluminum, exp)erience resistance changes as
the covering is eroded or penetrated. Telemetering the resistance
changes permit the estimating or erosion rates.

The ionosphere probe (Ref 259) 1960 X.;

(Explorer VIII) carried a microrneteorite photomultiplier" experirment •
using a conventional "end-type" 7151 G photomulliplier with c one-
micron evaporated layer of aluminum on the front ,:urface,
microi-eteorite particle penetrating the alurninunacatn registers,'•,•,.:

its visible-light energy on the photo catho:'. The resulting plse-

varies in length and amplitude as a function of thie raicrome:eorite' s .'
kinetic energy. The maximum sensitivity of the sensor to light
pulses is 10- erg.

Also contained in l9,0OXi wa;s a micron- eteorite

microphone experiment measuring t, frequency ad rnorcntun "-"
micrometeorite impacts. The rnic.ron.etcorit'- targets corsisited of two 7.
I
"sounding boards" located on the lover cone of the sate'lite ar(.
acoustically insulated from the satellite skiii.. Attached to each sounding
board was a microphone that detects tCe impulse that occurs when a
micron-1eteorite collides with the sounding board. By pre-flight
calibration the detected impulse may be related io the mornentnrr, of
the incoming particle.

The Scout 3-55 ;atellite(Rc', 260) will carry

I
five micrometeoroid detectors: pressurized ce)ls, foil gages, wi.re
grids, cadmium.-sulfide cells and impact srnsors- The i-mpac, sensors
are piezoelectric crystal. impact -detecting tranisoucors accusLically
Sdecoupled from satellite structure and have three levels cf in-mpact-
detecting sensitivity. The cadmium. suJ±l"de cella arc moun.ted in

258 "IGY Satellite 1959 Eta, "I'M 3Bulleti.n, Number Z8,

National Academy of Sciences, Octobe. 19-59, p. 13.

259 "Ionosphere Direct Measurement Satellite, "ICY 3ull.etin,

Number 42, December, 1960. "

260 From News Item, Electronic flcsign, Ss'pternb:r 13, It.61

WADD TR 61- 67 331

VOL I REV I

%*.* &.. ... r .- v'-.... . ... . .. .. ..

aluminum flasks. Their exposed surfaces aPre covered with a sheet of
1/4 rmil Mylar, coated with evaporated alumninum on both sides. The
foil-gage detectors consist of an electrochemical deposition about q
90 mtcroinches on 1-nil Mylar and mounted to 304 stainless -steel
samples of rocket skin. The wire grids consist of 46 windings
of fine copper wire mounted on 1,45 x 7 inch rectangular melamine
ca.rds. The pressure cells are the primary sensors of the probe.
Tbey are beryllium copper detectors composed of 160 half-cylinders
fioni 0. 1000 inch to 0. 5000 inch thick. A

Conventional pressure transducers may be used to record

the .Inpact of roicrometeorites which are large enough to penetrate
the shel] or special skin area of a satellite. Hermetically sealed
pressure zones would be placed to girdle an area of the interior
wall. Thtse zones would be pumped down to partial vacuums, each
czt a differel-t pr,,ssure. With differential pressure transducers
conn.,cted to each pair of zones, data would be generated indicating
which zone is punctured.

The 1960 Airpha (Pioneer V) carried a device (Rcf. 261) to record

microineteorite impacts and lauer relay the indication to the earth.
Thi;s device deveioped by the Air Force Cambridge Research Center
consisted of a diaphragm about twice the size of a playing card mounted
on the paylcacd skin a.nd cornected to a microphone. The noise of
irnpac& on the diaphra•gn- is tr,.nslated to an electrical impulse which L
is recorded wvitb other signals and later relayed via telemetry
syrtenrt to the earth.

The 1959 Eta (Vangacrd III) carried a microphone-impact

counter s ysteni (Ref. 262) utilizing fcur piezoelectric transducers
attached to the nmetallic skin of the satellite. The resulting electrical
impulses frorn imnpacts trigge red a three-digit, magnetic core, decimal
co•nter. A tone-burst indjicating tie count of each decade of the counter
• s sent via tele:.nesry sy..temn. Care must be employed in counting
systenm•._ t,-;
teinsure aga.inst fa.-lse triggers, resulting from- electrical-
noise: in satellites electronics or deterioration from environmental
(tem~perature, radiation etc.) effects.

261 "Pioneer V Space,' MI-Y Bulletin, Number 34, April, 1960.

26,, ''Satellite Measu,-einents of Cosmic Dust,' IGY Bulletin

Numbc cr 38; August, 1 60.

WA DD TRf 61 - 67 332
VOL I REV I

':"o.'~~~~~~~~~~~~.F.-..".:',""..v......". . . % ...- .'"' ."...."..-..-". •-..r

 (2) Magnetic Field Measurements (Ref. '263) ,

Charting the earth's magnetic field in space,

is of special importance to future manned space explorations since
such charts will indicate the best routes to avoid regions of intense -

radiation trapped in the magnetic field. In addition, space measurements "

of the magnetic field will aid in a better understanding of magnetic
storms. These solar-related storms render virtually useless many
devices which rely on the magnetic field, such as the magnetic compass,
and surveying and navigational instrumentation.

Magnetometers are used in the measurement

of the earth's magnetic field. The 1959 Eta (Vanguard I11) carried
a magnetometer which consisted of a copper coil filled with hexane
located in the tip of the magnetometer tube. Wires connect the
coil to electronic equipment and batteries in the satellite sphere.
On command from a ground station, the coil is energized by 6. 5
amperes of electrical current for about two seconds. This, in turn,
orients the protons (H+) in the liquid and causes them to spin within
the coil in a prescribed manner.

After the current flow stops the protons spin '.

for another 2 to 2. 5 seconds in wobbling orbits in a manner dictated
by the characteristics of the earth's magnetic field. The frequency
of the proton motion im1 parts voltage to the coil. This voltage is then
amplified and transmitted instantaneously to a g:round receiver where
it is taped. Simultaneously a reading is made Ž t the ground magnetometer
with which each of the interrogating stations is cquipped.

The 1960 Alpha (Pioneer V) satellite carried

a one-pound search coil magnetometer developed by STL. This in-
strument was designed to determine the strength and direction of
magnetic fields in space.

263 "IGY Satellite 1959 Eta, "IGY Bulletin, Number 28,

National Academy of Sciences, October 1959, p. 1 3 .

WADD TR 61-67 333 N 4

VOL I REV I--

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 On March ?25, 1961, satellite 1961 Kappa
(Pioneer X) was launched (Ref. 264) see Figure 3-14 of planned orbit. '
It was the first flight into deep space with a highly accurate rubidium-
vapor magnetometer. The Explorer X model measures field intensities Q
ranging fromn .01 to 7000 gamm-as. It is absolute reading instrument
in that its measurements depend only on fixed constants that do not
require calibration.

MOON

SUNLIGHT - !AREA OF INTERPLANETARY

VAN,ALLEN "~.~A
F.ADATIONT JETR-

.Plamned Trajretory of Explorer X. The satelibte's actual orbit. was very close to that
Acton, providing the desilcd relative positions of earth, so.-' moon, and satellite, NASA
photogrc ph.

Figure.3-14

The rate at wvh;ch thE. outera .Pb-87 electron

rvvolvercJ aro-ani its nimxcleu.s is known pr ýci se~ly and woulc' r-oue
afrequency of nearly 7 cyrcles. per :5ecofid ina ,%,-ahxiagnctic '- c-c
o~f 0. 00001 gauss. The frequency is di;rectly prop-=o,-io',a.1 to Ilit-A,1
fiei'i strength e.
-i. stronger the field, the hig'kcr the frequency-.
,the

"Explorer X M~agnctic-FAield and PlasijTP .- Pý(obe Satel.1itc,

IGYT-Ilet~in, Number 48, Junse, 1961.

W AD 1) Tit 6 1- 67 331i
Vol, I flEV1 1
 This is the way the rubidium-vapor
magnetometer works: Light from a small rubidium lamp passes
through a filter, lens, and polarizer, and polarized light at a wave .'i
length of rubidium then passes into a cell containing rubidium
vapor. The light is absorbed by those rubidium -87 atoms having
a particular orientation in the cell. When this occurs, the cell
becoiries opaque to the passage of light, which is detected with a
silicon photoceil whose output is fed to an amplifier.

Astheopaqueness exists for only

one-half cycle of the spin of the rubidium atoms, the cell is -
alternately opaque and transparent at the spin frequency which is
determined by the strength of the magnetic field. This produces .- L3
a fluctuating light at the photocell which is then amplified and fed
back as a small alternating magnetic field, which produces an ordered "-.'
alignment of the 'ubidium atoms such that the process will be self-
continuing.

The 1961 Kappa also carried two

flu•gate magnetometers weighing about one pound each and considerably
inorc sen ntiv, than those flown in previous satellites. They are
intended to measure fields from 0. 5 to 25 gammas and to determine,
prirs.:rily, the dire:tio- ef weak magnetic fieldls The fluxgate
rragne-n'meters are oriented on the payload at a specific angle,
such that the spin of the payload mnakes it possible also to obtain "94
total-field me;? surements.

An 8 3 -pound spacecraft designated as

t
S-3 will carry a magnetonh cer package containing three orthog-
o'.:iy mountedl sat'rable core macgnetozneteTrs with calibration
coils. The field ctff-.cts frormi denszely packed electronics and in-
strurnent: wili be con.siderably reduced. (Ref. 265)

265 Samne.as Re'cf. Z60.

WADD TIR t&;-67 336

VOL I R 1{V I

>4.--.--.......
 INOT VARIAN SUPPLIED

IIEAD

FniT~r
OFM4I IOIO

SA AMI
U F RECEIVER -

± 0POLARIZN ERA PI AERYIZER ÷9

TRIGGERSGNA

Figure 3-17 Block Diagram-Rubidiu Vaporo Magnetomneter

VOLIL4
RR J

'GULAH 1IGFoA

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0' . . ..
-~~R * ... - *
BDU * . .. . - -. . *.- -. - C '.-*
 S-3 ENERGETIC PARTICLES SATELLITE

SOLAR CELLED
PADDLE NO 2
(LOW)

ELECTRON SHROUD
SPECTOMETR
-- ,~ - , ,SEPARATION PLANE

MAGNETOMETER*
ENCODERCONVERTER-7
TELEMETRY ENCODER'7
OPTICAL ASPECT COMPUTER /',-----LOW ENERGY PROTON ANALYZER
TURN-ON PLUG
SOLARCELLEXPERMENT/--,COSMIC RAY LOGIC BOX
SOLAR CELL EXPERIMENT__
AND DESFIN CONINECTOR -REGULATOR
/-11' CONVERTER -

ION-LECTON ETECOR -~ /SINGLE CRYSTAL DETECTOR

OPTICAL ASPECT CONVERTER -

COSMICRAY LOGICBOX CONVERTER >- ----- GM COUNTER

SOLAR~OLA - GELLED--
~~ODLEPADL
/ NO..3'..
(HIGH)7~
(HIJ)/

DODDLE SCNTLA.O TELECOP

NEIGHT ANALYZER
PULSE COVETE /- " " OPTICAL
d ASEC . ONSTOR

-DATA ENCODER

SOLAR GELLED PADDLE NO. 4 ATNAEULYSAE

(LOW) BETWEEN SOLAR CELLED PADDLES

FLUX.~A7 MANETOETER- ,-PULIL AWAY PLUG(STRUT 3)

DESPIN DEVICE ,/r-MICRO SWIIlCH (4 PLACES)

d-J /

RECCL
TIER TIMER (STRUT 2114)
PROGRAMASWITCHTER SOLAR ARRAY VOLTAGE
0 4 B 12 I6 20 24 \.TAS'TRREGULATOR

jy 6-I1-61

Figure 3-15

WADD TR 61-67 338

VOLI REVI
 ,.- 440,

The Varian Associates Geophysics Technical Memorandum No. 8

discusses magnetometer applications in space probes. A table(3-7)of
specifications is presented indicating various types and their usage. (Ref. 266) .-.

Table 3-7 TABLE OF SPACE MAGNETOMETER SPECIFICATIONS

14110 14542 6-414 5 X454 X41418

1. Kmosene andOil
KePrI Mexane Rbl Rbf Rb- "
2. FlELDOPERATION:
a. Ringo(animaaa 12,0000
-52,000 12.000 to 52,000 5,GO0to 54.000 3 to 0D,00 7 to 110 _
or ±6,000
b. objectileSensIlivily30 5 15 1 0.1

c. ActualSasltivtty 2 0.6 0.02 G.02 -

(gammas)
3. tOTALPOWER MaximumDusyCycle Maximum DutyCycle 8.0 62 35"
(watts) is 50%; 102 wuing is 50%; 102during
polarization polarization
4. OPERATING LIFE 1 4300 cycles in 85 500 1500 5000
(hours) days
5. DIMMNSIONS•
a. Instrument Volume* 13b 92 382 88 59 -
acubic
Inc)le"
I. TotalWeight 6 2/ 0.5 2.6 1.9
(pounda)
6. ORIENTATIU1NDATA:
a. OptlmiamAngleif Oionicirectiunal so, 45' 45° 4Y
SeniorAxisand kz i
Total Field
b. Deadtonas None 50 polar 29' polar 5° polar 15' polar
I01 equator I0f equator t0' equator
7. FLIGtI"DATA:
a. Dates Since July '56 Sept '59 Dec. '60 Maurch'61 August6t
b. Vehicle Aerobe-; AerobeeHi VanguardIll Jauelin ToorD-elta AtlasA.geea
c. Altlt'd.
1-":; or Orbit 103 to 300 2200/320 717 145,000 600.000 lest -'"--"
d. ries:dEaosgut.red 20,000 to M0,0OD 7,000 to 16,000 30,400 to 57,000 trot available as yet

(3) Electromagnetic Radiation Measurements (Infrared, Visible and

Ultraviolet) "
A great amount of special instrumentation carried in space probes
employ electromagnetic radiation sensors in the range of infrared, visible and
ultraviolet. Some devices use these sensors in relating characteristics of the
space probe (orientation, spin rate, roll, yaw, etc.) in its flight, and othe•:
devices measure presence and amount of such radiation in the changing
environment of the space probe. The radiation sensing elements can normally
be classified under two types: (Ref. 267) those responding to optical radiation,
and those based on non-producing effect. Scintillation counters and Cerenkov
counters may be considered systems combining the two types. Infrared, visible
and ultraviolet sensing elements are normally of the optical radiation type.

266 Geophysics Technical Memorandum, No. 8, Varian Associates.

267 Same as Reference 120, Chapter 5.

WADD TR 61-67 339

VOL I REV I

. , .0• • -
 (a) Radiation Balance Measurements (Ref. 268)

The 1959 Iota satellite carried experimental equipment

for the study of the thermal radiation balance which is thought to greatly influence
the earth's weather. Near the equator, the earth receives more energy from
the sun than it radiates into space; conversely, it radiates more energy into
space in polar regions than is received there from the sun. The transfer of
energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes is being studied by measuring
direct radiation from t•', sun; the fraction of this radiation diffusely reflected
by the earth, clouds ai - atmosphere; and the fraction of radiation which is
converted into heat by the earth and ultimately re- radiated back into space
in the far infra- red portion of the spectrum.

Six sensing elements were used: two hemispheres and one

sphere painted black to measure total energy at all wavelengths; one hemisphere
painted white to measure radiation of longer wavelengths while reflecting
shorter wavelengths; and two sensing elements with a special coating to measure
short wavelengths only. The black and white sensors were short about one
and one-quarter inch in diameter and the elements with a special coating -\

were about one inch in diameter. Each sensor contained a thermistor for
temperature measurements.

Figure 3-18 shows a block diagram of the instrumentation

used aboard the 1959 iota satellite, including the heat balance experiment_
(Ref. 269).

(b) Ultraviolet Measurements '-

Solar ultraviolet radiation has been measured on the 1960 Eta 'N"-.

2 satellite using Lyman-alpha ionization chambers (Ref. 270). They were _ -

cylindrical in shape with a diameter of 3, 4 crn and length of 2. 4 cno. Each

chamber was fitted with a lithium fluoride windoe,' and filled with nitric oxide (NO). . -

at a pres.sure of 15 mm of me rcurv (Hg). The detectors have a quantum yield,

-c efi4n.ie , of the or$, Nf 300%an :nrl siensitive to wavelengths
between 1040A and 134"A; the first is deternined by the transparency of thi.'
lithium fluoride and the second by the ionization potential of thc nitric oxide gas. •.,•
In this wavelength range, Lyjman-alpha radiation is the predominant solar
emission and contributes all but 10% of the ion-chamber response.

2.68 1G"GY Satellite 1959 Iota,". ICY Bulletin, No. 29, National Academy
of Sciences, Novembetr 1959, p. 13.

269 King, Olin B. , "Signal Processing Explorer VII " IRE Transactions,
Fifth National Smn~posiumn, 1960, on... Space Electronics and Telemetry, Sept.1960
Sectioil 42-, p. 10. --
270 "Solar Radiation Satellite," IGV Bulletin, No. 42, National Academy
of Sciences, December 1960, p. 2.
WADD TR 61-67 340
VOi I REV I

"...... .... . ..... ........ .. . .. .... .. ... . .......

 I , ,,. , , o j]1I 0.. ..

14 IL__ .w,. NF F o -.

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- "2:_
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134 N.VO.1RE 4.'-.N-

-.- "
L 6 F -
1 W , REV------ N-o 2 -..-

S-- - _ -T--

0I.0 m f

."=_ 0
 SOtAR FLARE

N RADIOWAVES

\
PARTICLES
A-RAYS

-
ULITRA
VOLET FREGION 200 MILES

E REGION 65 MILESMIE i u e 31

*j*AtJNCIIING
The Sunflare Ex~perimnent. The
two-stage experimnetial TOcket is launched
immediately af!er a flare is~ reported,
'
Penetrating the ionospheric layers and d
mneasuring the flare radiations. Cam para-
&iv wciveieng~i/s ol tne ratiarior& Spec-
trum are suggested -schematically.

SOLAR POWER SUPPLY %*

DYAETLECTUNOIERELSER X-RAY DETECTOR
DEETR NTENNA 6EIDMAGNET

DLTECTOR
SKIN THERMISTOR
~AOUiNTING
FLANGE

Two Views of 1960 Eta 5. (Adapjted from NRL photographs.)

Figure 3-ZO

WADD TR 61-67 32~

VOL I .EV I
 zlo
0 * )
L.)
< x-C
N 0

ol
.N
z.

104 0 C

L- 0:~
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0)

(7-~ 0

VOL. a)RV
-~~~~~~~~~~~
. -- .. ~ .* - - - - - -. . - - - >q~ &-- X - - -
 .. .... ..
. .... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .

Under exposure to the full ultraviolet spectrum of sunlight,

there would be a progressive deterioration of the efficiency of the detectors I.*
as the result of photochemical decomposition of the nitric oxide gas. To
minimize this effect, each tube is covered with a mask containing an aperature.
having an area of only 9.4 x 10-5 (about 1/10, 000) cm , The response through
this tiny aperature is sufficient to provide a readily measured current signal
when the tube is exposed to the sun. The use of two tubes, mounted side by
side and connected in. parallel, provides backup in the event of failure of one
of the tubes.

Tbe Lyman-alpha ionization chamber will be used in

scanning telescope aboard Ranger 1 and 2 spacecraft (Ref. 271). The prin-

cipal purpose of this telescope is to obtain a series of low resolution pictures

of the earth and its exosphere in ultraviolet light near the Lyman-alpha wave-
length (1216 Angstroms).

(c) Infrared Measurements and Devices

On June 24, 1959, an Aerobee-Hi research rocket carried

aloft three spectro--radiometers, successfully demonstrating the feasibility
of packaging precision infrared equipment for extreme environments and
very limited space and power requirements.

In infrared spectroscopy, inadequate sensitivity often makes

Sit difficult to obtain data on weak source of radiation. To overcome this,
Block Associates, Inc., with partial sponsorship of the Geophysics Research
Directorate of the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, has develop-
ed a technique of interference spectroscopy and reduced it to practical labora-
tory and field instruments. The interferometer spectrometer basically
attains increased sensitivity by making more efficient use of the measuring
time, by examining all wavelengths simultaneously, and by requiring no
entrance slit, as in conventional instruments.

Since most detectors are not fast enough to follow the fluctu-
ations of the radiation, the interferorneter is used to "slow down" the waves.

271 Scientific Exp.riments for Ranger 1 and 2, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,

Technical Report No. 32-55, January 3, 1961, pp. 20-22

WADD TR 61-67 344

VOL I REV I

f-a,°.

....................................

...............................-. -
 A block diagram of the spectrometer is shown in the
accompanying figure.

Interferometer section Fi,;ed mirror

•• S• ~/'Entrance aperture determined by mirror .:

ion0
t / " - • --• - ^ M ir ro r a c t u a t o r : ! ::
Infrared / ,LI --
rodiat' Sawtoothja
• S• I osciilatar

Beam splitter -

Amplifier Tap
recorder ":
I.
I-R detector.:••• -

Figure 3-22 Interfer:,meter Spectrometer

VWlhen one of the mirrors in the interferometer is moved back and forth at
a slow constant velocity, there is an alternate brightening and darkening of
the central fringe. The infrared detector is placed at the central fringe so
that it converts the alternate brightening and d~trkening into an alternating
electrical signal.

If the mirror velocity is kept constant, the frequency of the

detector output is directly related to the wavelength of the incident radiation,
assuming for the moment that the radiation is at one given wavelength. If
another wavelength twice as long as the first should be substituted as the
radiation source, the a-c output signal would b on.e-.. al. the frequency of
the first. The amplitudes of the two signal wculd remain the same if the
maximum brightness of the two sources were the same. If incident radiation
containing many wavelengths is introduced into the system, the output of the
detector consists of a superposition of all the a-c signals which correspond
to all the wavelengths iai the source. This output is amplified and recorded
on a magnetic tape which can be "played back" on a spectrum analyzer.

WADD TR 61-67 345

VOLI REVI

S• ~~..v......-x:., -.- L..-..-.'.. ...-........-.

v .. ,F . ....
-....:. ..-.......-... ... '....-.-...-...- -...---.... '
-, * •*.•% ,"..- ' '• - ,.". ,,",
....-..
. ",,"•". '. . .- ••......
,•. , -",",
..-... , ,• •*''•*%'
o-.,,...~ '¢,-... '.-', -- :, .' . '-2•-•''"
- .. ' . -.' , . :' . "".. "" -. "•""'"""
 The Aerobee-Hi rosearch rockez instrumentation consists of
one filter radiometer using a lead sulfide detector, one filter radiometer
using a flake thermistor detector, and one scanning spectrometer using a C
lithium fluoride prism and lead sele-aide detector. The total volume occupied
by these instruments, including their battery power supply, was less than
300 cubic inches (about the size of a large loaf of bread): and the total
power was less than 35 watts.

The satisfactory opc_-ration of the equipment and collection -'

of radiation data throughout the rocket flight was climaxed by the recovery
of the instrument packages after a T" ree-fall" from 120 miles altitude. All
three instruments were recovered i.: sufficiently good condition to be flown
again.

Figure 3-23 depics an infrared horizon sensor developed by

Barnes Engineering Company of S: imford, Connecticut for use in the
Mercury Manned Spacecraft.

DETECTOR FIELD CONICALSCAN

OF VIEW :7CIRCLES
-5.57 INCHES/-N

DRIVE MOTOR ROTATING 7' K I

I / PiTCH SENS OR
- I
OLL

4
-~~ TRA ECr~TORY
-

3 4.13
INCHES SANN

ELECTRONIC A',Em."
PACKAGE EAR TH

"Figure 3-23 Infrared Horizon Sensor

Figure 3-24 Horizon Sensor Operation

The astronaut makes observations through a periscope pointed downward at

the earth. A means for keeping the spacecraft horizontal with respect to
the earth is required to insure proper observation as well as planned per-
formance by the astronaut of his other duties.

Two infrared horizon sensors are positioned at right angles

to each other in the spacecraft;(see Fig. 3-24) one for sensing pitch errors, the

WADD TrR 61-67 346

VOLI REVI1

l"•,., ....., , , -. ,. %.,..

-.. -. , .t
%%
¾...,... .¾...¾
-.. -.. . -.

i i i i - - . . -.- ---. . .. ..
I i i
 LO

other for roll errors. These sensors continuously scan earth and space
to detect the "thermal horizon" between the nearly absolute zero of outer
space and the warmth of the earth's troposphere. This horizon is the best
available stable reference for establishing a vertical to the earth below,
affording accuracies of better than +1 0 from the true local vertical. Using
this reference, the sensors generate electrical signals which are used 0
to periodically correct the inertial platform which is the primary
stabilizing element in the Mercury Spacecraft. Each sensor contains a
detector for converting received infrared radiation to an electrical signal,
a rotating prism for scanning the detector across earth and space, and
a transistorized electronics system for processing the detector's elec-
trical output signal and converting it to the form of pitch and roll
correcting signals, in a package 5 i/2 inches long x 5 1/Z inches diameter,
including mounting flange.

The accuracy with which the earth's infrared horizon can

be determined is affected adversely by reflected solar radiation, which
could produce disturbing discontinuities from cloud edges, topographical
features, or the night/day division line.

Fortunately, spectral filtering will separate reflected tn

solar radiation from the earth's self-emission. Solar radiation has a

color temperature of about 6000 K, and appears almost entirely in the
spectral-region from 0.2 to 2 microns. The earth, at a much lower
temperature, radiates in the long wavelengths, and a thermal detector with
high sensitivity to long wavelengths, a system can be made almost completely
independent of solar radiation. A suitable combination is a germanium filter with
a thermistor detector. Germaniumn is completely opaque below 1.8 microns, and

347
WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1
a

4* ... . . * * .- . . .- . ..- -. ,.- ' - - . .,.- -, .- ,

- . . . . . . . . . . . .

.4, ~ ~
- - . 4 -
 transmits reasonably well between 1.8 and 20 microns. Fig. 3-25 illustrates
the spectral distribution of radiation received from the earth from a point in
space and (dotted line) the transmission characteristics of germanium.

The horizon sensor will occasionally scan the sun. HPre- - 111-E"CT'.N

cautions must therefore be taken so that this condition will not generate
false data or possibly damage the detector with too long aP.°o•°., R of ~
period4MPL.~ ~
con-r ~ I 1• .ETIR t,-

centration solar energy. In the Project Mercury capsule the sensor operates
only for short periods at regular intervals, so a sun shutter operated by a
centrifugal force' was inacorporated. Thus, the shutter opens Mi
only when the .
scanner is rotating and is not damaged by brief scanned exposure times.
P,. .... ,,,,,
Fig. 3-26 is ablock diagram showing electronics and function circuits.% .0 1 ..--

Figur 3-5spectral distribution of

rdainrcie rmteerhfo on n.
Figure3-25 Spec dle n
orftrstc
tetralnsistssioi of germani........-1.
TRANSMISSIONCIUT
OF GERMANIUM (40%)

REFLECTED'
RADIATION 7

trnsEF Es
Iwe

RadiaionRcmthe
Earts
beI we 1.8 a

Figure 3-26 Horizon Sensor Block Diagram

'II
The 1959 Alpha (Vanguard II) satellite included a cloud cover
experiment (Ref. 272) developed by the U. S. Army Signal
-- '---".
Research and - - -"
- - s -"
REF ECT
D.I:.
Development Laboratory. The instrumentation used two photocells, each at--
the focus of one of two optical telescopes aimed in diametrically opposite
direction at an angle of 45 from the spin axis
S.
of the satcllite. As the
.
sateliite .-. • " ''

II
. .
Figure. . ec.
. . . . . . . . . .a..
. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . ...... . .... .
272
.. 6i,.K Fifth
$& US-TOY Satellite, ICY Bulletin,
-
Number 22,
April 1959
-26HrznSesr:okDiga.
'iur '
The
1959-Alpha (Vnur aelt nlddacodcvr..-..:

WADD TR 61-6734
VOL I REVi1
 -- C ----- .

circled the earth, the photocells measured the varying intensities of sunlight
reflected from clouds (about 80%), land masses (15-20%), and sea areas (5%).
The satellite's spin, about 50 rpm, caused the photocells to scan the earth in @1
successive lines, producing a lined picture not unlike a television pictute.

The measured reflection intensities were converted into .

electrical signals, which were stored in a type recorder within the instrument V
package. Separate solar batteries turned on the recorder only when the earth
beneath the satellite was in daylight, giving 50 min of data per orbit. The
75-ft loop of recording tape accommodated all scanning data from the sunlit
part of a single orbit. Once in each orbit, a selected ground station interrogated --.-
the satellite by signalling a command receiver within the satellite, causing the
entire tape to be played back in 60 sec. The tape was then "erased" and the
system triggered to begin recording again. At the interrogating ground
station, the data were received on a wide-band magnetic tape recorder and

the tape was immediately air-mailed to the US Army Signal Research and
Development Laboratory for analysis and conversion into cloud-cover pictures.

F, 7

•'4 4.

Cutawcy Diagram of Satellite 1959 Alpha. The in-st rumentahton consists of (1) photocell
light shield_, (2) recorder, (W) interrogation radi, rereiver, (4) mnetorological data transmit-
ter, (5) photocell, (6) data electronic equipment, (7) tracking transmitter, and (8) mnercury-
cell batteries. From US Army photograph.

Figure 3-27

WADD TR 61-67 349

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.-. 2~ ~ ~ • -;:V.
 .tax

Fig. 3-28 Tiros 11 Mock Count Down and Tower Removal:.

WADD TR 61- 67 350

VOL I REVi1
 0

The Tiros I weather satellite launched April 1, 1960 (Ref. 273)

sent back over 20, 000 usable TV pictures of the earth and its cloud cover.
Functionally, Tiros I consisted of two separate nearly identical systems
differing only in the type of lenses (wide-angle and narrow-angle) of the TV
cameras used. Each system consisted of a television camera, a magnetic
tape recorder, a TV transmitter, suitable command circuitry and a beacon
for tracking purposes. A battery and solar cell charging system was used
for power. The complete instrumentation system was quite complex to
track the satellite, initiate a telemetry switching cycle to sample battery
voltages and other operational characteristics, then command play back of
recorded tape, select desired sequence of wide angle and narrow angle picture
taking. The pictures were coded with orbit, altitude and sun-angle information.
The TV picture was a 2 second frame time, 500 line scan requiring video
bandwidth of 62.5 kcSee Fig. 3-30 for system component arrangement of
Tiros I.

Tiros HI, launched on November 23, 1960 continues the

cloud cover experiment begun with Tiros I. (Ref. 274) Additional sensors
were included to map solar and infrared, or heat, radiation in various
spectral bands. One of the radiation experiments consisted of five radiation
detectors, oriented at 450 to the spin axis, which scan through a combination
of the satellite's rotation and its movement along the orbit. These detectors -9
measure:;.-
1. The earth's albedo--the percentage of reflectivity of radiant energy,
or light--in the spectral range 0.2-5 microns.
2. Infrared radiatinn ernitted by the earth- and at.mosp.hee
-. c ol"b i""d
in the range 7-30+ microns.
3. Emitted infrared radiation coming through the atmospheric
"window" (the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to which the atmosphere
is quite "transparent") in the range 8-1Z microns. Measurement in this
spectral rang? should supply information that may permit (a) cloud detection,
especially at night and over areas where the TV cameras are not operated;
(b) determination of cloud-top temperatures and, accordingly, a rough measure
of cloud-top height; and (c) determination of surface temperatures over cloud-
free areas.
4. Radiation from the water-vapor spectral band, 6.3 microns ;- 5%.0,
These measurements should show the geographic distribution of the approximate

be near the height of the tropopause (about 20, 000-50, 000 feet about sea level).

273 Mesner, M. H., "Signal Processing In Tiros I Instrumentation System"

IRE Transactions, Fifth National Symposium, 1960 on Space Electronics and .-
Telemetry.

274 "The Tiros II Cloud-Cover and Infrared Satellite", IGY Bulletin, No. 43,
January 1961.

WADD TR 61-67 351

VOLI REV1

.. . .. . .. . . . . . . ..i , * ....
 4

Fig.3-29 Launch Preparations on Tiros Ill at Cape CanaveralI. Launched at 5:25 a. m

Juiy 12, 1961

WADD 1Ký 61-67 352

Vol, I REV I
 L Ia- <- (f s

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olo

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WADD TR 61-6735
VOL I REV 1

------------------------------------------------------------------

.......................................................
.p 6

"5. Visible radiation in the spectral range0 5-0.7 microns. This

"visual channel intended to provide maps of visible radiation for use inl relating
the television pictures and the nonvisible-radiation maps. 6

The second radiation experiment consists of two sex~sors. one

white and the other black, which together mcasure the heat balance of the
portions of the earth's surface and atmosphere viewed by the wide-angle
television camera. The white sensor meaures heat radiation fronm the earth
while the black sensor measures both visible (reflected solar radiation) and 0
heat radiation.

(4) Nuclear and Penetrating Radiation Measurements

(a) X-Ray Measurements

ttg
Solar ultraviolet and X-ray radiations are responsible
for the formation of the earth's ionosphere. They are variable and produce .'
day-to-day and seasonal changes in ion density. During solar flares, these
radiations cause sudden ionosphere disturbances which seriously disrupt
long-range radio communication and navigation systems. Collection of data
on these radiations may enable improvements in predicting the range of
short-wave communications. Satellites have been instrumented for the purpose
of measuring X-ray intensities and variations.

An experiment to measure X-radiation from the sun

and its effect on the earth's atmosphere was included in the 1959 Eta earth
satellite (Ref. 275). The main components of the experimental equipment
"were two identical ionization chambers which were sensitive to wavelengths
of 1-10 Angstroms (X-rays in this range are produced in solar flares.) The
ionization chambers were oriented about lZ0° apart on the satellite's equatorial.',
plane and the. maximum signal occurred when an ionization chamber "'looked" I
in the direction of the sun.

The 1959 Eta X-ray instrumentation equipment also %.-

included an electronneter circuit and a p,,-----------g iinenjiury device. Currents
generated in the ionization chambers ,xere amplified by the electrometer circuit
and the memory device retained the maximum Z-ray sigral received during
orbit. The memory core was the controlling element in an audio oscillator
which modulated the satellite's telemetry transmitter upon interrogation by .
a ground station. Analysis of the modulation provides information on the
intensity variations and energies of X-rays entering the ionization chambers.

275 Same as Reference Z-63 up. cit. p4 12

WADD TR 61-67 354

VOL I REV 1

,.... .,
 s.. Stater -

c:, TetI.(opfi MIT

--IL

Top** e *1

12tostriL Dock

-De~cidt

NASPHT NO.ip
IIB itil
6 -JUnOete

the,hihy-ohitcae 5-5i ege odtc nesurehig

energy
rys emited
amma by he sun star and gaaxes wiltb ct

W 08D
, Tracki7n35
VO
1 I tE Pc

A. ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 5-.

The 1959 Iota carried X-ray ionization chambers

with beryllium windows and filled with argon gas (Ref. 276). These detectors
were sensitive to wavelengths of 3 to 15 Angstroms. -

An X-ray ionization chamber was used on the 1960 Eta 2

satellite. It contained a beryllium window with a surface density of 0.025
gm/cm and an open area of 2.33 cm 2 (Ref. 277). Th,. absorbing gais wa,.
argon at a pressure of 760 mm Hg. Maximum efflcie~icy of the detector \vas
76% and occurred at 2.8 Angstroms. The X-ray chamber was mounted OiL the -
equator of the satellite behind the gap of a permanent magnet having a fi( ld

strength of about 3000 gauss. The magnet served as a "broom" to prevent

the passage of low-energy electrons of the Van Allen radiation belt. This
was nearly 100% eifective for energies below 0.5 mevo

(b) Plasma Probe (Ref. 278)

The plasma experiment of Explorer X was to obtain

measurement of very-low-energy protons coming to the earth from the sun,
and determine their direction of flow. An instrument weighting about 2.5
pounds was designed to measure the density, direction and bulk velocity of
interplanetary plasma. Positive and negative particles would enter the
probe through a six-inch circular aperature and pass through a series of
grids behind which there was a collector. With this arrangement the probe
was sensitive only to protons with velocities ranging from 6 mi/sec to 1000
mi/ sec. Experiment was highly successful with 60 hours of data being

(c) Cosmic Radiation

Cosmic rays are electrically charged particles

which bombard the earth continuously and from every direction. Being
markedly influenced by the earth's magnetic field, low energy particles are
deflected toward the vicinity of the two geomagnetic poles, and only the mno re
energetic ones penetrate at the middle latitudes. Geicer counters and ioni-
zation chambers may be used for measuring their intensity and fluctuations.

276 Same as Reference Z68 op. cit. p. 13

277 Same as Reference 270 op. cit. p. 13

278 "Explorer X Magnetic-Field and Plasmva-Probe Satellite," IGY

Bulletin, No. 48, June 1961.

WADD TR 61-67 356

VOLI REVi

'¼ . .'.,. . . .

4 ...
. .... . . .... < .'.
. .. 4. .. . .. 4 .. . . - . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . .

"•"/"""
. '"i . . .
''"--"":1" ."""--'''. ".' . 1%'"""'"
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 o D<
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0 0L

L- D

WADD~L4 5 cR6-6
VOL2 RE
 Ranger 1 and 2 spacecraft will carry a quartz- " "
fiber integrating-type ionization chamber (Ref. 279). The chamber consists--
of a sperical volume of argon gas contained by a thin steel wall (See Fig. 3 - 3 3 ). 0
The entire working mechanism is made of fuzed quartz, which is an excellent
electrical insulator. The areas shown in black in Figure 3-33 are covered with
a conducting coat of aquadag. When no voltage is applied, the fiber, which has Z.
a conducting coat, lies about 0.020 inch from the collector. When the power
is connected, the fiber is bent by electrostatic attraction and touches the collec- -
tor, charging it to the battery potential. The fiber then moves back to its
rest position away from the collector since the fiber, collector, and shield can
are all at the same potential.

The r-ectric field between the collector and outer shell

is more than sufficient to collect all ions formed in the argon. The ionization
current discharges the collector until the fiber again touches and recharges it,
simultaneously producing a voltage pulse across a load resistor. Hence, - -
the time between pulses varies inversely with the rate of ionization in the argon;
a pulse occurs after about oo coulombs have been collected from the argon.

The 1960 Alpha (Pioneer V) carried instrumentation

to measure the intensity of high-energy radiation between the orbits of Eart---
and Venus, (Ref. 280). The University of Chicago developed instrumentation,
a triple- coincidence proportional- counter arrangement, consisting of a bundle
of argon-filled cylnders, six of tlhen, arangd. around the seventh. The entire -.. a
bundle, including a thin lead shield to screen out the lower-energy particles,
is •WO inches square. Particles striking the counter ionize the gas in the tiny
cylinders, causing electrical "blips" to be recorded as they penetrate one or
more cylinders. The number of cylinders a particle can penetrate depends
on its energy and direction.

(5) Other Ionization Measurements

The ionosphere probe 1960 Xi carried a single-grid ion

trap and a multiple-grid ion trap to sutdy ionization in immediate vicinity of
vehicle including ion sheath effects in areas surrounding the vehicle (Ref. 281).
The ionosphere provides a near vacuum and ionization source and it is only
necessary to provide a grid and plate or collector to complete a space vacuum tube.
"'t-

Z79 Same as Reference 271 o ci.tp.pp. 8-11.

280 Same as Refercnce 261l

281 Same as Reference ZSZ.

WADD TR 61-67 358

VOLI REVi

--. -1
U~~ - . .---.

,,,~~~~~. . ....-.... ',,*",•

... - . . . .•.-,. .-.. '---.*. . _..-.. -. - - -..--- _ -- -- ..
 :
COLLECTOR

ION-CHAMBER WALL
BLACK DENOTES
CONDUCTING AQUADAG
OVER QUARTZ/

SHIELD CAN

QUARTZ FIBER

Fig. 3-33 Cross Section of Icn Chamber and Quartz Integrating System

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REL359
 The wide variety of experiments necessary when ven-
turing into unknown regions can be illustrated by a list of the ranger I & 2tI
experiments plan. (Ref. 282).

1. Solar Plasma - Solar Corpuscular - 6 detectors, 33 lb.

Detector total, Z.74 w pwr.
2. Solar Plasma/ - Semiconductor Detectors & - 6 detectors, 3 .8 lb.
Cosmic Radiation Thin-Wall Geiger Counters total, 0. 1 6 w pwr.
a. CdS Photoconductor
b. Thin-Wall Geiger
c. Med.- Wall Geiger
d. Au-Si Counter t,
3. Cosmic Radiation - Ionization Chamber 2 lb., 4 mnw pwr.
-1.

4. Cosmic Radiation - Triple- Coincidence -9lb. total, 0.5 xv pwr.

Telescopes
5. Magnetic Field - Rubidium Vapor -5.75 lb., 4.1 w pwr.
Magnetometer
6. Neutral Hydrogen - Lyman Alpha Telescope - 15 lb., 1.4 w pwr.
7.Cosmic Dust - Micrometeorite Composite - 3 x 6 x 5 l/ 2 inches,
Detectors 3.55 lb., 0.2 w pwr.

Brief descriptions of assorted instrumentation includ-

ed in the "Able" series (A-ioneer I, II, V, Explorer VI and others) may be
found in Ref. 283 and Ref. 284 discusses experiments in Explorer VII.

282 Hibbs, A. R., Eirmer, M., Neugebauer, M., "Early Ranger Experi-
merits'', Astronautics, September 1961.

21RI Coleman, P. J. Jr., "Signal Processing For Space Vehicle Experi-

ments", Fifth National Symposium on Space Electronics and Telemetry,
1960.

284 King, 0. B., "Signal Processing in Explorer VII", Fifth National

Symposium on Space Electronics and. Telemetry, 1960.

WADD TR 61-67 360

VOL I REVi1
. . . . . ..... .
 c. Project Mercury Aeromedical Data Display
:@1
A description of the aeromedical data display as part of the
overall monitoring and control of a manned orbiting space capsule is
presented (Ref. 285) illustrating application of bio-instrumentation in
space vehicles.

The aeromedical position presents those quantities which

are considered to be vital to the monitoring of the Astronaut's physical
condition. The meter display is arranged so that the four primary measure-
ments, Percent Oxygen Remaining - Main Supply, Body Temperature,
Respiration Rate and Pulse Rate, are in a column at the left of the display.
Ranged to the right of the Percent Oxygen meter are measurements relating
to or having causative effects upon the Capsule atmospheric environment such
as Percent Oxygen Remaining - Emergency Supply and Suit, Cabin, Partial
*Oxygenand Partial CO 2 pressures, respectively.

Likewise, to the right of the Body Temperature meter are

found causative measurements such as Suit Inlet, Cabin and Inner Skin temper-
atures and Percent Coolant Quantity Remaining. The arrangement allows
the monitor (in this case a medical man) to quicklyscan the four most vital
meters vertically and, should trouble be indicated on either the Percent
Oxygen or Body Temperature meters, scan in a horizontal line to the right
to locate t-L tr-ouble souyce.

Immediately to thc right of the Pulse Rate meter is the

Cardioscope, which allows for EKG waveform examination. Included in the
Cardioscope circuitry are provisions for aural monitoring of heartbeat,
change of oscilloscope writing speed and selection of either of the two EKG
waveforms for display. .

The analog voltages to drive the Respiration Rate and Pulse

Rate meters are derived from specially designed counting circuits. The
Respiration Rate circuit counts respiratory cycles over a 30 second pe2;od,
while the Pulse Rate circuit counts heartbeats over a 15 second period.

The rate-to-analog system for measuring pulse rate consists

of dual decade counter circuits. One decade counter provides a continuous DC
output for display on the DC meter for a 15 second period while the outer " "
decades are counting the pulses for the next 15 second period.

Z85 Ferber, D., "Project Mercury World-Wide Telemetry and Display

System", Proceedings of National Telemetry C,)nference, 1960

WADD TR 61-67 362

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-.- , . ..-................. -
 n. ....

AA

NASA PHOTO NO.

61 -MR4-80
"Fig3-35 CAPE CANAVERAL, FLA. -- A Project Mercury spacecraft
carrying Astronaut Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom on the Nation's second manned
space flight landed in the Atlantic Ocean about 305 statute miles from here
and about 145 statute miles east northeast of the Grand Bahama Island at
"about7:36 a.m., EST. today. The craft reached an altitude of about 118
statute miles and a speed of approximately 5,310 mni s an hour.
The suborbital flight of the Mercury-Redstone 4 required about 16
minutes. Preliminary data indicate the pilot performed satisfactorily during
flight.

WADD Tt 61- 67 363

VOLI REV.

.-'-
.' ,, . -*-.v -•'' -'v -'- . . .. ... - ..-. - v -. ,, ., , . - . .,,,. . . . - -- - -.- -. , ,. - .- -',,, , . , ,_,. . - , ., ., ,-
. . .. . . '.
.. . ,,.,, .......
'... .,...... . .. . ..., . ,_.. . ....'. '. . ... ,.... ... _.... . '. . .,, " ., ,, " .- -. ' , -. - ,,.. .' ,

•t••
'- • 'i . t• ':•'.'• " ; :* ,. ' .
 The wave shaping circuit differentiates between the R vavc,
which is used to provide the count and the T wave, which may approach the
amplitude of the R wave under certain conditions. Figure 3-36 shows a typical
EKG waveform. The output pulse of the wave shaping circuit is fed to the0
trigger gate amplifier. The trigger gate amplifier in turn develops a pulse
with a rise time of less than one microsecond, which is the requirement for
driving the decade counters. Each of the counting units is comprised of two
decades, representing pulses per minute in units and tens. The outputs of
the units and tens decades, which are staircase voltages, are added across
a resistor summing network in the ratio of 10 to 1. Another decade counter
will count the 1 pps timing signals, developing an output for eac]i 15 input
pulses, thereby switching the trigger output from one counting circuit to the
other and simultaneously from one switching network output to the other. The
system for measuring respiration rate is similar to that for heartbeat except
that a decade counter is employed which develops one output pulse for each
30 one secnnd timing pulses.

In addition, the Aeromedical Observer has available

immediately to his left, a direct writing, 8 channel pen recorder upon which
EKG and respiration waveforms are available in a familiar form as well as
recordings of derived pulse rate and respiration rate for the purpose of ri
-.. , noting trends. R - -
140
""'• PER MIN 100 r -""

Figure 3-36 T rF;PRAlION

Typical EKG G- FORCE

Waveform 0,FIOPF
Q EVENT0 1- 2,, :I"13'0

TIME, MIN~4 9IAI

Measurements of Vital Physiological Elements of Astronaut Shepard kl 1IoInauWS J'lIIc a11 IltsJl-'atitl ". "
Before and After MR-3 Flight Iilti(,tis durinlg MR-3 Flliflt. Flh'ht,
t', G-Jorct' profilefl 1
al, t,:,j,,r flight"'-
h . "
PostCight '. I
ar1 s/1 u'n f,,r ,,mpuri. i1. m . ."'--
Vital Physiological Preflight hsr air3 follolIs:(2 ) nn- i 11.1 I 0
(/I/ 7M//-I"'
rlerne,~. .re.. hhipboard
II- 1 I .L3
h .- po sslcl C (2) -b/ l ,'/I-lI'Irj lin.n',olt- ,P l"--

I
______________________________________ '~' '~ ,Jl, ,8/aIccrrafl-bolt( cttr s0/Ia~ltilli, toull/.
Body weight 169 lb 4 oz 167 lb 4 oz 166 lb 4 oz . 0lccc•aft t 11IIIIrolvid; (3) oriaiftatio ('to/
Temperature, TF 99.0 (rectal) 100.2 (rectal) 98 (oral) rotmo-f/,- attitude; (4') rctro-fire; (5) j't- .
Pulse per nin 10o0 r/ItI-/Ilckag('; /) )00 1,,, ', h) ."".1.
Respiration per rain 16 20 Tl- 11ry ttH /itI//I; (7) .I5 (If ltlgilli,,9
Blood pressure, mm tlg: (i re-entry into dnr atojo,'dl!;c; (S)
Standing 102/74 olCu iti(i (f dh'5uo ilral'hulc: (9) 1/8 I~-
Sitting 120/78 130/8-1 1110l r 11
w'f /l7 (10/
loss; h~ )
(o l /1/lot aL(/
Supine 100/76 l'/ dI
0; (11t (II) l.as tt f tl 1 8ig1(h . .
Pulse per min: ' A i/gmI.
Before exercise 68 76
After exercise 100 112 Figure 3-37
Time for pulse to return to
normal 2/34/ rai n 3 uin-

Table 3-8 i--n

WADD TR 61-67 364

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i'"" ' '"-"' ;$' :"-"*¾.... .. .. .. .< "" .K- ." "x " "" "" . . . .. .>
 ~... ......- . •-.

A01

Fig
ALA

WW2

NASA PHOTO NO.

61-Ranger 11 -6
Fig.3-38 CAPE CANAVERAL, FLA. Atlas
A- Agena B with the Ranger II payload
stand ready on Pad 12 for launching. Ranger II same as Ranger I designed to stud),
the nature and activiiy of cosmic rays, magnetic fields, and radiation and dust par--
ticles in space. The experiment will also seek to discover if the earth carries along
with it a comet-like tail of hydrogen gas. Ranger II will be aimed at the moon, but
will be sent off on a long trajectory into space reaching nore than a half million
miles from earth. The round trip will take perhaps 50 days.

WADD TR 61-67 365

VOL I REV I

7-
 SECTION IV

TESTING AND CALIBRATION

4-1 INTRODUCTION

The material presented in this section has been compiled

from inforrnation solicited from instrumentation groups and manufac-
turers of transducers and test equipment, and from reviewing a great
number of t~chnical reports and manufacturer's bulletins. An attempt
was made through survey and solicitation letters to obtain from trans-
ducer usersgeneral and specific evaluation and calibration techniques "
and procedures used at their organization. Apparently most of these
procedures have not been documented or at least not in such form to
be considered an operational or functional method. Much of the testing
and calibration of instruments is done by highly skilled persons thor-
oughly trained in the use of their particular test equipment, and with
much practical experience to evaluate observed data to determine
results. Explanation and description of their techniques are not always
applicable as basic methods, yielding step-by-step procedures.

Most of the detailed documentation has been tests of

specific models of instruments to perform a specific task related to
an over-all measurement or control effort. Tabulated data and results
as to the instrument meeting manufacturer's specifications is usually
presented. Analysis of test procedures rarely accompanies the data
and results. Test procedures vary from one instrumuentation group
to another mainly because of different test equipment available. Good
test equipment is expensive and for non-production use very versatile "
and is,therefore, used many times, long after better techniques become
known. Many test groups specialize in limited phases of testing such
as for just one environmental effect, or static tests only, or at the
other extreme an over-all go/no-go comparison. It is difficult to
correlate data from such individual groups to formulate general and %
over-all testing and Calibran ...

A general survey questionnaire on telemetry transducers

was sent to over 600 transd icer manufacturers and transducer user
organizations. Returns from over 100 of these groups indicated interest
in submitting transducer calibration and test techniques. The survey
was followed up with specific letters of solicitation indicating the type
of material desired for inclusion in the handbook. Most of the returns
from these letters (and there were only a few) were quite narrow in .. ,-
scope, usually sales bulletins. Some information has been edited

WADD TR 61-67 366

VOLI REVl

" -,, --... - -,....... ............ . - " -

- •" • m m. - - . ..- - .- ' r
 from this type material and reference made to other thought to be of
interest to the handbook user.

There are many NBS reports documenting very well

performance tests on particular instruments. They usually give a
detailed description of the instrument tested, manufacturer's specifi-
cations, a brief description of test methods (or reference to a more
detailed report on the use of a particular measurement device or stand-
ard) tabulated test data and performance characteristics. Table 4-1 is
a list of NBS Reports pertaining to testing various transducers. (Ref. 286)

4-2 GENERAL

a. User Considerations (Ref. 287)

(1) Relation of Procurement to Laboratory Calibration

The procurement of transducers should be based

on performance specifications which are commonly understood by the
manufacturers, vendor and the end user. The user's laboratory calibration
procedures should be similar to the methods used by the factory and the
user would be wise to request written test procedures from the vendor as '
part of the procurement activity. Mutually acceptable test equipment and 'I
methods will assist tn ftirthnr define the intent of t'he detailed
•- p- ification-
and to establish most of the causes for rejection of the transducer. The
user should not expect that the specification will exactly fit all contingencies
even though it may be rather concise and perhaps be of moderate length.
The vendor's good will can frequently be relied upon to resolve the disposi-.
tion of newly discovered undersirable characteristics.

Sample units should be obtained prior to a major

procurement to provide evidence that the individual calibration data obtained
by the user agrees favorably with the data furnished by the vendor. The user
should receive a copy of the individual factory calibration data with each trans-
ducer. The user's initial laboratory calibration, which should also serve as
a receiving inspection, should always agree with the vendor's data within a

* 286 Pearlstein, Joseph, Bibliography of NBS Reports on Performance -

* of Telemetry Transducers and Calibration Methods, Diamond Ordnance
Fuze Laboratories, TB-887, 1Z October 1960%

"" 287 Bronson, R. D., "General Comments on Laboratory Calibration of

Transducers, "Engineering Flight Test, Convair, A division of General
"* Dynamics Corp., Fort Worth, Texas, January 13, 1961, (special contribution) * -

%'C

SWADD TR 61-67 367

VOLI REVi
 Table 4-1 Reports oun Performance of Telemetry TranFduccrs
r

NI3S Report Instrument Device Model t1ang;e Princidle ,

Nuxobe r Maker Nuobere

*113112 Trans-5oics accelerolmeter 4.-9 * 5g strain gageo

2
1IB13 Tr a.ns -Sonics aecel-
Iro..tcr 4-8 ± g straiin gage

1BI18 Trans-Sonics accelerometer 4-1(1 ±lOg strain gage

*1BI19 Trans-Sonics acceleronweter 4-11 ± 20g Strain gage

113123 B3cndix inductance

oscillator TOL-513

11330 Bendix angular position v'riiblc.

pickup TTO-1A 0 to I 100, rehltctatce
varible
*1B137 Sperry pressure cell 653322-10210 0 to 115 psi reloctance

IB114)0 Bendix pressure cell T'rTI-9A 0 to 50 psi reluctanzce

variaileo
*113141 Sperry pressure cell 653323!-101 9 -15 to +85 psi r,.luctance
'-a ri able
*1B3143 Sperry pressure cell 653322-1070 -14 to +15 psi reluctance

3192 Gulton Mfg. Go. accelerometer A-403 0. 1 to 600 g piezoclectric

*3235 General Electric accelerometer VDA ýL50 pie-oelect ric

122 C 759G-1

3Z61 Consoiidatca pressure cell 4-310 0 to 150 psig strain gage

3480 Giannini potentiometer 8517A-10-20 0 to 3600' resistance

3490 Galetronics potentiometer LW-8q 0 to 87 inches resistance

3721 Bourns pressure cell 702 0 to 100 psia resistance

3914 Statham accclerometer A2G- 15-450 ±1. 5 strais gage

50 to 500 cps up to 0-13/

4154 Consolidated velocity pickup 4-118 0-1l"/sec or 0-100g ccctromagnetic

4Z59 Wiancko ac,.elerorneler A9-1004 :*52 reluctnce-

d gll•ld I"-, •1.

4423 Statham accelerometer AA6-6-340 ±6 rad/sec/sec s1 rain gage

4541 Decker Aviation capacitance to 10 uno!to 100 uua iooiaation

volt, transducer 901-1 differear e 'Lal transducer

4776 13ourna accelerometer 602A No. 1001

& 1331 :h P, reesstance

4808 Statham accelerometer A17-50-335,

729, 730 ± 50g strain gage

4973 Igistlar pressure trans. SIN 370, 371 0 to 1500 psig piezoelectric

5175 Genisco accelerometer GLOD2 No.

776Z-63 tig strain gage

WADI) TR 61-67 368

VOL I REV 1

% * . . .n
 'Ai

Table 4 -1

N3,5 Report Instrumnert Device Model Range Principlc

Nmribo r Make r Nu nbc r

5315 Markite petentio('meter Types 2234, 1. -1 ill., r0 ciaac.

20941 360'
5705 Dat ran pre asure va,'iabhle
transducer P103, 6172, 73 0 to 0-,C
psi, reluctance
6298 larehili potentiometer 'liMPOT''

No. 771 360' resistance

6299 IIcG pr e sre

So -
cell "COMPUTRAN' 0 to 100 psig resistance.

6300 Genisco accelerometer GM0 ±15g resistancec

6336 Norwood pressure

cell EFK 0 to 1000 psi4 bonded
strain gage.

6603 Donner accelerometer 4310 ±2g servoed

force bal.
3
6633 Iluinphrey accelerometer LAO3-0304-l ± g resistance
da shpot
damping

6651 Solid State Elect. pressure pickup

with FM oscill. "OSCIDUCER" 0 to 50 psig variable
indductance
tIansistor
oscill.

6942 Dynamic Inst, Co. pressure ..

cell APT-61-50 0 to 50fp: strain gage
4
7066 Columbia Research acceler, ietcr 302 . 03to 0000g piezoelectric

6193 A Two-Inch Range Precision Mercury Manometer

6907 General Gharacteristics of Strain Gage Accelerometers Used in Telemetry

Report; on Calibration and Test Methods

3299 I-Iigh-range accelerometer calibrations.

3339 Determination of sinusoidal acceleration at peak levels near that of gravity.

by the 'chatter" method.
4 0 00
3924 Metheds for steady-state accelerometer calibrations of to ± g and test
results of two accelerometers, ModeI A314-T, manufactured by Gulton
Manufacto ring Co.

4222 A method of determining dynamic response of a ptIse averaging FM disc rifniniator.

44 31 A torsional vibi ation calibrator.

4
409 a A simple, objective test for cable noise due to shock vibration or transient
iJpressures. 5.,9-•,

4910 The shock tube as a facility for dynamic testing of pressure pickups.

5730 A dual centrifuge for generating low frequency sinusoidal accelerations,

WADD TIt 61-67 369

VOL, I R.-V 1

'1'AN"Q . . 7K>lt '>. 7*7! ...... 2

 realistic tolerance. After an independent repeat check, if the user's data
still differs from the vendor's data by an unreasonable amount, the trans-
ducer should be returned to the vendor for recalibration or replacement.
If the quantity warrants it, the ability of the transducer type to withstand
certain extremne environments may best be judged by a more complete en-
vironniental test on a random sample of a group of identical type trans-
ducers.

(2) Relative Measurement Concept

Most of the data requirements of flight tests are

satisfied with the measurement of a differential or relative change. Even
many so-called "absolute" devices are used to measure a relative change- ----
and may ususally be laboratory calibrated using the concept of Sensitivity
Slope. An example is the resistance-bridge pressure transducer which,
although labeled "Absolute" and constructed with a 0 psia reference, is an
instrument used as a relative measurement device. Since this transducer
is subject to drift, an external balance is usually employed on the aircraft
and the output is nulled at some known reference pressure; hence, the mea-
surement technique assumes the relative concept. On the other hand, con-
sider a potentiometer-output absolute pressure transducer. The output
voltage ratio of such a unit may be used to represent specific (calibrated)
input absolute pressures. In this case, the built-in transducer reference
/rvssai- is 0 Ptia. is tue ,i ranbuacer
.o to ubu Withu• L a neuw "rei.rence --

stated, then the laboratory calibration must give a reference intercept point
as well as a sensitivity slope.

(3) Transduction Ratio

All true "transducers," that is those instruments

that have a transduction ratio, should be calibrated and used with ratio tech-
niques in mind. Exa.raples of such transducers are those employing a resis-
tance bridge, potentiometer or differential transformer. A resistance bridge
is said to have a change in open circuit output of Qi millivolts per one volt
input for a change of one unit stimulus input. The sensitivity of a potentiometer
(voltagye divider) output device is similarly stated as Q 2 millivolts per volt for
a change of onne unit stimulus input, and differential transforrmer output devices
are said to have a sensitivity of Q 3 volts output per volt input per unit stimulus
input.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 370

.%, -' . X.
.% - %..'. '- -. ' . --. . --. . . .' . -' -. .'.. , . . - *. .' -....... . ..
 (4) Self-Generating Transducers

Self-generating velocity-type vibration transducers

may be calibrated by the ratio method against a reference pickup coil, corn-
monly called the "Monitor" or "Signal Generator" coil, in the electrodynamic
shaker-calibrator. The reference coil has a much higher output than the
pickup under test and is established as a reference or "transducer standard"
coil having a known output voltage per inch per second velocity. Thus, the -71
pickup being calibrated deflects a vacuum tube voltmeter a certain amount and
a portion of the reference standard coil output voltage can be made to cause
the same voltmeter to deflect the same amount. The "portion" is read out on
a calibrated attenuator.

Self-generating piezoelectric vibration transducers

are usually calibrated on an electrodynamic calibrator shaker. The input
acceleration amplitude may be determined from calibration curves by moni-
toring the frequency on an electronic counter and the shaker velocity (monitor
coil) amplitude on a voltmeter. The output of the piezoelectric transducer is
"read out" through its associated cathode follower or amplifier to a suitable
voltmeter.

(5) Typical Static Considerations

A typical static calibration consists of tabular data

giving the electrical output nominally for 11 static input points, representing
every 10% of full range, in both increasing and decreasing steps. Thus, for
a unilateral input transducer, the calibration is started and completed at the
same full-range end-point after 21 data points are recorded. That is, output .
datum is obtained fro each input of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90,
100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 0% of full range. For a syrnmetri-
cal bilateral transducer, the calibration commences at the 50% of full-range ,! ..

input point and output figures are obtained at 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 0, 10, 20, 30,
40, 50, (50), 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50% of full range. (Note:
the third 50"7n point is shown in parentheses since it is taken only when the
calibration must be conducted in two halves as is the case when a centrifuge
or spin table is used for acceleration input stimulus to a plus and minus range
accelerometer.)

The data points are plotted on suitable rectilinear

coordinate paper. The abscissa is used for the stimulus input and the output is. "
plotted on the ordinate axis. If the smallest square on the graph paper is either

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVl 371

t. . I.
.,-. -. :.:....,,-..-,. .. , :...v....,...../_...........-. ..-..-... .... ,.....-...9-':-..: . ': -.-. :
-, -;. . . :.....- -.- -"-. , - -- '-1
• . ".2...'. ... . . ,".L........ ." . . . '." .
.'" . . . .".°.; . " .. . " "'. ". .. ".. . . . . . " .,. . . ., '
a 1 millimeter square or 1/20th inch square, then for convenience, it should
represent exactly 0. 5% of full-scale output and approximately 0. 5% of full-
scale input, The latter "rule of thumb" applies most specifically to potentio- -.-
meter output devices nominally rated to have an overall inaccuracy tolerance
of, say, *0. 5% to ± 3% of full range. The resolution and suitable scale factor
for graphs of other devices, such as bridge transducers, should be selected..-
with the idea in mind that the smallest division should represent approximately
0. 5% of full range.

An imaginary ribbon of uniform width, having straight

parallel edges, is superimposed on the data points such that all data points are
just covered by the ribbon. The best straight line sensitivity of the transducer
is given by the slope of the straight line which bisects the width of the ribbon.
The maximum deviation of the transducer output from the best straight line is
given by plus or minus one-half the width of the ribbon properly projected to
the input axis to relate the tolerance to a percentage of full range. The maxi-
mumn deviation percentage thus obtained includes all transducer uncertainties
for the standard conditions as applicable.

(6) Dynamic Considerations

In certain cases, it is desirable to establish the

ability of a transducer to follow a rapidly varying stimulus input. Many trans-,
ducers, such as accelerometers and rate gyros, react dynamically in a manner
approaching the standard characteristics of an ideal second-order system. If
the transducer characteristics tend to conform to a standard curve, the vendor
will probably state the nominal natural frequency and damping ratio. The me- -.
thod of laboratory measurement of natural frequency and damping ratio should
be agreed upon by the vendor and user. Perhaps if sinusoidal inputs are
expected in the actual measurement, these should be used in the laboratory - -

calibration. If transient analysis is more important in end use, then these

characteristics may better be observed in the decay curves which result from
a step change in the input stimulus. Generally if the damping ratio can be relied
upon to stay between 0. 6 and 0. 8, the devices known to approach second-order
systemns will produce dynamic data with sinusoidal inputs up to a frequency
equal. to one-third of the natural frequency with less than ±5% error due to dy-
namic considerations.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVL1 372

. . . -.........-.

N-. -- = .½°*-
 b. Transducer Characteristics (Ref. 288)

(1) Accuracy and Response

The quality of the measurements performed b~r any

instrument is given by its accuracy. This accuracy represents the extent
to which the instrument readings approach the "true" values under calibration
conditions. "True" values, in this case, are determined by other "more >9
accurate" instruments, and working standards whose accuracy can be ulti-
mately referred back to the prototype national or international standards of
length, mass and time.

The accuracy of any instrument is the resultant of

all the errors or measurement that play a part in the use of the instrument.
Two sources of errors are: the accuracy with which the input to the instru-
ment is known during the calibration, and. the accuracy with which the output
of the instrument can be measured. It is most desirable to have these accur-
acies about an order of magnitude better than that of the instrument. If this
is true, then the instrument accuracy will be shown by the extent to which
instrument readings approach "true" values under calibration conditions.
The "accuracy" of an instrument is usually expressed in terms of a "limit
of error" and given as a percentage of the full-scale range of the instrument.

There are many properties which influence the

quality of the measurements performed by an instrument, particularly a tele-
metering instrument. Among them are cxch instrument characteristics as
linearity, hysteresis, repeatability, temperature effects, acceleration and
vibration effects, and others. In view of the many factors involved, it is -
meaningless to give one figure of accuracy as an indication of the quality of
the measurements possible without going into elaborate detail on all the con- Liv
ditions under which this figure applies. It is preferable to list as many of the
instrument characteristics as is possible.

*Theproperties list.d above are "steady-state charac-

teristics" obtained from steady-state calibrations with fairly well established
methods with the aid of reliable working standards. Since most measure-
ments in telemetering are made of time varying physical quantities, the dyna-
mic characteristics of the instrument will have an important effect on the
quality of the measurements. Such dynamic characteristics as frequency

288 Lederer, Paul S., "General Characteristics of Strain Gage Accelero-

meters Used in Telemetry," National Bureau of Standards Report No. 6907,
July Z1, 1960, pp. 18-30.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 373

-. C . <

7 -7..-.7. ..-
response, phase response, dynamic linearity, damping factor, distortion, .4
variation of hysteresis with frequency, and others cannot be determined as
readily and precisely as the "steady-state characteristics, " nor are the
methods and working standards for their determination as well established
or reliable.

(2) Repeatability

One of the important characteristics of an instru-

inent is the repeatability ("precision" or "uncertainty" are sometimes used ''--
to describe the same property). It may be described as the variations in the
output of the instrument under steady state conditions when the same con-
stant level of input is repeatedly applied. A value for repeatability will have
meaning only if the repeatability of input stimulus and output mneasurement is
(preferably an order of magnitude)better than the repeatability of the instru-
ment under test.

Actually, two types of repeatability exist: short

term repeatability and long term repeatability, also called drift. "Short
term" generally refers to a period of time of the order of minutes over which
th3 test is performed. Long term repeatability tests may occur over a period
of days to months. -

(a) Short Term Repeatability

This type of repeatability may be a function

of rna.ny i zctors, such as backlash, imperfect elasticity of elastic members,
coldworking of elastic members, energy absorption of instrument from the
quantity to be measured and minor variations in the local environment. H

Tests to determine short term repeatability

are pe.rf',rrnccd with steady-state input at other than zero, preferably near
full scaie. Short term variations of the output with zero input are seldom en-
countered. Wien they do occur, the are usually the result of stray pickup or
other faults of' the output sensing equipment or possibly, in the case of strain -
gage pickups, a noisy excitation voltage supply.

(b) Long Term Repeatability

This is often referred to as drift. It results

from gradual changes in the property of materials, dimensions, and chemical

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 374 -

....
Wiwi...
changes, as well as from changes induced by varied environmental condi-
tions and use.

To determine long term repeatability, re- "'"

peated measurements of the instrument's output are made over a long period
of time A th zero input as well as some value of input near full scale. From
these data, values of long term repeatability may be given in termis of zero
shift as well as sensitivity change (for linear transducers).

(3) Linearity

Linearity is a measure of deviation of the transducer

response from a specified straight line. It is important that the straight line
be completely specified. Different numerical values of linearity may be as-
signed to an instrument. They depend on the straight line to which the linearity
is referred. There are two common ways of describing the straight line: (a)
the straight line connecting the calibration point at zero input to that at full
scale input; (b) the best straight line through all of the calibration points. The
best straight line in the latter case may be just simply drawn by eye through
the calibration points or it may be determined mathematically. The linearity
(deviation from the specified straight line) is generally given as being "within
some percentage of full scale."

Experimentally, it is not easy to determine linearity

precisely. Limitations are imposed by the experimental accuracy of the cali-
bration and the repeatability of the instrument under test. The value of linearity
assigned tc the instrument cannot be any better than the repeatability. The
scatter of experimental data will limit the determination of linearity, so that
frequently, the conclusion drawn is that linearity is no worse than the scatter.

(4) Hysteresis

Hysteresis may, be defined as the summation of all

effects, other than backlash, wherein the output assumes different values for
the same value of input when that input is applied in an increasing or decre asing
direction.

As in the case of linearity, as long as the instrument

operates well within the elastic limits of its components (e. g. , springs and
strain gages), the hysteresis should be quite small. As above, the short term
repeatability of the instrument under test as well as the accuracy of the calibra-
tion will limit the precise determination of hysteresis.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 375

.................................................................-

~ .'$-~.27~w<.s::..r.Q ~..'.- -- i
 (5) Resolution

Resolution is a measure of the degree to which .

small increments of the measurand can be discriminated in terms of trans-
ducer output. That is to say, the smallest change in applied stimulus that
will produce a detectable change in the transducer output.
I!

(6) Response to Transverse Excitation t'-

This phenomenon is usually associated with the
testing and evaluation of accelerometers. The transverse response of an ' .
accelerometer represents the output when acceleration is applied to the in-
strument in a direction perpendicular to the sensitive axis of the instrument.
Generally, the transverse response (also called "cross coupling" or "cross
talk") is expressed as the ratio of the sensitivity of the instrument to accel-
erations perpendicular to the sensitive axis to the sensitivity to accelerations
along the sensitive axis.

(a) Transverse Response to Steady-State

Accelerations

Much of this transverse response is due to

manufacturing tolerances and rnisalignmnents during assembly, which cause
the true sensitive axis of the transducer to be not quite perpendicular or para-
llel (depending on design) to the mounting suirfaces or other fiducial line.
However, even if the transducer is mounted so that the sensitive axis is exactly
perpendicular or parallel to the mounting, a minimum amount of cross talk will
be present, referred to as "inherent" crosstalk. Crosstalk is also a function
of the position of the mass of the spring-mass system. In general, the effect of
transverse accelerations on the output of the transducer is apparently greater
when there is also full-scale acceleration applied along the sensitive axis than
when no acceleration is applied along the sensitive axis.

Since transverse response appears to be greater

when accelerations are also applied along the sensitive axis, tests are often
performed by applying steady-state acceleration at some known angle to the
sensitive axis. This results then in two components of the accelerations; one
along the sensitive axis and the other transverse to it. Unless, however, the
location of the center of mass of the seismic system is known accurately, the
above components of acceleration cannot be accurately determined.

WADD TR 61-67 -
VOL I REV 1 376

4.7

. C
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . - J..

.~ . - N- J . ,--.---------- ,,- '.--.- .. , .-' :-- -... .

 A promising way of determining the steady- -.
siate transverse response appears to be one which the manufacturer can
perforn before the instrumnent is assembled. A known force (such as a spring)
pulling the seismic mass transversely, while weights hanging from the mass
simulate acceleration along the sensitive direction, would allow determination
of the transverse response quite accurately.

(b) Transverse Response to Vibrational Accelerations ,

Accelerometers will general.y also show a trans-

verse response to vibrational accelerations (sinusoidal or transient) as well as
steady-state accelerations. The effects of poor assembly methods during in-
strument construction may be magnified by resonances. Laboratory measure-
ments of the response to transverse vibrational accelerations on the assembled
transducer can be quite good, since only the direction of the sensitive axis
need be known.

(7) Temperature Effects

Slow changes in the ambient temperature may affect

the operation of transducers by giving rise to zero shifts, changing the sensi- '"
tivity, and changing the viscosity of the damping fluid (if used), thereby changing
the damping ratio and consequently the dymamic response of the transducer.

(a) Zero Shift

Zero shift may be due to unsymmetrical change s

in dimensions with temperature or it may be caused by temperature gradients.
The amount as well as the direction of zero shift due to slowly changing am-
bient temperatures are not readily predictable for any transducer but seem
generally reproducible for any particular transducer and may be determined by
test. It is, therefore, feasible in most cases to reduce this zero shift by a
process of temperature compensation. With strain gages, for example, this
takes the form of a small resistor, which, when added to one arm of the bridge,
will undergo a change in resistance with te.mperature which will oppose the
zero shift.

The location of an instrument in close proxi-

mity to a rocket engine or to the skin of a high-speed missile may result in
the instrument's exposure to thermal transients. The effect of such transients

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV i 377

S~~ .. .......... ...r .......... _. ... .... ... . .. -- i'--

I .'':f ".".", -.''..

::."'.:v.:.<" ' .. '.- ' .'-.."..'."
. ..'w . ....
"..•L ...
-.-.-. '... " . -..-. ".".. .. ".•
S.',4.d."..
. .- '. -.- ". V,-,
. - .- %--"-------
-. . ...... - -....-.. " .-.-. ..- ' -'.-. -.. .-.. ... , .. ;..-. .-. . ..
 - would probably manifest itself in a zero shift, which would be a function of
the magnitude and duration of the transient. Temperature compensated
transducers will be affected even more than uncompensated ones if gradients
exist between the sensor and the compensating element.

(b) Damping

In the case of fluid-damped accelerometers,

damping nay be affected by temperature-induced changes in the dimensions
of the passages through which damping fluid must pass. Such dimensional
changes may be used in some cases to compensate for the change of viscosity
of the damping fluid. If an increase in temperature, which results in a de-
crease in damping fluid viscosity, would also decrease the size of the passages,
the damping ratio would not change as much. A practical way of reducing x
error due to viscosity variations with temperature, as well as other tempera -
ture errors, is by the temperature control of the entire transducer. This is
done by use of an electrical heater jacket and thermostat. The control tern-
perature is usually in the range of 110*F to 135*F, permitting temperature
control of the transducer to be effective up to these temperatures and down
to temperatures as low as -65°F. The low temperature limit depends on
available heater power, transducer size, insulation, etc.

(8) Environmental Extremes

While all environmental changes affect the measuring

-. accuracy of transducers to some extent, if the environmental changes are
severe enough, the instrument may be temporarily or even permanently dis-
abled.

(a) Steady-State Acceleration

Consideration of acceleration overloading is

particularly important in strain gage type accelerometers. Exceeding the
elastic limit of strain gage wires, springs, or beam material will introduce
a permanent "set. " In extreme cases, the wires and other parts may actually
break or rupture and thereby ruin the transducer. To prevent this, the manu-
facturer generally builds stops into the transducer to prevent the moving part
from traveling more than some nominal percentage beyond its full-scale range.

Accelerations applied parallel or transverse

to the sensitive axis of other transducer type may likewise cause a perma-
nent set or rupture. The engineer must take into account the predicted

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV1 378

4-.O
 magnitude and direction of acceleration loading when the transducer is
mounted in the intended vehicle. Knowledge of the transducer's construc- -'9
tion is essential if he is to decide whether or not a series of acceleration
tests are to be performed for evaluation purposes.

(b) Vibration

It is extremely difficult to determine the

effect of the environmental extremes experienced by a telemetering trans- -.
ducer in flight on the accuracy of the data obtained from it. This is not -.
only due to difficulties in simulating such environmental extremes in the
laboratory, but also due to the fact that it is hard to predict and determine
their magnitudes during flight tests. At present, there is disagreement
concerning the best way of testing instruments for their tolerance to en-
vironmental extremes. In the field of vibration testing, for example, a
controversy exists between those who test instruments by the application of
sinusoidal vibrations over a wide frequency range, and those who prefer to
apply a random noise type of vibration spectrum. The latter method most
closely simulates what actually occurs in flight. In addition, while the
failure of an instrument due to environmental extremes is quite clear cut,
"damage" or "unsatisfactory operation" allows a wide latitude of interpre-
tations. Another difficulty exists in the fact that many cases of failure or
"damage" are due to imperfections of materials, poor assembly, improper p

inspection, and other factors pcrtaining to a particular instrument but not

necessarily to all instruments of the same type or class. Thus, failure of
one instrument does not automatically imply failure of others of the same
type under similar circumstances.

(c) Acoustic Noise

With the advent of high-power jet engines and

rocket engines, high acoustic sound levels generated by them creates another
environmental probelm. These high level sound pressures may excite to
resonance those structural members on which transducers are mounted-- , tCre-
by producing vibration effects in the transducers. In one case, it has been .•
reported that an unbonded strain gage accelerometer, when exposed to an acous-
tic field of about 165 db intensity at 600 cps, showed outputs of the order of
10% to 30% of full scale. This was apparently due to resonant excitation of the
instruments' top cover plate and transmission of this vibration to the mass
through the damping fluid.

WAD]? TR 6 1-67
VOL I REV 1 379

a.:-:- -- - :.: _--

. % .% -. -
', . ,..". . . .. . . . . -"-
}4 .• ." ,*t
%%
-
-. . .. .
w'.V -.--- - -
 4-3 CALIBRATION OF LINEAR ACCELEROMETERS (Ref. 289, 290)

The performance of an accelerometer can be judged in termns of the I.-qj

following paramneters: range, calibration factor, linearity, damping, and
natural frequency. The simnplest method of obtaining the first three is by
means of a static test setup, while the latter two must be determined dy-na-
mically. ¶

a. Static Acceleration

For static calibration, two practical methods of subjecting

the transducer to a precise acceleration are commonly used. One technique, -'
known as the 2 g turnover method, utilizes the earth's gravitational field as
a calibration standard. Holding the instrument with the sensitive axis ver-
tical, a reading of its indication is made; the instrument is then simply in-
verted and another reading taken. The difference in readings obviously arises
from a 2 g difference in acceleration, and a basic static calibration is es-
tablished. As a further elaboration, the accelerometer may be mounted to
rotate about a horizontal axis and, if it has been properly designed to have
negligible lateral response, the acceleration applied along the measuring axis
will vary as the sine of the rotational angle. Hence, calibration points may
be taken continuously from +1 g to -1 g. 1:t..,21

-Ca. ac±clerations 'i~gher Lthafl I g area geeat in ai c--

trifuge. The axis of rotation should be vertical so that a b 1 g ripple is not

superimposed upon the static acceleration. Care should be exercised to align
the sensitive axis of the test instrument on a radius of rotation to avoid short-
ening of the effective radius. Knowledge of the location of the exact center of
mass of the seismic system is imperative. If this information is not available,
it may be approximated from data of two or more tests made at the same speed ,
with variations in the radius of rotation. Since the acceleration varies as the
square of the angular velocity, the speed regulation is important. Effective ."-.
systems of speed control include the use of a synchronous motor to power the
centrifuge, or utilization of the stroboscopic principle as a means of speed . .2.
indication.

289 "Calibration and Test of Accelerometers," Instrument Note No. 6,

Statham Laboratories, December 1948.

290 "Basic Method for Accelerometer Calibration, Instrument Note No. 17,
Statham Laboratories, September-October, 1950.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 380

• • %"
, • 5.,
• .., " . .. '." .. ' .. ....
%..°,,• .. ....... .-. •. •.".'.. . ..
?. .* .. -** *".. , - -, .• . . - -- .. • , . " .•.
 ,'.o .94

In calibration of a linear accelerometer by the centrifuge

method, its linearity is inspected by imposing changes of acceleration on.
the instrument by varying either the radius of rotation or the speed. The
static acceleration experienced in runs of this type is found by

2 5 2
a = 4TrzN r/(32. 174 x 43200) = Z. 840 x 10- N r (4-1) 7

where r is the radius of rotation of the center of gravity of the active mass .
in inches, N is the speed in revolutions per minute, and a is in standard g0
units.

b. Damping and Frequency Response

A convenient method for finding the dynamic response of

an accelerometer whose damping is less than critical is to observe the in-
strument's response to a step function in acceleration. A linear step func-
tion for a linear accelerometer can be approximated by suspending the ac-
celerometer from a string over some padding. The string is cut quickly and
the initial fall of the accelerometer will result in a step functionof 1 g am-
plitude. In some accelerometers, it is possible to apply a step function by
displacing the mass and suddenly releasing it. The value of the damping
ratio can be found by measuring the height of the first over-shoot. Figure 4-1
may be used to determine the damping ratio.

of the It should be noted that the interval between successive peaks

of the oscillatory response determines the periods of the free oscillations
and not the undamped natural period. Actually, the damping has nothing to do
with the natural frequency, but does affect the period at which free oscillations
will occur. The undamped natural frequency can be determined from the period
of free oscillations by substitution in the following equation

2
fn : I/T 1-h (4-2)

where T is the period of free oscillations, and h the damping ratio. Except
for greatly underdamped, low-range accelerometers, this method is not
recommended for determining the dynamic response.

For a more precise analysis of the transducer's characteristics, .-.

it is necessary to obtain a frequency response curve. The response of an
accelerometer to a sinusoidal exciting function is shown in Figure 4-Z, where . . .

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 381

.. 4...........................-.....
 1-42

S4.

_ _ _ 1 1_ _ _
TZ.
.1
___AMIN
- ix
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WADD TR 61-67
VOLT REVi 8

. .* : . . . . . . . . . .
low frequency points lie along the unity amplitude ratio lines and the curva-
ture of the higher frequency points lies between damping ratio lines of greater 9.
and lesser curvature, respectively. This procedure is illustrated in Fi-
gure 4-3. The damping ratio is then determined by interpolating between the
damping ratio lines of the Ynaster curves, while the natural frequency is given.-.-
by the response frequency coincident with the unity line of the frequency ratio
of the master curves. In the illustration given in Figure 4-3, this corresponds
to a damping ratio of 0. 6 and a natural frequency of 600 cycles per second.

The frequency response curve of a linear accelerometer is

obtained by calibrating the instrument on a shake table capable of producing an
essentially pure sinusoidal force over a large frequency range. While there
are many types of shake tables suitable for calibrating an accelerometer, one
of the simplest and easiest to use is the electromagnetic type of vibration ex-
citer. The force in this type exciter is generated by an alternating current
flowing in a movable coil which is positioned in a region of high magnetic flux
density. The magnetic field is derived from a stationaryfield coil connected
to a source of direct current. The shape and strength of the magnetic struc-
ture is such as to insure the generated force being dependent only on the mag-
nitude of the current in the moving coil. Since the force generated is as pure
as the current supplied to the moving coil, it is necessary to use an oscillator
and power amplifier with low distortion characteristics.

To calibrate the exciter, the output of a velocity type signal

generator coil, attached to the shake table and moving in the magnetic field.... -.

of a permanent magnet rigidly supported in space, can be used. The response ""-
of the accelerometer can be measured with a vacuum tube voltmeter having a
flat frequency response over the range of test frequencies involved.

In a practical test setup, the accelerometer and signal coil

are clamped together firmly and attached to the vibration exciter. Since a
strong alternating magnetic field will exist about the driver coil of the exciter,
it is necessary to isolate the accelerometer and especially the signal coil so
that there will be no pickup. This test setup lends itself to a quick and accurate . -

determination of the natural frequency of an accelerometer. The accelero-_

meter and signal coil outputs are connected to the horizontal and vertical am-
plifiers of an oscilloscope and the frequency at which the two outputs are exactly
in phase is the natural frequency of the accelerometer. The oscilloscope am-
plifiers should be checked for phase-shift error and corrected, if necessary,
by introducing a time delay network before the proper amplifier.

WADD TR 61-67 --
VOL I REV 1 384

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VOREI I 8
4-4 CALIBRATION OF ANGULAR ACCELEROMETERS

a. General (Ref Z91)

In the calibration and test of angular accelerometers, the

parameters of range, calibration factor, linearity, damping, and natural
frequency are usually evaluated on a dynamic basis. A torsional pendulum
affords an angular acceleration varying sinusoida•lly. In practice, the
pendulum, with the angular accelerometer mounted on it, is deflected from ,-,
rest by a known arc and instantaneously set free. The attendant response
is recorded. Friction in the system must be of such minor significance that
the pendulum oscillates at substantially the same amplitude for several
cycles, else determinations must be made of the exact deflection at one par- "
ticular oscillation. Range, calibration factor, and linearity may be obtained
by successive tests at varied initial deflections. Damping ratios of less than
unity may be studied by analysis of the record of the first excursion when
the torsion pendulum is released. The suddenly applied cosine change in
angular acceleration may, in this instance, be considered a step function and
the damping ratio determined by the amount of over-shoot by referring to
Figure 4-1 which shows the magnitude of over-shoot as a function of damping
ratio. The natural frequency of the angular accelerometer must be high com- -.-
pared to the pendulum freqi ency for the use of this technique. If 0 is the ini-
tial angle in radians of torsional displacement, and the undamped period of
oscillation of the pendulum is T, the suddenly applied acceleration is given ' -- e
by

= 4ir2 0/T 2
radians/sec 2 (4-3)

b. Torsional Vibration Calibrator

(1) Description --

Two disadvantages of the pendulum-generating har-

rnonic motion method of dynamically testing angular accelerometers are the
difficulty of easily varying the frequency of oscillation over the range of inter-
est, and the fact that the amplitude of motion cannot be kept constant. Damping
and friction will decrease the motion of the pendulum until it stops. A report
by Lederer (Ref.292) describes an electrically-driven torsional vibration cali-
brator which generates steady-state vibrations to be used for dynamic calibra-
tion of angular motion transducers, e. g. , angular displacement gauges and

Z91 "Calibration and Test of Accelerometers, " op. cit.

29Z Lederer, Paul S. , "A Toý sional Vibration Calibrator," National

Bureau of Standards Report. No. 4434, October 1955, pp. 1-7.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV1] 386

:" "'° "'- " '-,'.-''-'i-.

" - .''..2"'..'-'','
-' -- ' -"- - . •-.- ". "-- " .. "- '-." " .".-'.o- '-..".-. --- - .'.: -- •.'•,----'.-'
 angular accelerometers. With this method, the amplitude of angular motion - .
can be kept constant at a desired level and the frequency of oscillation can
readily be set to the proper value. Figure 4-4 is a photograph of the NBS
system. This electrically-driven torsion penduluma is driven by a two-pole
dc motor with limited armature rotation (less than a full revolution). While
the motor field is dc excited, alternating current is fed to the armature
through flexible leads. With its shaft vertical, the motor is mounted on a
massive steel baseplate. The shaft carries a table structure on which the '
transducer to be calibrated is mounted. Two horizontal helical springs under
tension are attached to two rigid supports rising from the baseplate on either_- -
side of the motor. The other ends of the springs are attached tangentially to .
the table structure, thus supplying the necessary restoring torque for the
pendulum. These springs and the moment of inertia of the armature-shaft
and table structure form a mechanical resonant system. An electronic
power amplifier fed by a low-frequency oscillator supplies armature current.
The angular table deflection is monitored by means of a coaxially mounted
rotary differential transformer whose movable core is rigidly attached to the
table structure. The stationary transformer coil assembly is mounted on
a bracket fastened to the base and a phase-sensitive demodulatolr delivers an-_
output voltage proportional to angular table deflection. The polarity of the
output voltage indicates th- direction of table deflection.

(2) Systemn Static Calibration

The static calibration relates angular table deflec-

tion from its "zero position" to the recorded output voltage. This "zero
position" is that one in which the table is kept by the two springs with no
armature current flowing. The actual calibration consists of deflecting the
table structure by increments from its "zero position, " measuring the de- S.

flection of a radius line on the table by means of an optical slide micrometer -.-
and recording the output voltage. Angular deflection is computed and plotted " "
against output voltage.

(3) Sysieixi Frrequenicy PResponse

Frequency response of this system was checked

by continuous rotation of the differential transformer core at varying speeds.
The core was disconnected from the table and the demodulator output fed into
an oscilloscope with a dc amplifier.

The rotor was first turned slowly by hand, then by

a motor, and the oscilloscope trace deflection noted to determine iny depar-
ture from flat response.

WADD TR 61-6't
VOL I REV 1 387

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 LIU U

WADD TR 61-67
VOLTI REVi1 88
 4-5 Vibration (Motion and Displacement) Testing Using . -
an Optical Device (Ref.-93)

The Model 701 Displacement Follower device manufac-

tured by the Optron Corporation offers a method analysis and calibration
oi accelerometers, velocity pickups, shake tables and most displacement
sensing devices where a time relationship is desired. Figure 4-5 is a
functional diagram of the Model 701 device.

END-ON 10 STAGE
EXIT SUTS MULTIPLIER PHOTOTUBE

ELECTRONIC AMPLIFIER
45'PMI
RSLT

I ~~~CRT L<'- '-""

SPOT CATHODE
TOP EDGE TUBE SRAY
OF WORK - I "...-.-

SPLITTER SLITS DEFLECTION PLATES,"- ."

Figure 4-5 Model 701 Diagram of Operation

The instrument focuses a spot of light on the work. A .

photocell servo system causes this spot to follow th-c motionor of the work.
The output presents an exact waveform of the motion. The instrument
is accurately calibrated; hence displacement is read directly in inches.

293 Optron Corporation Applications and Specifications Data

Sheet for Model 701.

WADD T'B 61- 67 389

VOLI REV1

j'•.•'•'.•.oL
! .,:' ,......."........"....-" "-"................................. ".. .
I----------------------
 Light from the CRT spot passes through the beam
splitter and is focused by a lens on the work. The servo drives the
projected spot until it reaches an edge where it locks on. This servo
keeps the spot riding the edge with 50% of the spot diameter above
the edge and 50% below.

Any machined surface with a sharp edge may be used

as a target, such as the top of an accelerometer or top edge of a
shake table.

Hence the spot locks onto the top edge of the work and
follows it. The output waveform shown on the scope is an exact du-
plicate of the work's motion.

4-6 Sweep-Sync Displays for Back-to-Back Transducer

Calibration (Ref. Z94)

Primary calibration techniques for microphones and

accelerometers are difficult and tedious. It is often expe,'ient and
satisfactory to calibrate an unknown transducer by back-to-back
comparison with a secondary standard. The "Sweep-Sync" can play -.
an important part in dual trace oscilloscope displays of this corn-
parison.

Conventionally, two VTVM's and a phase meter or

Lissajou pattern are used to instrument back-to-back calibrations.
Complete definition of the output of the unknown requires evaluation
of distortion, however, as well as phase and amplitude. With a
dual trace oscilloscope under "Sweep-Svnc" control, one automated
display gives "quick look" data on distortion, phase, and amplitude.

The block diagram Figure 4-6 shows the setup for

accelerometer calibration. Amplitude is scaled from the oscilloscope,
in preference to a meter, to avoid meter errors on the distorted wave
I
shapes that wil' be found at some frequencies.

Phase and distortion display is unique and depends on

the characteristics of the "Sweep-Sync." This device is a tracking

294 From Chadwick-Helmuth Go. Technical Bulletin No. 9

WADD TR 61-67 390

VOL I REV 1

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~. . . . . . - -- -

.- '
 ACCELlcWERS

26

_ ~-.'.-h

V'n

sweep control for a CR0. Front 5 to 20, 000 cps, it produces a sawtooth ,-
AUDIO-
with good AVG that is locked in frequency to the fundamental of the sig- . .''-
nal thAat it mnonitors. When this sawtooth is applied to the horizontal ,- .- '
amplifier of a CR0, the CR0 sweep gives automatically full width i.
display of exactly one cycle, no matter what the frequency. "Sweep-
Syncir cont:.:ol can be set to display any number of cycles from one to
fifteen. In tbis application two-cycle display is a good compromise
for optin~um display of phase and wave shape information.";°"

When the "Sweep-Sync'! has been set to 2-cycle display, .%.

the
.. sweep wio;•'-th, beco4 es 2"0, ofz- phase for all frequencies. The gain ;.E[""
controls on the CRO can be set for a convenient scale, say 72 deg per -
cmn, and the phase relation between the unk•nown and the standard is v• !
then directly scaled from the CR0 as the shift between peaks of the two
traces. Dual btaht CR0 display is preferred to Lissajou for greater
accuracy in me asuring phase with a distorted signal, and for greater

",••,:,,,.",~~~o optimum dis la

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WADD TR 61 -67 .? -
VOL_ I REV 1

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convenience. Equal gain is not required on the two inputs, and the phase
is directly scaled in degrees. -:

Equal enhancement of distortion is provided. In a con-

ventional CRO display a change in frequency has an accordion-like
effect on thn display which masks or distracts from a wave shape change. -' '

When the X axis is "frozen" by the "Sweep-Sync" control, any wave shape - ,
change is distortion or phase shift, and it is more readily detected
be it narrow band or broad band. Dual beam CRO display is preferred to
a Lissajou pattern so that distortion can be compared between channels.

Since some CRO display is conventional, an additional

benefit of the setup is the saving of considerable time other wise
spent manipulating sweep controls. On the best CRO's sweep time
must be adjusted as frequency is changed. On less expensive CRO's
sync controls require attention in addition. No attention to the CRO
sweep is required with this method.

This "Sweep-Sync" and dual trace oscilloscope thus make

a "quick look transfer function analyzer, " and as such are also useful
and effective in servo testing.

4-7 Vibration Pickup Calibration

A detailed report on the calibration of vibration pickups

(Ref. 295 ) has been prepared by MB Electronics. Their report describes
procedures to determine the calibration constant of a vibration pickup
by a comparison method which gives excellent accuracy by minimizing
the number of quantities which must be accurately determined during
routine calibrations. See Figure 4-7 for functional diagram of the
calibration setup. The procedure lends itself to a wide range of fre-
quencies and has been successfully used to 2000 c. p. s. The method
is applicable to pickups of the displacement, velocity or acceleration
types which are self-generating or equivalent to self-generating types.

295 Unholtz, Karl, The Calibration of Vibration Pickups to

2000 cps, Manufacturers Technical Bulletin from MB Electronics, A
Division of Textron Electronics, Inc.

WADD TR 61-67 392

VOLI REV1

%.
 RATiO0BOX.

SCATHODE VACUUM NIPCU5k . .0N.-

V[NIBRATION PICK CALIB

UP T

SPRING kAOUNTE: "•' ''

144

Figure
Scheatic-7 Digram ofVIBRATION PICKUP CALIBRTRato eu.-'.-

An over-all calibration of pickup, amplifier and recorder is suggested

which is adaptable to all types of pickups. Upper frequency limitations
are believed to be the inability to produce linear vibratory motions in
the pickup rather than the problem of measuring the motion.

4-8 Use of the SLIP-SYNC in Accelerometer Calibration (Ref.296, 297)

The "streak" or "sandpaper" method of measuring displacc-

inent in a calibrating system is very powerful. As opposed to capacity,

296 Chadwick-Helmuth Company Sales Memo.

297 Bulletins I and 12, Journal of Environmental Sciences

June 1959, page 9, "Accelerometer Calibration"'--,--
April 1960, page 22, "Back to Back Calibration of
Accelerometers."
WADD TR 61-67 393
VOL I REV 1
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 * '-"•

inductance, or optical follower methods, it is an inexpensive prime

dynamic method, and does not rely on intermediate static calibration.
It also shows interference by crosstalk. However, it suffers from
the inverse square law of diminishing displacement with increasing
frequency at constant "g", and has no hope of reaching 2, 000 cps,
a typical upper frequency of interest in environmental testing today.
For high frequency calibration, it yields to the more complex, costly,
and tedious reciprocity or interferometer techniques. I.

The "streaký' method fits well with reciprocity and

interferometer methods. It is relatively cheap and rapid. Trans-
ducers have much more tendency to change their basic sensitivity
(rnillivolts/g), for all frequencies, than to change their sensitivity
at certain frequencies. Thus, a quick check at a single low frequency
can be reassuring if it agrees with a previous expensive broad band
calibration. 50 cps is a popular frequency for this check. It is far
enough from 60 cps line frequency to avoid system distortion and
amplitude problems, and at 12. 8 g vector, it gives 0. 100 inch double - -

amplitude. $100 microscopes with 4 inch working distance (as Bausch i

and Lomb "MAGROSGOPE") then contribute 1% or better accuracy
to the measurement.

The conventional "Istreaicit methnd includes a compromise

between speed and accuracy. Speed dictates that a dc powered light
illuminate the emery cloth target head-on. This results in bright
elongated targets, easy to identify and measure with the microscope.
However, the streak length is then target displacement plus spot
width, which must be measured or estimated and subtracted out.
Accuracy dictates that the light illuminate the target almost 90%
from the microscope line-of-sight. Spot width is then effectively L
zero. but the resulting faint traces are barely discernable in the
microscope field, and their measurement is painstaking and fatiguing.

Introducing the SLIP-SYNC and STROBEX removqes the - - . -

necessity for the emery cloth target, and removes the compromise.
With slow-motion "offI and direct strobe illumination, the moving
specimen is "frozen" in the field of the microscope. Invariably tool
marks, edges, or markings on the specimen will have contrast and
recognition so that the microscope cross hairs can be set to a point
effectively of zero width. SLIP-SYNC controls then permit quick
"freezing" first at the top of displacement, and then at the bottom,

WADD TR 61-67 394

VOL I REV 1

.. ,...

S,..: : .: ... .. .- ,..- , .. . . . . . . . . . . . ".N.

 _ S_ MOTIONIIT _ _ _

s[TION

MAXIMU

-TC
PCtret
4-8 Slp-Sync andStLobW
Fig.

WADDTR6-67u39
VOLom REYL
for corresponding microscope measurement. There is ro spot width
error, and the target is bright and convenient to work with. The
SLIP-SYNC and STROBEX offer 10% increase in accuracy, and 50%7
increase in speed, over the "streak"! method.

In addition, some recognition is offered of harmnonic mnotion,

and amplitude variations, that are very undesirable in a calibration - -

setup. The "slow motion" effect fromn strobe illumination will be

smoothly sinusoidal for sinusoidal movenent, In fact, it is a true slow-
motion replica of a repetitive displacement waveshape. Distortion, -

particularly if it results in local reversals on the waveshape, is

recognized with slow-motion "on." Amplitude "off."

4,-9 A Vibration Measuring System (Ref. 298)

Oscillograph records of accelerometer signals, showing

phase, distrotion, and amplitude, are ideal for analysis of sinusoidal --
vibration tests. However, the technique has been little used, for these
good reasons:

1. Paper speed must be proportional to shaker frequency,

and must be continually increased as shaker frequency
increases.'
t
--

, i-

2. Paper speeds fast enough, fnr high frequency vibration

are not a ailable.

3. Even at modest shaker frequencies, paper consumption -

is great, and voluminous data defies data reduction.

As a result, a more generally accepted expedient is to

record an.%.-'itude only, either as an "envelope" on an oscillograph with
low paper speed, or as an average, peak, or rms value of the signal on
X-Y plotters or oscillographs. Unfortunately, this discards 2/3 of the
intelligence carried by modern "hi-fi" accelerometers.

The "VMS" (-'Vibration Measuring System") permits continuous L "t9

and automatic recording and monitoring of phase, distortion, and amplitude.
The "VMS" is a sampling system creating a slow-motion replica of
accelerometer signals. Any replica frequency from 1/3 to 3 cps can be
chosen, and it then remains fixed, even though the accelerometer signal

298 "A New Vibration Measuring System," Manufacturer's

Data Sheet, Chadwick Helmuth Company,

WADD TR 61-67 396 .

VOL I REV I

• "-)"--
sweeps from 10 cps to 10 Kc. The slow-motion replica can be easily
recorded on any oscillograph, running at economical, low paper
speeds, so that record length~s are quite reasonable. At the same
time, the galvos or pen motors can be monitored visually, for
"Iquick look" at phase, distortion, an amplitude.
7

Figure 4-9
Figure 4-9 Slow-Motion Sarnr.plixg -- -The VMS Systeir

Figure q--9 sYhow. a high frequency s,;ne wave which

is the input to a SAMPLE7R. The large dotz repre:3ent sample po-ints
giving Pn exact replica of the original signal, at a low frequency.

Figur'd 4-10 shows the block diagram of a "VMS,

Lathed,

Sh.ker

seec SLIP-

~e~hd
Ice,. ~ ~ N R.K
h

Figure 4-10

WADD TR 61-67 397

VOL I REV 1

.............................................
 To create the replicas, audio oscillator frequency "f" goes to the
SLIP-SY.NC. The SLIP-SYNC substracts a difference frequency, " f"I A
adjustable from 1/3 to 3 cps. This "f- A f" sine wa.ve is converted to
pulses which command the SAMPLERS. This causes successi-ve samples
to move progressively thru the wave shape of their input signal, creating
a slow-motion replica of that signal at frequency f". The input-,-
to a SAMPLER is normally the output of an acceleromneter on the shaker
or specimen. This accelerometer signal will have a fundamen.tal at shaker
frequency 'f' and may also have harn:monically related distortion,
"f + 2f + 3f----'4 The signal is reproduced faithfully as ' Af+ ZAf+3nf---"
in the replica,

The "VMS" does not have application in random or noise

testing, and in rare cases when transients, noise, or other non-harmonic
signals are present in sinusoidzl tests the "VMS" will not show them
in slow-motion, but will show that they exist. --

The SAMPLER output will drive directly moderate

frequency light-spot galvos, or will directly moderate frequency light-
spot galvos, or will drive the arnplifiers for pen motors to produce
a permanent record of the waveshape involved. The resulting record has
a fixed distance for each cycle on the record, whether it be sample of
low, moderate, or high frequency vibration. To make the resulting
record completely useful, the AUTOMATIC F,'REQUENCY M\ARKER
generates coded burst for another galvo in the recorder every two
seconds, so that shaker frequency, correct to 4 significant figures is
also on the record.

Distortion ib an oft-overlooked problem in vibration

testing and analysis. High"Q" resonances in the specimen will respond
to the harmonic content of the shaker system, amplifying it until it may
exceed the fundamental. Tn extreme cases specimen response at the
fundamental may be imperceptable, with input at fundamental fre-
quency, and response at some harmonic of this frequency. In any sinus-
oidal vibration test there will be frequencies where an rms or peak or
average "g" reading is meaningless because it consists of several
frequencies.

Phase is a powerful tool in vibration testing. It is essential

to calculation of stress between two instrumented points. Two points
in phase with equal "gr create little stress, but when they are 1800
out of phase• considerable stres; in created. 90' phase shaft between
input and response also defincs resonance, and is particularly ' -

WADD TR 61-67 398

VJL I REV I

,_-.-,
, .- ,,- .• .. • .- :. - • K.- . .. .. . -- i..-. . :. .. .-
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*. * ,*.. . . . . . . . ..*• .. . .".- ... "." -
.9'-\ - ' i- -i
necessary in damped systems. Phase shift between two accelerometers -. -: .,
with sensitive axes parallel can also warn of crosstalk. It is also
essential to the definition of mechanical impedance, as the vector of
force divided by velocity.

4-10 Pressure Transducer - General Evaluation Procedure

A set of procedures has been formulated at Edwards "-

Air Force Base in Data Reduction and Processing for the general
evaluation of pressure transducers. This information was submitted
by Mr. David Limbacher of DRP, and is presented in Appendix V
of this manual.

4-11 A Method for Calibration of a Dynamic Pressure Pickup (Ref.299)

The object of this work was to devise a calibration method -

for a dynamic pressure pickup used during the qualification of the
expulsion system and the attitude control system of a guided missile6
A calibration fixture was designed, built, and tested at the Chrysler
Corp-,ration, Missile Division. The burst-diaphragm method which is
employed in the fixture produces a satisfactory calibration curve and
can be employed to calibrate transducers of varying capacity which are
available from manufacturers.
An Endevco transducer, designed for measuring rapidly

changing pressures and shock waves experienced in jet and rocket engines
and on the external frames of airrraft and missiles, was tested. This -
sensor is made from stainless steel and contains a special crystal cut
in the shape of a thin, square plate and mounted on three cooners, The
crystal deflects when the pickup is subjected to a variation in pressure
and, as a result, produces an electrical voltage output. This effect is
known as the piezoelectric effect. Electric leads attached to the two
surfaces of the crystal are connected to the outlet end of the pickup through
which the voltage output is conducted to the necessary instrumentation for
recording. The pickup is provided with a screw thread and an o-ring and
is simply screwed into the wall of the unit inwhich the pressure measure-
ment is desired.

The instrument indication which is obtained when the pickup

is subjected to a variation in pressure is a function of two variables:
the voltage output from the pickup and the characteristics of the inter- - .'
vening circuitry.

299 l-lolmfeld, J. D., "A Method For Calibration of a Dynamic Pressure

Pickup", Technical Memorandum, ML-M61, Chrysler Corp., Missile Div.,
July 1958.

WADD TR 61-67 399

VOL I REV 1
 While the voltage output of the pickup, corresponding
to a certain pressure change, can be calibrated by the manufacturer,
the cable characteristics will vary in different mounting arrangements and
hence the instrument readings will. vary in different applications. If
the cable capacity is known, the sensitivity of the system may be -.

calculated by use of the formula given in the amplifier manual. If desired,

the sensitivity may be standardized by adjusting the capacity switch of
the Endevco amplifier. For greater accuracy, however, the manufacturer
recommends that tla system, consisting of the pickup, the cables, and "f
the instrumentation, be calibrated for each application. The standard- - -

ization of the meter reading, to show a certain fixed value for a given
change in pressure, may be undertaken as part of the calibration
procedure.

The calibration is made by subjecting the pickup to a /

known step change in pressure and recording the instrument output pro- %
duced. This known step change is obtained by use of the calibration
fixture designed for this specific purpose. This fixture consists of a
pressure chamber machined in a steel block and an attached. diaphragm
knife. The chamber is provided with three openings. Through one of ,
these, high-pressure air is supplied to the chamber; and in the other
two openings, are placed the pickup and the burst dianhragm. -

The chamber is designed with as small a volume as

possible in order to obtain the fastest escape of the air and thus the
closest approximation to a true step function. For the same purpose of .
minimizing chamber volhme and permitting rapid decompression when the
diaphragm is ruptured, the high-pressure air inlet to the chamber is
a No. 8C hole (0.0135 in., diameter). The outer connection for the high-
pressure air is an AND fitting permanently placed on the fixture and
permitting quick connection to the -dr-control circuit. The best diaphragm
material is exposed photographic film, which has the quality of rupturing
over its entire pressurized area when pricked with the diaphragm knife.
The diaphragm is held by the top plate of the fixture, which is tighened
down with four 3/8 - in. bolts.

The high-pressure air circuit is connected as shown in •

Figure 4-11 The Heise gage must be selected to suit the pressure range IvN
over which the pickup is to be calibrated. A block diagram of the electrical
circuit as connected is shown in Figure 4- 12. The power supply is an

WADD TR 61-67 400

"VOL I REV 1

L.t-
 - - -- , . - .4.S

-4

HEISE GAGE •"•

GAGE SAVER VALVE (#I) SUPPLY VALVE 0#3) _.•

CALIBRATION FIXTURE 3000 PSI SUPPLY ...

VENT VALVE #2)••l --

Figure 4-11 High-Presstire Air Gircuit • ::

-- "A'M.PIF CALIBTKA•'ioN F=XURE •

'4 -, . -f • .k, , .. . ., ,. , - :" "" " "" "" ,. . . " " " " ,. . . . ...

POWER SUPPLY AMPLIFIER OUTPUT r,'•-

EXTERNAL DAMPING-,--•
RESISTANCE "•'"""

VISICORDER
IIOA REITAC .- :-:

Figure 4-12 Electrical Circu.-it "'"-'

WADD TR 61- 67 401,'--

VOL I RZV 1'"""

._z
 Endevco power supply, model 2621, and the amplifier is anl Endcvco
amplifier 2614. The recording instrument is a Minneapolis -Honeywell
Visicorder, which provides a permanent record of the output variations.
The galvanometer in the Visicorder must be selected according to the
pressure range (hence, voltage output range) of the pickup to be cali-
brated. These galvanometer ranges are given in the booklet "'Opera-
tion and Maintenance Martual-906 Visicorder Oscillograph" pp. 5-6.
The value of the required external damping resistance is given in the9
* same section. The value of the required external damping resistance
is given in the same section. The amplifier output resistance must be
2, 5000 ohms or greater.

After the transducer has been placed in the calibration

fixture 4nd the high-pressure air circuit and the electrical circuit have
been connected, the following step-by-step procecdure is followed:

1. Place the diaphragm over the top opening and tighten

down the cover plate.

2. Open valve 1.

3. Close valve 2.

7,
Sowly
oi open valve 3 Un1Ln tUe uesj~re-u pressiure III (uxie
chamber is obtained as read on Heise gage; then close
valve 3. In the event that the pressure in the system
exceeds the desired value, reduce the pressure by
venting through valve 2.

5. Close valve 1.

6. Start the Visicorder tape.

7. Punch the diaphragm knife to rupture the diaphragm. -I

8. Stop the Viscorder tape.
----------------------------------------------.-
9. Repeat thn procedure for a new value of chamber pressure.
... ... .. ... .. obtine a-----------eine ga e .
the clo- se. . . . . .

. - *'1*
5.- -. - -l s valve- I. -- - - - - - - - - - -

WADD TR 61-67 402

VOL I REV I
4-12 Notes on an Automated Pressure Generation and Transducer
Calibration (Ref.300)

Prior to the advent of the aerospace age, transducers were

used primarily as a research tool and test instrumentation in research
programs.

The instrument standard, in factory and flight line testing,

for pressure, was the dial indicator type gage operating in accuracy orders
of from 1/4% of full scale to 3% of full scale, The standard procedure
was that of selecting a specific operating range for the gage of from 50%
to 80% of full scale. The high precision and improved reliability transducers
has led to the use of large numbers of transducers in missiles as a [-
routine type sensing device.

A manually operated dead weight tester was usually used to

test gages and the early vintage transducers. However, when a number
of pressure points are required for calibrating a wide range of transducers
over their full scale capability, the process of manually placing weights
correctly on such a tester becomes a very tedious one and subject to human
error by the fatigued operator factor.

The highly automated Model 265 Pressure Transducer .

Calibrator is a system which can accomplish in 20 minutes what the average
technician could manually do in 8 hours.

The Model 265 shown inFig.4-l3 is manufactured by

Gilmore Industries, Cleveland, Ohio, and has a system accuracy of ± .05%3/6
and will maintain a specific pressure set point over a several day "
period at t .05% of the set point value.

The unit is currently being tested as a missile system N

support item by NASA Marshall Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama. %

300 "An Introduction to Automated Pressure Generation and Trans- '-

ducer Calibration", Gilmore industries Data Sheet, 3/13/62.

WADD TR 61-67 403

VOL I REV 1

%-J.;-r...:

%A .-
Fig. 4-13 Model 265 Press-Lre Transduceri Calibrator, Gilmnore Indiistries

WADD TR 61- 67
VOL I REV 140-
 4-13 Performance Tests on Two Piezoelectric Crystal Pressure
Transducers (Ref.301)

The following information fronm an NBS report illustrates a

method of testing and calibration of piezoelectric crystal type pressure -t j
transducers.

Two Kistler Instrument Company pressure transducers,

type SLM, Sefial Nos. 370 and 371 were tested in conjunction with a
"piezo-calibrator", Model 2, Serial No. 89, made by some company.
Fig.4-14 shows construction of SLM transducers. The purpose of the
tests were to determine sensitivity, hysteresis, linearity, repeatability, 4
effects of static and dynamic temperatures, response to dynamic pressures, .-
effects of vibratory accelerations, and time constants of the transducer
and calibrator combination.

The quartz pickup and piezo-calibrator combination have

a sufficiently long time constant (on the order of 15 minutes) to permit
calibration by measuring the charge generated by it when a static pressure
is applied. In these gages, the necessary very high leakage resistance is
obtained by the use of specially treated quartz crystals, by the use of
special high resistance cable, and by very high input resistance of the
calibrator (a direct coupled single stage amplifier using an electrometer -.-
tetrode). The overall leakage resistance is the order of 1014 ohms, which
contributes to the very long charge time-constant of this system. In the
manufacturer's description of static calibration, the charge generated by
a known pressure is exactly neutralized by a charge applied to the
"Calibrating capacitor" in the piezo- calibrator from a constant voltage
source by means of a built-in precision potentiometer. The electrometer
amplifier, together with an oscilloscope direct-coupled to the calibrator
output, act as a null detector only; with the resultant calibration being in .
terms of potentiometer dial division versus applied pressure. The charge
time-constant is further increased since the electrometer tube draws off less
of the generated charge (in the forii, of grid current) when that charge is
neutralizd•. Whe 1 used to sense dynanmic Lressures, the electrometer
circuit acts as an impedance matching preamplifier from the extremely
high impedance of the quartz crystal gage to the impedance of a voltage
measuring device such as an oscilloscope or vacuum tube voltmeter. The
gain of this preamplifier as well as the voltage applied to the calibration

301 Lederer, P. S., R. 0. Smith, Performoance Tests On Two Piezo-

electric Quartz Crystal Pressure Transducers and Calibrator, N1S Report
4973, February 1957.

WADD TR 61-67 405 '--4

VOL I REV 1

ý6NN

S" .-
'-..- .
~.~.; -.. . 2,N .-
.- . .
.. . "--'.N't.-. - .... . "."
--. "."..". - . -., . )".",:-''
-. . . - ''''''v
. -- .- vv v----.' . ,F "V V .v
,*.-,.s:-:' ,v '.. '. -V i
,*x ''':.'''''.:".", .. ,
potentiometer are fixed by setting the power supply current as indicated
on a built in meter to 1.00 ma. In many operations, it is desirable to have 4
zero output voltage when zero pressure is applied to the gage. This
is achieved by having a battery in the calibr:ator between the output terminal
and the plate of the electrometer tube connected so as to buck the plate
voltage. A fine adjustment for zero output is provided in the form of a
small potentiometer (screw driver adjusted) in the calibrator, by means
of which the voltage on the grid of the electrometer can be adjusted. This,
by changing the current through the tube, will change the voltage at the
plate of the tube. However, adjustment of this potentiometer ("output
level adjustment control") will also change the gain of the circuit, requiring
the recalibration of the piezo-calibrator after each adjustment. Since
the static calibration of the system results in a value of PSI/DIAL DIVISION
using the piezo-calibrator as a null detector only; this value is independent
of the gain of the unit. For the recalibration of the piezo- calibrator is
independent of the gain of the unit. For the recalibration of the piezo-
calibrator it is necessary only (with no pressure applied to the gage) to
move the calibration dial a. number of divisions and note the resulting L=
change in output voltage. From this, the change is pressure represented
by the measured change in output voltage can be determined.

Both pressure pickups were calibrated statically in terms

o-f di-rison of thr '-age calib ration dial on the calibrator.* A deadweight -

tester supplied pressures from 10 psi to 1500 psi with an accuracy of

0 .3% of the pressure, while pressures up to 14.7 psi (for the lowest
range) were measured to within *0.5 mm by means of a mercury rnano-
meter. "

Before each run, the voltage used to supply the neutralizing

charge by means of the calibration dial was standarized. This consisted
of setting the current through a precision resistor to exactly 1.00 ma by
means of the built in rheostat and millimeter. Then, with zero differential -
pressure applied to the pickup and the calibrator dial at zero, the input to
the electrometer circuit was grounded by means of the range switch to re-
move any charge present. The range switch was then reset to the desired
range and the resulting zero pressure response noted on a sensitive dc
oscilloscope coupled to the output of the calibrator. The desired pressure
was then applied to the pickup and the scope trace brought back to its zero
points. Pressure was applied in about ten steps for each range, between

WADD TR 61-67 406

VOL I REV I

%.
 Electrical. Contact

Teflon Insulator and Seal

Drying Agent

Electrical Lead

Insulating Tube
Hard Steel Cylinder

Pressure Vent

Optically Flat Surfaces

Prestressed Quartz Crystals

Electrode
Thin Walled Sleeve

Invar Steel for Temp. Compensation

Composite Diaphragm
Fig. 4-14 SLM. Transducer Construction, Kistler Instrumen~t
Company.

WADD TR 61-67 407

VOLT REVi
 S•0

zero and full scale. The values of sensitivity in PSI/DIAL DIVISION were
obtained from the slope of the best straight line drawn through the 0
calibration points. The limits of calibration accuracy using the deadweight
tester are estimated at ±0.9% of the reading. The limits of calibration
accuracy using the manometer are estimated at ±0.7% of full scale By
repeating one point near full scale from three to five times, values of
short time repeatability were obtained. Finally, except on the lowest
range, pressures were applied in the following sequence in order to
determine hysteresis; 0.1 of full scale, 0.5 full scale, full scale,
0.5 full scale and 0.1 full scale. Maximum observed hysteresis occurred
at 0.5 full scale. The limits of calibration accuracy using the deadweight
tester are extimated at ±0.9% of the reading.

Pressures below atmospheric were applied to the gage by

means of the laboratory vacuum line and measured by a mercury mano-
meter. The output of the piezo- calibrator (15 psi full scale range) was
measured on the screen of a direct coupled oscilloscope. The scope
was calibrated by means of the calibration dial of the piezo- calibrator.
Limitations of the vacuum line prevented going beyond 490 mm HIg.

The SLM pressure transducer was also calibrated inde-

pendently of the piezo-calibrator in terms of generated charge per unit
of pressure by the use of a commercial electrometer (Kiethlet 200 A) and
precision capacitor (GR 722D). As before, accurately known values of
pressure were supplied by the deadweight tester. When the electro-
meter is connected to the transducer by its cable, the applied pressure
will generate a charge in the transducer. This charge will be distributed
on the capacitor formed by the quartz crystals as well as the capacitor
representing the cable, its connectors, and the input capacity of the -* --
electrometer. Since the electrometer measures the voltage across the
latter capacitor, it is only necessary to know the value of this capacitor
in order to compute the charge sensitivity of the transducer.

The dynamic pressure calibration was done by means

of a shock tube. Step functions of pressure with a rise time of much
less than a microsecond and amplitudes ranging from about 50 to 320 psi
were applied to the transducer flush mounted in the end plate of the shock
tube. The resulting output from the calibrator was photographed from"

WADD TR 61-67 408

VOL I REV I

Nil_.
-_

!. . . . .. . . . . . - , -
 19

the screen of direct coupled oscillograph. After each "shot" the oscilloscope,
deflection sensitivity was determined in terms of divisions of the calibrator
calibration dial. From the photograph of the deflection sensitivity was
determined in terms of divisions of the calibrator calibration dial. From the-
photograph of the deflected scope trace and the static calibration of the gage
(in psi per dial division) the pressure sensed by the SLM gage was corn-
puted. The shock amplitude was computed from shock front velocity deter-
mined from the transit time, measured to within ±10 sec., of the shock
wave between two fixed barium titanate gages mounted a known distance
apart in the shock tube wall,

SLM Gage No. 371 was tested for temperature effects by

inserting it in a temperature controlled chamber in such a manner that
the cable end of the gage as well as the cable itself were not subjected to
the test temperatures. The gage was screwed into a threaded pressure
fitting connected to the source of pressure and a mercury manometer. A
thermocouple was inserted into the air vent in the gage body. With the
calibrator in the 0.5 range, pressures of 200 mm Htg and 700 mm Hg
were applied and the output determined as a function of calibrator dial
divisions using a direct coupled oscilloscope as null detector.

To study the effect of rapid temperature changes on the

gage, the following experiments were performed: With the diaphragm of
gage No. 371 exposed to the air at room temperature (74 'F, zero pressure),
the calibrator output (15 psi range) was displayed on the screen of a
direct coupled oscilloscope, with a very slow sweep. The gage was then
rapidly immersed to a depth of about 1/8" in a large bowl of water at 118°F.
The output on the scope showed an exponential change which leveled off
at the equivalent of -15.5 psi after about 125 seconds (the direction of this
output change being opposite to that of a positive pressure applied to the
gage). At this time with the gage still immersed, the output gradually moved
hbck at a rate which, if extrapol..ated, would retui-n it to itAs original value
in about 450 seconds. Thus the time required for the temperature compen--
sation of the gage to be effective to the above temperature change appears
to be 575 seconds or almost 10 minutes. The gage was then screwed into a
dural block with its diaphragm exposed. The flame of a Meeker burner
(about 1300 'F) was brushed across the diaphragm, in from about 0. 2 to
0.5 second. The output on the scope showed a sharp dip (of the order of
- 2 psi on the 15 psi range) in the same direction before. Then the output
returned to its original position in about 1.25 seconds. A second run, ob-
served with the fast sweep showed the rise time of the sharp dip to be a
little less than 100 milliseconds.

WADD TR 61-67 409

VOL I REV I

-. -.- * -.
 To test for vibration effects, the SLM gage was mounted
in a threaded block on the table of an electromagnetic shaker and subjected
to vibration peak amplitudes of 5 to 10 G's over a frequency range from
50 to 1200 cps. Two braium titanate accelerometers were inserted on the
same block oriented so as to sense extraneous table motions. Frequencies
at which the amplitudes of such motions exceeded about 10% of the axial
table motion were avoided. The cable connecting the gage to the pieezo-
calibrator was fastened to a bolt in the shaker body with about 1 0" of the
gage end unsupported. The cable itself was tested by inserting an insulat-
ing wafer between the center terminal of the SLM gage and the center
terminal of the cable connector. The equivalent output due to cable
vibration did not exceed 0.002 psi 0-peak/G 0-peak over the above fre-
quency range.

Each gage was tested by applying vibration in two directions:

in the pressure sensitive direction (along the gage's longitudinal axis) and
in a transverse direction.

4-14 The Shock Tube as a Facility for Dynamic lesting of

Pressure Pickups

Recent rocket-motor developments emphasize the pre-

viously existing need for better dynamic pressure measurements and con-
sequently for better means of evaluating gage or pickups intended for such
measurements, Gages tor such purposed are usually small flush- diaphragnm-
pickups employing the strain-gage, capacitance, variable inductance or 1.n
piezoelectric principle. In rocket motors there are pressure changes - -
exceeding 200 psi at frequencies exceeding 10 kcps. The dynamic properties `""
of an instrument may be expressed as a plot of the instrument's response
to a step-function input, or as a frequency response curve. While the "-"'
latter is usually considered easier to interpret, it is difficult to obtain the

1
necessary accurately-known sinusiodal input when it must be in the form of
a pressure. Step-function inputs of known pressure are more readily pro-
duced. Analog computer techniques have been described for deriving fre- -
nnency response curves from step-function recordA.

Presently available methods of producing sinusiodal excita-

tion of the gage fall far short of the above figures (200 psi at 10 kcps) in
either amplitude or frequency or both, so that direct determination of
frequency response curves is feasible only to relatively low frequencies
and pressures. A precisely known step change in pressure can be pro-
duced by opening a valve, breaking a bottle, or by means of a burst
diaphragm calibrator, but the rise times of such negative-going steps are
long in comparison with the period of a 10 kcps wave so that the response
of gages to such rapid pressure changes cannot be studied by these means.

WADD TR 61-67 410

VOL I REV 1. -
 .- %jf

A step-function for dynamic testing of pressure gages requires

the change from one known pressure level to a second known level in a time '-•
-.

sufficiently short to shock.- excite the gage under test, each pressure level
being maintained for sufficient time to obtain a steady record of the gage
respon-e. The shock tube meets these requirements well for the testing
of very fact gages, i.e., well-damped gages of high natural frequency,
but for the testing of gages which require more than 1 msec to attain steady
state response after the step change, precise use of tl.e shock tube is
limited to low amplitude steps, Rise times around 10 sec for a positive
pressure step can be realized and the amplitude of the step can be deter-'
mined from the static measurement of initial pressure or, more precisely,
from the measurement of the velocity, of the pressure wave. The time
during which the higher level can be maintained appears to be limited
only by the length of the tube although actually the time during which it
can be considered constant it rather short, this time decreasing with
increase in amplitude for a given shock tube. The amplitude of the step
is easily controlled from a few psi to about 600 psi in a shock tube of
relatively simple design and ineypensive construction.

Detailed discussion of the shock tube phenomena and its

usage may be found in Refe. 302-6.

L. -J "M

302 Glass, 1. I., Martin, W. & Patterson, G. N. "A Theoretical and

Experimental Study of the Shock Tube", Univ. of Toronto, UTIA Report #2,
1953.

303 Emrich, R. J. and Peterson, R. L., "Pressure Variation with

Time in the Shock Tube", Lehigh Univ. Tech. Report 17, 1.956.

'.) A-
4
Wole, A. F. "Shock Tube for Gage Performance Studies", Report
No. 20-87, JPL Cit., 1955.

305 Varwig, R. L., "An Optical Shock Velocity Measuring System for
the Shock Tube", NAVORD Report #3901, 1955.

306 Smith, R. 0. and P. S. Lederer, "The Shock Tube as a Facility

for Dvnamic Testing of Pressure Pickups" National Bureau of Standards
Report No. 4910, March 1957.

WADD TR 61-67 411

VOLI REVI

-". "-t f f."ft ft-- ftfttf t" ft -

, f fft.. :-: f ft-'ft". -- :-'1:
ft -ft -- f -f t t f~ f - . . ..
-,-," t-- - - .- . ' =
. .
S.:-,:V
.
::. -':"4
.,-.,F- '•-6
.- t-f- - f-
-t
":-': ft- :'--'
-
-,ft.----.--"-.-'.
ft f - ft fft
-'-. - .- t , . ft . -: . -::-: .. t 'ft ft:"-
t -::
 4-15 Load Cell and High Capacity Force Devicus

LoadCell calibration is required to accurately establish

the transducer characteristic separate from the test stand fixtures and
recording system. In this type of calibration, a known load is applied
to the transducer and the output is measured with the calibrator. To assure
transducer calibration accuracy, the accuracy of the calibrator should .e
be made many times that of the recording equipment used in the actual test.
Transducer characteristics such as linearity, hysteresis, sensitivity, factor, -. "-
temperature effect, side loading errors, etc. are determined during this -'-
calibration. Once the transducer characteristics are established, electrical
calibration of the recording system can be accurately and conveniently
used to check the direct system calibration. Separate calibration of any
type of transducer is required -- even if direct system calibration is used
in the test cell -- because transducer hysteresis and creep are not
apparent during the system calibration. This would, of course, result in
considerable uncertainty when trying to achieve thrust system accuracies of
plus or minus 0.5% and better.

A number of methods of applying load to the transducer are

available, depending upon the accuracy desired and the range of the load
cell.
Some of the available methods are as tollows;

1. Hydraulic loading with applied force computed

from the pressure applied to a piston. The N-
Pressure applied is read on a dial gage.

2. Hydraulic loading with the applied force measured

by an NBS calibrated load cell or proving ring
in series with the transducer.

3. Platform scale modified to apply a known load

on Ue transducer.

4. "Dead Weight" applied directly to the trans-

ducer. (Ref.307)

307 'Description and Specifications of Model 344 series M and S, Tension-

Compression Load Cell", Allegany Instrument Company, Inc. Cumberland,
Maryland.

WADD TRI 61-67 412

VOL I REV 1

z:?:
...
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ............. ...... ...

* I-I I I I I I • I I - I .. I I i
 The National Bureau of Standards is the source for standards

of mass in this country. The NBS has two deadweight machines, one of
10,000 lb. capacity and a second of 111,000 lbs. capacity. (The two dead
weight machines will operate in either compression or tension). They
state that these weights are accurate to .02% of reading. Above these x. ,.
weights proving rings are the standard of force. The following ranges of
force calibrations can be made at the Bureau. (Ref.308)

a) 0 to 10, 000 lbs. with an accuracy of .02% of reading.

Tension and compressionŽ

b) 0 to 111,000 lbs. with an accuracy of 02% of reading.

Tension and compression.

c) 111, 000 to 300,000 lb. using three - 100,000 lb. 2*

compression proving rings. Accuracy, 0.1% -'
(compression only).

d) 300,000 to 900,000 Ibs. using three - 300,000 lb.

proving rings. Accuracy 0.1%. The 300,000 lb.
proving rings cannot be calibrated directly in the
dead weight machine so they are one more step re-
moved from the .02% dead weights. By using-
three carefully calibrated 100, 000 lb. capacity pro-
ving rings in parallel test loads from 111, 000 lb. to
300,000 lb. can be measured at NBS within 0.1%
With three 300, 000 lb. capacity proving rings in
parallel test loads from 300, 000 lb. can be measured
at NBS within 0.1%.

e) 900,000 lb . to 1,500,000 lbs. (comnpression only).

Five 300,000 lb. proving rings are used here. The
NBS has not stated the accracies obtained,

NOTE: The NBS will calibrate only in compression over

111, 000 lbs.

The use of proving rings has long been the standard of high
capacity forces, but to verify 0.1% or .05% systems encountered in the

308 Carleton, R. 5. Jr., "Precision High Capacity Force Standards"

ISA Conference Seipt. 1960, ISA Preprint No. 36-NY60.

WADD TR 61-67 413

VOLI REVl "-I-

. -. . . . :t-i
. . . . . . . -.--
. . . . . . . . . . -

, . _,.,'k,'
. .$•
-_ '&..... ty-,
v , ,-w -.. . -.. ,..."•""""
-. "--.-.
. "- " "s"" "" -.." "" -' - : ' "'"K-
'*'"" " "" "
 missile industry (and commercial scales as well) they are considered in-
adequate not only because of lack of compliance with the two to one ratio .. *
required, but more importantly perhaps, the large human element involved
in achieving the 0,1% accuracies of which they are capable. A proving
ring must be used at a known, stable temperature, and requires considerable
skill on the part of the operator in obtaining zero load and loaded condition.
readings, not to mention the possibility of errors that arise in data reduction
to obtain true load r,ýadings. A good example of this has been repeatedly . -

observed at the National Bureau of Standards itself in the calibration of high

capacity loid cell systems, where the -first 100,000 lbs. of calibrating is
done in the dead weight testing machine, and higher loads zre verified
against proving rings, Invariably, the data will be smooth or repeatable
up to 100, 000 lbs., with a considerable scatter of data when switching to
proving rings for tLe higher load calibration.

There is one further element of doubt, and that is the

difference in characteristic of a proving ring when loaded square as a single
column load test in the dead weight machine, as compared to being loaded
with a flat top plate supporting three proving rings. There is always bend-
ing in the upper plate when a single 300, 000 lb. proving ring is compared
with three - 100, 000 lb. proving rings spaced below. Since the calibration
is a transfer calibration there is always another element of error that
must be added to the individual 100,000 lb. proving ring errors. We have
found in testing load cells that this bending of the upper plate has an effect
on load cells. The effect of eccentric loads on proving rings was reported
in National Bureau of Standards Circular C454 (1946).

The National Bureau of Standards has received an appro-

priation for dead weight testing machines of higher capacity. Machines
of 1,000,000 lbs. are in discussion, but completion date is estimt•ted to be
in 1963. This means that for the next three years, the proving ring
systems referred to above will be the United States basis for high capacity
force calibration.

Four systems are mentioned here, suitable for laboratory

standards in force measurement. Each system makes use of a hydraulic
loading cylinder and frame with the following measuring devices: (Only
Electric Load Cells will be covered in detail).

WADD TR 61 -67 414 -

VOL 1t REVl1

4 4. . 4.
. . 4. .4 . - .4- -.. . . L. 4 4. -

4 4 ~ .%* 4 •

'.."'i''2.% - -2-'> '? '2-':.'

/," •"?-F :" -:"•''• . .: .:..': ..'.- "- .- .' ..'.:'?> 4-'74:.:' 4,4 '. 472.?. -'4-- 4 ?. . 7 . -4 .? "-4 4? .". ,,
.7

2'*4

1) Proving Rings

2) Hydraulic Capsule

3) Lever Scale

4) Electric Load Cells

Gilmore Industries is currently processing a contract for

a one million pound capacity unit of the electric load cell type, Figure 4-15
Basically, this is a testing machine configuration specially desinged for
force calibration, utilizing a bonded strain gage load cell measuring system
with digital readout as the standard. Such a unit has a verifiable accuracy
of .05% of the applied load. Because of the limitation in dead weight caii- F
"%6 brating capacities at the Bureau is 100,000 lbs., no individual. load cell
element exceeds this capacity. Multiple cells, physically paralled and
totalized on one indicator, are used in the machine. For verification, they
"are stacked in physical series on the Bureau's 100, 000 pound dead weight
machine, and by this method .05% accuracy up to one million pouinds can
be verified. The Bureau's machine has an accuracy of .02% (Ref.309)
This approach has the advantage of being able to readily verify the rernov-
able measuring standard by shipping to the Bureau for periodic checking,
simplified direct digital readout to eliminate human error, and a
considerably lesser investment than a full-fledged dead weight testing
machine.

It should be noted that the load cell standard system

discussed here in officially listed as the field force- r-ferenc-e standard
by both the Air Force and the Navy in the following references:Ref. 310
and 311.

309 National Bureau of Standards Circuler C446 (1943).

310 Air Force Technical Order 1No. 33-1-14 dated 21 August 1959, in
Appendix IV, Section 4A-Z, Item 61.

311 "Standard Laboratory Instruction Manual" put out by the Navy

Standards Lab0 at Pomona and listed in Appendix A, dated 19 July 1959,
as Item 29.

WADD TR 61- 67 415

VOLI REV 1

-. "4
J-
' "";
"P-
" " ¢ '¢ : •" •"" ' .. " i i •-" , "
"
" " ", , 'i
-- v.
 The equipment consists of the following items:

1) A one million pound compression hydraulic frame .;.-

(Figure 4-15) - -

2) Three units of five - 100, 000 lb. compression cells

and a 500, 000 lb. digital summing type force indicator. --

3) Three units of a 100,000 lb. Universal Cell each with

a digital Model 170 force indicator.

4) Three units of 25, 000 lb. Universal Load Cell and each
with a digital Model 170 force indicator.

5) NBS calibration on all of the above equipment.

The system will handle .05% of reading from 5000 lbs. to

1,000,000 lb. by use of three sets of load cells and indicators. The items
3 and 4 are straight forward, one handling up to 25, 000 and the second
from 25, 000 to 100 000 lbs. The press is arranged to handle tension and
compression with a double acting hydra.ulic cylinder and the Universal
Cells. The "Standard Cells" are screwed to the base of the machine and the . .
rod of the hydraulic cylinder mountea on the adjustable cross head.

Electric load cells are used to weigh the Atlas Missile in

tanl-kng on the test sites in Cape Canaveral, Florida (See Fig. 4-17)
It is desired to very accurately weigh the entire missile and also the fuel
that is added before a firing. The working weighing system consists of
four 100, 000 lb. cells connected by 1, 000 ft. of cable back to the clock house -
where a digital force indicator reads the total weight on the cells. These
weighing systems have been in operation since 1957. As the cells are
located only a few feet from the flame fr.'om a missile under test, and are .
flooded with flame as a missile takes ofi in a flight test, there is always
the snsnicion that damagý4e Tin.- nc-civri-re in thep wefighlingf sys~tem;n q.xrt-r-A
means of calibration were considered such as (lead weights, proving rings,
water tanks, hydraulic loads, and eluctric load cells. Since accuracy was
of prime importance and the weighing of the fuels into the missile is the
only true and basic way of getting the right amount of fuels into the missile,
some type of force calibration means was required. Figure 4-19 shows a
sketch of the launcher frame and the way it is supported on four vertical
cells. A system, as shown in Figure 4-Z0 was built to calibrate in the field
the entire stand and, if desired, with a missile erected, the entire
system. Figure4-Z0 indicates the principle used is the application of a

WADD TR 61-67 416

VOL I REV 1

4. .'i~t~txt~ff_\K<:-&-L'.--.

.Kt\U'.:.stV K.'.ss:,::-.,., . ....-

 -LOADING FRAME

-HYDRAULIC CYLINDER

1000K
LOAD
-DEVICE BEING CALIBRATED ~
CELL
DIG]TAL READOUT STANDARDS

,CA -BRATO CELL

7-READOUTS
FOR CELL BEING
CALIBRATED (DOUBLE BRIDGE)

CIACS HAD NL~fER PV~t NILIFIR POWER

CABLEl
DUCT

7
-PLOOR //7777777l`ýSL' bLsOC?7777777

Fig. 4-15 Load Cell Calibrator, 1, 000, 000 1b. Capacity,

WEIGHING

RIGID
NON-
WElDFING
FRAME

13-8

OPERATOR
STATI-'ON

6-0 0

10-0

Fig. 4-16 Mechanical L..ever Type Scale for Secondary F orce Standard.

WADD TR 61-67 417

VOLI REVI
 4A4

tax

Fi.41 lcri odCl.eihn fA a

rl i 2

W D 418 616
.R

VOL IREVA
 ) Po % .10 10,00 n0 .0.1 q -. ,7 0 y.

T- 01,,o 0•001. 00,0d nl 00

,l,o0raora. , "1
a. . .. IW~a00 rl 0,r 0
n 1

000 t ~ V-00

Safilo lb.flg.i0..1.0 00 0.00

-- --

1, Y 1. S ~ rlr

•l•J ~ ~ iv 02% - OlPJ-

1-
Xrc
&
"

* laly
aoýao Y ________
WSA -.- iiNij. dI - B - ..
-,4 IWM 2 1/2 F.

Fig. 4-18 Comparison of 4 Types of 1,000,000 lb. Secondary and Tertiary Force Standards
mZao0 B '% ;lo,,,-o *..--

Z2[ Z4t. Z,.... -

.------

[0.0 t1l~ 000fl 10.1 ,.0. 000.00 "

Plan Elevation"'" i

Fig. 4-19 Load Cell Arrangement for Force Component Measurement

CA'". CAN,

S•.-''':''-•-''5..,",.,,-''': '',,.''',''-'',-.v "v.'Plan-." e- ."." "": .'E- . .- ' .'-- . . ." "." ,
S,:,
, • ..,......-:.-.
.. ,..
. . ..,". . ..:
., .-,
:, . .:, , .: :,--.
. , . -., , . ,:._• . . . .-,_ -.. ,. . . . .., . . . . . - ._ .. .. .. . . . .. .
Fi.419La Cl rrneen o FreCopnntMaurmn

Fig. 4-20 BCoc4 Diagram of Field Standard Calibration System FreSadds

VOLI REVI
% 19
* .. ~' *.~INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS BY GILMORE INDV3STRIES

*9 200 FT.

INSTRUMENT
ROOM
*1 28fl5FT.------------ -------------

~m
~LAT0RM PLATFORM I -

UNVRA WIH NDTRS FCLT

.4i
PLTOR AYO

Fiur.42

WADDIA 2 TR6-6

VOL~ I REV
 UNIVERSAL WEIGHT AND THRUST FACILITY
INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM BlLOCK~ DIAGRAM
PATCH GILMORE INDUSTRIES INC.
PANEL
16 IN WfIGHT OIALWEIGHT
C.ELLS 70TALIZER RGSE
A
'

CRIGE

4 WT.
RECO~II

TIME TIMAE f T"'EAI

PUNC

4 THRUJST
ST.RJUST EDR

BRIDGE THRUST DIGITAL TRS

D- TRAN"TA1R EGTR

Figure 4-23

1A

%'%

THRUST AND WEHGHT- LOSS

Figu~re 4-24

WADD TR 61-67
VOL 1 REV 1
 hydraulic cylinder to the foundation of the launching pad, pulling down
upon the launching frame which holds the missile, and thereby pulling 0
down on the working cells to provide a calibration. The calibration cells
furnished with the hydraulic ram are supplied with a separate indicator
and are calibrated by the National Bureau of Standards. A field standard
calibration system is provided which reads out the load applied on four
cells, which in turn is the load being pulled down upon the launcher frame :"
and working cells. This way the calibration cells with the Bureau of
Standards record can be compared directly against the working Weight
Instrument System, and a direct pound-for-pound calibration made.
It should be noted that this calibration can be made with the missile
and all of its attachments in place to best simultate actual conditions.

4-16 Testing Gyros At Norden (Ref.312)

Varied test procedures are in practice at different gyro

manufacturing facilities, so it is necessary to explain precisely how
test results are obtained before one can attach much meaning to such
results. The philosophy at Norden is to test the gyros in a manner which
most closely approximates an actual operational environment. They
have developed a Simultated Platform Test.
S.-i_-, '

-11115 Ltb ±±equeiuly utici:

bt I e ue
e vs vu LCL, -V1LLI
one very distinct difference. When a gyro is used in any earth-oriented L-mt
mode, the local component of earth rate will usually be bucked out by
applying a suitable D.C. current to the gyro torquer. But in the normal
servo test the torquer is not used. The servo has been modified to - -

include the gyro torquer, by bucking out about 95% of the local component
of earth rate with the gryo torquer.

In addition to getting the torquer into the test loop, which

gets any torquer errors into the gyro performance characteristics, there
is another gain. Since the table now sees only about 5% of earth rate, by
amplifying the signal which tells the table motion, also amplifys the
error components, and one can now more accurately measure these un-
wanted outputs from the gyro.

This test is performed by the table to drift through a small

known angle and recording table position as a function of time. The table

312 Technical Bulletin, Norden, Division of United Aircraft Corp.

Milford., Connecticut..-"

WADD TR 61-67 422

VOLI REV1

J. - -2 - - - --. --. -
". "-
 is torqued back to its starting position by applying a signal to the gy/ro ••<----
torquer, and the run is repeated This is done for a total of ten times I ,-Il
in the orientation chosen (Fig.4-26). The standard deviation of the ten runs .--
is short tern- random drift. The average drift is inserted into an equation -L•..
": ~~~along with terms for earth rate, mass unbalances, fixed torque, t~orquer --.-
"; ~~~current and torquer scale factor, etc. The gyro orientation is then •-]'
I ~~~changed to that of Fig. 4-27 and the entire procedure is repeated. Next ....
reorientation is to the position of Fig. 4-28 and repeat again. There -•->
arc now three simultaneous equations and one can readily solve for mass".•-.
unbalance along the spin axis, mass unbalance along the input axis, and ,...•
fixed bias. """

If the values of mass unbalance fall outside of the speci- :2".

fications, it is a simple matter to go back and rebalance the gyro with-,.--,
out draining the fluid or disturbing the sealIs in any way. :::-i

:", ~~~Results of this test for a typical gyro are: -.- ,•

*Random drift (output axis horizontal) 0.01 0°/hr. (one sigma) "..2a.
0
Random drift (output axis vertical) 0.005 °/hr. (one sigma) "'""J
Mass unbalance along spin reference axis 0.10 0 /hr./g (max.) -' -"•

*Mass unbalance along input axis 0.10 °/hr./g (max.): '1'

rixed bias U.lU"ihr. (max.)...
Akfter these tihirty runs are completed (ten runs in each". ''}
.4of three orientations), the gyro is cooled to room temperature. Upon ,_-,,
reheating, the entire procedure is repeated. This cool down and reheat *',,'<

cycle is done five times, and the difference in output from cycle to cycle ...
,-
with no trimming, is day-to-day stability. Typical values for this are: •,:•

Day- to- day stability Std. deviation ..-

(No trimming)..-/

Input axis vertical .1l°/hr.,."'["

Input a~xis horizontal .0(5 0°/hr. [

A second test which N orden performs is one designedt to .,""

determine the long term stability of the gyro. This is accomplished by
testing the gyro, without trimming, for fifteen continuous hours in the.•-"
following fashion.

WADN) TR 61- 67 423 .'•-

*VOLTI REV!I•-

I;,~~~~~~~~~~~.,....-.......
..-.-.-.-.-.-.- .......-.-..-.. ........-- -..-.-..-.-. -.
• -' - "-"-%1'•
- - - - - - - - - - - t"- - - - - - - -- - - - -- -- -- - - -- -- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
 ~N R~F 5WEST

'DOWN SOUTH)

S~t4 iREIr, Aps -WES

OujrpuT AKS -UPV1
14pU-T AKS - IO4.rl4

Fig. 4-26 bA

VOL I REV, 1 WS
††††††††††††††ur.
AXI UP . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .

. . . . .. . AXIS-. . . . - - - - -

. . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . g... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
\.A

Ss'im REF.. AmSI-PoWN a"

C.uTP%-, N-19 - WEST

4'AM

Fi. 4--27 N

WADD TR 167425
VOL IRV1
 The test table is oriented to have its axis of rotation parallel
to the axis of rotation of the earth. The gyro is mounted on the table with
its input axis normal to the table axis, hence, normal to the earth's axis.
In this orientation the table is rotated at eight times earth rate for fifteen
continuous hours, thereby making five complete revolutions. The gyro
is not trinmmed at all during this test, and the feedback current to the gyro
torquer is recorded.

The random component of gyro output is determined by com-

paring the output from revolution to revolution every 10 0 of table rotation.
Thus, 36 sets of five points each are obtained. The standard deviation of
each set is computed. These deviations for a particular gyro are distributed
as follows:
Std. Deviation Number of Occurrences
0
/hr
.003 1
.01 6
.02 18
.03 8
.04 2
.06 1

Thus, for this gyro, twenty-five of the thrity-six sets have

a standard deviation of .02'/hr. or less, and thirty-three of the thirty-six
sets have a standard deviation of .03 */hr. or less.

The same test was performed on another gyro, with the ".
exception that data was taken every fifteen degrees of table rotation, resulting
in twenty-four sets of five points each. The standard deviations of the
twenty-four sets of points for this gyro were distributed as follows:

Std. fleTrintion Num-ber of Ocrr-urrPenrc-

.006 5 L•-

60L
.024 4

WADD TR 61-67 426

VOLI REVI

...............

. . . . . .-.--. .....
.....
. . . . . . ..-.- . . .
. . .....
 4-17 Automatic Testing and Calibration

The rapid advances in all phases of instrumentation in-

volved in missile and space probe programs has led to the extreme
necessity of employing automatic checking and calibration of systems.
This requirement can fully be understood in considering the multitude oa
checks performied during "count-down' intervals preceding the launch-,
ing of a space vehicle, or test firing. Each test or check has a related
position to every other one and must. be performed over and over to keep
a running status of operational readiness.

It is the intention here to point out the extra planning

and design that must be considered to fulfill an instrumentation systemns
requirement of not just ma.suring the performan-ce of. a flight but also
providing continual pre-flight status checks and simulated calibration
signals.

Individual transducers are now being developed such,

that a calibration cornmand signal well cause the device to deliver a
calibrated signal. level. Mi.cro- miniaturization, permits incorporating
solid state logic switching to shunt or replace a measurement leg of a
bridge circuit with a precision calibrated element. Electric charges,
precise voltages, known magnetic fields and precise frequency generators
or filter s can be employed with the sensing element to provide known
simultated excitation for L:st and calibration.

The difficulties facing the instrumentation system engineer

are the requirements that each portion pf the system must be available
for stage-by-stage operational tests while delivery signals to associated
telemetry system sub-systems, control systems and indicating devices -
without degrading these functions. There are so many complex measure-
ments to be checked and in proper time relation it only becomes feasible
through use of fast sampling of test points, with computer type, real
t1,ime7 eva•vlauationi of the data. Some such arrangement. to fit the complexity
of the test is what is meant here as automatic test and calibration.

A highly complex launch vehicle such as the proposed

Saturn configurations has just a complex a test program for ground static

WADI) TR 61-67 427

VOL I REV I

N'%
tests. (Ref.313) See Fig.4-29 for block diagram of instrumentation for
static-test tower. A state-of-the-art discussion on test engineering
(Ref.314 ) in the Space/Aeronautics R & D Technical Handbook 1961/62 .
covers the associated instrilmentation problems, approaches toward
solution and reported advancements in todays research, envi:-onmental
ard operational testing of space vehicles.

4.18 Instrument Society of America, Acro-Space Standards

Division Tests, Calibration and Specifications Guides r

"Recommended Practice" reports by various sub-

committees of the ISA are available which cover te:-minology, common-
ly accepted test procedures, methods of uniform data presentation to

I
render tests easier to perform and more useful and general guides to
standardization to promote better communications between transducer
users and manufacturers. The following is a lisi. of "Recommended %
Practices" reports:

IZP37. 1 Nomenclatur-.ýe and Specification Terminology for Aero-

Space Test Transducers with Electrical Output

RP37. 2 Specifications and Tests for Piezoelectric Acceleration

Transducers for Aero-Space Testing
n
RP37. 3 Specifications and Tests for Strain Gage Pressure Trans-
ducers for Aero-Space Testing

RP37.4 Specifications and Tests for Resistive Temperature

Sensors for Aero-Space Testing

RP37. 5 Specifications and Tests for Strain Gage Acceleration -p

Transducers for Aero-Space Testing

RP37.6 Nomenclature, Specifica'ion Terminology, and Qualifi-

cation, Acceptance Tests, and (Calibration Requirements
for Potentiometric Pressure Transducers.

313 Heimbnrg, K. L., "Saturn Developmental Testing", Astronautics,

February 1962.

314 "Test Engineering -- State-of-the-Art", Space/Acronautics It & D

Technical Handbook, 1961-1962.

WADD TR 61-67 428

VOL I REV I

• ""-','--'-'." •':-" . "" "•'/"-'N,..

-"-."-" . .-.-.
"" .'..,.--".
."" .... . ..... . . . . ..
"""" "-! _
 Control-Systems Plan for Saturn Static-Test Tower
TEST STA S OR Ga LLS ThA SWMSION RECO%;Ct NTE- -

TEST ITEM TRAIISOIJEAS A)XLIARY ECTU S CMWTR WOU4 ECIFMWI,

EqkWMENT WSD M

TE-T

71
.... .....

- WIUS'1 ~t.CV.1

S...............................................................
TEST •• -7> .>
........
S..................................................
...............
4
POSITION

TEST POSITiON? N
------------
4

Typical Srturn Static Testing Instrumentation Setup \-. *-; 2.

I I
SI . ,
_ - -L
S I C TEST TOWER- O E
TdNNEEL TERIWWA -.
R LEVELS I-

S**~. EL.1L1)t.,

I- L.
......

LZJU
S........... I 1,! I,,TUl l -"

Figure 4-28
' "-"

WADD TR 61-67 429

"VOLI REVi
,>.-.-N.; .

-i ' . - . ¾ t
 - - -
----------- - -- - -- - .

SECTION V

TESTING AND CALIBRATION FACILITIES

5-1 INTRODUCTION

This section contains a partial listing of facilities and services

which are available to mnany users of telemetry transducers for testing
and calibration. Data used in the preparation of this section was soli-
cited from testing laboratories, government agencies and transducer
*users.

5-2 MEASUREMENT SERVICES OF THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF

STANDARDS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

The major responsibility of the National Bureau of Standards

has three main components:

(1) Provision of the central basis within the United

States of a complete and consistent system of
physical measurements, and co-ordination of that
system with the mneasurement systems of other "
nations.

(2) Provision of essential services leading to accurate

and uniform physical measurement throughout the
nation's science, industry, and commerce, and
consonant with their advancing requirements.

(3) Provision of data on the properties of matter and

materials which are of importance to science, in-
dustry, and commerce., and xvhiinr._nh not a-vab1
of sufficient accuracy elsewhere.

The following table.s, are selected from Summary of Measure-

mont Services of the National Bureau of Standards, prepared by NBS
and scheduled for publication early in 1961. The tables have been issued
for general information purposes only. 'With few exceptions, only those
services are listed that are performed with sufficient frequency to war-
rant the establishment of regular feer. In many cases, arrangements can
be made to' perform calibration of other types or over different ranges or

WADD TP. 61-67

VOL I REV 1 430

!p
 --- -*.
- - - . --- ,Fi'. - - . . . . .

of higher accuracies than those indicated herein. For convenience, a

listing of NBS tables follows:

VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS

Static Methods (Zero Frequency)

Steady State Sinusoidal Method
Special Tests
Small Lightweight Piezoelectric Vibration Transducers

TEMPERATURE

Fixed Points of the International Temperature Scale

Platinum Resistance Thermometers
Thermnocouples, Thermocouple Materials, Pyromneter"--'
Indicators
Optical Pyrometers, Ribbon Filament Lamps
Liquid-In-Glass Thermometers J
PRESSURE AND VACUUM
- - U•
Calibration Services
.hnrt of NBS Cl ion Accuracies; IRa-iges of Trans- -
mitting Media; Ranges of Some Working Instruments

FORCE MEASUREMENTS: PROVING RINGS AND OTHER ELASTIC '

LOAD MEASURING DEVICES

HARDNESS

ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENtCS

VOLUMIETRY, DENSIMETRY

Metal Capacity Standards

Volumetric Glassware
Density
Hydrorneters and Therrnohydromcters
Fluid Meters
Gas Volume Measuring Instruments
Wind Speed Indicators 4t

"WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 431

*. - . -

.-.. -. .. ... 4...--. . . . . . . ... "-""" "" ". ". ::,::'..::-.

-i -. : l : .
 RADIATION INSTRUMENTS AND SOURCES --

X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Instruments ki

X-Ray Protective Materials
X-Ray Inspections j:•

Gamma-Ray Measurements of Radioactive Preparations

Neutron Measurements
Radioactivity

RADIOMETRY

PHOTOMETRY AND COLORIMETRY

Standard Incandescent Lamps Furnished by NBS

(Approximately 120 volts)
Standardization of Lamps Submitted
Photometric Instruments and Accessories
Rating of Incandescent Lamps
Reilectometry
Glossimetry
Lovibond Glasses "-
Other Photometric and Related Standards Supplied
by NBS
Spectrophotormnetric S'tandards
Spectrophotometric Measurements
Colorimetry Services
A
The listed tables are reproduced below. In addition, NBS also
offers measurement services in the areas of Mass, Length, Time ahnd
Frequency, Electricity, Magnetism, Optical Refraction and Instruments,
Photography, Thermal Conductivity, Humidity, Internal Combustion .-
Engine Fuels, H1eat Content of Methane Gas, Electroplated Coating Thick- -
ness, and Radioactive Labeled Carbohydrates.

CaL-tion: Do not submit eiment for calibration before making

p2reliminary arrangements with the NBS laboratory concerned. Further in-
formation on the conditions under which services are available, methods"."
of shipment, fees, etc. can be obtained from the NBS Test Fee Schedules,
available on request from the Office of Technical Information, National
Bureau of Standards, Washington 25, D. C. Inquiries relating to electrical
and magnetic measurements at radio and microwave frequencies and to
standard time and frequency broadcasts should be sent to Radio Standards

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 432

Lb::<:

N..- .--

i- I ii i ii i ii i
 Division, National Bureau of Standards Boulder Laboratories, -. ,-
Boulder, Colorado. All other inquiries should be addressed to
National Bureau of Standards, Washington 25, fl.C.

The National Bureau of Standards also distributes standard

materials by means of which, in certain measurement areas, owners
of measuring equipment can perform their own calibrations. Among
the materials of this kind are alloys and ceramics of certified comnpo- '-
sition to serve as chemical and spectrographic standards; materials
of certified purity for standards of pH and freezing point; materials of
certified properties for standards of viscosity, humidity, and radio-
activity; and a number of industrial standards -- rubbers and rubber-
compounding materials, phosphors, color standards, turbidimetric
and fineness standards, and others. Information on the technical speci-
fications and purchase procedures for these materials is given in NBS
Circular 552, Standard Materials Issued by the National Bureau of
Standards, available from Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govern-
mnent Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. , price 35 cents.

iv- . A

*-- .- N-
4'-....

WADD TR 61-67 .)j:[

VOL I REV' 1 433
 VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS

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VOL I' ~ REV.
61-67
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TEMPERATURE

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WNADD TR 61-67
"":
VOL I R .F-V1 436". .-
 TE MPERAT URE [_!:

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VOL
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 -'0!
*4*'.1:

ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS . A

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 VOLUMETRY, DENSIMETRY

Table 5-13. Metal Capavity Standards

INSTRUMENT SI/F. ACCtURtACY O1 CALIBRATIONS

slicker-plate measures I gill or greater, blit I pairt in 15, 0001

less than 5 gal ,r 1/2 bui _ _,_

5 gal or 1/2 hi' I parT-t ii t0, 000C

3
inonersion bottles 1 ft I part in 25, 000

3
gas bottles C. 1 ft 1 part in 2, S9OC

"field" standards I part in 3, 500 (less than 9 gal )A4P

(graduated neck measures) 1 to about 500 gal I part in 19, 000 (5 gal)
I part in 5, 000 (.ore tha gal) -'"-

Table 5-14. Volumetric Glassware

Items submitted ,re usually calibrated iither 'to contain" or "to deliver, " as indicated in the
table below. When an instrument is capable of both kinds of calibratio'n, the accuracy of the
calibration "to contain" is generally about twice as good as that of the calibration "to deliver.

INSTRUMENT CALIBRATED SIZE ACCURACY OF CAIABRI{ATIONS

flasks (including spirits to contain 10 ml to I part in 2, 000 (for 10 ml) to

*measuringflasks) 1111
1, 000 1 part in 51, 000 (for 1, 0t00
Cil)

specific gravity flasks to contain 24 ml I part in 5, 000

cylindrical graduates to deliver 10 nlt to I part in 1 000 (for 10 ml) to

1, O00 iii I part in 10, 0111 (fir 1, Ot0 nil)

transfer pipettes to deliver 1 nil to I part in 1, 000 (for 1 ml) tom

100 nil 1 part in 20, 010 (for 100 nl) I

TC pipettes to contain Same sizes as p'-eceding item; sai..e ir

better accuracy

burettes (including autotoatic S nl tI I part in 1, 000 (for SCl) it

(
bureburettes) dil to deliver 50 1 part in 5, 0100 (for 59 nil)-to

nmicroazotonmeters to contain 1. 5 1il 1 part i,. , S0"-

measuring pipettes to deliver I "'t1 to 1 part in 1, 00)0 (for I .. l)

1) b
25 nil 1 palt in 5, 000 (for 29 nil)

dilution pipettes to contain about 1 ml 0. 5% (ratio)

r"-m

WADD TR 61-67
Iii-.. -.
VOL I RE-V 1 443

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VOL I REV 1

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 PHOTOMETRY AND GOLORIMETRY

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WADT 1-67
VOLI RVI 44
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S5-3 ENVIRONMENTAl. BRANCH , LSFEV

AERONAUTICAL SYSTEMS DIVISION

AIR FORCE SYSTEMS COMMAND
WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR FORGE BASE,

a. Dynamics Section, ASFEVDD

(1) Vibration

The facility for dynamic evaluation contains approxi-

inately 20 vibration machines to cover a broad range of condition3. This
includes the following unique equipment for vibration testing and evalua-
tion:

(a) Low Frequency - High Amplitude Machine

Freq, Range: 0.5 to 30 cps

Displacement: 9 inches
Load Capacity: 1000 pounds "

(b) Medium Frequency Electromagnetic Shaker -:

Freq. Range; 5 to 500 cps

Force Output: 14.500 pounds
Load Capacity: 500 pounds (2000 pounds
by use of special suspen-
sioa system)

(c) High Frequency Electromagnetic Shaker

Freq. Range: 5 to 2000 cps with capa-

hitliir fnr cirni•latinag ran-

dom or complex wave
vibration
Load Capacity: 200 pounds

(2) Acceleration
.x~h
A centrifuge with the following characteristics is 0
available for testing and evaluation of transducers and other equipment'

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV 1 453

,".2"
. -'"
:.,2'.2
,- .:-,'.
,. "'"'..,' -2--'<.-
'4 '- ',2-
"- -',",2 - , -2 .''. .':- -2" " " : i - -: '--". ": "--",: - -- " '- ," -,.' ' -. -- 2- .'-. . .. , - - "P S.-
I
 -Ie

Acceleration: 30 g with full load; 50 g

for short runs and limited
loads
Load Capacity: 16, 000 pounds
Arm Radius: Approximately 6 feet

This unit is especially suited for combining other

ccvironments with acceleration.

(3) Combined Environments - '

(a) Large Centrifuge

A system is available for performing tests and

evaluations of equipment operating under any environmental combination
consisting of steady state accelei ion, vibration, and ambient temperatuie.
In addition, the system has the capability of simulating altitude concur-
rently with any combination of the above, with the exception of low tem-
perature environments.

The following ranges of environments may be 5.

applied to the equipment under investigation:

Steady State Accel--,

eration (S. S. A): 0 -50 g .

Vibration: 5 to 2000 cps, sinusoi-

dal or random; ± 20 g with
20-pound load; 600 pounds
force; m.ay be applied in a
direction which is parallel
to the S. S.A. or perpendi-
cular to the S. S. A.

Ambient Temp: 250F to 500"F

Altitude: 800 to 100, 000 feet (not in
combination with low tern-
perature)

(b) Chamber

A 6' x 7' x 6' chamber with the following capa-

bilities is available for testing and evaluation of equipment under combined
environments:

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVl 454

-- - - -. -"-- .--. . . -- - - - ,

'_P'V.•'... ' .- . '.',..."

, ',- ....-. . .. . - -_._... -. .. . . . . . . . . . . . ...
", .,4%,= ,* *2 "" ," , ." , -. ' ' , " , '. " , .,' " ," , . " -" • ., . . , . • • . " ." , _ ' - .. ' . . . .•.r' ..-.- .,
 -. . . .. .- . S.. .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ...

Altitude: 0 to 75, 000 feet

Temperature: -70* to + 500*F
-70" to + 700°F (Rain Air)
Dew Point: -70* to + 700*1F -'
Air Press. Flow,
Steady State: 38. 2 psia -Z25 lb/min
Air Press. Flow,
Blow Down: 700 lb/mim (20 sec)

(4) Shock

Several machines are available for producing a large

variety of shock pulses. Load capacities for these machines range from
50 to 400 pounds.

(5) Acoustic Energy

The Dynamnics Section (WWFEVD) is responsible for

a large acoustic test facility which is located at the plant of Bolt, Beranek
and Newman, Incorporated, GCmbridge, Massachusetts. This facility con-
sists of a very large exponential horn with a driver mechanism. It is
located in an enclosure whose uoncrete walls are tecturn insulated. The
enclosure is 54 feet in length and 27 feet in width. The driver mechanism
is capable of producing 22, 000 watts of pure tone or narrow-band noise
energy t nrovird an in1-tnSi-u of
' 74
A daoe I(-16 ,watt_s c•,t at
the equipment being tested.

b. Space and Atmospheric Deterioration Section, WWFEVS

The following facilities are available for simulation of wea-

pons systems environmental profilu requirements. In many instances,
they can be modified to meet special requirements.

(1) Combined Environmental Facility

Size: 3 ft. wide x 3 ft. long x 4 ft. ...

high
Temp. Range: -100*f to +200*F
Altitude: 55, 000 ft.

This facility permits combination of temperature -

altitude - time patterns which can simulate the flight profile of altitude or
space conditions within the vehicle.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 455

~ * ~ -. .¾,.* -,- .-

%- .. - - . •-
 (2) Space (High Altitude) Chamber, Building 45A

Size: 4 ft. dia. x 5 ft. long

Altitude: 45 0, 000 ft.

This facility can be utilized for simulation of space

conditions for evaluation of equipment components and subsystems. It
includes instrumentation for accurate recording of altitude and capability
of maintaining conditions once achieved.

(3) Low-High Temperature (Ground Support)

Facility, Building 25A .

Size: 25 ft. wide x 75 ft. long x 25 ft.

high; facility can be separated
into two rooms having 35 and
40 ft. lengths
Temp. Range: -80*F to -I160*F (in either or
both rooms)

This facility can be utilized for evaluation of complete

systems under temperature extiemes including large items and systems of
ground support equipment.

(4) Systems Altitude -Temperature Facility, Building 22

Size: 18 ft. dia. x 17 ft. high-

height can be increased by-
adding 6 ft. rings
Temp. Range: -90*F to +175*F
Altitude: Ground level to 165, 000 ft.

monoril hist. This facility is supplemented by a iS-tone overhead

monrai host.Large itemns of equipment may be evaluated under altitude
and temperature conditions. In its present condition, this facility canr,
accommodate certain space vehicle payloads and, with moderate modifi-
* cation, be capable of accommodating larger space systems.

(5) Explosion -Proof Facilities, Buildings 45A and 47A

Size: Large facility - 7 ft. dia. x ~

8 ft. long ]
Medium facility -3 ft. dia. x
5 ft. long

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVl 456

------------... p-... ....

% ~ . *- * .. . . . . . . N N . ~ *
 Temp. Range: Room temp. to 350'F
Altitude: Ground level to 100, 000 ft.

Various combinations of fuel/gas mixtures (pro-

pulsions system products) may be simulated in these facilities to determine
ignition characteristics of explosive or flame producing mixtures and
ignition capability of electrical arc and high temperature equipment com-
ponents.

(6) Solar Radiation Facility, Building 45

This facility simulates the sun's solar radiation at -

the earth's equator. Special lamps and filters are used to simulate the
sun's spectrum. K
Available information indicates feasibility of simulation
lights of solar radiation in space with only a moderate modification of existing
facilities and additional equipment.

(7) Atmospheric Environment Facilities

Humidity: 507o to 100% RH at tem-

peratures up to Z00F
Salt FU.
og/ to 20016 salt solution ,.
Sand and Dust: 0. 1 to 0.5 grams/cu. ft.
Fungus: 5 types of cultures
Rain: 1 to 6 inches per hour
Arid: Relative humidity of 5% at
temperatures up to 600"F

(8) Ram Air Temperature- Altitude Facility

Ambient Air Temp: -80"F to +100*F

Cooling Ram Air Temp; -80"F to +100F-
Ram Air Static Press.
Range: 5 to 35 inches of water
Altitude: 80, 000 ft.

This facility is capable of testing generators, alter-

nators and other rotating or nonrotating equipment when simulated cooling
air is required through the equipment.

WADD 'TR 61-67

VOL I REV 1 457

%",• *.
. . . ... . .--
... ........ ......... ... "
5-4 SINGLE INTEGRATED U.S. AIR FORCE CALIBRATION SYSTEM 1:1
2802D INERTIAL GUIDANCE AND CALIBRATION GROUP (MAAMA)
HEATH ANNEX
NEWARK, OHIO

The U.S. Air Force has a single integrated calibration system to

support all Air Force activities. Operation of this system is depicted in
Figure 5-2. Standards are maintained at Air Materiel Areas (AMA),
Air Force Depots (AFD) and designated Air Force Bases (AFB). The
2802D IG & C Gp (MAAMA), as the central calibration agency for thet:
Air Force, calibrates or assures calibration of and certifies AMA and
AFD Standards. The Air Materiel Areas, in turn, calibrate and certify
iiir Force Base Standards. In addition to calibrating Air Force Base
Standards, the Air Materiel Areas calibrate and certify precision measure-
ment equipment utilized in their own laboratories, Air Force Bases,
which have standards, calibrate precision measuring equipment for assigned
and tenant units.

AMA and AFD Electrical and Electronics Standards are calibrated

by the National Bureau of Standards at Boulder, Colorado. A detachment
of Air Force personnel equipped with AMA and AFD Electrical and
rEle-tr•_•nnr i. qt ,ttifnfe ;it the "Rn-nl&rier T, hnr4tnrn-s o f the Nation-

al Bureau of Standards. The standards with which the detachment is equipp-

ed are calibrated by the National Bureau of Standards and hand carried by
detachment personnel to AMA's and AFD's once a year where they are ex-
changed for AMA and AFD standards which are due for recertification.
During visits to the AMA's and AFD's, detachment personnel provide tech-
nical assistance on calibration of working standards.

AMA and AFD Electra- Mechanical Standards are calibrated by the

USAF Calibration Division. The Electro-Mechanical transfer standards
are hand carried to the AMA's and AFD's by Division personnel once a
year where they are used to calibrate and certify AMA and AFD standards.
The transfer standards are hand carried back to USAF Laboratories where
they are checked to assure that they have not changed in accuracy while
Sin transit.

AMA and AFD Dimensional Standards are calibrated by the USAF

Calibration Division. The Dimensional Stai•dards are hand carried to the
AMA's and AFD's once a year where they are exchanged for AMA and AFD
Dimensional Standards which are due for recertification.

WADD TR 61-67 458

VOL I REV I

- ,-.C-:.:.
 Electý ical & Electronic Electra-Mochanical
Standards- Diiniension-al Standa rds

National Bureau of Standards National Bureau of Standards

Boulder, Colorado Washington, D. C.

2802d IG&C Gp (MAAMA) C

Detachment at NBS,1 2802d IG&C Cp (MAAMA)
Boulder, Colorado ýNewark, Ohio ____J

.4,

AMA.

Other Air Force Installations

Air Force Base AG&W Sites
RBS Sites, etc.

Fig. 5-2. Operation of the Single Integrated USAF Calibration Systemn

WADD TR 61-67
VOL, I R.EV 1 459

. .
.'~~~~~~~ý . . . . . . . . . . . . 3..

.
. . %-. -~~-
 Air Force base standards are calibrated and certified by the Air
Materiel Areas. The AMA's maintain exchange sets of base standards
whlch are calibrated in the AMA Laboratories and certified using the
AMA standards. The AMA's establish schedules and hand carry exchange
standards to the base PMEL. While at the base PMEL, AMA personnel
calibrate and certify base standards, which by size, etc. cannot be
exchanged, and provide technical assistance to base PMEL personnel
in repair, calibration and certification of precision measurement equip-
ment. t

Activities authorized to possess AMA or AFD electrical, micro-

wave, electro-mechanical and dimensional standards are listed in Table
5-38. Activities authorized Base electrical, microwave, electro-rnech-
anical and dimensional standards are listed in Table 5-39.

Table 5-38. Activities Authorized to Possess

AMA or AFD Standards

Zone of Interior Zone of Interior & Overseas F

MAAMA, Olnsted AFB, Pa Eglin AFB, Fla

MOAMA, Brookley AFB, Ala Vandenberg AFB, Cal
OCAMA, Tinker AFB, Okla Det #18, SMAMA (Pacific 2'-
OOAMA, Hill AFD, Utah Mobile Depot) Tachikawa
SAAMA, Kelly AFB, Tex AB, Japan
SBAMA, Norton AFB, Cal USAFE (Contr. Opr. Depot
SMAMA, McClellan AFB, Cal in France)
WRAMA, Robins AFB, Ga Pinetree East (Canada)
Patrick AFB, Fla Pinetree West (Canada)
Elmendorf AFB, Alaska c

.,°

WADD TR 61-67 460

VOLI REV-1
 Table 5-39. Activities Authorized to Possess Base Standards

BASES BASES

Albrook AFB, Canal Zone Duluth Municipal Airport, Minn

Altus AFB, Okla Dyess AFB, Tex
Awariilo AFB, Tex
Anderson AFB, Guam Edwards AFB, Calif
Andrews AFB, Md Eglin AFB, Fla
Arnold Engineering Development Ellsworth AFB, S. D.
Center, Tullahoma, Tern England AFB, La
Aviano AB, Italy Ent AFB, Colo
Ernest Harmon AFB, Newfoundland N.
Barksdate AFB, La EvreuslFauville AB, France
Beale AFB, Calif
Bergstrom AFB, Tex Fairchild AFB, Wash
Biggs AFB, Tex Forbes AFB, Kansas
Francis E. Warren AFB, Wyo .
Bitburg AB, Germany
" "
Blytheville AFB, Ark ,'-
Brize Norton AFB, England George AFB, Calif
Bunker Hill AFB, Ind Glasgow AFB, Mont
Gooso AW..-, Goose Da•,
y, Labrador.,
Camp New Amsterdam, Netherlands Grand Forks AFB, N. D. LaY
Cannon AFB, N. Mex
Carswell AFB, Tex Hahn AB, Germany
Castle AFB, Calif Hamilton AWB, Calif
Chanute AFB, Ill. Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass
Charleston AFB, S. C. Hickarn AFB, Hawaii
Chaumnont AFB, France Holloman AFB, N. Mex
Chennault AFB, La Homestead AFB, Fla
Clark AFB, P. I. Hunter AFB, Ga
Clinton-Sherman AFB, Okla
Columbus AFB, Miss Incirlik AB, Turkey
Craig AFB, Ala Itazuke AB, Japan '

Davis-Monthan AFB, Ariz James Connally AFB, Tex

Donaldson AFB, S. C.
Dover AFB, Del K. I. Sawyer Airport, Mich
Dow AWB, Maine Kadena AB, Okinawa

WADD TR 61-67 461

VOLI REVI

. . ... v 2-:.. -. .- . . .... I- .. . KZ . -.. -. - . ,- . . .--

 Table 5-39. Activities Authorized to Posses Base Standards
(continuation)

BASES BASES

Keesler AFB, Gulfport, Miss Naha AB, Okinawa

Kindley AFB, Bermuda Nellis AFB, Nev -i
Kingsley AFB, Oregon Niagara Falls Muni Apt, N. Y.
Kinchloe AFB, Mich Nouasseur AB, Morrocco
Kirtland AFB, N. Mex
Kuramursel AFB, Turkey Offutt AFr, Neb
Osan AB, Korea
Lajes Field, Azores Otis AFB, Mass wg4
Lakenheath AFB, England Oxnard AFB, Calif -_
Langley AFB, Va
Laon AB, France Paine AFB, Wash
Laredo AFB, Tex Patrick AFB, Fla
Larson AFB, Wash Pease AFB, N. H.
Laughlin AFB, Tex Perrin AFB, Tex
Lincoln AFB, Neb Plattsburg AFB, N. Y. -
Little Rock AFB, Ark Pope AFB, N. C.
Lockbourne AFB, Ohio Portland Muni Apt, Ore
Loring AFB, Maine -
Lowry AFB, Colo RAF, Alconbury, England
Luke AFB, Ariz RAF Bentwaters, England
RAF Sculthorpe, England
MacDill AFB, Fla RAF Wethersfield, England
Malmstrom AFB, Mont Ramey AFB, Puerto Rico
March AFB, Calif Ramstein AB, Germany
Mather AFB, Calif Randolph AFB, Tex
McChord AFB, Wash Reese AFB, Tex
McConnel AFB, Kansas Rhein/ Main AB, Germany , -.
McCoy AFB, Fla Richards-Gebaur AFB, Mo 2
McGuire Ak r, N. u.
Minot AF Station, N. D. Schilling AFB, Kansas
Misawa AB, Japan Scott AFB, Ill
Moody AFB, Ga Selfridge AFB, Mich
Moutain Home AFB, Idaho Sembach AB, Germany
Myrtle Beach AFB, S. C. Sewart AFB, Tenn

WADD TR 61-67 46Z

VOL I REV I

t -. - --¾ ¾-N .-.- N ... .. -j

'V '..',:"-Ul'<2'V&'.)V
-,..Z. . .,.. . • , , • , , , , • , , - . - . . . . , . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . -. . . . . -. . . . . - ....
• .
Table 5-39. Activities Authroized to Possess 13asQ Standards
(continuation)

BASES

Seymour Johnson AFB, N. C.

Shaw AFB, S. C. >
Sheppard AFB, Tex
Spangdahlern AB, Germany
Spokane Intl Apt, Spokane, Wash
Stead AFB, Nev
Stewart AFB, N. Y.
Suffolk Co. AFB, L. I., N. Y.

Thule Air Base, Greenland -

Torrejon AFB, Spain

Toul AFB, France
Travis AFB, Calif
Traux Fld, Wis
Turner AFB, Ga
Tyndall AFB, Fla "-
Vance AFB, Okla
Vandenberg AFB, Calif

Walker AFB, N. Mex

Webb AFB, Tex
Westover AFB, Mass
Wheelus AB, Libya
Whiteman AFB, Mo
Wiesbaden AB, Germany
Williams AFB, Ariz ..

Wurtsmjth AFB, Mich

Wright..Patte rson AFB, Ohio

Yokota AB, japan

WADD TR 61- 67 463

VOL I REV I
 5-5 WESTERN PRIMARY STANDARDS LABORATORY - U. S. NAVY
POMONA, CALIFORNIA

Table 5-40. Testing and Calibration Facilities

Variable Range Accuracy Standard

Acceleration 20 = 1000 cps Bausch & Lomb

Microscope

Flow 0. 014 - 416 gprn Repeatability NBS referenced

±0. 1% Flow Stand

Force 50 - 100, 000 lbs 0.2% NBS Certified

Proving Rings

Pressure 50-20, 000 psi in oil 1 part in NBS Certified

10,000 Piston Gage

3-150 psi in air 1 part in NBS Certified

10,000 Piston Gage

1 micron vacuum Reference McLeod

Gage

Temperature -190 0
C to 4 200 0 C 0.01 0 C NBS Cert. Plat.
Res. Therm.

0 C to 1500°C 0.5°C NBS Cert. Thermo-

couples

Torque 6000 in lbs. Dead weight calibrated

Vibration See acceleration -'

WADD TR 61-67
VOL ! REV 1 464
 5-6 AVCO RESEARCH AND ADVANCED DEVELOPMENT DIVISION,
WILMINGTON, MASSACHUSEZTTS

Table 5-41. Electrical/Electronic Measurement

____________ ~Accuracy Capabilities ____ _______

VARIABLE RANGE ACCURACY STANDARD

Voltage Standard Cells -L I microvolt Saturated Std. Cells & Comparator .-

DC I - I11.000'pv ±L(0.0I% + 0.02 pv) Thermofree Potentiometer

11,300 - I11,000 AV -t k /%+ 0.1 AV) Thermofree Potentiometer
0.1 1000 e ±0.005-" Voltige Divider & Std. Cell -

I1.0k - 50 k --
t. I% Voltage Divider & Po'en~iometer

Voltage 10- f00 mv (SO- 10k cps) _to.13% Transfer Voltammeter & Ratio Xfmr
AC 103 see-8 v (50. 10k cps) ±i-0. 0 6 Transfer Voltarmmeter & Ratio Xfmr
S .120
ca) v(2 20 0.5%Transfer Voltammeter 6 Volt Ho: Extension
±0O.45% Dynamometer & Voltage Xfmr
I-2k - 6.9 ky [60 cps)
6.9k - 30 ly (60 cps) ±L1.0% Electrostatic. Voitmetel

Cu~rrent 0.00 1 -0.1 Aysa ±0.03% Standard Resistor & Potentiometer

p - 0100 m
CC ±002%Standaid Resistor & Potentiometer
0.1 -30 a ±0O.03% Standa~d Resistor & Potentiometer
30 -600 a ±00%Potentiometer & Celibrasted Shunt

Current 5Dma - 5.0 a (20- 20k cps) ±-0.05% Transfer Voltarnmeter

AC 5.0.I150a (20-500 cpsr :to.15%11 Transfer Voltammeter & Current Xfmr

3
Power I mw - Irw ±0O.04% oio er&&u.ojin.ie-S
3.,225 kw :i_0. 11% Pote.ntiometer, Shunt & Volt B~ox
OC

Power
AC
0.4 - 1500 w (20.-20k cps)
1500 w .45 krw(SO0-500 cps)
±0t.1I% for unity PP.F
±0.2% for unity PP.F
1
I
Transfer
Transfer
Voltarometer
Volfamnmeter & Current Xfmr
45 - ISO kw (60 cps) ±0L.35% Transfer Voliamnmeter, Curren+ Xfmr,
Volt Box Entension

Rec~istaoea 0.001. 0.01, 0.1 ohn 40.00 1% Standard Resistor & Precision Wenrner Bridgje
Standards 1.0 ohm ±-L0.0005% Thomas I-obm Std. A Precision Wenner Bridge
10, 20. S0, 100, 200, 500, 1k, 2k, I 0k ±t:0.001%o Standard Resistor & Prec.ision Wenner Bridge
ohms
1001 ohms ±0O.002% Standard Resistor & Precision Wenner Bridge ,

iiesvaiaa 10.-50 pohms ±0.0)2 polims Kelvin Bridge

L..
Values

!ndluctance
50 polims - I ohm
i -I (10,000

0.1.
- m91johms
ktrns

Decimal Multiples of i, 2, 3. or5

±-O.040/
±0.015%
:L-0.05%/
Kelvin Bridoe
Whieatstone Bridge
Std. Resistor &Weener Potentiometer

Standards from 100 - 1000 Ah (lk cps) and ±L0.5 ph Std. Inductor &Comparison Bridge
2 - 100 mks(Ik cps) ±0.03% Std. Inductor & Comparison Bridge
0.2, 0.4, 1 h, 2 h, 5 Is (5o0 1000 cps) -±0.03% Std. Insductor & Comparison Bridge
Into, mediate
Values 0.1I h - 1000omh (60.-Iok cps) ±i;(0.2 % + 0.1 Ah) Std. knductor & Comqparison Bridge
I - 10oI (1000 cps) ±0O.3% Std. Inductor & Maxwell Bridge
100- 1000 h (1000 cps) ±0O.6*% Std. Inductor & Maxwell Bridge

(continued)

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI1 REV 1 465

.................................... ~0 %
 Table 5-41. Electrical/ Electronic Measurement
Accuracy Capabilities (continuation) [

Capacitance Decimal Multiples of 1. 2, 3 or 4 ±0l .pf t.Cpctr&Md ceigBig

Standards from 10 pp~f to 0.1 Jf ( 1000 CPS) t 01%+ .Afsd.Cpcor&M .SheigBde
Intermediate 0 - 10,LJf (30.- 300k cps) -t0.0l ppf Std. Capacitor & Mod. Schering Bridge
Values 10.-40,.,.f (30 - 300k cpfl -'-0.04 u/Af Std. Capacitor & Mod. Schering Bridge
40 -100 ppf (30 -300L ops) :h-0. 1 Std. Capacitor & Mod. Scirering Bridge
100 -200 Ppf (30.-300k cps) :±0,2 plif Std. Capacitor &.Mod. Scherirng Bridge
200 -1000 pAsf (30 -300k cpu 10/.% Stu. Capacitor & Mod. Schering Bridge
0.001 -.0.1 Af (lk cpc) ±015% Std. Capacitor &.Mod. Scharirng BridgeI
0.1 - 100 Af (50.-20k 4ps) ±0O.3% Capacitance Comparison Bridge
10-1. 0 Af(0- ps -
t0.6%/ Cepacitasice Comparison Bridge

Table 5 - 42. Physical Measurements, Accuracy Capabilities,

Including Metrolo gy, Hardness, Vibration
'
ILength1
VARIABLE

Gage Blocks
RANGE

0.01 - 4.0 in
5.0 - 20.0 ',n
ACCURACY

5 Uin
p~inper inch of length
STANDARD

Certified Gage Blocks & Comparator

Certified Gage Blocks A Comparator
Linear 20 -160 in :!±(25 Ain + I Ain Gage Blocks & Long Length Mean. Machine
Angulr ±3per inch length)
rull i. __3 seconds arc Calibrated 3 0 * Polygon
Small Antjies to 10umslutes ±0t.2 seconds arc Auto-collimnator

Flatness
2 GaE~geBlocks All Sizes ±-t2 Ain Monuchronmatic Light with Optical Flats
Oplical Surface to 8-ir. diameter ±L2 Ain Monochromatic Light with Optical Flats
Surface Plates All Sizes ±5 min per foot of Auto-collimnator
man linear dimension

Surface F-inish
RMS 0 - 1000 Ain t±100% Profilometer
CLA C . 200 Ain ± 10% Talysurf

I-~rdnessA
Knoop & Vichers Full Range Impression Length Certified Test Blocks
=t:0.00 Imm
Rockwell B&G Scale ±L 1.5 scale numbers Certified ;est Blocks
* Screw Tnreao
*Lead to 8 in O.D. "'20 pin Lead Measuring Machire & Leugth St~sdard l
Pitch Diarn to 12 in O.D. ''25 pin Certified Set of Threatd Wires '
(2) all threads - internal, external, sircight and tapered.
Vibration
*Amplitude 0.001 - ^..4 inch (20 - t(0%. + .00.a' to 0.1 ih Mic~oscope with calibrated reticle
4000 cps)
IAcceleration to 25 gesmax ±-4% to 10 g's Calibrated Velocity pickup
Fra.quen-.y 20 - 2000 cps ±0.-02% Freq. Standard & Comparison Oscilloscope
Sound

I ________
20 .ISO

70 -110
dbrr. (29 -k
O

dbm (10 -650

cpzl

cps)
±0-.4 4b

±0O.2 db
Standard Microphone. - Pressure Calib.
piston Phone

WADI. TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 466

-----------------------------------------------
 Table 5-43. Temperature Measurement Accuracy Capabilities

VARIABLE RANGE ACCURACY ISTANDARD

TemperatureTrpeP.Cl
Fixed Points +0.010*C abs. .0.0056CC rpeP.Cl
±00.000*C abs. ±.0 Steam Baik
+23l.68*C ±0h.0 1 C Freezing Pf. of Tin
+327.40-C :L0.0 I C rrecxing Pt, of Lead
+±41950OC ±!O.01I C Freezing Pt. of Zinc
+660.0-C ±0O.2*C Freezing Pt. of Alumlinum
+960V8C tu.20C Freezing Pt. of Silver
+ 1083.3-C ±0L.200 Freezined Pt. of Copper
Into rmed ate
pons- 8C- 600 00CResistance Thermometer
+630-C - + I 100OC ±0L.5'C Thermocouples
+ I 100*C -+ 1450-C 4-1C ±t2CC Tkermocouplei:

Table 5-44. Pressure Measurements Accuracy Capabilities

PRESSURE (bj ACCURACY INSTRUMENT

0.005 Micron t-.-10% McLeod Gauge
1.0 mnmH9
0 - 30 in of wafer
0.3 - 50 psi
50 - 500 psi
±0O.004 in H.0
±-ý0.01 psi
±0O.125 psi
IDend-weight
Water Manomneter

IDead-weight
tester
tester
300 - 10000 psi ±70. 1% Deed-weight tester

WADD TR 61-67
VOLT REV 1 467
5-7 SANDIA CORPORATION

.Livermore, California

Table 5-45 Testing and Calibration Facilities

Variable Range Accuracy Standard

Acceleration, 1-800 g's, infinite ±1%/ Aircra-ft

Linear variation Tachometer

Acceleration, 50-5000 cps: 100 g's peak ±h2%/ NBS

Vibr.-ition 5.8K cps: 20,000 g's peak 2% Optical Displace-
(Sinusiodal) (1 oz. max. wt.) rnent Followe r

Acceleration, 30,000 g's peak, approx. ;L5%6, Re- Quartz

Shock half-sine pulse, 300 usec. peatability Crystal
duration, or equivalent

Displacement 0-2 inches _+0.01%/ Micrometer

Force 0-600,000 pounds ;10.005% NBS

Frequency 0-10 cps 1 part in 107 NBS

million

Pressure Dry Nitrogen gas, Dead

a1% Weight
0-10, 000 Psig Tester

Temperature -130 0 F to +850s,

i0. F 0 .250%0 Mv Pot.

Voltage, DC 0-750V J±0.050/ Volt Boxe s &

1,U0U0 - lu, ('00V :I- U/ Pot.

Voltage,
Shock AC 0-1, 500V
halfsinepule, 30 uec. ±0.1%
e.tailiy Thermal
Crsta Converter
Volt Box & Pot.

Resistance .- 4 1 0,10 ohmgs pa 1% Kelvin & Wheat-

stone Bridges

WADD TR 61 67 468
VOL. I REV 1

21%.
 Table 5-45 Testing and Calibration Facilities (contd)

Variable Range Accuracy Standard

Capacitance 100 uuld -1.1 ufd Z±1%0 Capacitance

Bridge

Humidity 5% to 95% betweei ±E10% Saturated

+35 OF and +175 OF Salt Solutions

*Altitude Ambient to 130, 000 ft. ±1mm Hig Hass Mancometer

Sand - Dust Air velocity: 100 fpm to

500 fpm and 2, 300 fpm to
3, 000 fpM
Air temperature: +70 OF
to -1160 OF
Particle size: Constant,
0.1 to 0.5 grams per
cubic foot

Vacuum~ X Lori~
fg T
±0% MAcCeod (Uage

IThermal Temp. Range: -65*F ± 1% NBS

IConductivity to +1400 OF e
Conductivity Range: 0.1
to 10 ]3TU/F 2 /HR/ -F/

*High Temp. :10.10 inches I1 MV Pot. &

Dilatomneter Quartz Rod

The above testing facilities are available for TWG use when the necessary AEC
'IQ"t clearance is obtained.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL4 . I REV 1 469
 b. SANDIA CORPORATION, FIELD TEST
TRANSDUCER COMPONENT CONTROL SECTION, 7213-3
SANDIA BASE
ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MEXICO .-

Table 5-46. Testing and Calibration Facilities

Variable Range Accuracy Standard

Linear Revolution counter

Acceleration 1 to 1000 g 0.5% on spin table

Displacement 0 to 1" 0.001" Micrometer

Pressure I micron to 5 mm Hg 4.10% of reading McCleod gage

1 mm Hg to 75 mm Hg +0. 05 mm Hg Oil manometer
I mm Hg to 800 mm Hg +0. 2 mm Hg Mercury manemeter
0. 1 to 31 in. Hg +0. 03 in. Hg Dead weight tester
0 to 60 psia +0. 12 psi Dead weight tester
0 to 300 psia +0. 6 psi Dead weight tester
0 to 2000 psia +4. 00 psi Dead weight tester

Temperature -90'F to +2000°F +1. 0F Triple point of VIA,

water and thermocouples

Vibration I to 100 g 3% 10 to 30 cps Optical and frequency

5 to ZO g 3% 100 to
1000 cps Optical and frequency
2(0 to 100 g 10% 1000 to
2000 cps Optical and frequency

WADD TR 61-67 470

VOL I REV]

..
 5-8 U.S. I1 .NVAL
MISSILE CENTER
POINT ,',UGU, CALIFORNIA

Table 5-47. Instrumentation Capability List ". .- "

Variable Range Accuracy Standard

Temperature -100°F to 1800°F 2%_+ 0.5°F Thermocouple,

Thermistor

Pressure l0-4 to l05 psi 1I Manometer, dead

weight tester

Acoustic 30 to 15 k cps 5% ASA Standard

Noise 160 db spl Microphone

Vibration 10 to 15 k cps 1.55% Optical micromneter

at0to 100 g's, and quartz crystal
6 oz. maximum frequency standard

Linear 0 to 1000 g's, 1% Optical nmicromneter

A ccele2atlo• 500 g-ibs, max. and quartz crystal
frequency standard

5
Mas s i0- 103 grams 0. 1% + 0.01 mg Analytic balance

Force. 5 x 10 lbs. 1. 0% Force tester with lab.

standard proving rings

Moment of 10- 4 _50 0.5%0 Standardized test

Inertia (slug ft 2 ) specimens

Angular +2 - 3K rad/sec2 2% Gauge and torsional

Acceleration p endulumri

Voltage, DC 106 - 10 volts 0. 1% Standard cells, potentio-

meter and precision supply

Voltage, AC 10- - 103 volts 0.2% Transfer standards and

ratio transformer

Resistance 102 - 107 ohms 0.05% Standard resistor and

bridge
(continued)
WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV1 471

%• - " 0
 0-

Table 5-47. Instrumentation Capability List (continuation)

Variable Range Accuracy Standard

Curet 0 2Oamps
1C 0.1% Potentiometer and standard
re si sto r

Current, AC 10 10i amps 0.2% Transfer standards and

ratio transformer

Inductance 10~-5 !02 henries 1% Standard inductor

and bridge

*Capacitance 1012 - 10~ micro- 0.5%4 Standard capacitor and

farads bridge

Frequency 1 - 108 cps Quartz crystal frequency

standard

Rotational 0 -5 x 10~ rpm 1% Stroboscope and

velocity electronic counter

Rotational 10' degrees 1% Index head and mirror

* displacement

Angle of +15 degrees 0.250 Precision potentiometer,

attack index head and height gauge

Strain 0 - 4 x 10 micro +10 micro inch Strain gauge instruments

in/in....

Sideslip +15 degrees 0.250 Precision potentiomneter,

.±ndex hcadl and hcgh-g4 g

Power, DC 0-3 10watts 0.510 Standard resistor and

potentiometer

Power, AC I-103 watts 0.5% Transfer standard and

I ____________________
______________ _____________________ transformer

WADD TR 61-6747
VOL I REV 1
5-9 U. S. NAVAL ORDNANCE TEST STATION
CHINA LAKE, CALIFORNIA

Table 5-48. Testing and Calibration Facilities___

Variable Ranige Accuracy Standard

Vibration 0-30 g I;47o Enclevco Model

Z215 Accelerometer

Pressure 0. 3-3000 psi *0O.Z% CEC Precision

Pressure Standard

Force 0-1000 g *0. 5% Genisco Model

A-903 Centrifuge

5-10 ELECTRICAL TESTING LABORATORIES, INCORPORATED

2 EAST END AVENUE
NEW YORK 21: NEW YORK

Table 5-49. Testing and Calibration Facilities

Variable Range Accuracy Standard -O

Light Intensity 10 6 to 106 cp 1/2.% - center NBS Cal. Lamnps

range
10% -. extremes

Radiant Heat 5 to 5 x 106 2%j - center range NBS Cal. Lamps Lf

Flun2 10% -extremes

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 473
 5-11 NAVAL AIR TEST CENTER, WEAPONS SYSTEMS TEST DIVISION
U. S. NAVAL AIR STATION, PATUXENT RIVER, MARYLAND L

0 a
I I *-'

t.,- 4 '-'
.4-,

U) L)
o
- -i
U
-
Z.4 C.) Lfl
S 0
'.4 0 0
0 ob1 bfl
- I,.4 '4-4 ...P C

910 l0
04-4 '4-4

N 0
a4 - '
I 0;
C-)

'4-4 ,Ucd
0
w C% 0
.- 4'4-4

* .L4 4
S
p:
**4 0

-' 0 0
p-i

.4 .H

- ) p p
4 0 0
54 5-4 Sr., .5-4
w w -' I-'

4
Cl) (I)
op
rU
Op
'.4

-'
I U*J
P.4 P4 4-1C

WADDTR61-67
VOLI REVi 474

-. ,..*..-.-.-....-,.-*. *1*'5* -. 5-. .**5* - 5**5*

 0 (L)

0
.~ ~ ~ -4
.c-
+-
-
0 '

C)V (d 0

1- ý c rd ;j 4 10
o 0 4) a)
10 _ý oo C, _ o
u0 L) -. r

0 T t4 (d 'i %0
4 40UJ 40 r- 0

0
0 4\ 0 ) . '
0- Er iis, c

0.~ - N Pk N '' b u 1 'L4-

r: 0 0 Uo 0
*'4 Cd 4: 0 ILtr () -'" (
4.11 41 (d 1j
01 01-14 &414 1

00

02- 00 - 0 ': -

c3 L c) U

in '4
r-4 N'

(D 4 0
S0 0D 0:
U0)..
09
(d) ) o-' 0~ (d 0 00 t

4- *l CD ;-4 ) 40 f 0
-4 .0 ~ . -40
, 00 0 0 0C
ho bo a *- >0 0 0 0
2 C) CD 41) 0 410 4J 00Q 4)
H~~- .4 ~ 0O~ 0 U

03( L (U-
dif a1)

(d 14 f.a k 0 : ( 1 -0K L
af)
r-4

u (L

4-5- 4-i
N 0 0 (D ;4 N)

(d -0 10
'-4 -4-

~~ Q0.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 475
 5-12 NAVAL AIR TEST CENTER, FLIGHT TEST DIVISION,
U. S. NAVAL AIR STATION, PATUXENT RIVER,
MARYLAND

Table 5-51. Common Instrumentation Measurements

and Calibration Standards

Variable
Measurand Range Accuracy Standard

Acceleration 0 - tZO g Under Pcndulum; vi-

1/2 of 1% bration table;
centrifuge t

Attitude (gyro) ±1800 Under Calibrated tilt

1/2 of 1% table

Angular Rate 720 0'/sec Under 1% Pendulum or

(gyro) centrifuge

Pressure 0 - 300 psi Under Lab manometer

1/2 of 1% or dead weight
tester

Revolutions /min. 0 - 20, 000 rpm Under Lab tachometer -,-.

1/2 of 1% bench with elec-
tronic counter

Altitude 0 - 80, 000 ft. Under 1% Lab barometer

Airspeed 0 - 1000 kt Under 1% Lab manometer

Fuel Flow 0- 120, 000 lb/hr Under

1/2 of 1% Iab fuel flow bench ""--
with electronic
counter

Force measure- 0- 120, 000 lb. Under 1% Lab weights or

ments on large hydraulic tension
members (such as machine
aircraft arresting
hooks)

Vibration 0 - 200 cps Under 1% magnetic vibration

table

WAnD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 476

W '2 4 .. \ .-.-.

-..- - - - - - ¶ ¾ - . - .
5-13 ROTOTEEST LABORATORIES INCORPORATED
2803 Los Flores Boulevard
Lynwood, California

Table 5-52 Testing and Calibration Facilities

Variable Range Accuracy Standard

Acceleration 0-100 g 1/2% Preýcision Centri-

fug e

Mass 6-200 gum :h.01 mg Analytic Beamn Bal.

0-4.5 lbs- ±.Ol oz Bal. Scale

Force 0-5, 000 lbs 2% Deadweight Cali-

0-100 lbs 112% brated. Tensile Tester

Vol.tage DC 0-500 v .05% Differential VTVM

(nulling device)

Voltage AC 0-500 v.a.c. .2%0 Differential VTVM

(nulling device)
3 ps to 5k .1%/ Transfer Standards

Temperature -60 *C
-+5 2 OZC Thermometer
-5 to +202 OC 0
*. GStandard
+198 - +360 OC :1. 5 0 C

Resistance 1 ohm - 10 6 ohmrns .OlZO Standard Resistors

.01% With .001%
voltage divider
1-6 1. ohm .5 ¾ Kelvin Bridge

Line ar
Displacemnent 0 6 inche s .001 inch Mnm, Machinist
Table

Angular 30 sec Angular dividing

Displacement head optically

I___________ _____________
calibrated to 5 sec
accuracy

WADD TR 61 -67

VOL. I REVI 47

%..................................................
 Table 5-52 Testing and Calibration Facilitics (contd)

Variable Range Accuracy Standard

Voltage Ratio
Measurements
AC 50 cps - 3 kc .001% Prec. ratio trans
3 kc -10 kc .01% Prec. ratio trans
DC :i.00001 Prec. v d-ivide~r

Capacitance 100 uuf -1.15 uf .1% Standard Capacitance

Bridge

Inductance 0 -1, 111 by 1% liucremental Induc-

tance Bridge
100 uhy -10 hy .2%0 I-ay Owen Bridge
Circuit

Time )Stability of WWVI- or Digital

Frequency) Standards Counte r

Pressure Ion Gauge, McLeod

Gauge
ro-n-r H4-~to p0.1i I mnicron Manometer, dead-
weight tester
1 mmr

.I% Bourdon type press.

gauge

Temperature Fluid baths 0-2ZOO C Lab. Standard

Thermoometers
-100 - +600 OF
Component chamber :Ll/Z2 F
-100 - *F1500 OF :L Z F

Vibration 5 - 2, 000 cps =L5%0/ Crystal accel.

10, 000 force lb. Ling 275
5, 000 force 1b. MB C25H
750 force lb. MBF3C5
600 force lb. Calidyne 44A
50 force lb.

WADD TR 61 -67 _

VOL. I REV 1

......... '. .
 Table 5-52 Testing and Calibration Facilities (contd)
_ __ _ _ _ _=I _ _ _ _

Variable Range Accurac Standard * -0-

Shock Half sine wave 1-10% Crystal accel.

Saw tooth
Square wave

Acoustics 3?.5 - 10 kc, 153 db Capacitive microphone

8 inches x 8 inches VU broad band &
cios s- sectional area of octave analyzers . -

test chamber

Altitude 0 - 700,000 feet Ion Gauge

(l1-6 nmni Hg)
I micron McLeod Gauge
SIimm Standard Manometer

4.-

"-.'- < ",

WADD TR 61 - 67 479
VOL. I REV 1
 5-14 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER
LANGLEY FIELD, VIRGINIA .

I Q 0 0
U
W 0 0 U) 41o-.
1.4 ,-ccii 1-.4.- --
0

+
ILI ;4+4d 4 N U.: --- n, a -l .

0 Q '
0".
: :".4 .)
,o
;40 4i 4- N

41 1-4 -' ) 0,4 -4 Uk " ' -

.4-
U)oo U)o

4 4-

CC)

'-4 0

-•
(i ý o0 ' ' o tno:::
F 4 C; -
0n
-H 0<
'-4

U~~ 0 '- CD

4~0 fl -D "
61 - • 4 0 0 " "-',

04 -l C,
>
C)
ý-
o C)
1-i:4 0U 0 P. fa 0 fl-C.
0~ u0ý
4
0' co N
0 * C (" C3in C C ,".--.,. ,
oý 0) o C)2
0ý m ~ 0~'u 04' 0 0 In 41 C-i
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 5-15 JET PROPULSION LABORATORYp
California Institute of Technology
En~gineering Facilities Division and Hydraulics Lab
Pasadena, California

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WADD TR 61 - 67
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WADD TIR 61 -67

VOL.1 REV 1 484

5-16 6593D TEST GROUP (DEVELOPMENT)
Air Force Systems Command
United States Air Force
Ewards Air Force Base, California

Table 5-55 Testing and Calibration Facilities

Variable Range Accuracy Standard

Acceleration 5 to 5000 cps 1.5 to 5% Optical Disp.

0 to 100 g's max Measuring & Fre-

Flow

Nuclear
Radiation
5000 lb force max

0.12 to 350 gal/min

(water)
Repeatability
quency Standard

NBS Transfer
Flowmcter I
-. ,

a. Alpha-Neu- 0-15.,000 counts/mim -100% Cal. Isotope

tron Detection

b. Gamma De- 0.Z to Z500 mrihr 5 Cal. Isotope

tector

Pressure +5 to 10,000 psi ±0.1% Oil Dead Weight

vacuum, 0.1 mm hg ± .5% Tester Hg man-
ometer

Temperature -259 to 4-260 °C + 0.3 C Plat. Resist. bulb

+Z60 to +1200 °C ±0.5% Std Thermocouple

WADD TR 61 - 674 .''

VOL. I REV I

N,.:..%-:
 5-17 INLAND TESTING LABORATORIES
Division of Cook Technological Center
Morton Grove, Illinois

Table 5-56 Testing and Calibration Facilities

Variable Range Accuracy Standard

Temperature -100 to 1000 OF .5 OF Standard Thermno-

mete r

Pressure 0 to 790 mm/hg ±0.2 mm/hg Haas A-1 Baro-

meter
5 to 1000 lbs. L0.1% Dead Weight Test-
er

Acceleration 0 to 1000 g's ±3% NBS Certified Stand-

2 to 5000 cps ard Microphone

Frequency DC to 100 MC 2 ýarts in WWV with Standard

10 /day Crystal

DC Voltage & 0 to 30, 000 V ±.015% NBS Certified K-3

Gu-, ejvt 0 to 300 amps Pot. Standard
Cells v Multiplier
& Current Multi-
plier

AC Voltage & 0 to 1500 volts ±0.1% to Transfer Standards

Current 0 to 1000 amps 1000 cps

Resistance 1 to 100,000 ohms ±0.01% Standard Resistors

& Bridges

Capacitance 100 mmf to 1 mfd 1 0.2% Standard Capacitors

& Bridges

Sound Press. 2 to 20,000 cps ±1 DB N13S Certified Std

Microphone

WADD TR 61 -67
VOL. I REV 1 486

. . . . . . . . .. , -,* ,. . - . ..-
5-18 BALDWIN- LIMA- HAMILTON CORPORATION
Waltham 54, Massachusetts

Table 5-57 Testing and Calibration Facilities

Variable Range Accuracy Standard 6

Pressure 0 - 30 psi .05% Manumeter

100 - 10,000 psi .01% Dead Weight Tester
101 000 -100, 000 psi .15% Std Press. Cells

Force 0 - 130, 000 lbs .01% Dead Weights '.

130,000 - 250,000 lbs .025% Extended Range Dead
Weight Tester
0 - 800,000 Cormp. .05% Std Load Cells
-300,000 Tens. .05%

Torque 0 - 50, 000 in-lbs .05% Dead Weight &

Torque Arm . -
0 - 400,000 in-lbs .05% Std. Load Cells &
Torque Arm

Stikdin 0- 1, 000 u in/in . 5/0 Std Bending Deam.

& Dead Weight
0 Z, 500 u in/in .2% Optical Strain Gage
0 5,000 u in/in 1.0% Bonded. Filament
Strain Gage
0 - 100, 000 u in/in 2.0% Bonded Filament
Strain Gage

Transducer Out- 0 - 3 dc mv/v .025% Self bal. Pot. with

put Voltage 0- 4 ac dc mv/v .05%0 extended range.
0 - 3" dc n,v/v .02%1 Precision Pot.

Voltage DC 0 - 1.6 volts .02% Precision Pot.

Resistance 0 - 99, 999, 000 .05% Wheatstone Bridge

Angular 0 - 60" CW & CCW = 1200 .3% Geared Calib. Rig

Deflection

WADD TR 61 - 67 487
VOL. I REV 1 487

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. ...... . .. . .. ,,.-.-. .. ,. .- -.- , -. , ,-...- -- .. ----.. ,.,'-.-*-'.. .---.- '-,--.-.- =
 *~U~a. ~ .. j. - .. ~ - --

5-19 CRYOGENICS, INC.

Alexandria, Virginia

Table 5-58 Testing and Calibration Facilities

Variable Range Accuracy Standard

Temperature 12 OK to 300 0 K .01*K NBS Certified

Thermometers
2. ZK to 5.2°K .02°K Helium Vapor
Press Scale

Pressure 1 Micron Vacuum McLeod Gage

"-"
Resistance 10- to 10 ohms .05% Std. Resistor &
B ridge

Voltage, D. C. 10 to 10 volts .170 Std. Cells & Pre-

cision Pot.

Pressure 1 to 500 lbs .2% Dead Wt. Tester

Liquid Level To 36 inches .060 Visual window in

(Cryogenic) Dewar assembly

The facilities for performing the above noted test programs are located
at the company s two locations; Alexandria -and t5 =fford; Va. The Stafford
facility is utilized for testing that involves the handling of haz ardous media .'.
such as liquid hydrogen or where any requirement of the program necessitates
remote testing.

The company has an in-house capability for producing liquid helium

and hydrogen for the test programs due to the fact that it possesses a Collins
Helium-Ilydrogen liquefier. Production capability is 8 liters per hour of
either liquid helium or hydrogen.

WADD TR 61 - 67
VOL. I REV 1 488

"N-1...
'- .-'."..
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." .-, ''-'.3"
.% ." " % J -',"., .- -. ' '• ',% '. ,-' ,' . -' ".'L '. '.- -• ,. .. •,, .. ''. '...
5-20 ENDEVCO CORPORATION
Calibration Service
Pasadena, California

Table 5-59 Testing and Calibration Facilities

Variable Range Accuracy Standard

Acceleration 5 -10, 000 cps Error in NBS tracea-

(vibration) applied bility is
acceleration--- shown
5 - 900 cps<l.5%
900 - 2000 cps<KZ.5%
2000 - 5000 cps<3.0%7
5000 - 10,000 cps<5.C%

Acceleration -65 OF to +500 OF

(vibration) at approx. 100 cps
Acceleration 1 to 100 g
(vibration) at approx. 100 cps

Cross Axis at approx. 10 cps

Sensitivity -

Accele ration 100 g to 15, 000 g less than 5% Impact Drop

(shock) half sine jTester (see
Endevco ~
_______________
_________________ -~TD 11/ 12/ 60)

*-.7

WADD TR 61 -6748

VOL. I REV I
5-zl RADIATION, INCORPORATED
Melbourne, Florida

Table 5-60 Testing and Calibration Facilities

Variable Range Accuracy ','Standard

DC Voltage 0 - 4 volts . 0015% or 10 uv NBS Certified 2, 5

4 - 1000 volts :-.003% NBS Certified 2, 5, 6

AC Voltage 0 - 1000 volts . 2%, to 4 kc 15

DC Current 0 - 15 amps ±.02% 1, 3, 8

0.- 40 ma ±.003% or 2, 5
± .01 ua

AC Current 10 ma- 5 amps ± .2% 15

5 - 20 amps +.25% 16

Frequency 10 cps - 10 Mc I count ±3 parts WWV Signal, 11, Z6

per 107 per week
10 Mc - 12 Gc ±3 parts per 107 WWV Signal, 11, 26

Resistance 1, 10, 100, 1K, 10K ±.01% NBS Certified 7

10 ohms - 1.1 Meg ±.05% 31

Inductance 100 uh ± .1% NBS Certified 9

1, 10, 100 rh
lh +1,05%

Capacitance 100 uufd ± .01% +.I uufd NBS Certified 10

.OOluf ".
.01ufd ±.1%

.Iufd

Power (ac & dc) 0 - 4 Kw ±.25% to 1.2 Kc 17, 18

0- 200 w ±2.0,%to 3 KMc 25

Length 0 - 24 inches Class A gage Webber Certified,

block tol. 1z

Mass 1.0 mg - 1 Kg Class S tol. NBS Certified 13,

59, 60
Z Kg- 10 Kg Class Q tol. 59
Ilb -50 Ib Class T to!. 59

WADD TR 61 - 67
VOL. I REV 1 490

S-.
. . .. . ..- - -. . . . . . . . . .
 Table 5-60 Testing and Calibration Facilities (contd)

Variable Range Accuracy *Standard

Temperature 32 - 530OF Ya) (4 34

530 - 1600 "F z-.75% of read- L. & N. Cert.
ing (a) 34
-750- 200°F ±l.5 0 F (b) 34
200°- 700OF :.75% of read- (b) 34
ing
(a) = Chrornel & Alurnel Thermocouple
(b) = Copper & Cornstantun Thermocouple

Torque 0 - 100 lb-in I1.0% 37, 42

0 25 oz-in ".5% 42

Force 0 - 50 lb (compress) f:*1lTO 37

0 - 250 lb (tension) :L1% 37, 41, 61
0 - 1000 lb (tension) 1% 37, 41, 61

Comparator 10 visual acuity 43 ref. to 12

Magnification limiting tol.
± .005%
j0 _ +.00Z5%, 43 ref. to 12

WADD TR 61 -67 491

VOL. I REV 1 ..............
 Table 5-60 (contd)

*STANDARDS

Reference Standards

I - Rubicon 2775 Standard Cells (Unsaturated)

2 Julie Research Labs. SCO-106 Primary Voltage Standard
3 - Rubicon Type B Potentiometer
4 - Rubiron 2795 Volt Box
5 - Julie Research Labs. PVC-504 Precision Voltage Current Potentiometer
6 - Julie Research Labs. VDR-106 Primary Standard 'Voltage Divider
7 - Gray E-1243-1247 Standard Resistors
8 - Rubicon 1163 Standard Shunt
9 - G. R. 1482 B, H, L, P Standard Inductors
10 - G. R. 1401-A, 509-F, T, L Standard Capacitors
Ii - Berkeley 905 WWV Receivers
12 - Webber #24HD Gage Blocks, Class A
13 - Voland and Troemner Weights, Class S
14 - L & N #8784 High Temperature Certified Thermocouple

Transfer Standards

15 - SRI-Model THACH Volt-Ammeter

16 - Weston Model 3(U JAmmeter
17 - Weston Model 310 Wattmeters
18 - Weston Model 341 Voltmeter

Working Standards

19 - RFL-829 Meter Calibrator

20 - Weston 931 DC Milliamntieter
21 - Simpson Model 9 Milliammeter
22 - Simpson Model 9 Ammeter . -.

2.3 - Weston Model 1 Amnmeter -

24 - Weston Model 901 Voltimeter
25 - Jones 641-N Celorimetric Wattmeter
26 - Berkeley 7370 & 7580 Frequency Counter equipment
27 - RFL-829 Wheatstone Bridge
28 - John Fluke 301C Precision DC Power Supply
29 - Electro-Measurements 291 Z bridge
30 - G. R. 1454-A Voltage Divider
31 - G. R. 1432-J, K, Q, L Decade Resistors
32 - Empire Devices AT-106D Attenuator
33 - Weinschel AS-1 Precision Attenuator Set

WADD TR 61 - 67
VOL. I REV ! 492

22-Q .":'i.'. - . x-:-''':2"-':.2. %. . q

"-..'-'--'--," - .
.
J-" :"-." "-. _" .. .-" .'- _. .. ...'.• .- . . -,.. "-,.,-.. '-... _
 Table 5-60 (contd)

34 - Rubicon 2745 miltivolt potentiometer

35 - L & N Thermocouples, Chromel-Alumel and Copper Constantan 4'

36 - Dillon Model L Universal Tester, tension and compression

37 - Dillon X force gages
38 - McCleod Vacuum Gage CVC #GM-100A
39 - Thermometers
40 - Huer Timer
41 - Troemner test weights, class Q & T
42 - Snap-On Tool Co. beam scale torque balance
43 - Optical Comparator magnification check gage
44 - 600A Acme Scientific Monochromatic light source
45 - Optical flats
46 - Master plugs, Midemaster M-2
47 - Screw thread setting plug gages
48 - Thread measuring wires
49 - Micrometers
50 - Surface plates
51 - Angle plate
52 - Sine plate, Robbins B-3-SP
53 - Precision straight edge
54 - Standard gagt, comparator height gage with test indicator
55 - B & S Crimp height comparator gage
56 - Dermitron standard thickness gages
57 - Rockwell hardness te.3t blocks -.

Accessory Calibration Equipment

58 - Rubicon 3404-H Galvanometer

59 - Troemner 1751 High capacity balance, 30 kg
60 - Ainsworth Type "T" Analytical banance, 200 g
6\ - RadiAtoio Telusil force gage tester, 1000 pounds
62 - Radiation Compression force gage tester, 100 pounds
63 - Radiation Constant temperature standard cell test chamber
64 - Hotpack high temperature furnace

WADD TR 6167
VOL. I REV 149

4 .~...........

-.q.'_•'.i,. ,...-, - -. , - - . - o, ..-.... . 4 ... 1.-.-" .... . ... . . 4 ......

- . . ..- .. -.
4 ,. .- ,o.- -
•- - - 7 1 1 "] 1 4 1 4 1 - - " . ' ' " -. - ". 4
". " " '" "° .'-. ." , ' ' ' . . ' * , " " " '
- ~ 5-ZZ ASSOCIATED TESTING LABORLATORIES, INC.9
Wayne, New Jersey

ci)c

TT1

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u k

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WADD TfB 6 1 -67

VOL. 1 REV 1
 41-

.0 .fl D

411.
M
a) .

'2)

-4 4

'495
"VL.IRE
5-- Z3 NORTH HILLS ELECTRONICS, INC.
Glen Cove, New York

North Hills Electronics, Inc. has established a standards laboratory

and is initiating a service for industry for the measurement and calibration
of any type of equipment requiring measurements of d-c voltage, current ,

and resistance to better than 0.01%. Primary voltage and resistance standards -
which have been certified by the National Bureau of Standards consist of .9
banks of saturated standard cells certified to 0.0001% and NBS-type resistors
kept in a precisely controlled temperature oil bath, whose temperature is
maintained at 280 C within 0.01. North Hills will certify that its measure- -

ments are traceable to the National Bureau of Standards.

WADD TR 61 - 67
VOL. I REV 1 496
 SECTION VI

REFERENCES

This section presents a consolidated listing of all references which

have been footnoted in the preceding section. They are arranged in the
numerical order of their appearance in the handbook. The Bibliography
(Section VII) does not contain all these references. hin some cases they
are referenced only to credit a brief statement and other omissions are due
completion of Section VII before final draft of preceding sections.
•p. •

V ~M~,J -.-- • "

-' *'- ' -. -b '- ¼ . 4 '~ : -~ -- -'' '. -. . - - . . . . . . . ,

. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eren
. . . es. .w . ich. . . . .. '2[.. •-
---------- otote -n th pr*dn scin he r rane nte -'t-

WADD TR 61-67 497

VOLI REV 1
 SECTION VI

REFERENCES

6-1 LIST OF REFERENCES

1 Nichols, M. H. and Rauch, L. L., Radio Telemetry, Second

Edition, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1956.

2 Telemetry System Study, Final Report, Aeronutronic Division

of Ford Motor Company, Newport Beach, California
Publication No. U-743, 1959.

3 Lehan, Frank, "Telemetering and Information Theory" . -

IRE Transactions of Professional Group on Telemetry and
Remote Control, February 1955.

4 Sanders, R. W., "Communication Efficiency of Space

Telemetry System", National Telemetering Conference, 1959.

5 Watson, Larry C. and Goldstei,, Melvin, "Comparitive

Merits of Analog and Digital Telemetering", National
T-1. ertering Conference, 1959.

6 Scott, J. H., "Accuracy and Reliability of the Sandia 220 mc'' --

Telemetry System", National Telemetering Conference,

1959.

7 Scharla-Nielsen, Hans,"Radio Frequency Link Design for

Telemetering" National Telemetering Conference, 1959.

$ Sanders, R. W., "Communication Efficiency Comparison of

Several Communication Systems", Proceedings of IRE,
Vol. 48, April 1960,
9 Sampson, W. F., "Maximum Utilization of Narrow-Band

Data Links for Interplanetary Communications", Proceedings

of the IRE, Vol. 48, April 1960, pp 589.

10 Rauch, L. L., "The Ease of PM-AM vs. FM-FM Telemetry"

IRE Transactions of Professional Group on Telemetry and . •...
Remote Control, June 1960. '-'.

WADD TR 61-67 498

VOL I REV 1

...........................
V , - - - - -c c- --
 11 Schenck, J. and Kennedy, W. F., "Analysis of Multiplex .-
Error in FM/FM and PAM/FM/FM Telemetry" IRE -
Transactions of Professional Group on Telemetry and
Remote Control, September 1959. 01
12 Arnstein, Paul R., "A Note on the Frequency Distribution A
of an FM/FM Signal" IRE Transactions of Professional
Group on Telemetry and Remote Control, May 1957.

13 Uglow, Kenneth M., "Noise and Bandwidth in FM/FM

Radio Telemnetering", IRE Transactions of Professional
Group on Telemetry and Remote Control, May 1957.

14 Ott, 0. J., and McGary, W. P., "Frequency Translation

of FM Subcarriers" Proceedings of the National Tele- LA4
meterin Conference, May 23-24-25. 1960
Santa Monica, California

15 Hackman, Daniel, "Comparison of the Performance of -.

PAM-FM and FM-FM Telemetry Systems" IRE Proceedings
of the 1958 National Symposium on Telemeterin.

16 Katz, L., Kosowsky, D. I., Hurtig, C. R., "Multichannel

FM/FM Telemetry System" IRE Proceedings of the 1958
National Symposium on Telemetering.

17 Ott, 0. J., "The Influence of FM-FM Telemetry Component '.

Characteristics on System Performance" National Tele-
meterinr Conference, 1959.

18 Scharla-Nielsen, Hans, and McRae, D. D., "FM/FM

Demodulation" National Telemetering Conference, 1958. .N-
19 McGaughan, H. S., "Performance Characteristics of Time

and Frequency Multiplexed Telemetering Systems"

National Telemeteriag Conference, 1956.

20 King. Olin B., "The SS-FM System - A Progress Report"

National Telemetering Conference, May 1961, Sheraton
Towers, Chicago.
4,a
21 Frost, W. 0., and King. 0. B., "SS-FM: A Frequency
Division Telemetry System with High Data Capacity" Pro- .
ceedings of 1959 National Symposium on Space Electronics
and Telemetry.

WADD TR 61-67 499

"VOL I REV I1."-."
 22 Warzecha, T. D., "A Wide Band Radio Link Telemetering
System" National Telemetering Conference 1956

23 Cohn, Charles R., "Cross Talk Due to Finite Limiting of

Frequency Multiplexed Signals", Proceedings of the IRE,
Vol. 48, January 1960, pp. 53.

24 Downing, J. J., "Special Characteristics of PAM Time-

Division Multiplex Signals", National Telemetering Con-
ference, 1958.

25 Watanabe, Okinoie, "A SIN Improvement Factor on PAM-

FM Whose Received Pulse is Cosine-Squared" Proceedings
of the IRE, Vol. 48, February 1960, pp. 257,

26 Nichols, M. H., and Bublitz, A. T., "The Effect of

Different Types of Video Filters on PDM-FM and PCM-FM
Radio Telemetry" IRE Transactions of Professional
Group on Telemetry and Remote Control, June 1960.

27 Goldberg, H. S., and Pilnick, C., "Precisions PDM/FM

Tultl-eicring SybLuie" IRE rrucudiagb of tue i'75o
.. National -

Symposium on Telemetering.

28 Hefferman, H. J., "The Transmission of Pulse Width

Modulation Signals Over Restricted Bandwidth System",
IRE Proceedings of 1957 National Symposium on Telemetering.

29 Uglow, Kenneth M., "Noise and Bandwidth in PDM/FM Radio

Telemetering", IRE Proceedings of 1957 National Symposium .-
on Telemetering.

30 Martin, Marcell A., "Frequency Domain Application to v- --

Data Processing" IRE Transactions of Professional Group
on Telemetry and Remote Control, March 1959.

31 Ott, 0. J., "Cross Talk in Time Shared Systems as Affected

by Discriminator Characteristics" Prodeedings of 1959
National Symposium on Space Electronics and Telemetry.

32 Katz, Leonhard, "Determination of Visual Interpolation -

Errors in the Plotting of Curves from Commutated Data" ..--

IRE Transactions of Professional Group on Telemetry and

Remote Control, February 1955.

WADD TR 61-67 500

VOLI REV 1--,
 33 Stewait, R. M., "t Statistical Design and Evaluation of
Filters for the Restoration of Sampled Data" IRE Pro-
ceeings Vol. 44, February 1956.

34 Spilker, J. J., "Theoretical Bola.ie~h-, on the Performance

of Sampled Data Communications SYstems", IRE Trans-
actions on Circuit Theory, Septembc:r 1960. -

35 McRae, D. D. "Interpolation Errors", Advanced Tele-

metyStudyj Technical Report No. 1, Part 1 and Z,
Radiation Incorporated, Melbourne, Florida, 1961.

36 McRae, D. D. and Smith, F. F., "Computer Interpolation"

Advanced Telemetry Study Technical. Report, Part 1,
Radiation Incorporated, Melbourne, Florida, 1961.

37 Viterbi, A. J., "On Coded Phase Coherent Comnmuni cations"

IRE Transactions of Professional Group on Space
Electronics and Telemetrj.

38 Orm,3by, Joseph F. A., "IPCM/FM Telemetry Signal

Analysis and BW Effects" IRE Transactions of Professional
December 1960.

39 Djoruh, Robert S., "Commnentws Relative to the Application

PCM to Aircraft Flight Testing" IRE Transactions of
Professional Group on Telemetry and Remote Control,
September, 1959.

40 McRae, D. D., "Cons ide ration of RF Parameters for PCM

Telemetry Systems" IRE Transactions of Professional
G-oi nT l- Y and- ý.'.cJ.JJL'. f..'.itrl±~ , OJUIJAe, 1959.7

41 McRae, D. D., "Techniques for Transmission of Pulse k'

Code Modulation Signals" Nat-ional Telernetering Conference,
May 1961, Sheraton Towers Hotel, Chicago.

42 Goodenoush, Frank H., "An Analysis of M.vulti-Phase RF

Modulation for PCM Telemetry'" Natinal Tlenietering
Conference, May 1961, Sheraton Towers Hotel, Chicago.

WADD T-- 61-67 501

VOLI REVI

~. I- -- -. -
 43 Viterbi,- A. J. and Rectin, E., "Is Coding Ever Worth the
Trouble" IRE Transactions Fifth National Symposium
1960 on Space Electronics and Telemetry, Shoreham Hotel,
Washington.

44 Putchi, H. N. and Forster, Leroy, "Performance Testing

of the 'Synchro-Link' PCM/PS System" IRE Transactions
Fifth National Symposium, 1960 on Space Electronics and
Telemetr Shoreham Hotel, Washington. .

45 Seaver, W. H., "PCM Synchronization" Proceedings of ". \

National Telemetering Conference, May Z3-24-25, 1960,
Santa Monica, California.

46 Childen, D. G., "Evaluation of Techniques for PCM Range

Telemetry" Proceedings of National Telemetering
Conference, May 23-24-25, 1960, Santa Monica, California

47 Sink, R. L., "The Use of PCM in Data Links With

Satellites, Space Vehicle and Long Range Missiles" Pro-
ceedings of 1959 National Syrpposium on Space Electronics
and Telemetry.

48 Birkel, J., George, "Notation and Characteristics of

Two Level Codes" IRE Proceedins of 1957 National
Symposium on Telemetering..

49 Rock, Frank E., "PDM Bandwidth Requirements" IRE

Proceedings of 1957 National Symposium on Telemeterin.

50 Putschi, H. N. and Niemann, Jr., E., "The PCM-PS

Telemetry System" National Telemetering Conference

51 Lawton, John G., "Comparison of Binary Data Trans-

mission Systems" Conference Proceedings Znd National
Convention on Military Electronics, 1958

52 Barrow, Bruce B., "Error Probabilities for Telegraph

Signal Transmitted on a Fading FM Carrier" Proceedings.
of the IRE, Vol. 48, Septebmer 1960, pp 1613.

53 Turin, G. L., "Error Probabilities for Binary Symmetric

Ideal Reception Through Nonselective Slow Fading and Noise"
Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 46, September 1958, pp 1603

WADD TR 61-67 502

VOLI REV 1

•-,, ,,.,.,." . * 4".'-

,.\~...... .-. , . ) . .'.-.'.-.-.-,' ,.-.- . -. . -.-. .-..-.-..-.. ,..- - -
....... - -......... -- _ . . .- ..-. ..-.-. ' '._
 54 Sanders, R. W., "Digilock Telemetry System" Proceedings-
of 1959 National Symposium on Space Electronics and
Telemetry.

55 Mueller, G. E., and Tabor, J. E., "An Interplanetary

Communication System" IRE Transactions of Professional
Group on Telemetry and Remote Control, December 1959.

56 Porter, R. A. and Lesnik, M. I., "Telemetry System

Performance - Measurement of Error as a Function of
Commutation Rate" Proceedings of National Telemetering
Conference, May 23-24-25, 1960, Santa Monica, California.

57 Busch, E. W., "Telemetry Addition to the Azusa Trans-

mitter" Proceedings of 1959 National Symposium on
Space Electronics and Telemetry.

58 Janeway, William F., "Triple-FM A Practical Method for

Increasing the Capacity of Telemetering Systems" IRE
Proceedings of the 1958 National Symposium on Telemetering.

59 Jeske, Harold 0., "Extension of FM/FM Capabilities" IRE

P•oceedings of 1957 National Symposium on Tclemetering

60 Warzecha, T. D., "Pulse Code Modulation of Commutated

Subcarrier Channels" IRE Proceedings of the 1958
National Symposium on Telemetering.

61 The Theory and Application of FM/FM Telemetry, Bendix

Aviation Corporation, Pacific Division.

62 Duerig, W. H., "Operation of Multiplexed FM Systems"

National Telemetering Conference, 1957.

63 Baker, A. W., "Telemetering Systems for Operational

Missile Evaluation" Proceedings of Natioi elemetering
Conference, May 23-23-25, 1960, Santa Monica, California.

64 Madson, R. G., "Telemetry Data Processing at Convair

Astronautics" Proceedings of 1959 National Symposium on
Space Electronics and Telemetry.

WADD TR 61-67 503

VOL I REVi1

~ -: * %' !

"",2.-
.
 65 Ackley, R. A., "Instrumenting for Large Scale Captive
Missile Tests" Part I, Astronautics, May 1958.

66 Ackley, R. A., "Instrumentation for Large Scale Captive

Missile Tests" Part II, Astronautics, October 1958.

67 Meir, T. M., "Hydrographic Instrumentation Systems"

National Telemetering Converence, May 1961, Sheraton
Towers Hotel, Chicago.

68 Frost, Walter 0., "Space Telemetry- Launch Vehicle

Telemetry: A Comparison of Design Considerations" IRE
Transactions Fifth National Smymjosium, 1960 on Space
Electronics and Telemetry, Shoreham Hotel, Washington.

69 King, Olin B., "A High Capacity PAM-FM-FM Telemetering

System for the Saturn Booster" Proceedings of 1959
National Symposium on Space Electronics and Telemetry.

70 Van Doren, M. L., "A Complete System for the Flight

Testing of Piloted Aircraft" IRE Transactions of Pro-
fessional Group on Telemetry and Remote Control, May
1955.

71 Weippert, J. J., Piontkowski, J. S. and Husky, M. J.,

"Extreme Environment Telemeter" Proceedings of 1959 *:.

National Symposium on Space Electronics and Telemetry. - -

72 Furber, David, "Project Mercury World-Wide Telemetry

and Display System" Proceedings of National Telemetering
Conference, May 23-24-25, 1960, Santa Monica, California.

73 Martin. E. F., "Problems in Aircraft Telemetering" IRE

Transactions of Professional Group onTelemetry and Remote
Control, December 1957.

74 Cearley, C. R., "Design of the Telemetry System of the

Centaur Space Vehicle" Proceedings of National Te]emeterin_ . .
Conference, May 23-24-25, 1960, Santa Monica, California.

75 Gaugier, J., "Design Concepts for the Atlas Operational

Telemetry Systems" Proceedings of National Telemetering
Conference, May 23-24-25, 1960, Santa Monica, California.

WADD TR 61-67 504

VOL I REVi1

...................
 76 Phegley, L. R., "A High Accuracy Temperature Telemeter
System" Proceedings of National Telemetering Conference,
May 23-24-25, 1960, Santa Monica, California

77 Lathrop, P. A., "Data Recovery New Approaches Re-

quired for Re-Entry Vehicle Instrumentation" Proceedings
of 1959 National Symposium on Space Electronics and
Telemetry.

78 Luecke, G., "Flight Test Data System Victor System 272"

IRE Proceedings of 1957 National Symposium on Telemeter-

79 Cox, J. A., "Telemetering System for the X-17 Missile"

IRE Proceedings of 1957 National Symposium on Telemeter-
ing.

80 Shanahan, E. F.. "Operational Problems in Aircraft

Telemetering" IRE Proceedings of 1957 National Symposium
on Telemetering.

81 Dettbarn, August J. C., "Application of Telemetry to Flight 7 7W

Testing at Boeing A.'irplane Company, Wichita Division"

IRE Proceedings of 1957 National Symposium on Telemeter-
ing. .:.:

82 Richter, Jr., Henry L., Sampson, William F., Stevens,

Robertson, "Microlock A Minimum Weight Radio Instru-
mentation System for a Satellite" National Telemetering"
Conference Report 1957

83 Pilkington, William. "Explorer T an H!T ins trtumentation"

National Telemetering Conference 1958.

84 Coleman, Jr., Paul J., "Signal Processing for Space Vehicle

Experiments" IRE Transactions Fifth National Symposium,
1960 on Space Electronics and Telemetry, Shoreham Hotel,
Washington.

85 Williams, W. E., "Space Telemetry Systems" Proceedings

of the IRE, Vol. 48, April 1960, pp. 85.

WADD TR 61-67 505

VOL I REV I

.X.fJ
 86 Fowler, T. C. R. S., "A Six-Channel High-Frequency
Telemetry Syctem" IRE Transactions of Professional
Group on Telemetry and Remote Control June 1960.

87 Bienken, H. G., and Dunn, F. L., "A Short-Distance ..

Radio Telemetering of Physiological Information" IRE -"-

Transactions of Professional Group on Telemetry and .

Remote Control June 1959.

88 Liter, W. F., "An Airborne Digital Recording and Ground

Handling Data System" National Telemetering Conference
May 1961, Sheraton Towers Hotel, Chicago.

89 Mesuer, Max. H., "Signal Processing in the Tiros

Instrumentation System" IRE Transactions Fifth National
Symposium, 1960 on SEace Electronics and Telemetry,
Shoreham Hotel, Washington. .

90 Leichter, Daniel, "Tone Code Telemetry System for -..

Event Data" National Teleinetering Conference 1956.

91 Casserly, J. R., Johnson, L., Woodbridge, D. E., "A

New Pulse Duration Multichannel Telemetry System for
Industry" Proceedings of National Telemetering -.-.
Conference May 23-24-25, 1960, Santa Monica, California.

92 Smith, C. H-I., "Satellite Tracking with Far Side Ground

Station Equipment" National Telemetering Conference,
1958.

93 Grossman, Jack J., Parson, "Time Division Pulse Width

Modulation a High Precision PDM/FM Telemetry System"
National Telemetering Conference, 1958.

94 Spearow, R. G., Helms, G., "A High Performance Trans-

istorized Pulse Duration Modulator" National Telemetering
Conference Report 1957.

95 Lusk, J. D., "On Experimental Airborne PAM-FM

Telemeter Package for Missile Application" Proceedings
of 1959 National Symposium on Space Electronics and .
Telemetry.

WADD TR 61-67 506

VOLI REVI

.'.\% X...... N.. . .....-... ..... .....

 i1, %
LOA

96 Telander, Edward J., "Automatic Digital Readout System

for Telemetry " IRE Proceedings of 1958 National
Symposium on Telemetering.

97 Marko, A. R., "A Multi-Channel Personal Telemetry

System Using Pulse Position Modulations" National
Telernetering Conference, May 1961, Sheraton1 Towers
Hotel, Chicago.

98 Weisman, Lloyd and Tcltscher, Erwin, "A Pulse Position

Telemetry System" Proceedings of 1959 National Symposium
on Space Electronics and Telemetry.

99 Stilley, John C., "Petroleum Production Telemetering

and Remote Control Systems" IRE Proceedings of 1957
National Symposium on Telem eterin_

100 Mvechan, L. A. and Peterson, E. "An Experimental

Miltichannel Pulse Code Modulation System of Toll Quality",
Bell System Technical Journal, Volume XXVII, January,
1948. 4'

01 Shaw, S. "The AN!AKT-14 Telemetry SIystemr Lntrodnctiion

R-
Part I" IRE Transactions of Profession Group on Telemetry
and Remote Control, March, 1956.

102 Bishop, R. P., "The AN/AKT-14 Telemetry System AKT-14

Airborne Telemeter Part IU" iRE Transactions of Pro-
fessional Group on Telemetry and Remote Control., March,
1956.

103 Howard, D. C., "The AN/AKT-14 Telemetry System UKR-7

rTel.crnct.,ric Dat R....e Part TTT n I TV fn r...-c-,,,, -

of Professional Group on Telemetry and Remote Control,

March 1956.

104 Petersen, 3. A., "The AN/AKT-14 Telemetry System

Quick-Look Recording System Part IV" IRE Trnnsactions
of Professional Group on Telex.'e :y and Remote Control,
March, 1956. 4
'.',.4

WADD TR 61-67 507

VOLI REV1

,,., ..-.-.-...-.-..... .-.. -......

... .. ,..,--..-........-...-- _-..-.-..-.-..--,..-.-. _.-.. ..... ... ; .. :•
%I
 105 Campbell, C. A., "The AN/AKT-14 Telemetry System
UKR-7 Ground Translator and Programmer Part V"
IRE Transactions of Professional Group on Telemetry7
and Remote Control, March 1956.

106 Anderson, G. F., "The AN/AKT-14 Telemetry System .,'. ..

PWN and FM/FM Automatic Data Reduction with AKT-14

Telemetering Components Part VI" IRE Transactions ,.*1
of Professional Group on Telemetry and Remote Control,
March 1956. .,::

107 Sink, R. L., "A Survey of PCM Progress" Proceedings

of National Telemetering Conference, May Z3-24-25,
1960, Santa Monica, California.

108 "The Data Systems for Explorer VI and Pioneer V"

IRE Transactions of Professional Group on Telemetry and
Remote Control, September - December, 1960.

109 Telemetry Working Group, "Standards for Pulse Code

Modulation (PCM) Telemetry" IRE Transactions of
Professional Gxoup on Telemetry and Remote Control,
Decc-mber 1959-

110 Bowers, F. K., "Deltamodulation for Cheap and Simple

Telemetering" IRE TransactionDs of Professional Group
on Telemetry and Remote Control, December 1959.

111 Siiik, 1R. L., Pettingall, C. E.., and Posthill, P-. N., "An -

Automatic Data Handling System at High Speed and High -.

Capacity" IRE Transactions of Professional Group on

Telemetry and Remote Control, March 1959.

112 Robinson, Paul B., "A Digital Telemeter for Use With
Analog Telemetering Over A Single Channel" National
Telemetering Conference, May 1961, Sheraton Towers
Hotel, Chicago.

113 Wilkinson, K. L., Bradley, J. W., Ormord, L. A.,

Herman, H.: "Naval Air Test Center PCM Telemetry
System" National Telemetering Conference, May 1961,
Sheraton Towers Hotel, Chicago.

WADD TR 61-67 508

VOL I REV 1

Z",. .,................. ............ .

 114 Ward, Theodore D., and Gaul, Roy D., "A PCM/FM/FM
Data System for Oceanographic Research" National
Telemetering Conference, May 1961, Sheraton Towers
Hotel, Chicago.

115 Cogan, S., and Hodder, W. K., "A High Speed, Airborne
Data Acquisition System" IRE Transactions of Professional
Group on Telemetry and Remote Control, September 1959.
116 McGee, Howard A., "Telemetry and the Panama Canal"
Proceedings of National TeleVetering Conference,

May 23-24-25, 1960, Santa Monica, California.

II Knight, J. P., "A PCM Data Acquisition and Processing t[Jg

System for Solid Propellant Engine Testing" Proceedings
of 1959 National Symposium on Space Electronics and
Telemetry.

118 Knight, P., "PCM Data Collecting and Recording System

Designed for Airborne Use"IRE Proceedings of 1957
National Symposium on Telemetering. -

11q Dinrub; Robert S_; "A Digital Data Gatheringa and Telemeter-
ing System" National Telemetering Conference, 1958 Los

120 Lion, Kurt S., Instrumentation in Scientific Research

(Electrical Input Transducers), New York: McGraw-Hill
hook Co., Ltic., 1959, pp. 1-2.

121 "Preliminary Questionnaire on Transducers Having Electrical

Output", Survey Committee on Transducers for Aero-Space
Testing (SCOTFAST), (Committee No. 8A-RP37 of Aero-
Space standardb IIvs i Lolf hisLraUlien SOUiety Uo Art:lia)LLj,
undated. .

122 "Notes on Linear Variable Differential Transformers, "

Bulletin AA-1A, Schaevitz Engineering, pp. 1-2.

123 "Handbook of Linear Transducers, " Handbook No. R-50,

Autornatic Timing and Controls, Incorporated, p. 4. L

WADD TR 61-67 509

VOL! REV I

N,
- .- '-.2-'-.?:.2-:
 124 Ard~nt, John P. and Gardner P. Wilson, "An Electro-
Mechanical Transducer With Unusually Low Reaction
Force"', Brush Instruments, Division of Clevite Corp.

125 "Notes on Linear Variable Differential Transformers",

op. cit., p. 5.

126 Ibid., p. 5.
127 Iid.,P. 7
127 Ibid., p. 7.

129 Ibid*, p, 8.

130 "Synichros", Electromechanical Components and Systenis

DesigFn, Vol. III (February, 1959), p. 51.

131 Ibid. pp. 54-56.

132 Ibid., pp. .58-59.

13 Decker Technical Bulletin No. 01, the Decker Corporation,

Bala- Cynwvyd, Pennsylvania. .-

134 Lion, Kurt S., "Mechanic- Electric Transducer", The

Review of Sceintific Instruments, Vol. 27, (April, 1956),-
pp. 22Z-225. -.

135 "Radiation Tracking Transducer XY-ZO," (company bro.,

chure), Micro Systems, Incorporated, Pasadena,
California.

136 Lion, Kurt S., Insturmentation in Scientific Research

(Electrical Lnp~it Transducer), New York: McGraw-'. 11
Book Co., Inc., 1959, pp. 89-90.

137 Product Data Sheet 118-3, Lear, Incorporated.

138 EP 101Z Data Sheet, Hamnlin, Incorporated.

WADD TR 61-67 510

VOL I REV I
 139 Aronson, M. H. and R. C. Nelson, Strain Gage Instrumentation,
Pennsylvania: Instruments Publishing Company, Incorporated,
1958, pp. 1-5.

140 Pressure Transduicing and In strum entatiu i Techniques, Vol. 1,

Book 1, WADD Technical Report 59-743, p. 113.

1.41 Ibid., p. 1 14. .-.-

142 bid. p. .10

142 Ibid.., p. 110.

144 Borden, Perry A. and Wilfrid J. Mayo-Wells, Telemetering

Systems, New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1959,
pp. 130-131.

14-) General Catalog and Transducer Handbook, Technical Bulletin,

No. 75, Trans-Sonics, Incorporated, November 1960.

146 Engineering Data Sheet 359-103, Daystrom-Wiancko Engineering

Company.

~~ ~ri-.-.. Q1-4.... 'UZ0_lQ4, Day'to"n'ýk 4A? n -~rrlr

irnaring
Company.

148: :,Ins2,trumz-en-tation Techniques

Pressure TransducixlAnd Vol. I,
Book 2, WADD Technical Report 59-743, pp. 130-132.

149 Linford, A., "Measurement of Fluid Flow, " The Instrument

Manual, Third Edition, London: United Trade Press, LTD,
.1960, p. 122.

i50 Ibid., pp. 122Z-124.

151 Ibid., pp. 124-12,5.

152 "Engineered by Potter," Potter Aeronauýtical Corporation,

Union, New Jersey.

153 Linford, A., op. cit., pp. 131-138.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I RE-V 1 511
 154 Miesse, C. C., Study of Mass Flownieters, Armour Re-
search Foundation, Final Report (ARF Project D173), July,
1959.

155 "Engineered by Potter," Potter Aeronautical Corporation

Union, New Jersey.

156 "Mass Flow Transducer," Trans-Sonics General Catalog --

and Transducer Handbook, Special Product Note No. 1994.

157 Viskanta, V. Z., "A Study of Rotary Speed Measuring Tech-

niques, " Armour Research Foundation (WADD TR 60-210), K'
February 1960, pp. 1-3.

158 Ibid., pp. 5-6.

159 Ibid. pp. 9-13.

160 Ibid. p. 90.

161 Ibid., pp. 19-36.

16Z Ibid. , p. 26.

163 Ibid._ , pp. 37-48.

164 Elam, David and Lloyd A. Thacher, "Magnetic Pickups --

Operation and Applications," Electrical Manufacturing,
(June, 1960).

165 Viskanta, op. cit, pp. 49-72.

166 Ibid. , T. 64.

t67 Ibid., pp. 69-71.

168 Lucic, A. and R. C. Beckwith, "Fuel Quantity Measuring Tech-

niques Development Study,' Autonetics, a Division of North
American Aviation, WADD TR 59-785, January, 1960. •..

WADD TR 61-67 . . .
VOL I REV I 512
w4
 169 Ibid., pp. 19-32.

170 "Ultrasonic Liquid Level Switches, Document DO 550B,

Acoustica Associates, Incorporated, Los Angeles, Cali-
fornia.

171 Luci, op. cit., pp 35-36.

172 Ibid., pp. 36-39. i"•"•

173 Ibid., pp. 39-52.

174 Ibid., pp. 52-29.

175 Ibid., pp. 72-166.

176 Ibid., pp. 167-198.

177 Barabutes, T. and W. J. Schmidt, "Principles and Considera-

tions in the Design of a Hall Multiplier, "Pater No. CP59-
875, American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

178 McGraw-Hill Encylopedia of Science & Technology, Vol. 1,

p. Z7 & 28.

179 Eugene B. Canfield, "Accelerometers and Their Character-

istics," Ordance Dept., General Electric Co., Pittsfield,
Mass.
r
180 J. C. Hedge, W. J. H. Murphy, H. J. Nielsen, J. A Granath,
'-
H. Zucker, Arrnoar Research Foundation, Temperature
Measuring Techniques, WADD TR 60-67, Volume 1, June,
1960.-"
'"

S... . I'D. H dfcwr, Book

McGraw-Hill Iilaiuuuun u cSemiconductor
-
Company, Electronics,
Inc.

182 Kunzler, J. E., T. 1H. Gebalie and G. W. Hull, "Germanium

Resistance Thermometers Suitable For Low Temperature
Calorimetry", Review' of Scientific Insturrnents, Vol. 28 n Z,
February 1957.
'

183 Same as Reference 180. ,-.

WADD TR 61-67 513

VOLI REVI

N. - -.--.
 184 Sapoff, Meyer, "The Thermistor--A Specialized Semi-
conductor Sensor.", Millitary Systems Design, July/
August 1961.

185 Davis, T. P., "The Carbon Arc Image Furnace", Pro-

ceedings of Symposium on High Temperature, A Tool For
The Future, 1956, Berkeley, California.

186 Jackson, L. R. and H. W. Russel, "Temperature Sensitive

Magnetic Alloys and Their Uses", Instruments, Vol. 11 n 1.1,
November 1938.

187 Nyquist, H., "Thermal Agitation of Electric Charge In

Conductors", Physical Review, Vol. 32, July 1928.

188 Johnson, J. B., "Thermal Agitation of Electricity In

Conductors", Physical Review, Volume 32, July 19Z8.

189 Zucker, H., et al., Design and Development of a Standard

White Noise Generator and Noise Indicating Instrument",
IRE Trans. On. Instrumentation, Vol. 1-7, Dec., 1958.

190 Garrison, J. B. and A. W. Lawson, "An Absolate Noise

Thermometer For High Temperatures", Review of
Scientific Instruments, Vol. ZU, 1949.')

191 "High Temperature Thermodynamics Technical Report 11"

NBS Report 3431, NBS Project 0301-20-2674, July 1954.

192 Patrone's, E. T., et al., "Low Temperature Thermal Noise

Thermometer" Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 30,
July 1959.

191 Buchele, D., A Self-Balancing Line-Reversal Pyrometer,

NACA TN 3656. W"-".\%

194 Blum, N. A., "Recording Optical Pyrometer", Review of

Scientific Insturments, Vol. 30 n 4, April 1959.

195, Dicke, B., 1., "The Measurements of Thermal Radiation

* at Microwave :'requencies", Review of Scientific Instruments,
* Vol. 17, July 194(.

WADD TR 61-67 514

VOLI REV1

,
*-.. .
",'.".",".", v,.Z-,"& §:c-:-.
' -- . '-'-.-
::." K. ". .- * ... . - 2--..'
ZS'C It
 196 Drake, F. D. and H. I Even, "A Broad-Band Microwave
Source Comparison Radiometer For Research in Radio -
Astronomy", Proc0 of IRE, Vol. 46, January 1958. "

197 Krause, L. N., R. C. Johnson and G. E. Glawe, A _

Cooled Gas Pyrometer For Use In High Temperature Gas .
Streams, NACA TN 4383'

198 Simmons, F. S. and G. E. Glawe, Theory and Design of

a Pneumatic Temperature Probe and Experimental Results
In A High Temperature Gas Stream, NACA TN 3893.

199 Trent, C. H., "Investigation of Combustion In Rocket Thrust

Chambers", Industry and Engineering Chemicals, Vol. 48,
April 1956. A

200 Havill, C. D. and L. S. Rolls, A Sonic-Flow Orfice Probe

For The In-Flight Measurements of Temperature Profiles
of a Jet Engine Exhause With After-Burning, NACA TN 3714.

201 Kuhns, Determination of Flame Temperature From 2000 *K

to 3000 0 K By Microwave Absorption, NACA TN 3254, 1954.

20Z Mayer, A. M., Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 45 n 18,

p 1973.

203 Marlow, D. G., C. R. Nisewanger, and W. M. Cady, "A •.

Method for the Instantaneous Measurement of Velocity and -X -"
Temperature in High Speed Air Flow", Journal of Applied "" -:j
Physics, Vol. 20, 1949, p. 771.

204 Barrett, E. W. and V. E. Suomi, "Preliminary Report on

Temperature Measurement by Sonic Means", Journal of
Meteorology, Vol. 6 n 4, August 1949.

205 Edels,- H. and D. Whittaker, "The Determination of Arc

Temperatures from Shock Velocities", Proc. of Royal
Soc. (Series A), February-June 1957, pp. Z'39-40. "

Z06 Taylor, C. F., rrDeveloprment of a Method for Measuring

Gas Temperatures in the Combustion Chamber of an Internal
Combustion Engine", MIT, June 1953 - July 1954, ASTIA AD
41 455.

WADD TR 61-67 515 '-."

VOLI REV1

-. ---- t~-. -. ,. ,- _
 207 C. M. Harris and C. E. Crede, Shock and Vibration
Handbook, In Three Volumes, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. Li
208 Same as Reference 207. LL'

209 Same as Reference 207.

210 Hurd, R. M., R. N. Land and H. B. Reed, "Solion-

principles of Electrochemistry and Low Power Electro- tO
chemical Devices", U. S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory, 1957.

211 "Solion For Industry,", Electronic Products Engineering

Bulletin, National Carbon Co., 1957.

212 Hardway, Jr., E. V., Instruments, 1953.

213 "Electro Kinetic Measurement of Dynamic Pressures",

CEG Recordings, November, December 1956.

214 Bulletins 1600 and 16002, Consolidated Electrodynamics Corp.

215 Fain, W. W., S. L. Brown and A. E. Lockenvitz, Journal

of Acoustical Society of America, 1957.

216 Podalsky, B. G. Kuschevics, and J. L. Revers, Journal . *I

of Applied Physics, 1957.

217 Olson, H. F., Journal of Acoustical Society of America,

1947.
218 RCA Tube Manual., Radio Corporation of America. 'A"
--

219 Ramberg, W., Electrical Engineering, 1947.

220 "Optron, Displacement Follower", Optron Corp.

221 Hunton, R. D., A. Weis and W. Smith, Journal of Optical

Society of America, 1954.

222 Edelman, S., E. Jones and E. R. Smith, Journal of

Acoustical Society of America, 1955. 71

Z23 "Remote Measurement and Control With Vibrating Wire 4"

Instrument", Electronics, June 1945.

WADD TR 61-67 516

VOLI REV1

- -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

"'•• %,:."..' '...... ,...".... ...-. ._..

.. " .." . .." . . - '..'-'-'...... ... ....... .. . ._ . ,.......
.
 224 Allen, W. H., U. S. Pat. 2,725,492; Reviewed in Journal
of Acoustical Society of America, 1956

225 Cohn, G. I., and B. Ebstein, "A Micorwave Non-Contacting

Tracing Technique for Automatic Contour-Following Machines",
Proc. of National Electronics Conf., Vol. 12, 1956.

226 Steward, Chandler, "Proposed Massless Remote Vibration

Pickup", Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 1958

227A Hardy, H. C., H. H. Hall, D. B. Callaway, and D. J.

H
Schorer, Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 1955

227B Martin, T., Scharres, E. H., Sperry, W, and Zimmerman,

F. J., "Thrust Measuring Techniques", WADD Tech. Report
60-488, July 1960, Armour Research Foundation of Illinois
Institute of Technology.

228 Sears, W. R., "Magnetrohydrodynarnic Effects in Aero-

dynamics Flows", ARS Journal, Vol. 29, No. 6, June 1959.

229 Lighthill, M. J., "On Sound Generated Aerodynamically,

IL General Theory", Proceedings of the Royal Society
(London), Sec. A, 211, 1107, March 20, 1954, p. 564.

230 Lighthill, M. J., "On Sound Generated Aerodynamically,

II, Turbulence as a Source of Sound", Proceedings of the!"
R~g•!ScqitZ(London), A222, 1, 1954.

231 Callaghan, E. E., and W. D. Coles, "Far Noise Field of

Air Jets and Jet Engines", NACA Report 1329, 1957. "
Z32 Howes, W. L., E. E. Callaghan, W. D. Coles, and
H. R. Mull, "Near-Noise Field of a Jet Engine Exhaust", .' -.

NACA Report 1338, 1957. "

Z33 Gleason, G. W., "Bio-Instrumentation for Space Flight",

Proceedings of National Telemetering Conference, 1960.

234 Ellis, A. B., "An Airborne Data. Collection, Telemetering,

and Ground Data Processing System for Development
Flight Test of an Orbital Type Space Vehicle," Proceedings
of National Telemetering Conference, 1960

235 Ford, A., Foundations of Bioelectronics for Human Engineer-

ing, NEL Research Report 761, April 1957.
.42

"WADD TR 61-67 517

VOL I REV 1

% , ,",,*.*.. "*..,.. .* - .- <.- .- ..--- .. -

>,,',• ,$ --., -, ,- ,% .- 4,. ... N,, .,, , , -'-" , .... -. ,--.- : "......:.-...--.., , .-, ,, ,.- . ... .. .,. .-. " .
 Z36 A Survey and Evaluation of Methods of Measuring Blood
Pressure for Immediate Space Flight Programs, Final
Report on Contract NASr-51, Webb Associates, June 1961.

237 Edmunds, A. B. Jr., Megel, H., Bark, R. S., "Space

Physiology and Miniaturized Space Medical Instruments",
National Telemetering Conference, 1960

238 Roy, 0. Z., "An Electronic Device for the Measurement

of Sweat Rates," IRE Medical Electronics, Vol. ME-7,
No. 4, October, 1960.

Z39 Marko, A. R., Monitoring Unit for Heart and Respiration

Rate, WADD Technical Report 60-619, August 1960.

240 Tolles, W, E., Carbery, W. J., A System for Monitor-

ing the Electrocardiogram Durino Body Movement, WADD
Technical Report No. 58-453, April 1959.

241 'Medical Instrumentation Today", Readout, Volume 3,

No. 4, Ampex Instrumentation Products Co.

242 Pool, A., "Temperature Sensing Techniques," AGARD

Flight Test Manual, Vol. IV, Part IIA4, pp. Iia4:4 -

ULa4:8.

243 Measurement and Telemetry Systems for Missiles, . -

Army Ballistic Missile Agency, Vitro Engineering Co., "
Report No. 2331-259, pp. 8-17. -

244 Smith, Thomas D. and Spence, Harry R., "Designing a

Lightweight Vibration Transducer." Parts I and 2,
Electronic Industries, January and February, 1961.

245 Same as Reference 243, pp. 23-29.

Z46 System, Thrustmeter, Aircraft Engine, WADC Technical 6A

Report No. 53-302, November 1953.

247 A Flight Thrustmeter fo~r Turbo-Jet En~gines, Schaevitz '2

Engineering, TR-100, November 1961.

WADD TR 61-67 518

VOL I REV 1

... . . . . . .. ..-.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
-. .. - . - . ¾.. .* . - .. . ' . . . - . .
 KZ48 Same as Reference 168, pp. 8-18.

249 Judge, H. R., Performance of Donner Linear Accelerometer -

Model 4310, Space Technology Laboratories, Inc., STL/
TN 60-0000-09117, June 1960. '

250 The Photo Transducev-A General Description , Data

Sensors, Inc. Technical Bulletin.

251 Same as Reference Z43.

252 Wacholder, B. V. and E. Fayer, Study of Instrumentation and

Techniques for Monitoring Vehicle and Equipment Environ-
ments at High Altitudes, Radio Corporation of America, -

WADC TN 59-307, Vol. III, pp. 33-45.

"" 253 Vidal, Robert J., A Resistance Thermometer for Trans-

ient Surface Measurements, Cornell Aeronautical
Laboratory, Inc., presented at the ARS Meeting , September
24-26, 1956, Buffalo, New York.

254 Wrathall, Taft, "Measuring Impact Pressures of Re-entering

Missile Nose Cones, " ISA Journal, Vol. 5, No. 11,
November 1958.

255 A Study of Flight Instrumentation for Vehicles Operatin

in the Fringe of, or Outside of the Earth's Atmosphere,
Vol. IV, "Investigation of Sensing Techniques, " Bell
Aircraft Report No. 6009-001, WADC TN 59-567, Vol.
%IV,Part III.

Z56 NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1962, Part 2.

2257 Ellis, A. B., "An Airborne Data Collection, Telemetering

and Ground Data Processing System for Development
Flight Test of an Orbital Type Space Vehicle." National
relemetering Conference, 1960.

258 "IGY Satellite 1959 Eta," IGY Bulletin, Number 28,

National Academy of Sciences, October 1959, p. 13.

259 "Ionosphere Direct Measurement Satellite," IGY Bulletin,

Number 42, December 1960.

WADD TR 61-67 519 -

VOL I REV 1

%%%. . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . .-
 4_ -"_ ' -.

Z60 From News Item, Electronic Design, September 13,

1961.

261 "Pioneer V Space, ' IGY Bulletin, Number 34, April,

1960.

26Z "Satellite Measurements of Cosmic Dust," IGY Bulletin,

Number 38, August 1960.

263 "IGY Satellite 1959 Eta," IGY Bulletin, Number 28,

National Academy of Sciences, October 1959, p. 13.

264 "Explorer X Magnetic-Field and Plasma-Probe Satellite,"

IGY Bulletin, Number 48, June, 1961.

265 Same as Reference 260.

266 Geophysics Technical Memorandum, No. 8, Varian,

Associates.

267 Same as Reference 120, Chapter 5.

268 "IGY Satellite 1959 Iota," IGY Bulletin, No. 29, National
Academy of Sciences, November 1959, p. 13.. -a

269 King, Olin B., "Signal Processing Explorer VII," IRE

Transactions, Fifth NationalSy osiun, 1960, on Space
Electronics and Telemetry, Sept. 1960, Section 4-2, p. 10.

270 "Solar Radiation Satellite, " IGY Bulletin, No. 4Z, National
Academy of Sciences, December 1960, p. 2.

271 Scientific Experiments for Ranger 1 and 2, Jet Propulsion

Laboratory, Technical Report No. 32-55, January 3, 1961,
pp. 20-22. L Oa

272 Fifth US-IGY Satellite, IGY Bulletin, Number 2Z, April 1959.

273 Mesner, M. H., "Signal Processing In Tiros I Instrumentation

System" IRE Transactions, Fifth National Symposium, 1960
on Space Electroni".s and Telemetry.

WADD TR 6! - 67 520
VOL I REV I

"A. 4' .- .,"". ",..

.".-".-L •".".,t.. .. ".- .-.- ,."-.'..'..'.".' . . , . . . ....... "" ";-"" .
,i-•."'. "" '-
 275 Same as Reference 263, op. cit. p. 12.

276 Same as Reference 268, op. cit. p. 13.

277 Same as Reference 270, op. cit. p. 3.

2?8 "Explorer X M\agnetic-Field and Plasma-Probe Satellite,"

ICY Bulletin, No. 48, June 1961.

279 Same as Reference 271, op cit. pp. 8-11.

"280 Same as Reference 261.

281 Same as Reference 28Z. 1

282 ]iHibbs, A. R., Eimer, M., Neagebauer, M., "Early
0- { an~ger Experiments", Astronautics, September 1961.

283 Coleman, P. J. Jr., '!Signal Processing For Space Fs :

Vehicle Experiments", Fifth National Symposium on
Space Electronics and Telemetry, 1960.

284 King, 0. B,, "Signal Processing in Explorer V11", Fifth.

National Symposium on Space Electronics and 'T'elemetry,

285 Ferber, D)., 'Project Mercury World-Wide Telemetry

and Display System", Proceedings of National TelemeixL
Conference, 1960.

286 Pearistein, Joseph, Bliografw-o of NBS Reports on 7

r.- Performance 'f Teiemetry Transducers and Calibration
. Methods, Diamond Ordnance Fuze Laboratorie 7 9
R-T ,"--7.
-- •-•'U'• i Octb-er 19 6 0

287 Bronson, R. D., "General Comments on Lalb-oratory

Calibration of Transducers," Enginecering Flight Test,
Conivair, A. Division of General Dynamics Corp., Fort Worth,
Texas, January 13, 19612 (special contribution)

WADI _"R 61-67 _21

VOL 1 REVr 3

[,," ,-- ~~~~~~~~..............

.....-.... ,...-.-.............. ........... , .... ..... ...
. .... -...... .
•,.•'- - - - -.- - - - - -,- - - - - --- -,'- ----
"-- - ".-,-.-
--.- - --.-
; . ', .. - ,- -" --..- ". '- - -
.,"." - - . ". " - . ,-. .- . - n
 Z88 Lederer, Paul S.,
General Characteristics of Strain Gage
"Accelerometers Used in Telemetry., Nation Bureau of
Standards Report No. 6907. July 21, 1960, --. 18-30

"289 "Calibr;tion and Test of Accelerometers", Instrument L-fl*

Note No.6, Statham Laboratories, December, 1948.

""> 290 "Basic Method for Accelerometer Calibration", Instrument

Note No. 17, Statham Laboratories, September-October
1950.

Z91 "Calibration and Test of Accelerometers", op. cit.

292 Lederer, Paul S., A Torsional Vibration Calibrator,

National Bureau of Standards Report No. 4434,
October 1955, pp. 1-7.

Z93 Optron Corporation Applications and Specifications Data

Sheet for Model. 701.

294 From Chadwick-IHelmuth Co., Technical Bulleitn No. 9.

295 Unholtz, Karl, The Calibration of Vibration of Vibration

"1" Pickups to 2000 cps. Manufacturers Technical Bulletin from
MB Electronics, A Division oi Textron Electronics, ic.

296 Chadwick-IHelmuth Company Sales Memo.

297 Bulletins I and 12, Journal of Environmental Sciences

June 1959, page 9. "Accelerometer Calibration" April
1960, page 22, "Back to Back Calibration of Accelerometers". L

298 A New Vibration Measuring System , Manufacturer's

Data Sheet, Chadwick Helmuth Company.

299 1-lolmfeid, J. D., A Method For Calibration of a Dynamic

Pressure Pickup , Technical Memorandum, ML-M61, .
Chrysler Corp., Missile Div., July 1958

300 An introduction to Automated Pressure Generation and

Transducer Calibration , Gilmore Industries Data Sheet,
3113/62. 0

WADD TP 61-67 52Z

VOLTI REV. I

% -. -. -' -- .•

%* ./..y{ % . %" •°*.. • - ." :--c.Q~-.-..

% . .. N-.-.K-----.<.. . ;:- : : .- - . . . ...-..
 -04

301 Lederer, P. S., Smith, R. 0., Performance Tests On

Two Piezoelectric Quartz Crystal Pressure Transducer
and Calibrator, NBS Report 4973, February 1957.

302 Glass, I. I., Martin, W. and Patterson, C. N., A

Theoretical and Experimental Study of the Shock Tube
Uni. of Toronto, UTIA Report #2, 1953

303 Ernrich, R. J. and Peterson, R. L., Pressure Varia- " "

tion with Time in the Shock Tube, Lehigh Uni. Tech.
Report #7, 1956.

304 Wolfe, A. E. Shock Tube for Gage Performance StLudies

Report No. 20-87, JPL Cit., 1955

305 Varwig, R. L., An Optical Shock Velo city_ Masurin.

System forth 3 Shock Tube , NAVORD Report #3901, 1955.

306 Smith, R.A 0. and P. S. Lederer, The Shock Tube as a

Facilit for Dynamic Testing of Pressure Pickups
National Bureau of Standards Report No. 4910, March 1957. .. L

307 Description and Specifications of Model 344 series M and -.

S Tension- Compressicn Load Cell , Allegany Instrument -_
Company, Inc., Curnberlaand, Maryland

308 Carleton, R. J. Jr., "Precision High Capacity Force

Standards" ISA Conference Sept. 1960, ISA Preprixxt No.
36-NY60.

309 National Bureau of Standards Circular C446 (1943).

310 Air Force Technical Order No. 33-1-14 dated Z2 August <:.?2
1959, in A&ppendix IV, Section 4A-2, Item 61.
, I-~..•.•

31.1 Stanxdard Lubora.otr is truction Manual put out by the

Navy Standards Lab. at Pomona and listed in Appendix A,
dated 19 July 1959, as Item 29.

31Z Technical Bulletin, Norden, Division of United Aircraft - .

Corp., Milfor'd, Conn.

WADD TR 61-67 523

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S.. - ... -• . . . . .

- - .-- '..-, - . .-- ~ . a -

 313 Heimburg, L., "Saturn Developmental Testing",
Astronaut- "ebruaiw 196"2

314 '"Test Engineering -- State-of-the-Art", Space/ L.*

Aeronautics R & D Technical Handbook, 1961-1962.

IV-1I Same as Reference 179

IV-Z Ritvow, Ira "Automatic Control System Design--3,

Frequency Response and Transfer Functions,
Electrical Manufacturing, June 1959, p. 129.

IV-3 Same as Reference 180

IV-4 "Bridge Techniques in Temperature Measurement,"

Astra Technical Instrument Corp., Sub., of Arnoux
Corporation, Application Bulletin No. 2

IV-5 Same as Reference 227B

IV-6 "A Flight Thrustmeter for Turbo-Jet Engine,

Schaevitz Engineering Technical Pulletin TR-100,
November 27, 1961.

IV-? Same as Reference 236

WADD TR 61. 67 5124 -.-. . .

VOLI REVI

.'k,.
- -*. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 SECTION VII

BIBLIOGRAPHY

*:.N

This Bibliography primarily consists of references pertaining

to measurands, specific types of transducers, testing results and
calibration techniques. Related handbooks, manuals and comnpilations. ---
are included to assist the readez' in transducer state-of-the-art
surveys and investigations.

References are arranged alphabetically according to the

*surnameof the nrincipal author. Whenever an author's name was
not available, the reference title has been used. The references ace

2
numbered consecutively in Arabik nurnt;r-tifr, begiulg withl ,umiber
one for the first entry, in parallel with the alphabetical order.
An index is provided at the end of tI e bibliography. Arabic
numberals beside each term ir. the index indicate the serial number
assigned to the references listed in the Bibliography.

"-",O n

VO I E

WADD TR £1!.4 7 52Z5 1.

VTOL I REV i....,.

*% 1"
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

I Abate, John, Astro Digital Doppler Specdon:-reI, Vol 2, No F, June-July 1959.

2 Abbott, et al, Armour R esearch Foundation, Chicago, 111. "A Stud" of

Force and Displacement Measuring Techniques. Part II, Force Measure- t
nient Techniques. ', WADD TR 61-180 Contract AY 33(616)6505. AD 260-
147 Final Technical Report, 15 May 1959 - 15 November 1960 on Propolsion
System Monitoring.

3 Accelerometers. Graseby Instruments Ltd_, Dingston By-Pass Road,

Tolworty, Surrey.V

4 Ackley, R. A. , "Instrumentation for Large-Scale Captive Missile Tests"

Part I Astronautics, May 1958 and Part II, October 1958.

5 Ackroyd, J. "Orbiting Spectrophotorneter Plots Solar X--Rays.

Electronics, Volume 34, Number 43, October 27, 1961.

6 Adams, I. M. Biomedice~l Instrumentation in the "Discoverer" Satellite,

(Part II). School of Aviat.;on Medicine, Air University Comrimarnd, United
States Air Force, Brooks Air Force Base, Texas.

7 Adey, A. U. Review of Thermistor Tiermometry. Defense Research

Telecommunications Establishment (Canada) Report Number PPI, 22-1-2
(ASTIA Document Number AD 153609) (1957).

8 Aerodynamic Measurements. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Gas

Turbine Lab. , Cambridge Massachusetts Report Number TL 573M3 (1953).

"9 "Aircraft Crash Accelerometer. ' Engineer (London), Volume 200, Number
305 (1955).

10 Albus, J. S. .A.DitalSol.rAspect Sensor. NASA, Washinnton, D.UC.., -

TN D-1062, September 1961.

11 Allan, Wallace H. Dual Range String.Accelerometex . United States

Patent ?, 725, .192 (1955),

12 Altieri, Joseph 1x. Resolution Tester. Action labs-; lncerporatld, United K

States Patent 2,799, 918 (1957).

13 'American Standard Matbod for 5S,ecifying the Characteristics of Pickups r--

for Shock ano Vibration Measuremernt. " Acoustical Soc. Am. ASAZZ4. '1
(1957). .'-

14 "Analog- Digitai Convertersc, I- rt I. '" Elect,'nmecilrnical Design Components

and Systems, Volume 3, Number 6 (959) Pe'ges 65-76.

15 "Antalcg-1)ipitai Gcunveriers, Pa~rt IL." 2p~ticsil ShaftEncoderts, Vol tsge

Ei;ncoder, Volume 3, Number 7 (!959) Pages 47-,O.

16 "Analog.- Digit_! Converters, Part Il" ' lectroumechanical Desijp- ,

CumQpfldnit-: and Systemsi, Volume 3, N'.-iber 8 (1959) Pages 27-33.

17 Anderson, A. R. and Stickney, I.. M. "Ceramic Resistance TherIjoroeters

as Temperaore Sensors above 22000o1. " l..struuet. and Cent"ru1 sjters. -,.
Volume 34, October 1961..7.

18 Anderson. 11. and NIhcr, 1i. V. Objet tives atd Pi-'relirntmary Design.of
andInat.gcating_.Ionization Chamirer for aCosmiic Ray Laxerinctt. Jct
PropaI.hion -,Laboratory '19)59). ._

WADI) rit 61-67 526

VOL 1 REV I
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

19 Andrew, Viterhi, Classification and Evaluation of Coherent SYnchronous -

Sampled-Data Telemetry Systems. JPL TR Number 32-123, June 15, 1961.

20 Apel, W. C. Instrumentation Requirements for the Engineering Evalu1ation

of Nuclear-Electric Spacecraft. Jpl,, Inst. of Technology, Pasadena, Calif.
TR 3Z-160, October, 1961.

21 Arck, M. H. "Simulator Proves Operation of Horizon Sensors" Automnatic

Control Volarne 15, Number 3, September, 1961.

22 Ard, W, B. Jr. University of Florida, "Electron Temperature Mcasure- -.. "

ments above 100, C00' K Using Radiation at the Electron Cyclotron Frequency, "
Symýposium on Tempeerature, Its Measurements and Control in Science and - .
Industry, March 27-31, 1961, p. 114, no. C. 8.5.

23 Arndt, John P. An Electrornechanical Transducer With Unusually Low

Reaction Force. Brush Instruments, Division of Clevite Corporation.

24 Aronson, M. R. and Nelson, R. C. Strain Gage Instrumentation.

Pittsburgh 1., Pennsylvania: Instruments Publishing Company, Incorporated -
(1958).

25 Ascinno, D, J., and Schneider, J. F. Engelhard Industries, "Platine]-

ANoble Metal Thermocouple," Symposium onTemperature,_Its Measure-
rnent and Cortrol in S3cience and Industry, March 27-31, 1961, p. 10, no. B. 1.8.

26 Astheimner, I. W. Barnes Engineering Company "Temperature Measure-

men.t by Infrared Thermal Images, " oy_.•inmun
Ternperatare, Its
Measuremen,: anrd Control in Science and industry, March 27-31, 1961, -"-
p. 100, P. 5.1.

27 Astheimer, Rt. W. and Wor..ser, B. M. "High Speed Infrared Radiometers, " .-

Journal of Opt. Society of America, Volume 49 n 2, February 1959, pp 179-87.

28 Atkins, P. A. and Setterington. R. A. "Thermistors -. A Survey of Their

Ap.,lication in Teuipcraturc Measurement and Control." instrument Practice,
1042-1047, Cctober 1959.

29 Atkinson, John H. auld Perez-Menider V. "Gas Cerenkov Counters. '~ ~

Rleview of Scientific /lstrom' nts, Volume 30, Nut, ter 10 (1959) Page 864. J -

320 t cPr-:eijc- StaAdoi dG, HIS VJlonic 45, Nunlucbr 1, January i 961.

31 Attree, V. i1. "A Linear Capaci2ance-Change Circuit." Ele ttronic

Eng'neer, Volume 308 (1955). L :...

32 Baba, A. J. Performance Tests on Da*shpot-Dai_.nped Potentiometer Type_''

Accelcrometers. National Bureau of Standards Report Number 6633 (1960).

33 Baba, A. J. lerfuriran.c Tests on Four 'otentiunieter typle Acceleronic ers.

National 1ureau of Standards Report Nolnbcr 6300 (1959).'

34 Bata, A. J. and Rice Jr. C. F. Performance tests. on uo Vari, 17"c

aIxiyctaice pevl .Pressuir Gages. N-uloai Bureau of Standards R1eport - -.-
SNumber 57J5 (195"i).

35 Blader, M. , Fryer, T. F., Witteborn, Y. C. Two I•nslrliii•t•, for % -

heasuring Distriibution of Lo',-EIC-ru!,gy Charged Palrtilcs in Space.
NASA, Washi'IgtUon, D. G., TN D-1035, JulIy 1961, - I

V'ADD TlR 61-67 527

VOL I REV
 DBIILIOGRAP1IY2

36 Baker, A. W. "Telemetering Syste is for Operational Missile Evaloation"

Proceedings of National Teleemetering Conference, May Z3-Z4-Z5, 1960, -

Santa Monica, California._ -

37 Baker, IL. D. , Ryder, E•. A. anid Baker, N. H-. Temiperatore Measutre

ment in Engineering. Volume 1 (1953).

i8 Baker, H. D. , Ryder, E. A. , and Baker, N. H. 'Terriperature Measure-

ment in Engineering, Volume II.

39 Ballard, James W. Systems Research Laboratories, "A Ceramic Diode

Pressure Transducer for use at High Temperature, " Electronic Technology
in the Acre-Space Age, May 8-10, 1961.

40 Bambara, J. E. Servo Corporation of America, "Micropyrometry,

Symposium on Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science
and Industry, March Z7-31, 1961, p. 78, no. B. 1-. 10,

j
41 Banden, W. R., Hlane], J. Licht, Stampfl, R. A. Stroud, W. C. "Infrared
and Reflected Solar Radiation Measurements iron: Titos II Meteorological
Satellite. " Journal of Geophysical Research, Volume 66, Number 10,
October 1961.""i'..

42 Barber, E. , Comnpiler "Radiometry and Photometry of the Moon and Planets. '
JPL, Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, Al/LS345, September 1961.

43 Barbiere, Robert E. and Hall W. Electronic Designer's Shock and Vibration

Guide for Airborne Applications. Wright Air Develupient Center Report
Number TR 58-363 (1958).

44 Barnes, George. "New Type of Cold Cathode Vacuum Gauge for the
Measurement of Pressures Below 10-3 mm hg. " The Review of Scientific
Instrunnents, Volume 31, Number 6 (1960), Pages 608-611. -

45 Barnaby, Roland L. and Morrow, C. T. 'Turn Rate Measuring Instrunuxnt"

United States Patent Z, 753, 173, Sperry Rand Corporation (1956).

46 Barr, G. M. and Morrisor), S. C. Measurements of the Vibration Eniviron-

nient in a Supers')nic Liquid-Propellant Rocket Sled. ARS Preprint Report
Number 416-57.

4 Barr, N, L,. Capt., USN, "'lhe Transnission, of Physiological ReSpunses. -

from. Air to Ground by Electro:.ic Methods, '' Naval Medical lRes. Inst. , Nat]
Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, Md. IRE Transactions o'' Medical Elcttronics
Volun.be MI;-7, January 14, 1959,

48 Bar3 ett, E. W. and Suorni, V. L. "l'reli inirary RIeport ,i, Temnpcrature . ,

Measurerrent by Sonic Means, " Journal of Meteorology, Volume 6 11 4, .'o,': -

August 1949.

49 Barry, F. W. Determination of Match NLUinUbce.r froui Pressure Mcasurc

L cts, . "III
June 19-Z3, ASME Diamond Jubilee Semti-Annual Meeting, Boston, 1955, '.2 *.
Paper 55-SA-28. Zlpp.

50 Bartley, A. J. "The Use of Polarized Light for the Iveasuulcnrenit of Small

Angular Displacements," Journal of Science instruction, Volume 33
(1956) Pages 20-22.

528
WADD T. 61-67
VOL I REV 1

S .......... *. , .. . .. ......... ._.......... ,.... . ...... ,

 '. r•.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

51 Becker, J. A., Green, C. B. & Pearson, B. L. "Properties Used

Thermistors-Thernmally Sensitive Resistors, ' Bell Telephone System
Monograph B-1443; Trans. AIEE Volume 65 pp. 711-725, November,
1946; B.S. T. J,,Volume 26, pp. 170-Z12, January 1947.

52 Beckman, Paul and Yanowitz, H. "Strain Gages for Higher Temperature

Measurements." Space Aeronautics, Volume 32, Number 21 (1959) Page
65-

53 Behar, M. F. -"Speed Measurement and Control. " Handbook of Measure-

ment and Control, Chapter VIII, Second Edition (1954) Pag: 126.

54 Beltran, A. A. compiler, "High Temperature Strain antl Temperature

Sensing Devices. ' Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, Sunnyvale, California. -
4
A Preliminary Literature Survey. Special Bibliography no. SB-60-3, 9p.
AD 240 655, 9 May 1960.

55 Bonnet, G. E. , Richards, G. It. and Voss E. C. Electronics Applied to .

the Measurement of Physical Quantities. Report Institute, IR. A. E.
Farnborough (1947).

56 Benseman, R. F. and Hart tH. R. "A Thermocouple Anemometer,

J.is.., Volume 32 (1955) Pages 145-147,

57 Benson, R3. S. University of Liverpool, Brundett, G. W. British Central

Electricity Generating Board, "Development of a RLesistance Wire
Tierloli[lete t I £W
v e UI lu g Itaitlieilt TIuuiip•eiai C Ill xn ui-L-LSysteits - -

of Internal Combustion Engines, " Sy5mposiumn on Temperature, Its

Measurement and Control in Sciente and Industry, March 27-31, 1961,
p. 96, no. C. 1. 4,

58 Berman, II. L.. "The Infrared Radiometric Method and its Application to
Remote T emperature Measurement. IRtE Industrial Electr'onics, Volume
1F-S, Number Z, August 1961.

59 A Bibliographical Survey on Instrument T-harts, Number 1: Flexure Devices

Pivots, Movements, Suspensions. Number 2: Knife Edge Bearings. Others
to folltw. British Scientific Instrument Research Association.

60 Bii ,kun. it. G.. and D.u,,,,, F. I... "Shurt-Distn.-c lR dio "I'1 -,,1. tc in. f-
Physiological Inofrmation' IRE Tra,,saclions of Professional Group on
Telemetry and Remote Control, June 1959.

61 Bierlein, J. A., Scheiler, K. "''Methods of Measuring Thrust, " Journal

A of the American Socie-ty, Volumec 23, Numnber 3, May-June 1953.

62 Bingham, C. R. "Tenpe rature Transducers. ' El•ctronies, Voluue 32,

Number 28 (1959)

63 Bishop, IR. P. "The AN/ART- 14 Telemetry System AlI'T-14 Airborne

'Ielemet ry Pajlt 11 I"I KE,Trmiansas tious of Profess ional Goutup on Telemueti ry
and Remote Control, March 1956.

64 Blair, B. E. amid Duvall W. I. Evaluation of Gages fur Measuring D.s -

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WADD TR 61-67 529

VOL I lI{. I

"''•
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.%%, .'•.'-,'-,'?
",,'-.-.
. -'
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. -........
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 BIB LIOGRAPH Y .

65 Blanchard, R L., Sberburne, A. E., Scott, R. E. (Trauis-soilics, Inc.)

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66 Blau, H. H. , Jr. and Martin, W. S. - Arthur D. Little, Incorporated

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67 Blaurelt, Mr. Maseland D. , Eclipse Pioneer Division, The Bendix

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78 Botsch, F. W. - Quartermaster rtesearrh and Engineering Cenler, "Current 6 1

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WADD TR 61-67 530 .

VOL 1 REV 1 -

"........ .. '..--'...%..v -.... v,.,-.. ..

 -Za
BIBLIOGRAPHY

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WADD FR 61-67 531

VOL I REV 1

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.* -. • A % .' -° *' -" '. '. ".-.-. - .. ' .' -- 'k7 .'.- . -'_ ., .7" -. ''" ".- - "'- --

95 13rowhidg, W. E. Jr., e:nd IIcInphill, II. I. OakRidge National Lahoratory.

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108 Carleton, R<. J. J-. Precision [Iigh Capacity Force Standards.

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 BIBLIOGRAPIIY

111 Cartotto, "Instrumentation for Rocket Testing, IuistruIienls, Journal

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116 Cerni, Richard H. "Dynamic Recording for Engine Test. " Instruments
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123 Clouston, 3. G. et al. "A Bolomneter Detector for the Measurement of 6

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124 Cochin, Ira Auto Correlation of Random Gyro Drift, Volume 1, Number
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125 Cochin, Ira Elementary Dynamics of the Floated Rate Integrating Gyro,
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--.. - . "iu'. V. . . ' . .. . . . ¢_•"-•
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. . "". ". " .-- ". ""'. ." % '. ... ,°.

BIDLIOGRA1'!-Y -

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128 Cohn, Gunther A Literature Survey of Accelerometers and Integratoirs

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129 Cole, Robert IH. Underwater Explosions. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
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130 Coleman, Jr. , Paul J. "Signal Processing for Space Vehicle Experiments''
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131 Conklin, R. M. and Morgan, H. M. "Motion Transducers. " Prod.

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132 Considine, D. M. Progress Insrtruments and Controls Handbook. McGraw-

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133 Control Components Di-ectory'. Automobile Control (1956) Pages 45-46.

134 Cook, R. IK. "Absolute Pressure Calibration of Microphones,' Journal

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135 Cooke, J. R-. The Use of Quartz in the Manufacture of Small Diameter Pitot
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136 Cooper, T. , and Richardson, A. W. "Electro-Magnetic Flow Meters.
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137 Corey, V. B. "Servo Accilerometer Uses r-f Oscillator. Electronics,

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138 Corruccini, R. J. "Interpolation Platinum Resistance Thcrmometers, 20'

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139 Corson, Dale R. and Wilson, K. R ''Particle and Quantum Gounters.

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140 Cox, J. A. "Telemnetering System for the X-17 Missile" IRE Proceedin•gs
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142 Greer, B. Y. , Smedal, 11. A. and Wirngrove, R. C. Centrifuge Study of

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144 Crump, j. N. "High Accuracy hmdicatirmg and liecording Syste, Dcisig,,.

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. ... . . .. . .. _
 BIB LIOGRA1'HY

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146 Crusan, C. G. Magnetron Type Seisoniometer. United States. Latent

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147 Curtius, E. W. "A New Recording Instrument for Vehicle or Aircraft

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148 Danisheouskii, S. E. "The Immersion of Thernoieouples. Industrial

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24 149 Daunt, J. G. and Edwards, D. 0. - Ohio State University, "Measurenment

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150 Dauphinee, T. M. - National Research Council, "Potentinietric Methods

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151 Dauphinee, T. M., D. K. C. MacDonald, and Pearson, W. B. "The Use, ot

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"152 David, IH. M. "Bios I First Primarily Biological Shot. " Missiles and
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" 153 Davidson, Gareth M. and Pavalow M. "Potentiometer Tachometer has

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* "," 154 Davies, L. W. "Semiconductor Junctions as Positional Indicators of

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156 Davis, R C., Siddons, G. Y.' and RgIt Cý L "An ^ . ."

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157 Deacon, E. 1. and Samuel, D. R. "(Commonwealth Science and Ind.

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158 Deem, I1. W. 'Stretching the Scale of Temperature Measurement.

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"159 de Fries, P. 1. Horizon Sensor Perforniance in Measuring Altitude

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"160 de Graffenried "The Elvis Module - A Hligh Reliability Analog and

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::........ ................. .- .-- "-.. .. ". '- "- '•' .-
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 C.
•- 1

161 Deichebill r, A. C. "Why Complex Wave Testing?"''MB Vibration Note-

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163 Delco, R. D. and Werner, F. D. "'Measur, mert of Mean Temperalurecn

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164 Demichlo, D. J. Angular Vibration Displacenient Indicator. Gene ral

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165 Demichelc, 1. J. Angular Vibration Displacement Indicator. Proceedings

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166 Dcesslei,A. J. et al. " A New Instrument for Measuring A tny0ospheric--

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167 "Details of Ranger Instrumentation. " Missiles and Rockets, Volume 9,

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169 Dotblarn, August J. C. "Application of Telenmctry to Flight Testing at

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169 Devauy, P. et al "On the Accuracy of the Frequency of light Flashes

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170 "Developments in Weighing" Instruments and Control Systems, Volume 33

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171 Development of Miniature Precision Angular Position Transducer. West

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Q 172 de V. Enslin, N. C. "A. Method of Using Microwaves for Measuring Small

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174 Dickerman, Philip

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1960 University of

Chicago Press, 1961.

15 Dickey, F. 1., Jr. Electronic Equipment and Systems Laboratory, General

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176 Diital Coder-Decorder Device. General Jlectric Company Report Number

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g3F

WADD T, 61-67 536 "...--

VOL, REV I

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.,--....*,.... %%%%,
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 B IDLIOGIKAPIIIY

178 Dike. P. 11. ''IIci ce:leitric Thcrinioiitwlr, ''Lceds and Northrup

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179 DLioni, C. 'Equiiimeint for NIClaSUICiinie-it LfAi'pds lci NLoII1'iibe atd -

Tei I lerati res

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180 Djoruh, Ilobt rt S. "A Digititl Data Cathcritn' aol Telctiiclcritiig Syýteni''
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181 ~Djo ruh,Rlobe rt S "'Conment

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coleit
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lCIent

182 Dobosy, J . F. andI Proudfit: Wi. L,. 'Bl~ood lacenSLoI-e MonIitor-ing Sv Sttein1,
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183 Dolit, S. A. and Jackson, L_ A. Devclopinci,'t of an Experin~ceital Gas

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184 Donialdsonl P. E, h. et al . Elect conic Apparatus for Dlialog:_cal Recsearch

New York: Acadentic Press InCorporated, Publisliecs (1958). -

185 Douglass, Clayton. Test 1ýesults, Kollsmnar and Nordeii Truet Air Speed4
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186 Douglas, D. G "'Vioration, Shock, andc Acoustic Noise Associated with Space
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187 Dowd, G. F. and Crovier, M. " A Simnple Capaoity Transducer for

Measuring Blood Pressure in a Small Exp-ormnieital Ait1nial, " Canadian
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188 Dranetz, A. I and Uphanm, J. L, A Phase Moiculated Transistorized Pressure

or Acceleration Teleirieteriiig Channel in 1955 National Telernetering Conference.
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189 Dr .netz, A. 1. et al. Accelerometers for EquipnientEnviroinmental Checks.4

Gultoii Manufacturing Corporation. Metuchen, New Jersey Finual lieport n
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190 Draper, Charles Stark, McKay, W, and Lees, S. Instrument Engineering

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191 Draper, Charles S. et al. The h~o~gIntegrating Gyru andc its Application
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192 Draper, C. S. ''Instrumnentation As~pects of homllGuidance, '' SA

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m
193 Drake, F. D. and Even, 1-1. 1. "'A Bc;--ad-lbvnr Microwave Source Conmparison
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2........................................
......................
 BIBLIOGRAPIHIY

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199 Edelmann, S. et al. "Some 1iee,'opnients in Vibration Measurement,

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203 Electromagnetic and Potentiometer Transducers. Volume 3, Number Z,

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205 "Electromagnetic and Potentiometer Transducers, Part 3. " Electromechanical "'

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212 Elliott, K. W. T. and Wilson, D. C. "An Optical Probe for Accurately

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217 EvaluatUcn of a Fcrce Balance Pressure Transducer, North American

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218 "Explorer X'II Sends Mass of Data. " Aviation Week and Space Tech.,
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220 Feder, E. ano Gillen, A. M. "Iligh Frequency, High G. Calibration. IRE:

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222 Final Engineering Report. Ahrendt Instrument Company, Report Nuniber 30

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ZZ3 Final Report on Space Physics Instrumnentation. Space Tech. Labs, Inc.
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224 Fingerson, L. - University of Minnesota "Heat Flux Probe for Measure-

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Z25 "'First Details of Ranger Ill's lunar Instruments. Missiles and Rockets,
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226 Fisher, James H. Investigation of an Electromagnetic Method for ilseasuring

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228 Flanick, A. P. and Ainsworth, J. A Thermistor Pressure Gaug, NASA Ill D)-50-1. I"•"•@

WADD TR 61 -67 539

VOL I REVLI

.... .....v '...'....-.

 Dit tIo hLO
,A 1>11i
Y

2Z9 Fleniuinz, 11. A New Diital Shalt Encoder or A irbitne or Ground Digital
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230 "Flormulating Arer-Spac'e Transducer Standarcs. " Nortotn. l1,irr\ N.

General Dynani vsl/Ast ronaut ics, ISA tourieal, Scptemnbcri 190b1, Paig4L- -- - ,1

231 Foryt, T. A. Pe rorinante T'ests on an Unbonded Strain _Gage, lt•'seL•5't '.-.

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t
234 Foryt, T. A. and Smith, R. C. Perfornaance Tests on Variab e lIeluctanrI k,
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237 Fraicer, John J., Measuring Aircraft Engine Speed. G. E. Revision (1957)".-
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238 Franks, E - Morgan Crucible Company ''Iligh-Tenperature Therineocouple

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239 Frederick, C. L., Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Devclop1 ,nent, "-
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240 Fricke, Clifford L. A thermocouple Subcarrier Oscillator for Teletinering-

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241 Frost, Walter 0. "Space Telentetry - Launch Vehicle T'ilemetry: A Citn.-

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244 Fundamentals of Instrutne ntation for the Industries, I nneapalis-l y ' - -

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245 Furber, David "'Project Mercury WVrldr-Wide Telemetry and Display Systen'"-
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Santa Monica, California.

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..-.-
- - .. - '. - . - - - '. - ',.'-.. . . - -
 B 1BIIOGRA PHj1Y

246 Gardeur, G. J. and Newman, E. E. investigation of a Weldable y't,•o,

F-i gli-TeIeIIpL'ratue Strain Gag foiManjnin fS ain by Electrieal 9
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247 Garland, G. D. ''Gravity and Isostasy. '' llandbuch der Physik (iencyclopecdia
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248 Gaugier, .1, "Design Concept for the Atlas Operational Telemetry Ss tems"''
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249 Geddes, Leslie A. Indirect Blood Presbure l(cording. B1iylor University N

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250 Geddes, L,. A.H off, II. J. F., and Spencer, W. A. "Short Distance
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25i Geronime, R obert IL. and tluppe rt, L. D. The Meastireiient of Supersonic
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252 Gideo P. Serbu Results from a Rocket-Borne 1.angimir Probe Experiment "-
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253 Giedt, R. K. x ibration Measurements and Their Meaning, ARS Preprint

619-58.

254 Giedt, W. 11, "Temperature Measurenment in 5olids, Product Engineering,

Volume 29, Number 29 (1958). , .

255 Gillis, RI. A. and Rice Jr. , C. F." -'ciormancc Tests oii Two Potentiometer
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256 Gill is, R. A, Tests on Two Angular Position Inidicators Fimpl2ii Evaporated
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258 Gleasoni W. George, The Martin Companiy, Denver, Colorado. Bi~o-

instrumnitationi or Space Flight, ' Proc(edinigs of Notional Telenmetc ring
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259 Glossary of Telemetry Transducers Terms, PlreparCd b)y the TClectUetry'

Working Group (IR(G), approved, November 1960.

260 Glossary of Terms Relating to the Performance of Measuring hnstrtoieitt.

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261 Glowe, Geo. , Johnson, Robert, Krause, lloyd, A Cooled-Tub t-'yromet,-r

with Experimental PRsults Obtained in a Ilig h-Temp'rature Gas St sealii. .- 'a
August 1961.

WADD TR 61-67 541

"- VOL I REV I

-•'• .'''
,~~~~- .- '.'.'." "- . - ' a '- *° *' - * *'' "% " a '• - .'... °- . o.. . . = ..-.- °. ,. . . - -.. " ." ,

,, . . . .'...... '
 -7 --

BIlItLIOGRAIPHA Y ,lV

262 Goettelnan, 11. C "Mcasurenment of Satellite Elrosion Hatcs by the ltack-

scattering of Bet... nays. " Jet Propuls ion, Volunic 23, Nuiinbevr 11 (1958),

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Z64 Goncharuki, I. A. "Electronic Indicato rs of Mechanical Quantities.

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Z65 Geodenough, Frank It. "An Analysis of Multi-Phase R" Modulation for
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266 Gottling. J. C. Theory of Fast Response Thin Filmn Thermial Transbducer.

MIT Servo Mechanical Laboratory Report Numhcer AD 112(0 k1958).

267 Gracey, William Survey of Altitude-Measuring Methods for the Vertical

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"268 Graf, Anton (Munich, Germany) "New Instrument Measured Gravity at

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Pages 24-15.

269 Gravity Measuring Device. Quarterly Letter Report, ARMA Division,

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Z70 Green, Maj. Cloid Biological Monitoring of Space Flight. Aerospace

Medical Center.

271 Greenland, K. M. "The Language of Instrument Calibration and Performatce, "

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2-72 Greider, Herbert R., and Barton, John R. "Criteria for Design of Mercury
Environmental Control System, Method of Operation and Results of Manned
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Miami, Beach, Florida, May 1960. IRE Transactions on Medical Electronics
% Volume ME-7, January 14, 1959.

273 Grey, J. and Liu, F. F. "Methods of Flow Measurement, " Journzol of the
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274 Griffiths, E. Methods of Measuring Temperature iappincolt Company

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275 Grinell, S. W. Electrical Systems for Air-Temnperature Measurements in

Meteorological Studies. Quarterly rept. Number 111-16 Aerosol Laboratory
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276 Grossman, Jack J. Parson, "Time Division Pulse Width Modulation a Iligh
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277 Gultwein, G. K. and Dranetz, A. I. "Self Generating Accelerometers.

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278 Gyrotron IA Vibratory Rate Gyro Developmnent Program. Sperry Gyros.ope

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WADD TR 61-67 542

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a%
••••••••••••••••••••••••••
 279 Ilaclkfurth, hecnry L. lInfrared Idliadiv'iim al
MlaCiiv illi Book Cijay
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280 Ilatkinan, lDaniel ''Conparison 'if thut PV Iot.:11 o'C ol l'AMI-VI! and( 181-
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281 1 lage, J. .1. - Quarte rindsttr 1R'sea itt arid Engiwnna ririp, -Ater 'IIlie
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282 Hall, L.. A. 1 inta regge r, 11, 1. ''Magnetic l'lotornollipliu r -wit LIa rge
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Z83 Hall, S. A. Biorr'edrcal Instrumnirtation in the ''Discoverecr SatlliteC,''I

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284 1Iallekaerier, K. E. "V isens ity Moasu rernerit'' Ir~istrorient & Conrol
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February 1962.

285 H-alperin, Carl arid Moffat, RK.. - 'IBibliog raphy of Tampa rature Ni ads ire-'-
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286 Handbook of Linear 'lranrsdrccirs . Automlatic Timilug and Gout mis,

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287 Hanal, 1R. A. A Low IResolutioni Unehionuer-? )Iadiorirtea for Sat ellites.
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288 H~anel, 1R. A. , The Dielectric Bolorijeter, A New Type of ThIre rral Radiationi
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289 IL:,'r~iah, 1<. 1L. and Kiriari, A. M . ''Measuring Strain to I 000oY.

Instroiiiarit s aiid Goutrcc! Systeni' , VOilunreC 13, Number 7 (1960)
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290 Ilaust, P. L.. - Aven, "Surface Termperatuire Measu rurincits on Ablal orgL
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291 llarmirimar 1'. J.- S0!!1e Coidrlin LU.L Elo j. Of rNU~- kactiationi
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(1959).

292 igririciples3 of
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293 Ilatakiayaiioa. I ''Elec-tro Capacitogmapily, A Method for Recordiiig lrigS

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294 Havens, 1B. Null, 1?. arid] Lagow, I1, ''A Ni c Vacuumi Gatge.' I C F
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RokIs
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WADD 71K 61-67 54 1

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%A

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% %'%%%
 BIB lIOGl(A1 I'lI".NL£

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WADD TR 61-67 5
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 313 Hih L . t hi.NAA. ~ttiL Do%,iit Caltit'ttna liep''r (ASI1IA
Docunient. AlL 158 960u).

314 11111, Jacques. A. Vi. etI al.Ntc-\utirNctuuetsi'lilSict .

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316 Hlilliard. John FK. and Viola, WV. 1. 'Cu0ctieSCr IMirulione)1111s fo101 as'tt
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318 1leberg. Otto A. "Saturn Teleniietry mati Tracking. ''Astronautics7.

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319 Iloge, Harold 3. ''Teitperatumre Ntea-so tettiemt inl . nd 'mIiie-ii

lettCler-
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320 Hlolden, George Rl,, Smith, Joseph lR. and Sm ertal Hariold a I'l)ys iologiest
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322 1 tollander, L. E. , Miiills, D. S. and Pc rI $, T. A. I1 ygrontetiry lstnitvieiletatton .

Lockheced Aircraft Corporation, Sunnyx-at c, Cal iforniiia , I' cpurt Nwiittib r IMS U
48352, 28p. AD-2 12 188, December 12ý, 1938.

3Z3 liolnifeld, John D. A Mettiod for Calih 'at ion of a DynLanii 'emsYePckp
Mis sile Division, Chrysler Cuorpo rat ion Rieport Nutiber Ml -Mi61 TechiP ca.ll
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324 1 lolattuek, Werner 0. Inst runient s fer NIcoan ren ciii and C-ontitil. New Xi, rk:
Reinhold (1955).

I-toward, Y) C_. ''lb- AN AIK.I-l1 e~~ Sysie- L UNi-7 Ticienietric-

Data Rereiveur set P-air, IIl"1 IRE Tranlsactionls of Pt1-ore'saioiial GrToulp onl
Telemetry- and tveniotc Control, ia rcli 11956.

326 Hlowe, WV. 11. ''The Pi-es;ent Status O[ Pre-ssure- htensulr,:innt anid Centrol,
Part LI1. S. A4 Jon riiaZl.Vc'luiPic 2, 7-7p. . Ma rel 1955i.

327 ''110w Satellite Neiosures Mieroineteoroids. 'Etlect ronie. \'lxi 3-t,

August 1961.

328 ''1 ow.%Spare As troiiomy Satellite. Op~erat -s. '' LIeL' e roni s, Volue i 34I,
Numiher 15, April 1-1, 1961.

329 Ilt-umas , Lecslie antd IKeuit zer, C. 1~. Ca] usration ol a lot Wire, Atici nointer
fu.r I-ow Velocities in Steady Flow with leiiiltraturt. Cradie''ts Ittrdlut
Ikes eareti Fouindation Iceklittical Report Nitittoem A-55- 1, 1111 -Fellowship
Nuniher)C 997 (1955).

WADD TRl 61-67 51

\VOl I RISV'I

-- -. . -. . ~-- -. -. - -.- v. --- - ~ -. - . - - . N .. '5- -.. .N

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

-- . --- -- - N- -. - -- - . - - - - - - - - - - -
 III BLtOGI A 11 IN'

330 llultetn. W. C., I1o1akecr, W. C., PAaItt brso,0 John 1..

J- r.tiiooi, l:fIts
of 22 and Z-10 1'dev -rotons oil Several "I ral.sibiltors aid Solar Cells, Apri i-t
1961, NASA FN D-718.

331 tltumaphy 195 i.- 1958. Of'li, ol Naval l, scarh,"

Department of thle Navy R1eport NtUiiihr r ONIR 1eporl ACIt-.-I (1959).

332 llu:ciphreys, 3. D. '"l'hru-t Mcasu;encrit.t int Flight, "' Aelo

-L .igeSt
VoI." 'C
69, Septemblr 1954.

333 1lunter, L. 1'. Ilandijook of Semiconductor Etectronics, McGraw-Hill B0l01 ,

Company, Inc., New York, (1956).

334 IButton, U. 0. A T'ilting Air-lubritotcd Piston Gap,, for Pressures lc"

Oe-xlI lalf Inchl of Mercoury. National Bureau of Standards Report Nulilbcr
639 (1958).

335 tluttou, W. 0. and Gilheany, J. F. A Two-Inch Rangv Prec ision Mt rjt-1

Maron, tcr. National Burrau of Stanjlards ltcp,,rt Numnher 6193 (1958).

336 1lylkeina, C. G. , Bowersox, It. 1B. E.xp'rnievntal and Mathieiuatical Tl'cchniqkic.j

or Detei rmiing the DInani, Responic ofI Pressure (aves. JP1. Menoranidmin.
Number 20-68, October 6, 1953.

337 ly:nan, G. and Knapp, F. M. "A Simple Ineqxpot.s ive Prossure Transducer,
J ournal of Applied Physiology 15, 727, 19t,0.
338 larvardhnprovements in fDesii go
n the Five--String 1 'ohI Ma'et nter.

IHa rva rd Univvrsity (1958)-

339 Index of National A eronauti( s and Space Adrrimistratio, "Jo clii cal-
Publication,;.

340 Industrial Instrumentation, Bulletin 456, The Vo'ho ro Co0i)any , l'oxlIa, ,

Ivia , s. I

341 Ingrao, 11. C. , Menzel, D. 1i. , Burke. 3. A., -\ Study of Infra red-
Instrumentalion for Thermal Photography ofthe Moon, Hlarvard
College Observatory, Cambridge, Mass. Scicntific- 14eport 1, May 15,

342 Isltruent I landbook Division 5213, Sandia Corporal ..... (1955).

3413 "ionization Il'ransducer Microrntier. 'ctroni s, Vo<lnoic 27 (195-1) Page

184.

344 '1i1 Spe'-ti-onnicter Has Striking Sensitivity. Missiles and Rk ck.,I,-

Block Assuc, Inc. n, May 22, 1961.

345 Ives, Ronald I-. 'Geigc: r Rad iatiun Mollitor indicates Coniiwlli0Oul -)
Electronics, (1958) Pages 31-43.

346 Jackson, J, E.. Bauer, 5. J. Rockct Measuz r l icitl of a l)aytjtile : elcci roliic
Dcisity Profile up to 6?20 ilouete rs. NASA TN 413, Sept inilc 1961.

347 Jackson, William D. - Iteascarch Laboratory ot ICcl'tiij Os and D0epIrteii -'t-

of Electronic Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, Mass. "Calibrat ion of
Elecl't oiagneitic Ilownieters, l El
I htcr
li iat I'ial Coiventiioii, March 20-23,
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WADI) TH 61-67 546

VOL I REV 1

,,
.[ - ,'-- ", • ,* 'N., -, • .* ) : . - - " . . - ' - - " .% . . .. '. . " - . - . • " " '.
- ' - " . . " - -
 B131 I OGI{APIIY

348 Jacobson, B. and Nouridlirtg, I.. 'ltndii.idtsoads for Pressure

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349 James. J. 11. Rescarch and Developioent of Sphie ral Transdiu'e".s.

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350 Jam.es, J. I- Susrve y of Aut.ounatic Cooding T''chcitsigut'S for Dip ita11-

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351 Janeway, William F. "Triple-FM A Practical Metbo for Incr--auisg

the Capacity of Tolehmet ring Systems'" IRE Proceedings of the 1958
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352 arre, Ginannel. ''Dynarnic Prop,: rties of Tac untometc rs and Acccl. rolctcrs,-

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.353 Jensen, J. W. , and Zabel, P. HI. , Marguiardit Corpora lioni, "Tettipe rautor
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1961, p. 93, no. C. 3. 6.

"354 Jensen, L. K., Evans, 13. Il. Space Technology Lahoratories, Los
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Guidance Applications, Clark, Richard B., Whittaker Gyro Division,
Telecomputing Corp., Van Nuys, California.

355 jeske, Harold 0. , "Extension of FM/!FM Capabilities" IRE Proceedings

of 1957 Nation-d Symposium onl Tcleniet.ering.

356 Johanson, Fred I., A Pulsed Electromagnetic Fl.w..teter Transducer,

Jaeger ILaboratores, C2olumnbus, (hio. •'

357 Joltson, 1-. C. Do evclcpne at of a Ueited Stati stical Ace,-leromtet r and

Recorder As.setiobly. Researich, Incorpo: ited, Minneapolis, Minnesota
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358 Joh:ason, Richard A., Model 16 Automatic 13Blod Pressure Measuritg'

Instrumuent, Wright Air Development Center Techiical tReport, 59-429.
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359 Johnston, A. R. Dcvcopmnent of a Minijture Accehlrorteter With a

.. -. t - . .. ' . Ju P
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.ra

of Technology Progress Re~port Number 30-16 (1959).

360 Johnsten, F. C. "Adva.n."c.e.•n in Displacemxent rauisdocers. ' rittin

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361 Johnstoet, 1R. 11., VThe Rnate Gro scopc, R. C. Alltin 1,ushtie s Kuhi.ties,-
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36Z Johnston, Richard 5, "'Mercuiy Life Support Systutnus for Spac' Ve},ikulhs
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547
"WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV I

.'.'.•..-..-." v
• .'.-.'.-. v. 'v -- ....- ,,> ' -,.3-,- . ---.. - . - . . ' - ..-..--..
". . .-. .-. ' .' " - . .- - - i . ... " -
 111-31,IOGIRAPlIIV5
-- - -- - - - -- -

363 Jone6, It. Klnlitc - Iytrex Corporation. ''liezolccltrji aidl Piezorisislit-

Strain Gagps.' Control Engineering. pp 134- 137, Septcnivbi 1961.

364 Jones, ES. ''Cemented Piezoelectrit Acceltrometers. '' Aeview of

Scientific Instru.iments, Volume 23, December 1953.

365 Jones, L.. -M. "Transit- Time Acceleroineter. 1<eview

R of Scientific
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366 Joseph, 11. M. and Newman, N. Edd Cur-enill Mutual Indn tance Trans-
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367 jaosias, Conirad. "Pioneer's I adiation-Detectien lnstrurtent. ' As tonautikcs,

Volume 4, Number 7 (1959) Pagc 32.

3b8 Jtorgeni, 1. K. ''llow Transdueers Mvleasure and Control" Electronics

Eingineering Edition, VoJltiec 31, Nuiiiber Z7 (1958).

369 Kalmus, H. P. et al. "The Acoustic Flowmeter Using Electronic Switchiii,"

Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Enginiee tv. " Professional Group on
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370 Kalrrus, 1I. P. "Electronic-Flowmeter Sy: tell. ' Review of Scientific

Instrutlients, Volume 25 (1954) Page Z01.

371 Karpeev, C. A., Use of a Two-- lencut Inuerferometer to Investgate Wave

Y'ield Fluctuations1 AEGRL. 397, TI -836, June 1961.

372 Katz, ,. , Kosowsky, D. I., 1-urtig, C. R. ''Multichailtel M!M/FM Teleni try

System" IRE Proceedings of the 1958 National Symnposium on 'Id cot r .. "

373 Kaufman, A. B. "Telemetered Tcm 1 .Žeratures. '' Iistrumetttation antd

Automation, Volume 28 (1955) Page 1320.

374 Kaufman, Alvin 15. "A celeration Generators . '' histtrut'elits and Control
Systems, Volume 33, Page 240, February 1960.

375 Kaufroan, Alvin B. "Acceleromtter Calibration by Balih-.lic Pe'ndulum. ''

Instruments and AutoImation, Volume 29 ( i 956) Pages 1322-1327.

376 Kay, Joseph ct al. "Simultaieouis Measurumeits of Velocity and Tenipcralture

Profilesz and Adiabatic Supersonic F low of Air itt a Tube. JJournal Aoio.
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377 Rell, R. C. e al. ''The UsC of l"1'e rirodectle ric C 'rti icsý
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378 Kelley, J. 13. and Maruld. I. 11. '"Poteitionn icers. '' IIItsIruniei•is auid Coutmld
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379 'elly, 5M. 3. , Johnlston, W. W. aedc litauimann, C. 1). - O6,k l<idge National
Laboratory, ''Eff'cts of Nuclear Itclialioni on
D hc iiiicuc1
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on 'letnpiotnre, It.s M'asor..icuit atId CJontril' in 5i•_n( c atl tilustry, Mar .ch
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380 KetChledge, aiouid W., Atceli. ra tiOii _larit ' cstem.

i-Unlttid Slates
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WAI)L TR 61-67 5 10F

VCl. I REV I

. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .

. •..%, -...-.-.
.'~~~~~~~~~~~~..'-.'..'..-.
%.-.'.-".. .-.. '. ... •........ .". .-.-.-. '..".'.."-.".,'"".-....."
 B lL• ,lOGlolA.1Y . -

381 Killian, L. G. Pressure Elements Utilizing Pressure Sensilive Resistors. -

Cook R, search Laboratory Report, Number AD 43132 and Al) 37779.

382 Kiuard, Wn. , Collins, Rufus D., Jr. A Technique for Obtaining I lypervelocity
Impact Data by Using the Relative Velocities of Two Projectiles. NASA TN D-
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383 Kinkcl, 3. F. and Mawson, R. R. "Auoinatic Calibration of Transducers.

Instruments, Volume 26 (1953) Page 1526.

384 King. 0. B. Emens, F. 11. , (Gee. C. Marshall Space Flight Center, lluntsville,
Alabama) "A Data Transmission System for the Gamma Ray Astronomy ."-

Satellite. " I of AS, Inc. , New York, Proceedings of National Telemetry Con-
ference, Chicago, Illinois, May 1961. . -

385 King, Olin B "Signal Processing in Explorer VII, " IRE 'V';ansactions Fifth '
National Symposium, 1960. , September 19-20-21, 1960, Washington, D.C.

386 King, Olin B "The SS-FM System - A Progress Report" National Telenietering
Conference, May 1961, Sheraton Towers, Chicago.

387 King, Olin B. "A High Capacity PAM-FM-FM Telemetering System for the Saturn
Booster" Proceedings of 1959 National Symposium on Space Electronics and . - -
Telemetry.

388 Kisatsky, Paul. J. , Payne, Alvin M. , and Echols, Sherman. Low Humidity
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389 Kissinger. Charles W. Determination of Sinusoirill Acceleration 4t Peak

Levels Near That of Gravity by the "Chatter"Method. National Bureau of
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3¶' Kliever, W. H. "Principles and Techniques for Direct Reading Digital

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391 Knight, Herbert T. and Duff, Russell E. "Precisionm Measurement of Detonation

and Strong Shock Velocity in Gases. ' Review of Scientific Instruments, Volur,,e
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392 Knight, 3. P. " A PCM Data Acquisition and Processing Systen, for Solid
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393 Knight, P. "PCM Data Collecting and Recording System Designed for Air-
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394 Koelle, Herman, Editor. Ilandbook ufAstronauLical Engineering, McGraw-

Hill, (1961).

395 Koidan, Walter 'The Condenser Microphone as a Displacemnct Dctector

Calibrator." Journal Acoustical Soc. America, Volume 29 (1957) Pages
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396 Keller, L. R., Ph, D. 'Detc:tors of Ultraviolet Rtadiation,'' Ghapter 8,
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397 Kompass, E. 3. "What About Digital Transducers.' Control Enginreering
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WAUD TB i-L 519

VOL I l-I:v 1
A-'.. ".--'

A A . . A• , - -

,- " A A" . . . . . . . . . I..

 BIBLIOGR/APHIY "-"

398 Iooy, J. J. "rOil Automatic Internal and Elte rnal Control of Long-
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399 Kopp, M..J. "Use of Variable InducLtance Transducers in a Tele.n. etr"

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400 Kostkowski, If. J. "The Accuracy and Precision of Measuring 'TCmleprature. -

0
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401 Kowallis, 0. K. ''Variable Reluctance D. C. Transducer. '' Proceedings of

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402 Kramer, A. S. "Strain Gagcs - What They Canl Do. " Radio-Electronics
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403 Krause, L. N, , Johnson, 1. C. and Glawe, G. ES. A Cooled Gas ,.

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404 Krause, L. N. , Glawe, C. F., and Johnson, R. C. - Lewis Research

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405 Krawinkel, Guenther H, Acceleration Indicating System. United States -
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406 Kronauer, Richard E. Survey of Hot-Wire Theory and Techiiqueu. Pratt

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407 Kuhns, Determination of Flame Temperature fram Z000°K by Microwave - -

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408 Kuipnr, G. P. "Infrared Observations of Planets and Satellites. ' American

Astrinomy SoIcietL , Inc. , New York, N. Y. , Presented at 98th AAS Meeting,
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409 Kulebakin, V. S. and Domaoitski- "Speed Regulation of Ihrcc-Plase
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410 Kunzler, .1, IE. and Geballe. T. tH. - Bill "el,.n,''"' _ .. aboratories, "'Gcri, ituu ,\ ,,

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411 Kunzler, J. E. , Geballe, T. 11., andllHull, G. W. "Gerurianimli lcsistance

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412 Kupershinidt, I. A. "Coding and Dccoding Devices iu PCM I"ucl-I lt'iing "
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413 Kusebel, II. A., Siniple A ialug-tu-Digital Cunuivexert , Control S ,stciils

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WAI)I TIt 61-67 550

101. I l_:v 1

-- - - - - -. - - - ,..,.

....

. .. . . . . . . .
 BIBIIOGRAPHIY

414 L-achman, J7. C. Calib rat ion of Rheniumi- Mil ybdennin11 ;a''.d I] eI11i±Qi-TUIiigSien -
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415 Lachman, .7. C. - iHoskins Manufactuirinig Company. McGurty , J.7 A. - Geni-.

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416 Laffe rty, J7. M.. anld Vanderslicec, T1. A. ''The Intereplay of Elect ronitis and
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417 L~a Fond, C. D. , Holmies J3. ''Major New Radiation Probe Readied. '

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418 Land, C. E. - Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico, "A Feli ite
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419 Lampert, S. , Rodnigoez, D. A. , Yoonger, D. C. , Gartnmal, A. At,. Wardern,-

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420 Lanie, J7. A. , Froinie. D. S. , McConnell, C. J7. "The C~ons3trov timi and
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425 1Lawton,. W_ The Requir(iements for Biome-dical Monitoring in 61pocc . W.'

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426 L~ederer, Paul S . A. Torsional Vibration Calib~rator.

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2
427 Lede rer, Paul S. Pe rfo roanclTestc s onl an Angular Accel t oniietc r.
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428 Lederier, Paul S. and Rantsey, A. T. Pe efornuance Tests onl Two Va riobli'
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429 LedeFc F, 1'. S. Ceriieral Cha tacteri-s tics ofSýt ra iri'Cage Acc lie iiiti(Ii r
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431 jede rc'r, P1. S. and Smith, RI. 0. Perforiiankce 'lea tao '11wo
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438 Lecvy , Samoeland

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439 L~evy', S. , Krol, W. 1. P esponsie of At c el'ornmeter a to Trans icantAeeraiis

Naticrial Blurea.'u of Standards, J . lRes. V oluinrt c 45, Nomnbe r -' (195(1).

440 Levis, Wini. Ac-ed eronrete cn, Votmir Nrrnb:e r 6, Augus t- Septerrnib'nr 1959.

441 IJ, D~r. 'lao 1Ize ''Prcsxnrc Tron1sLo~ecr nor~i Mis tile TIestinig 11od Corn rol. '

is-A.Jooirnal, Volinoie 5, Numnber 1 1 ( 1958).

442 Lini, S. C. cit al . ''EtcCA1: cal CoQnductlivity of 1I 4'.lt y Ionized A%rgorr Produc ed
5
Byv Shock Waves. '' oulerrl Appl . 1 h 1 aicsS, V oluirme 2.6, N''rbe'r 95 (1955).

443 1it j,1 T. 1-1. ''The Effect of Sipring Moss on Contact Ac ictr'iiecr1 ltts'.
A.S.:M. F, Prjp2. ,Volurn 56-AMP- 3 (19,56) l-ý'ageS i-5.

444 Lind-nitI, E. J1. ' 'Pot sat ion ned its EjI -(fe
eta un l'cwic r.' Iaiscioi
o; tIe Amerk uanr Sociect', of Mec-hanical Eniner. 62:8833- 8941, __1_(t94)._

445 Lintdt~nfel1d, P. Rutgers ittivue rity, ''Gntourmiun ''tn'iiomtc's

Syirpsu c'r 'lerpea'toriN', Its tvlasorinute'tt arc] Count rot in Seciciitte intl
1id'isJItry' Vareli 27 - 31, 196!, 1). 87,571. C.3'i' -

446 jinti ortic, Lt,'. ''Ilot I'tatiniur Filro Mcanititis V'leo- iL and 'lorbutenre.
Des~!ii.Jcr's.Volunuc 11, lNurtnht'r 1-4 (1 9'6).

447 Lion, E•. 5. ''121cc 1rica! Inipot i'nai:sdui en','' inu.itronwttnts; in iceitlrnific-
Ii eearb ,±4 Graw -l till Book Comnpauny. Inc. ,Niw Yoirk , ( Tý9-i) pp 1(0 -61'

WAU)D III 61-67 55 Z

Vol, I R~L-V 1

%-
"%C C .. ' . - . - - - - - - - - - - - -
 B1131dCGR.A I IY ,4,

448 Lion, K. S. and IBirkowitz., D. A. Elemenets oI Inst r~criltatioln Ill

_Masrznetic Field I raurduce vs. Laboratory of AplXpied Biophy si cs lvi. I. 'I -
Techiical Report Nin~ibc r 4 (ASTIA Docunrent Number AD 100918 (1956).

449 Lion, Kurt S. "Mechanic- Electric r'ranoduccr. " lcviecw of Scititific ."-'.•
Instirumnents. Volume 27 (1956) P ages 222-225.

450 Lippel, B. "A I igh 'recision Analog-to-Digital Convcertcer. " B. lipprcl,

National Electtonics Coniciornic, Chicago, Illinois (1951). - -

451 'Liqoi dc e [or Mlatrix Liquid Ouantiity Gauge. T''

'lie iqitido)iIIcite CoVipo rat ion
Department T, Long Island City, New York.

452 Li, C. V Oil Sphere Method of Amibient Temperature .Mccsnrebeot III

the Upper Attnos2ph'e, Memo Number 3 cin Atmospheric Phcnomena at
*-igh Altitudes AD 137877 (1951).

453 Lii, F. F. and Berwin, T. W. "'iecett Advances iii Dynamic Pressure

Ivieasurenment Techniques. " ARS Jounrial (1958).

454 Liu, I. D., ilodiant Intens ity Measil i emtnts in tlhe Visible and Uitraviol c.
l-Regions for Itypervelocity Projectile:, on CARDE R1-ance 3 Facilities,
Ganadian Armnament Rleearch liad Dcvelopenct Estabishiment, \"alcarti r,
Quebec CARDE Techical Memurandum A13-74, JLne 1961.

455 Loeke, W . H., A Solid State' CoimUtatinig Anld I'Alse Width Enlcoding Girt oht,
ASTIA Documetits Report Nuoioier AD 157 309 (1958),

456 Logan, M. A. 'Dynamic Measurements on Electromagiietic Devices I. Des-

eription of Fluxeneter System I1. Displacement and Velocity Measuring"
System Ill. " Applications Bcll System Technicale Jou"rnal, Volunn, 1413
(1953).

457 loosernore, W. R. , Atomic Energy Research Establishmecnt, Haarwell,

England. "Gas Ionization Dete(-luors, A Suivicy. " Nuclear Lower 5, "- "*5
CNumber 52, p 84-89, August 1960.

458 ludwig, Geo. Sifgnal Conditioning for Satellite Bomre Energetic-Cliarged--

Particle NASA TN D-1080, August 1961.

"459 Luclwig, G. Ii. "Cusiric-Ray hi strumantaition in the First United Statcs r

Earth Satellite. '" Review of Scientific hnstri'm cnts,Volucnn 30, Ntuiber r. '
'I 4 (1959) Page 223.
. 46i0 icewig, Fred A. Jr., General Engigieerii;g Lab. , GC.nieal ELectric Co.

"Digital Transducer: 1"orce Input... inary Coded OuIi)rut'' LVI.,

461 Luecke, G., "''lightl Test Data Systeii Victor Systeiii Z77 " 1' I' P iccctliiig,.s-
if 1957 National Syinpomiui, on Telenmeterinig. %

"46Z luiidquist, C. A. , tlcnsko, .1. (Ceo. C. Marshal! Space Flight Center,

.lihtntsville, Alabama) "niistrutncutatioi. for Space Projects. " ISA,
Pittsburg, Pa. 7ti Acro-Space lustiruiicnitalion Snipsi..i. Dallas,
,Texas. April 30- May 4, 1961.

"463 tusk, J. "On Expe rimental Airburn' IPAM-- FM Te'lciletcr Package- lor
D.
"Missile App!lication"
Proccedinig. of 1959 Nati,,nal SyinjIusuiii i on Spauc -".-"
-, " Electronics and Telemetry.

WADD 'IRt 61-67 553

"•lOI Bc\V 1 .I

%' *4.,
 I31BLIOGIRAPIIY -44

464 MacDonald, W. R. "A Calibration for Angular Acecle ration Transducers. u

4joyal Aircraft Establis hmnt (1953).

465 MacGeorge, W. D, The Dife rential Tir_-sfo rmei for Control Indication, =
Automatic Timing and Controls, Incorporated. -

466 "Mach 1-10 Sensor for Re-Entry Angles and Pressure. Space Aeronautics
Volume 31, Number 2 (1959).

467 MacMillan, F. A. "Viscous Effe-cts en Flattened Fitut Tubes at Low Speeds."

Journal Roy. Aero. Soc., Volume 58, Number 837 (1954).

468 MacQuarrie, R. A. and Lederer, P. S. Performance Tests on Two Unbotunded

Strain Gage Pressure Pickups. National Bureau of Standards Report Number.
6942 (1960).

469 Magnetostrictive Ferrites for Transducer Application,; Kearfoti Division,..1.

of General Precision Incorporated (1959).

470 Maquire, C. R. "The Development and Calibration of Quartz Accelero- .

meters." Akust, Befih., Volume 1 (1956) Pages 196-199.

471 Manildi, J. F. "Mach Number and True Air Speed Measurements. I.S. A.
Journal, Volume 2, Number 114 (1955).

472 Manring, E. and Dublin, M. Satellite Microjueteorite Measurements. ICY

5taellite Report Series Number 3 (1955).

473 Manson, S. S. "Thermal Stresses in Design-Strain-Gage Measurernents. '"-

Machine Design, Volume 31, Number 22 (1959) Page 109.

474 Markham, Keith, G., Evalue 'ion of Model 54-700 Pitot Static Head, Air '"2W
Force Flight Test Center, Edwards, California AF Technical Note Nunmber
AFFTC TN-54-5 (1954). .'
475 Marko, Adolf R. Monitoring Unit for Heart and Respiration Rate. - j
Aerospace Medical Division. Wright Air Development Division
Report Number WADD Technical Report 50-519.

476 Marko, A. R. (WADC, Biomedical Lab., Wright Patterson) ''A

Nultichannel Personal Telemetry System Using Puls,' Position Mod-
ulations.," Ins, of Aerospace Scion. , Inc., Ne York, N. Y. Pro--
ceedings of National Telemietry Conference, Chicago, Ill. May, 1961.

477 Marks, S. T, A Barium Titanate Velocity Gauge for Use on Short

Coaxial Cables,* Ballistic Re search Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving
Ground Md. BRL Memo Report Number 7)8 (1954).

478 Marks, S. T., Msiss-Distance and Velocity Measuremients on Pro-

jectiles Using Piezoelectric Gauges. Ballistic Research Laboratory,
Aberdeen Proving Ground Md. (Project Nucmber TB3-0538)BRI. Meo.-
Report Number 815 (1954).

479 Marlow, D. G., Nisewanger, C. R. and Ca(uy, W. M. "A Method for NY

the Instantaneous Measureniini of Velocity and T-L uperatutre in IEigh Spe'•d
Air Flow, "' Journal of Applied Phy-sics., Volume1 "0, •t941, p. 771. - .'. -,

480 Marsh, Henri, Inherenit Errors of the Floated Gyrruscpe, Volunme

3, Nium~ber 2, Ja-uary-February 1960.

WADD TR 61-67 554

VOL I R.EV 1

":'-'""'-".""•"
'-" ".".',"'-.
.".'"%"-'""-'7-""."
%1
-""-""--"7""''-i -"" ' -"-'"%----------------------------------------------------"--"--"-"''--.----"------'.-"-"-'"-"-".."..
' = - ' , |ii| i
 1,1IOGRAPIHY
IB

481 Martin, L. F. ''- roblein s in Aircraft Telenmctering" IR1E Transcctionu; .,

of Profcssional Group aun Telcmctry and lRemoto Control, De.ceinber 1957.

482 Martin, John L. ''Means for Deter.n icining Acoustical Velocity and
Attenuation Characteristics of Subtcrranýaccn uormations. ' United
States Patent 2, 794, 512.

483 Martinut-Lagarde, A. , Fauqucl, A. and IFrenkiel, F. N. "The" IM"L

Aoone-oclinometer .. An Instrument for ice Investigation of Atmospheric
Turbulence. " United States Air Force Cambridge Rese'arch Center,
Geophysical Res. Papers,Volume 19, Nunbe r 2017, (1952).

484 Mason, W. P. and Thurs ton, R. N. "Use of Piczo-Resistive MaLterials

in the Measurement of Displacemnenit, Force and Torque."'' Jou rnal of
Acoustical Soc. A.nerica, Volume 29 (1957) Pages 1096-1101,

485 Mauriuig, E. R. Micromneteorihorite Measurements from 1958 Alpha and

Gamma Satellites. Geophysics Research Directorate, AFCRC, ARDC,
Laurencc G. itanscom Field, Be'dford, Mass.

486 Mathews, Charles W. "Review of the Opeational Plans for Mercury

Orbital Mission.' January 1960, IRE Transactions on Mvdical Electronics
Volume ME-7, January 14, 1959. -

487 McDonald, Richard K. (Boeing Airplane Cornpany) "Infrared Radiometry."

Instruments and Control Systems, Volume 33, Number 9 (1960) Pages
1527-1530.

488 McGaughan, I1. S. "Performance Characteristics oi Yi'me uid Frequency

Multiplexed Telemetering Systems." National t•lenu'l.< ing Conference,
(1956).

489 "Z0-MC, One-Watt Transistorized Telemetering Transmitter for Satellites.

Army Ballistic Missile Agency (1958).

490 McRae, D. D, "Interpolation Error, " Advanced Telemetry Study Techcical

Report Number 1, Part 1 and 2, Radiation Incorporated, Melbourne, Florida.

491 McRae, D. D. and Smith, E. F. "Computer Interpolation" Advanced

TelemetryL.Study Techniical Report, Part 1, Radiation Incorporated,
Melbourne, Florida.

492 McRae, D. D. "Consideration of RE Parameters for PCM Telemetry

Systems" IRE Transactions of Professional (romp nil Tel,.r,.ýtr, asd Re-
mote Control, June 1959.

493 McRae, D. D. "Techniques for Transmission of Pulse Code Modulation

Signals" National Telenmetering Conference, May 1961, Sheraton Towers
H1otel, Chicago.

494 Measurement and Telemetry Systems for Missiles, Army Ballistic Missile
Agency, Redstone Arsenal, Atlanta Report Number Vitro-2331-2-59 (1950).

495 Megel, H., Edmunds, A. D. & Bark, R. S., Miniaturized Physiologic

Instruments. Boeing Airplane Company, Scattle, Washington.

496 Melbourne, Win. G., Sauer, G., Jr. Optimum Thrust Programns for
Power-Limited-Propulsion Systems, JPL TR Nuimber 32-118, June 15,
1961.
7-77

WADD TR 61-67 555

VOL I REV 1

, ................
, .- .... . ....- .-v.. .. *. ....--,
. . .. . .v
. . . , . - , . -. - - .. ,
,.
4_1
 P lB I. JOGRAPI'IY

497 Mesuier, Ma~x. 1I. ''bigliat 1'iueesing In thc "I 11-us lituiet~j
Sys tei' IIl" M 'lTra, I -;Itiu)ns FifIthI Nat imnalI S%i p osiuoi, 1960 oii Sjile
Electronics a~id Tleleuit ry, Sliurcliai Hlotel, Washminctoii.

498 Meter Lu r Shu0Ck- V e liity hl'casýu ri-ielits. National Bu reau of Stanidairds

Technical News lBullet in Re po rt Number 40 (195o~).

499 "Meteri-ng V isceous Flowsv. '1 inst ruicn ts and Cont rol Sy stein Vo~lumei~ 33,
Number 7 (1960) P'ages 1157-1159.

500 ''Metburls furi the Cont rol of Saiellites ;11ni1 Space Veli iclcsý' VolmQ Inineng
and Actuating Methods, Voluime II-COIAVItrlSsi MeCI-IUIn cal01 iuulit
Analysis, Wrlight Air Developin ent Division, Air e~s crye And Deveclopiment
Commanad, United States Air Force.

501 Michael, Paul L. Ordniance Resea rch Llatiratoiry, Petnn State Uniyei s5it),
University Park. A Sumna rv of les cai-eli on Novel T raius ducef
r Mechliaisins,
(Se vial Number 74) Contract NOrd- 165961 Janua ry 25, 1961, Confidential
Report.

502 Miller, J. T - ( Editor- in- Clicjf) . Tie Instrument Ma4tnual - First Edit inn,
London E. C. 4, United Trade: Press ltd. 9 Gough Square, Fleet Street
F'irst Edition (19-19) Second- Edition (1953).

503 Miltier, A. G.A Range of 50 eps TrLu.sducer.. 1Royal Aircraft Research

E~stablisliment Tc~hn~ical Note Nuinbvir 64 AD 40.'41 (1954).

504 ''Miniature Rate Gy ru. " Etecetroiimechaniical Des~i n Components and

System-Is, VoIlumeI 3, Number Z (1959) Pages 8-10,

505 Mitchel, A. L. Pliutoele tric Analog- to -Digital Con-e rsiojuls . " T railsatos
Of thle IRýC PGLEC, Vo~lumeI EC-4, Number 4, (1959) Pages 15)9- 160.

506 Mitchell. 3. MI. Developinlelt of a Telem ete red Data Diiizr Final
Report J. 13. Res Company Inc.. (ASTIA Document Numiber AD 637Z9)
(1955).

507 Moeller, C. E. - Midwest Re.9earch Iiistitute~, ''The rioocouipli-s for

Measuremieiits of T ransient Surface T emple ratiure, "' Symposiumii oii
Tenmpe rature, Its Measu rernent andi Cont rol ini Science aini Iiidi~i r~
March 27 - 31, 196 1, p. 60, no. 13. 4. 3.

508 Moffat, R. J3. - Research Laboratories, Geineral Motors, "Gas Temipera- .

tore Measu remenet, '" Symposium on Tempe ratu re, Its -li-oasurci-l ci-t anid
Control ii Science and Industry, N-larch Z7-31, 19)61, P). 61, tit), B. 41. 5.

509 Moffitt, G. R., Devcloprrucnt of a TlVlpe rQIaLW Sy StO iii

ý11Vl il-urILc
Barnes iLugilleering Comnpany, Staiufurd, Conni, AY 33(616)-7-1791.

510 Mouopoli, 11. V. (Speidel Corp. , Inidust rial Division Provideiuee, R. I .

" The Developmuuen t of a Magnetohyd rodyiiamiiii Gyroscopi'e'IRI.Nix
Y ork, N. Y . Preseinted at 7th E. Coast Conuilrci-ici' on Ac r-. ant ical aidc
Navigational Electronics, Baltimore, N-Id. Oi tuller 1960.

511 Mointgomle ry, J1ameis L,., ''Ac cele ronicte r ' United Slates lPatelit Numuberr1
2,797, 911.

512 Morgan, C. C. zand Andrews, .1.- C. - ARG iMOrg,~dlftle IH-at 'lr,.1isfe m

Trariiduce r and LFlanme Torchu Cal ibiraticii TIc cilliqile for 11y1)rvil'lriei y.
Wind Tunnels'' Sympoisiumlon '1 cpe rato ri-, Its Measu reini-nt and Coilt rol ...

ill Science aiid lnlidStry, March 27-31, 1961, 1). 85. no. C. I . 2.

VADt) TR 61-67 556

VOL I REV 19

~ .%;
 B IB LIUGIOAl'1l Y

-4
513 Fligtht Invcstigation
Morris, G. J. et al. l)Description and P'reliiniiary1,
of an Instrument for Detecting Subnormal Acce leration Duiring Tale-Off.
NACA Technical Note Number 32t.2 (1954). -

514 Morrow, Charles T'. "t3eady State lResponcai of the Sperry Pate Gyrot run
or Vibratory Gyroscope. " Journal Acoustical Sou, America, Volume 27,
Number 56 (1955).

515 Mouly, R. J. - Corning Glass Works, "Temperature Measurement with

Eddy Currents" Symposium on Temperalure, Its Measurement and Cona- ,

trol in Science and Industry, March 27-31, 1961, p. 110, no. B 14. 9.

516 Mueller, G. E. , and Tabor, J. E. "An Interplanetary Com0mnication

System" IRE Transactions of Professional Group on Telemetry and 1Re-
mote Control, December 1959.

517 Mullen, George, Fifty-Year Old Method Increases the Accuracy of Toddy's
Gyros, Volume 3, Number 2, January- February 1959.

518 Murray, W. M. and Stein, P. K. Strain Gage Techniges. Society o-r

Experimeotal Stress Analysis (1958).

519 Nagy, A. F. , Spencer, N. W. , Nienieun, H. I3. , Carignan, G. A., -

Measurements of Atmospheric Pressure, Temperatures, and Density
at High Altitudes. University of Michigan, Space Physics Research Lab.
Final Scientific Report, August 1961.

520 Nakasone, Robert T. "How to Solve Noise Problems of D-C Transducers-

on Long Lines. " Instrument Society of America Journal Maintenance Log,
Number 54 (1959).

521 National ur-eau of S.indards, Washington, 1). C., High Pre;ssure Standards,
National Bureau of Standards Technical News Bulletin 40:96-102, July 1956.

52.2 "Navy Space Triplets launched. " (Transit IV-A, Greb. III, Iijun) Naval
Rescarch Reviews, August 1961.

523 Nelsoa, Robert C. irTelemetering and Reemote Control" Instrunients and

Control Systems, February 196Z.

524 Netusil, W. F. - Rocketdyne, "Instrumeitation for Measuring Gas Tempera-

"ture of Rocket Engines," Symposium on Temperature, Its Measurement -.
and Control in Science and Industry, March 27-31, 1961, p. 103, no. B. 13.4. '9 "

"525 Sic.
Neubert, H. K. P., Minialure V .riable Inductanc' TIanLStiut l s ior 465 M.- -,
Telemetry System, Royal Air Force Establishment Technical Note Number
11 AD-H 892 (1952).

526 Neubert, I1. K, P. "Pressure Transducers. Control 4 (32) 114. February

"1961.
527 Neubert, H-. K. P. and Corbin, R. W. A New Barium Titanate Acceleration
Transducer of a H-igh Sensitivity. R1oyal Aircraft lgstablishlient (Great Britain)
Technical Note Number INSTN 147 (1954).
7--
528 Neubert, A. K. D. Variable Induclance Acceleration Traiisd'iccrs. Royal
Aircraft Research Establishment Toechnicol Note Number 135 AD 20566
(1953).

S557
WADD TR 61-67.5-7
VOL, I REV 1

.........................-.-........."-.-..-............"........-.............-.-..-.-.-....-.-..-..
...-........-.....-........
""" ~-----------"---------- ---- "-.-'"-"-
•"i~f' I...............................................i. -
 BIBLIOGR, APH'I1Y

529 Nichols, hi. i1. and Rlauci. 1. L.. Radio "flcrcretrv, Second Edition, New
York, John Wile) and Sons (1956).

530 Nisbet, W. "'An Instrument for Mcasu 'iFrg icsrpitratorv Rates and Volumes.
Journal of Scientific Instruments, Volii'ne 33 (1956) Pages 15.4-158.

531 Noble, Frank W. '"lie Sor1it Valec I're s sure Gauge, ' Ninth Annual Con-
ference on Electrical Tecrmiques in Medicine and Biology (AILEC-IR -ISA),
November 7-9, 1956, ItE Transactions on Medical El cetroircrn July 1957.

532 Norton, 1H. N, "lesisltanc¢ Elcerrnls for Missile TIelmperatures.

Instrumcnrts and Control Systcms, Volurie 33, Number 6 (1960).

533 Norton, 1I. N. "Spa~crafl Telemetry Transducvlrs. " Spaace/Ac rrrriarurics,

Rt & D Tech Itandbook, Volume 4, pp 313-J14 (1961-1962).

534 "Notes on Linear Variable Differenlial Tranxsfornrers. Schacvitz Engineeringrrg

Company Bulletin AA-la (1955).

535 'Novel Infrared Horizoni Indicator Designed without Moving Parts.

Aviation Week and Space Techinolog, Volume 2-5, Number)O 10, Septeirber
1961.

536 "Oceanographic Instrumnentation. " Final lReport of the Committee on In-

strumentation. Second Edition, 1tR-826, October 1960.

537 Ohman, J., '%ibrotron Digital Teleinctering System'.' Natiorai Telemch0l1riLg

Conference Chicago (1955).

538 Oppenhcim, A. K. and Chilton, F. G., "Pulsating Flow Measure•renr, A

.rterantrc Survey '' Transactiors ot the American Society, of Mechanical
Engineers.77:231-248, (1955).

539 Orlacchio, A. W. s Utili-ed for Accelerorcte i's ard

Calibration Techniqug
Characteristics and Applications of New Miniature Piezoetectri , Variable'
Reluctance and Differential Transforicc Type Transduct-is Praerlrth- "" ""
Colman Instrumentation Symposium, Los Angelca (1955).

540 Orlacchio, A. W. arrd Hicber, G. "Trends irr Acceleration hleastnrenint.

IRE Transactions, Volume 1-6, Nrmbcr 2 P-ages 93-98.

541 Orlacchio, A. W. and Ilicber, G. "AIcClCroirrIetera - Whinch Type for the

Ie
Job. " Electron Indus trial and TIeh- Tc cI, Volur 16 (195,7)

542 Ormsby, Joseph F. A. "PCM/ EM Telerictry Signal Analysis and 1,W Effect''"
lileK Transactiors of Pr, fessionat Group oii TC eler'ciry and Fl-1uicre Cornrol,
(1959).

543 Ott, 0. J. 'Tire Influerrc of IM- 'R 1tlnrrr iry Com'pc'iit (Ir•a rode'Matida
on Systeml Pe'rformarnc " National Tt'dlf-itrlrcrirlg Corn>("'rerr-'r, (1959)'

(-aughtor, I1. G. "'Priiiryr1- I ici ta for crirpi ture t'

tlc-asurernierni,
544
Irstrument Enginr'r 2, p 72-83. Ocurlie r 1957.

545 PaIperjiheimne J. 1. Ii 'liifferirria111 C01jrr~drearcM arrrtr '- heie% L01

ScierrtifiC InstlrurrtrlS, Vh1uirrC 25 (1954) PagC 912.

546 Parks, It. J. "The U. S. Sprce lNxplortr ion lP-ograilr. ' A r-'riinrutrc.e,
Volume 6, Numbcir 5, May 1961. ,'-

WADI) TE 61-67 558

VOL I 1."V 1

I. . . .i. I.-i .. i4- I --

4
.... ¶.',.'' ,. ,,...........
 BIBLIOGRAPHIY •.,O

'-"
547 Patrichi, Mihai D. , P reridictl "Glats-Encascd Miniature Skic , hing 1ic,viee .
Networks Electronic Corp. , ChIatsworth , California, El retzr, at l-estsign News,
October 1961 .-

548 Patronis, E. T, , el al. , "Low ,'lnpi'ature Thcrnlal Noise Theririoncr, ",

Review of Scienitific Instrunicnts Voluhr .. 30, July 1959, pp 578-80.

549 Patton, li. WV. ''An Accurate NMagnevtic Tacliomcter. '' Proceýdings of tlht

National Eliectrorrics CGnference, Volume 11 (1955) Pages 183-192.

550 Pearlstein, Joseph, Notes on thc IRelatrtorship of Temiperature arid .

Resistance , Leport Nunmber TII1-888 (1960).

551 Pepe, Charles, A History of Precision Taschozueter DeCelopuirirlt, Volume . .

3, Number 5, August-Septeniber 1960. -

552 Perkins, C. D. arid Durbin, L. a. , Editors, 'Advisory Group for A'eronautical

Research and Dcvlcopment,' NATO, New York, Flight Test Ivainual, Voluliie
3 and 4.

553 Perls, Thom-nas A. A Simple, Objective, Test for Cable Noise Due to Shock,
Vibration or Transient Eressures. National Bureau of Standards R, eport
Number 4094a (1955).

554 Perls, Thornias A. , Kissinger, Charles W. , and Paquette, Donald R.. .

A Method for Steady State Accelerometer Calibration Up to + 4000g and %.I.'
Test Results on Two Acceleromcters, Model A314-T, NBS heport ..- -

Number 3924 - March 1955. ,-S

555 Perls, Thomas A. and t•issi rigor, C. IV. High-Range Accelerorncter

Calano. Dureau of Standards
.... i-:por .INflcnib- ci 3Z99 (1954)

556 Perts, T. A. , Kissinger, C. W.. arid Pa~quette, D. 1R. Performance Tests

on Consolidated Engineering Corporation Velocity Pickup Type 4-118.
National Bureau of Standards Report Number 4154 (1955).

557 Perls, T. A. and Ilartog, J. J., "Pyroelectric Transducer., for Heat-

Transfer Measurements. " '1ecthnical Report on Physics, Physical .lectronnit a.
Lockheed Aircraft Cotrpo°ration, Sunnyvale, California, l-eport Nunmber

1,MSD-325500. AD-256 895. May 1961.

558 Perry, C. C. and Lisaner, 11. R., The Strain Gage Primer. McGraw-llil

Book Company Incorporated (1955).

559 Petermain, L, A. "Producing Motion With Magrnctostrictive ard Piezo-Eh.ctric

Transducers." Electrical Manufacturing (1955) Page 99. .-

560 Phegley, L. R. ''A High Accuracy Tempc rature Teleni eter System" Pro-
ceedings of National Tele.r.te ring Confcrence, May 23-24-25, 1960, Santa - . -
Monica, California.

561 Phillips, Cecil B. and Andersoir, M. J. Development of air Automatic

Countingg Accelerometer. CAA Technical Developmnent and lEvaluatior.
Center Technical Development Report Number 166 (1953) Pag.e 12.

562 Piccard, J. aid Larsen, J. and Bllorstrand, J. "Thin Wire Therroieter

for Radio-sondes, " Review of Scientific Instruments, Volurire 25, Numbe r .' -
j0 (1954) Page 959. *.

WADD Tit 61-67 559

VOL I REV 1

%"-- "%"

%-
 - S 2-i

DIBLlQGR(A P] IY

563 Pickering. John E. 'Dctectioii and Analysi. as u Bioloi, 5[xicc Amlicot"

R.adiation, ' IP, 1 ['crau*actions on Mudi(cal rcnica, Voltuic pI"-7.
k]Lectý
January 14, 1959.

564 Pike, B. W, The Sled Position-and-T'ir,' Nlasm'miv ( _ Syste-"

_rack-toil)
at SNOI'I . Naval Orduancc Test Station Nuiiber NOl
teport 12 -02 (1955). -

565 Pilkington, Williami, "Lxplorer 1 and Ill lnstruolentalion"' Naotoinal

"iclenietering Confc rence, (1958)

566 Pitstow, D. J. A Il gh-Accuracyt " . C. 3lachoiclec-Gene calnr. 13 -II "-#4

Activities (British i s..-l... IIustot Coiiipny) Volinii
i"...... 25, Niunber 15-1
(1954). -

567 dIii
Pocket Ilandbook fur Indust rial h11itruIIIcntat und lC c!sI i,
(I0 i .
lV .. . -
Published by Siemens and Ilaske Ititpire State Boildii'g. Nexm York,
N. Y. (1960).

568 Podolsky, Boris. Eh ectrolyt ic Acceleratiou Scnsing Device. United States

Patent 2, 735, 949 (1956).

569 Pogodo, Abrahamn Electro-uOptical Iiiistrunicnation for Terrestrial and .,

Space Navigatin Volune 2, Numuber 4, March-April 1959.

570

571
Pohl, II. "Super Sensitive Ther iioucl ec1e1u
strunients, Volume 22, (1951) p. 3-15.

'Portable

Incorpo rated,
c

Digital Indicator and Force Calibrator. "

13015 Woodland Avenue,

, 'Relview of Scientific In -

Gilmore Indnstries.

Cleveland 2.0 Ohio I3LF~til inD-103.

2
572 Portable Thrust Calibrator Kit. Gilmore Industries, Incorporated 13015
Woodiand Avenue. (.levelaud 20. Ohio (1960).

573 Porter, R. A. and Lesnik, M. I ., "Telemetry System' Perfornianee- - ,

Measurement of Error As a FuVction of Cominnunication Rate" Proceeding "-
of National Telemetering Conference, May 23-24-25. 1960. Santa Monica,
California.

574 "Putentiomlneter Specification: for Se -cr Envirowinmentcs.I Electrromechaini cal "

Design Components anti Systems, Volume 3, Nm-ibcr 3 (1959) Page 17. ....- -

575 Pounds, K. A. "'Measurcurut of Solar X-1ladiatimv'"Dritish Il, F Journal.

Volumci 22, Number 2, August 1961.

576 Powell, J. T. "Biomedical Measuring Circuitry. " Proceedings cf the

National Telemetering Conference (1959) Page 308.

577 Powell, R. L. , Cayw.od, L. P. , and M, D. Bunch - National Burtcan.:

Standards, "'low Temperature "lhermocc.ules , " Sy•nposimln onilŽnyeratuce
Its Measurements and Control in Science aid lodustry, March 27-31, 1961
1p. 87, no. C.Z.Z.

578 Precision Measurenient and CaI iiration- Ele cIricity and Electronics land-
book 77, Volume I Uni ted States Deparititi-it of Cuinne ree National Br eau .. "-
of Standards. 840 pages,

579 A Precision Velocity-Measurement System for SNORT: United States Naval

Ordnance Test Station Report 5247, NOTS 1449 (1956).

WADD TR 61-67 560 -

VOL I REV 1

::: : : : : :: : : : : : : : :: : .-.. . . . ...- :: : : : : .::: :.:: ::. ::.:::... . . .: -..

. . .: ::.: :::.:.. :: ::: ::
-:f -.-..--.,. ,, -
• .,.,-, -- - - - - %-.
- - - ,- ---- --.------
,."-........-.-.- -- .. ~--- -'.\22 •. "-.-. -,-.-- .- .- - .- ...~ . . .-. ..
.5. -. . -. . . ....
 13113IIOGCIA1II Y

580 Prcssotn, A. G. Analytical Study of Freqtttucctty Rsponse Uf I- re e --.-.

"fransduce r S'stetus. JtDL R"part Ntuhl)cr 20-91, August 2,1 1955.

581 Pressure Itt, trutent Svs cit Calibralit;ni and Chetkout Console. Norih
Ame rican Aviation Incorporatcd, NI issatlc DevehptIt tIitDivisiotn, 1Ic pu1
Number AI,-Z64Z (1957).

1
582 Pressure Measurements ;1 Free Mvl'eeiL Jc'low wilt a Rotating Armot
Apparatus. University of Torontto (19'958).

583 "Pressure-Pi clko. "' l\iQew'' ' of Sctenlitfic Instrumreonts, V olume 25, Nuibeur
4 (1954) Page 411.

584 Prossure TransdCUCi and htistrItnII-tation T echinuiqUeS. VotMItt 130"

I Book
"Gcncral Intrductiitonand Part A, Trans ducing Technliques. " Giantiii"•
Controls Corporation, DBarte, Califtornia Report Nutnbcr Eli 00000-56,
Volume 1 Book 1, Conttract AF 33(616)6186, Project 822-1, WADD TI,
59-743, Volume 1, Augost 1, 1960.

585 Pressure T ransducitig and Instrun, intaltion Techniqucs Volume I, Book I

Part B, "Transmitting Techtriqucs Giannini Controls Corporation, Duarto,
California Report Number El 00000-56, Volun'e 1 Book 2 3351). Cootract
AF 33(616)6186, Projcct 82Z4, WADD TI-59-743 Volume 1, Book Z AD-
251 112, August 1, 1960.

586 Pressure Trarisducing and Instrum entation 'lcchiqtic5, Volumie I B, ( 3

Part C, "Nuclear Radiation Effctts. " Giannini Controls Corporatir
Duarto, California, Report Nunmbetr .1Y00000-56 Voluole I, 11 ,1p Coo' race
AF 33(616)6186, Project 82Z4. WADD .'R- 7q3, Volumei. 1 Book 3, AD--251-
113, A,,""" t 1 1960. -4

587 Pressure Transducing and lnstrunmentatioin Tý.chniygte. Volume ii - Parl A,

"hImpproveitimcots to Cur rent Pressure 'I ransducing and "'1ransinitting Technitl oe
1 s,
Part B, "Ulnique Techniques, " and Part C, "lTeiere,,;es. " Giamnili Goniruls -. h."

Corporation, Duarte, Califortia, R epori Num-bier IR 00000-56, Volute 2,

16Z p. Contract AF 33(616)6186, Project 8Z24. WADD TR 59-743, Volumc Z
AD-25 1 114:. ;•"

588 Proposal for the Study and Design of a Blood Pressure Meoasuring Device.
Spacelabs, Inc. , (1960).

589 Proposal for an Automatic Blood Pressure Measuring System. Airborne

Systeirs Division, Defense Electronic Products. RC.A. ,(9(I )'.-,

590 "The Pullmeter. " Engineering (London), Volmite 183 (1957) Pages 622-624.

%591 P-urporo, C. , Kildoff, J. and Welkowitz, W. M. , and Traite, M.

"Physiological Transducers for Measurements in Space Vehlicles.
"Proceedings of the National Telemetering Coiference (1959) (Denver,
Colorado) Page 301.

4 592 Putchi, H. N. and Forster, I.ecroy, "Perforreance 'lestiug of the 'Synchro- °.R
6I, ink' PGM/PS System'" WIE Transactions Fifth Nationial Sytpousiomi, 1960
on Space Electronics and Tcleimry,,, Shoreltaim Hotel, Wahimiglon,

593 Putchi. 1i. N. and Nietia'nt, Jr. , If. , "The PCM-PS e'clcic'l, y System''
National Telemeterinug Conference, (1959).

594 Quarterly Progress Reports on Office of Basic Instrumncnts N. B.S.

. Central Air DocuMents) BaIrium Titanate Accelc'rometcrs, Vacutmit
Triodes, Acceleromotters, Spring Transduecru, Magteclic Effects onl
Mechanical Vibrations. National Boureau of Standards (Ccitral Air.
Documents) Report NotnbI.C rS (ASTIA Docutment Ntittth rsb A't'lZ13056,
9A 738, 123 Z52) (1951).

WADD TBR 61-67 561

A VVOl I REV.
 595 Quinn, F. B, Jr., Brecchuer, V. 0. "'Selection ef Phys iolugl: Measurce-
oienfs. ,' Planetary -tnd Space Science, Volume 7, July 1961.

596 Raezer, S. D. and Olsen, H. 1.. - Applied PhYsics Laboratory, Jlohns

Hopkins Uiiiversity. "The Interinitlent Thermometer: A New Telh Luique
for the Measuremnc't of Extr,'me 7'enoperatres, " Synipo ciw.. on. Teolqer-
ature, Its Measu renient and Control in Science and Industr, March Z7-31, "- ..
1961, p. 87, no. C.2.4,

597 Raleigh, Htenry D. and Scott, Raymond I.. , compilers. Nuclear In- .i-"
struinentatior, A Literature Scarch, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission
TID-3550 (R-vý. 1) Jue 1961, -.

598 "Ranger 1 Is Most Sophisticated U. S. Spacecraft. ' Missiles and Rockets,

Volume 9, Number 5, July 1961.

599 Rauch, L. L.. "The Ease of PM-AM vs. FM-FM Telemetry, "(. WE
Transa.ctions of Firofcssional Group on Telem
. try and Remnote Control
June 1960.

600 Remote Indication of Pressures and Displacemerts. Magnet House, -

Kingsway, Lced.>n, The General Electrc Company Ltd.

601 Rice, C. F. Jr. and Smith, R. 0. Perforinance Tests on Two Temperature

Controlled Variable Reluctance Accelerometers, National Bureau of Standards -
Report Number 4259 (1955).

602 Rice, C.-F. Jr. , aiid Smith, 1. 0. Performance Tests on Dasbpot-Damped

Pn~tenti nnnteor - Tore Ac, r!oe,
aols Report 4775 (1 956).
Icc.

603 Rice, Charles F. Jr., and Smith, B. 0. Performance Tests on Two Potentio- .
metueLrTypeAcceleronmtert. National Bureau of Standards Report Number
5175 (1957).

604 Rice, 3. C. Jr. , Central Research Laboratories, Texas Instruineits, Inc. -

Dalas, Texas, "Metastable lielium Sensitive Magnetometer, " IRE Inter-
national Convention March ?0-23, 1961, Session 54. Z.

605 Richter, Jr., Htenry L. , Sampson, William F. , Stevens, Robertson, -

"Microlock A Minimum Weight Radio Instrumentation System for a Satellite, -'.
National T,'le.rn.erh,&f neri, eeort (19,7).

606 Ridland, 1). M. 'Ilhe M. A. F. .. hiecordiig Accele rornete r.' Acrri. Res.
Count. Curr., Paper Number CP177/AHC154Zl (1954). j

607 Roach, men et.h "Measouremcnt 'elAilique for -ligh Vacuum. "Ics t r-tiiucnts
ann Atoniation p. 1 92, November 1954.

608 Robec;'s, R. F. , Edittor 'Mcthods fou the Control of Satellites an:d Space.
Vehicl es, " Volume Isin g atd ictiatitiLg Methods, Systems Corp. of "
America.

609 Roberts, I-Howard C. (VIolver-ity of llliiois) Mechanical Ma.in reinects

Electrical Methods, Secuond Editio,_. Pittsbur-gh Pensylvania, Thi
histrunieits Publishing Coinp.riiy Inco,'ioraled (1951).

WADI) TR 61-67 562

VOL, - I R . 1 .,
 BIB LIOGRIAPIIY

610 Robinson, Paul B. "A Digital Telemeter for Use With Analog Telhrn'tering
Over a Single Channel' National Telemetering Conference May 1961, a
Sheraton Towers Hotel, Chicago.

611 "Rocket Instrumentation for Reliable Upper Atmosphere Temperature

Determination." Proceedings of the IRE, Volume 42 (1954) Pages 1104-
1108.

612 Rohrbach. C. , 'The Major Methods in Stress and Strain Measurements"

(Die Wicntigsten Verlharen der Spannungs und Dehnungsnmessung).
Material prufung,Volume 2, Number 12, December 1960.

613 Rosa, G. N. Some Design Considerations for Liquid Rotor Angular

Accelerometers. Statham Labs Instrumentation Notes Number 26 (1954).

614 Rosen, Alan, Soft Radiation Measurements on Explorer 6 Earth Satellite

Space Technology Laboratory.

615 Rosenbaum, P., Avionics Department, Gafford, R. D. , Technical Develop-

ment Department "A New Method for Analyzing COG Content of Space Cabin
Atmosphere, " Proceedinr of National Telemetering Conference May 1960,
Santa Monica, California.

616 Rose, V. W.
System
"Resistance Temperature Detectors.
33(5), p 790-793. May 1960.
Instrument & Control k
617 Ross, J. A., Techniques of Random Wave Testing, Report Number T-5
Ling Electronics Division Ling-Altec Electronics, Inc. , Anaheim, Calif.

618 RucIhin, tc..r..E. a,,, Juhnson, G. W. S., 'kpparatus for Deterrmining the a
Rate of Indicated A~ir Spee._ A.ee1_ration: United States Patent 2, 799, 164 .!
(1957).

619 Ruzek, V. "An Instrument for Measuring the Changes of Angular Velocity
with an Accuracy of 0.005% of the Nomimal Value. " Slaboprouoy Obzor,
Volume 17, Number 5 (1956) Pages 298-300.

620 Sabin, Horton B. American Bosch Arma Corporation. "Seventeen Ways

to Measure Acceleration." Control Engineering p 106-109. February 1961.

0
621 Sachse, H. B. "Thermistors, 10-600 K,' Electronic Industries, October
1959, pp. 81-83.

622 Sachse, H. B. and Vollmer, G. W., "Thermistor Sensing Elements for -4"45F,"
Electronic Industries, February 1959, pp 67-68.

623 Sachsc, H. B. - Keystone Carbon Company, "Low Temlperature Measure-

ments with Thermnistors, " Symposium on Temperature, Its Measurement
and Control in Science and Industry, March Z7-31, 1961, p. 73, no. B. 6.7.

624 Sachse, H4. B. "Thermistors as Sensing Elements f, . Low Temperatures,

Bulletin de I'Institut Iniernatiornal du Froid, Annexe (1958), pp 145-154. -

625 Sachse, 11. B. "Temperature Measurements Near Absolute Zero,

Ellectronic Industr-ics September 1957, pp 58-59, 106..108, 11.

626 Sachse, H. B. "Design Data for Ultra Low Temperature Thermistor,

Electronic Design, April 30, 1958, pp 30-33.

WADD TR 61-67 563

VOLI REVI

i'74'.'-4,.."'•.:.-'.'...'.".-.-.' ...v. v-. ".-......... ...- --.-.--...- --- "

 BIBLIOGtRAPHtY.,.".

627 11.
1achse,
B. '',ow Resistance TIhe riaistors as Ultra-Cold thcriroilicters,

Electronic Industries, January 1957, pp. 55, 141, 143, 146, 147.

628 Sampson, W. F. "Maxiniuni Utilization of Narrow-Band Data L.inks for

lte rplantary Communications. " Proceedings of the hlth, Volume 48,

April 1960, pp. 589. "-:"

629 Sanchcz, 3. C. The Micro-Sensor (TM) A New Tool for the Experimental
Stress Analyst. Micro Systems Incorporated, A Subsidiary of Llectro-
Optical Systems Incorporated (1960).

630 Sanders, R, W. 'Communication Efficiency Comparison of Several

Conrinurlication Systems, '' Proceedings of the IRE, Volutne 48, April
1960.

631 Sanders, R. W. "Communication Efficiency of Space Telemetry System"

National Telemetering Conference, 1959.

63Z Sanders, R. W. "Digilock Telemetry System" P'roceedings of 1959

National Symposium on Space Electronics and Telemetry.

:'Review of High Temperature Immersion Thermal ,",

633 Sanders, V. D.
Sensing Devices for In-Flight Engine Control, " Review of Scientific,-
Instruments, Volume Z9, no. 11, November 1958, pp. 917-Z8,

634 Sanderson, Glen E., 'Vibration, Acceleration, Pressure, and Position Pick-
up Device, United States Patent 2, 677, 270 (Lockheed Aircraft Corporation)
(1954).

635 Sapoff, Meyer, "The Thermistor--A Specialized Semiconduiclor Sensor, ' L -

Military Systems Design. July-August 1961.

636 Sarrloff, S. J., and Berglund, E. "The Potter Electroturbinometer, and

Instrument for Recording Total System Blood Flow in the Dog. " IRE -
Transactions on Medical Electronics, Volume ME-6 Number 4, December
1959.

637 Saviti, D. "A High Speed Analog-to-Digital Converter." Transactions of the t .

IRE Professional Group on Computers, Volume EC-8 Pages 31-35.

638 "513-466 Infrared, Part I and 513-467 Infrared, Part II, " Publications and
Public Information Division Office of Technical Services U. S. Department
of Comnmerce, Washington 25, D. C.

639 Scarborough, J. 13. The Gyroscope, Theory and Applications, Interscicrre,

Publishers, Inc., New York, (1958).

640 Scarr, R. W. A. and Setteirington, R. A. '"Thermistors, Their Theory,

Manufacture arid Application, '" The Institution of Electrical Engire rs,
Paper Number 3176M, January 1960.

641 Schaefer, E. J., University of Michigan, Nichols, M. II. , San Diego State
College "A Mass Spectrometer for Upper-Air-Measurererts." ARS, Inc.,
New York, N. Y. , 61- 177-1871, Presented at National IAS/ARS Joint .
Meeting, L. A. June 13, 1961.

642 Schalhowsky, A. and Blazek, 1I. F. The Rotating Pendulum Acceleromdent. .- ,•-.- -

AtlS Preprint Report Number 915-59.

WADD TR 61-67 564

VOL I REV I

. . . . . . . '..
. . .- -
.. "- - ?-- ' .
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

643 5charla-Nielsen Hans, and McRae, D. D., "FM/FM Demodulation"

National Telemetering Conference, (1958). " '. Q

644 Scharla-Niclsen, Ilans, "Radio Frequency Link Design for Telemetering,

National Telernetering Conference, (1959). ,

645 Schmidt, Heinz - John Oster Manufacturing Company, lic., "Force Balance
Transducer with a Frequency Output, " Electronic Technology in the Acro- .
Space Age, May 8-10, 1961. .

646 Schuh, W. "Using Strain Gauges for Measuring Large Mechanical Dis-
placements Applied in Oscillation Tests. " Phillips Scrv. Science and r.-v
Industrial, Volume 4, Number 3 (1957) Pages 37-43.

647 Schumacher, B. W. - Ontario Research Foundation, "Determination of

Gas Temperatures Using Beta-Ray Gauges or Electron Beam Probes,
Symposium on Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science
and IndustiY., March 27-31, 1961, p. 108, no. B. 14.5.

648 Schwarz, F. , Chow, W. "Infrared Circuits in Tiros Weather Satellites.

Electronics, Volume 34, Number 38 and 39, Parts 1 and 2, September 22
and 29, 1961.
Sch,;,,artz L. S
649 Schwartz, 1. 5. "Satellite Telemetry Needs New Approaches to Span
Greater Distances. " Space/Aeronautics, Volume 35, Number 6, June
1961.

650 Schwelb. 0. , and 'emcs, C. C. "Th•e,,sor-iiesistor Temperature-

Sýnsing Networks, " Electro-Technology. November 1961.

651 Schwinge, Heinz T. and Wilson, C. E. Jr. A Study of the Accuracy of

Space-Time Systems. Holloman Air Development Center, Ilollornan Air
Force Base, New Mexico Report Number AD-123 734 Unclassified, (Classified
Report Number HADC TR-57-5) (1957).

652 Seatherton, W. A. "A Survey of Temperature Measuring Techniques

Brit. Commun.& Electron 6(10), p. 700-709, (1959) 7.1
- "1
-" .'

653 Seddon, J. Cari, Sporadic E as Observed with Rockets, NASA TN D-1043,

July 1961.

654 Serbu, G. P., Results from Rocket-Borne Langrnuir Probe Exueriment, aJ

NASA, Wasington, D.C. TN D-570 July 1961.

655 Shanahan, E. F. "Operational Problems in Aircraft Telenmetering"

IRE Proceedings of 1957 National Symposium on Teleineterinig.

656 Shapiro, I. R. , Stolarik, J, D. , and Heppner, 3. P. The Vector Field

Proton Magnetometer for ICY Satellite Ground Stations NASA TN D-358. 6.

657 Shaw, G. S. "The AN/AKT-14 Telemetry System Introduction Part I" IRE
"Transactions of Professional Group on Telenmetry arid Remote Contrcl a'
March 1956.

658 Shenfeld, Saul, Manke, Herbert, and Soderberg, Emil "Air Analog-to-Digital - - '
2 System for Recording Angular Rotation. " U. S. Navy Underwater Sound
Laboratory, Fort Trumbull, New London, Coin. Autoniatic Control,
October 1961.

WADD TR 61-67 565 "

VOL I REV 1

%.............. . . -.... .... --

S,-...-, --'..,., .- "... "-.'...-. . " " . v . ,- . - , ,- -.-.
 BIBDIOGRAPHY .

659 Shepard, E. S. Sr. "Magnetic Springs for Accelerometers." Control

Engineering, Volume 4 (1957) Pages 143-145.

660 "Shock and Vibration lest Equipment. ' Electro-Techulolopgy•, February

196Z.

661 Sicinski, H. S. et al., 'Pressure and Density Measurements Through Partial

Piessures of Atmospheric Ccmponents at Minimum Satellite Altitudea,
Scientific Uses ot Earth Satellites (1956).

66Z Siev, Robert, Aerojet General Corporation. '"MAass Flow Measurement. " ,
Instruments and Control Systemns,

663 Simmons, F. S. and Glawe, G. E. Theory and Design of a Pneumatic

Temperature Probe and Experimental Results in a H-igh Temperature
Gas Stream, NACA TN 3714.

664 Singer, S. F. Measurement of Interplanetary Dust, Scientific Uses of Earth

Satellites, Editor J. A. Van Allen (1956).

665 Sink, R. L. "The Use of PCM in Data Links With Satellites, Space Vehicle
and long Range Missiles" Proceedings of 1959 National Symposium on
Space Electronics and Telemetry.

666 Sink, R. IL. "A Survey of PCM Progress" Proceedings of National

Telemetcring Conference, May 23-24-25, 1960, Santa Monica, California.

667 Sink, R. L. Pettingall, C. E. , and Posthill, P. N. "An Automatic Data

Handling System at High Speed and High Capacity" IRE Transactions of
Professional Group on Telemetry and Remote Control, March 1959.

666 Sink, Robert L., "Angular Position Transducer," United States Patent 2, 775, 755
Consolidated Electrodynamics Corporation (1956).

669 Skopinski, T. H., Aiken, W. S. Jr., and Huston, W. B, Calibration of

Strain Gage Installations in Aircraft Structures for the Measurement of
Flight Loads, NACA Technical Note 2993, August 1953.

6.70 Smedal, Harold A., Holden, George R. and Smith, Joseph R. , Jr., A
Flight Ev.luation of an Airborne Physiological InstrumentationSystem,rn
'ncluding Preliminary Results Under Conditions of Varying Accelerations.
National Aeronautics and Space Admin. Technical Note D-351, December
1960.

671 Smith, E. G. "An Unusual Electronic Analog-to-Digital Conversion Method.

Transactions of the IRE Professional Group on Instrumentation, Volume
PGi-5 (1956) Pages 155-160.

672 Sinitt,, D. D. "Telemetering Phy, iuloical Data. " Naval Research Reviews,
October 1961.

673 Smith, J. E. and Bzyars"Simnultaneous Calibrated Recording of Displacement,

Velocity and Acceleration in Balliistocardiography," American lHearl Journal, K.

(195Z) Page 715.

674 Smith, 1F. A. Jones, F. F. and Chasniar, R. P. Thv Detection and Measure-
,nent of Infrared Radiation. Oxford University Press, (1958).

675 Smith, R. L. Jr., "Automatic Checkout for Saturn Stages, " Astronautics,
February 1962.

WADD TB 61-67 566 --

VOL, I REV Itl

'4,

?4-•""•'%/
•. 4" .. " " "" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '• "lob:
 BIBLIOGRAPIIY _. A

676 Smith, R. 0. Performance Tests on A Type 4-9 Accelerometer Manu-

factured by Trans-Soitics Incorporated. National Bureau of Standards .. g

Report Number 1B112 (1952).

677 Smith, R. 0. Performance Tests on The Type 4-10 Accelerometer Manu-

factured by Trans-Sonics. National Bureau of Standards Report Number

678 Smith, R. 0. and Lede,-er, P. S. The Shock Tube as a Facility for Dynamic
Testing of Pressure Pickups. National Bureau of Standards Report Number
4910 (1957). 7ý-

679 Smith R. W., Twclve Digit Binary Encoder, Avion Division ACF Industries,
Incorporated, Report Number 2 (ASTIA Document Number AD 125Z42)
(1957).

680 Smotherman, W. E., A Miniature Wafer-Style Pressure Transducer,

Arnold Engineering Development Center for U. S. Air Force, October 1960.

681 Snyder, H. W. "Velocity Meter has Direct Readout. " Electronics, Volume
Z9, Number 10 (1956) Page 246.

68Z "Some Problems Associated with the Measurement of Very Low Pressures, ".A

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1958).

683 "Spectrophotometer to Investigate Existence of Vegetation on Mars.

Aviation Week and Space Technology, Volume 74, Number 18, May 1961.

6C4 Spencer, N. W. and Boggess, R. L,. "A Radioactive Ionization Gage

Pressure Measurement System. " ASR Journal, Volume 29, Number 1
(1959). -2 -

685 Spencer, N. W. and Dow, W. G., "Density-Gage Methods for Measuring Upper
Air Temperature, Pressure and Winds," Rocket Exploration of the Upper
Atmosphere (1954).

686 Spilker, J. J. "Theoretical B'ounds on the Performance of Sampled Data

CG rnunication Systems" IRE Transactions on Circuit Theory, September
1960,

687 Spratt, HI. C. M., Transducer Characteristics: Measurement of Displace-

ment, Velocity, Acceleration, Volume 3A (1957) Pages 2.8.

688 Stafford, Walter H. , Croft, Robert M. , Artificial Earth Satellites and

S-•e,.efful Solar frobes, 1957-1960 3-i961 NASA IN D-601,

689 "Standarizing and Measuring Precision Transducers. " Electromechanical

Design Components and Systems, Volume 3, Number 2 (1959) Pages 36-39.

690 Standard Material, NBS Volume 45, Number 3, March 1961.

A
691 Staisdards for PCM Data Handling Systems. Aircraft Industries Association
of America, Incorporated, Los Angeles 36, California Report ATG Number
AR TC- 19 (1959).

692 Stanforth, C. M. - General Electric, "Rotating Temperature Measurements,

Symposium on Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and II-
dustry, March 27-31, 1961, p. 85, no. C. 1.2. -. 5,.,

S693 Starr, J. E. "Strain Gages Versus Temperature, " Automatic Control

March 1961,

WADD TR 61-67 567

VOL I REV 1

-'- ....... .....

,- ," t:¢.-''" :- :, .--
:--22--..':,'-,2..-'.
"2 .. " 2 ... 2.::. 2,- --' -::2::.2: - . .... .. - ,. -7 - . : -7 .:.": - ,---: 2 -" -2'-2-.-2 -- ::.:
 4. .- @

BIBLIOGRAPIHY

Development
694 Status of Transducer Development. Research and Advanced
Division, Avco Corporation, Wilmington, Massachusetts Technical
Operating Report BOB Approval Number Z1-R138.

Strain Sensors,
695 Stein, Peter,"Survey of Commercially Available Semiconductor
Strain Gage Readings, Volume III Number 5, p. 17-22. December 1960-
January 1961.

State
696 Steinberg, Robert, A Technique for Increasing the Sensitivity of a Solid
Fission Probe, NASA TN D 1054, August 1961.

"Accelerometer Calibration. " Proc. Soc. Environmental'

697 Stephenson, H. W.
Engineers, 1, p 68-82. (1959-1960).

D. C.
693 Stern, J. and Thompson, M. National Bureau of Standards, Washington.
"The Measurement of Strain. ' I. NBS; II Genural Sources ;III Specific
References to Published Literature. A. "High Temperature Strain Measure-
"ment, " and B. "Transmission of Strain Signals from Rotating Machines.
NBS, July 1958.

Stiltz, Hlarry L. , Editor, Aerospace Telemctry Prentice-Ha)l, Inc.

699
Englewood Cliffs, N. J. , Published, (1961) 497 pages.

700 Stirling, P. H. andH.O.Henry. "Trouble Shooting with Strain Gages."

Industrial and Engineering Cbemistry, May 1961.

701 Stow, E. J. A Comparison of the Reciprocity and Interferonmeter -"

Methods of Calibrating Piezoelectric Accelerometers. David Taylor i.,.. .a"

Model Basin, Washington D. C. Report Number 786 Page 8 (1954).

702 "Strain Gauge Remote Metering. " Teletech and Electronics Industries, "
Volume 12 (1953) Page 73.

Stratton, T. F. - Los Alamos Scientific Lab., "Plasma Electron Temperature -'

703
by Spectroscopy in the X-Ray Region, " Symposium on Temperature, Its
Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, March 27-31, 1961, -
A
, p. 113, no. C.4.

704 Strutt, M. J. 0., and Sun, S. F. "Multiphase Wattmeters Based on the

Magneto-Resistance Effect of Semiconductor Compounds" IRE Instrumentation
Volume i-10, Number i, June 1961, Fagý 44. " '-1

". W
705 Stuart, Alfred A, "Ionizing True Airspeed Indicator," United States Patent
2, 783, 647 (1957).

706 Stubner, Franz W., A•ccelerometer." United States Patent 2, 68Z, 003 (1954).

707 A Study of Flight Instrumentation for Vehicles Operating in the Fringe of,
or Outside of the Earth's Atmosphere. Bell Aircraft Company Report
Number 60009-001 (Volume 4 Investigation of Sensing Techniques) WADC
Contract AF33-(616(5943. (WADC TR 59-567).

708 "A Study of the Crashes during Landing of Two Instrumented F6F Drone Aircraft"
-
Human Yactors Research, Incorporated, Technical Report Number Z on
Measurement oof Frces Affectine Human Bodies in Aircraft Accidents (19561. ." . ._-

WADD TR 61-67 568

VOLI REVI

N% ............................................................................
. .

.
. ..%•. - •-,
• • %. .% " - %. "•. . %'%•,%.'%'.% • - . -'• .- -. - - , .. . ... .. ' ". .'. , -. • , - ,.. .- 1
 BIBLIOGRAPIIY

709 Susskind, A. K., Edition. Notes on Analog-Digital Conversion '1echniqu-s.

John Wiley and M.I.T. Technology Press (1957).

710 Sutterer, W. F. , and Wood, E. 11. •

"Strain-gauge Manomneters;
Application to Recording of Intravascular and Intracardiac
Pressures. " Glasser, Otto: Medical Physics Volume 3, 641-651
Chicago, The Year Book Publishers, Inc. (1950)

711 Sweitzer, Dorothy, compiler, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California

Institute of Technology. "Measurement of Gamma Radiation.
Astronautics Information, Literature Search NuTmber 205, Ccnlt-act NASw.-
6, March i, 1961.

712 Tachometer Calibrator. Gambrell Brothers and Company Incorporated.

713 Tarbox, J. "Strain Gages" ISA Journal, Volume 2 p. 107, Atpr;L 1955. .. •

714 Teichmann, T. "Some Elementary Considerations of Satellite Card,

Communication Systems. " IRG Trans. Space Elec, and TelemetijL,
June 1961.

715 Telander, Edward J. "Automatic Digital Readout System for Telemietry"

IRE Proceedings of ýhe 1958 National Symposium on Telcmetering.

716 Telemetry System Study. Final Report Aeronutronic Divisien of Ford

Motor Company, Newport Beach, California, Publication Number U-
743, (1959).

for Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) "-

717 Telemetry Working Group, "Standards ad.
Telemetry" IRE Transactions of Professional Group on Teleetry
Remote Control, December 1959.

71E "Temperature Instrumentation. " Instruments and Control Systems, Volume

33, Number 11 (1960) Pages 1917-1928.

719 Tepper, M., Fundamentals of Radio Telemetry. Rider Publications (1959)

720 Terbush, R. T. General Engineering Lab. General Electric Company,

"Improved Sonic Pyrometer, " Symposium on Temperature, Its Measure-
ment and Control in Science and Industry, March 27-31, 1961, p. 63, no.
3. 5.4.

741 TerVeen, L.A.G., "New Developments in Miniature Telenetering t-cku",'s!'l

1955 National Telemetering Conference, Chicago (1955) Page 63. k
72z TerVeen, L. A. G. and Siltarnaki, I1. A., "Accelerometers:' United States
Patent 2, 767,973 (1956). %...

723 "The Data Systems for Explorer VI and Pioneer V" IRE Transactions of -' '
Professional Group on Telemetry and Remote Control, September-December
1960.

724 Thermocouple Calibration. NBS, Volume 45, Number 3, March 1961.

725 The Theory and Application of FM/FM Telemetry, Bendix Aviation

Corporation, Pacific Division.

726 "Thermistor Coordinates. " Electromechanical Design Components and

Systems, Volume 3, Number 2, (1959) Page 40.

727 Thermistor Manual, Fenwal Electronics, Incorporated (1960).

WADD TR 61-67 569

VOLlI REVi1

V r &.
- . . . . '. '.. ..• . - .. .. . , ." . .- ' .. •.-. . - .,. - - ,. ' ...
" "'C-.. . ., - Cc ,,% -• .'t2 N,'>
, ;~.~
 BIBLIOGRAPHIY

728 Thompson, D. - Taylor Instrument Company "Recent Developroetits in

Liquid-in-Glass Thermornetry," Symnposium on Temperature, Its
Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, March Z7-31, 1961,
p. 101, no. P.5. 2.

7Z9 Thompson, J. L. "Wire Strain-Gauge Transducers for the Measurement

of Pressure, Force, Displacement and Acceleration. " Journal Brit.
Instn. Radio Engineers, Volume 14 (1954) Page 573.

730 "Thrust Measurement. " Biltmore Industries, Technical Bulletin TD-106

May 22, 1961. %

731 Thurlemann, B. "Electromagnetic Measurement of the Velocity of

Liquids. " Helv. Physics Acta., Volume Z8, Number 5-6, (1955) Pages -
483-485.

73Z Thurston, E. G. "Simple Triggering and Marking System for Measuring

Shock Wave Velocities in Tubes. " Journal Acoustical Soc. America, Volume
Z7, Number 735 (1955).

733 "Tiros II Radiometer, " Missile Design and DevelopmentMarch 1961.

Barnes Engineering Company.

734 Tobe, S. S. Study of Instrumentation Requirements for Structural Fligh-

Testing of Aircraft at High Mach Numbers. Aeronautical Structures
Lab., Naval Air Experimental Station. Final Report Number ASL NAM ýq-
AD-226. I Pt 2 (1955).

735 Tolles, Walter, E. and Carbery, W. J. A Systenm for Monitoring the

Electrocardiogram During Body Movement. Aero MedicalI Laboratory
Wright Air Development Center, Air Research and Development Command
United States
Technical Air 58-453,
Report Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force
ASTIA Document Number ADBase, Ohio
Z15538 WADC
(1959).";- . - -

736 Towle, J. H. Design and Evaluation of the NAES Type D-9-350 Temperature .
Controlled Accelerometer. Aeronautical Structures Laboratory, Naval
Air Experimental Station, Philadelphia, Penosylavania Report Number
ASL NAM DE-Z50. 5, Part 1 (1953).

737 Transducers - A Compilation Useful Primarily in Oscillography. Allen B. "

Dumont Laboratories, Incorporated (1953).

1
738 Trans duccr Studies. Aerial ý'easue ont , lahoratory. Northwestern
University, Evanston, Illinois Report (Second Letter) on Contract NOas
58-538-C (1959).

739 Transducers, A Compilation of Presently Available Products, Aeroiutronic,

A Division of Ford Motor Company, Space Technology Division, Newport
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740 "Transducers in Atomic Factories. ' Electrical Jouinal, Volume 155

(1955) Page 320.

741 "Transistor Meter Jet Fuel Flow. " Electronics, Volume 30, Number 194
(1957).

742 Transm•itter, Accelerometer Type TIRU-3/A, Technical Manual, Overhaul,

Published under Authority of the Secretary of the Air Force Report Number
T.O. 5FI0-5-Z-3 (1959).

WADD TR 61-67 570

VOL I REV I

.- ,
. N
%
•-••:)F7•-:••`5F•
•:•<`•• - ..
.••7 .
• 5-• 2-22 7;222222227:.2222222;::2 :(7::2222LI2(Ly'i.2-72.2)"22:]2227222[222.2I
 - .. ,°

BIBLIOGRAPHY ""

743 Trent, C. H. "investigation of Combustion in Rocket Thrust Chambers,

Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Volume 48, April 1956, pp 749-58. f.

744 "True Mass Flowmeter Jet Fuel Flow. " Electronechanical Design Components .-
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745 Truxal, J. G. Control Engineers Handbook. McGraw-Hill (1958).

746 "Turbine Flowmeter Pickoff. " Electromechanical Design Components and

S•stems. Volume 3, Number 2, Pager 14-16.

747 "Two-Coordinate Accelerometer. " Instruments in Industry, Volume 2,

Number 67 (1955).

748 "Typical Space System - Equipment LisC'Missile Design and Development,

January 1961. [
749 Uglow, Kenneth M. "Noise and Bandwidth in FM/FM Radio Telemetering,"
IRE Transactions of Professional Group on Telemetry and Remote Control. . . -,

May 1957...-

750 Uglow, Kenneth M. "Noise and Bandwidth in PDM/FM Radio Telemetering, 0 -.-

IRE Proceedings of 1957 National Symposium on Telemetering.

751 Ultrasonic Liquid Level Switches, Acoustica Associates Incorporated,

Acoustica Document DO 550-B (1960).

752 Van Doren, M. L. "A Complete System for the Flight Testing of Piloted
Aircraft'; IRE Transactions of Prnfessional Group on Telvi..t •y and"
.Remote Control, May 1955.

753 Vane, Francis F. The TMB Portable Calibrator for Vibration Transducers.
David Taylor Model Basin Report Number 909 (1954).

754 Varwig, Robert L. An Optical Shock Velocity Measuring System tor the
Shock Tube. Naval Ordnance Laboratory NAVORD Report Number 3901
(1955).

755 VECO Data Book, V 42, Victory Engineering Corporation, (1959). -.

756 "Velocity Pickups. " Instruments and Control Systems, April 1959, p 539.'--

757 'Vibration. " (Wfice of Technical Services, Department of Commerce.

OTS Selective Bibliography, 55-436. (1961).

758 Vibration and Noise Survey Reports Issued for 1960, Pearl Harbor Naval
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759 Vidal, Robert J. A Resistance Thermometer for Transient Surface Measure-

ments. Cornell Acro. Laboratory Incorporated. (1956).

760 Vigness, I. "The Fundamental Nature of Shock and Vibration, " Electrical
Manufacturing, June 1959, p 89.

761 Vigness, Irwin. Some Recent Developments of Self-Recording Gages

for Measurin. the Intensity of Mechanical Shock- United States Naval
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762 Vigor, C. W. and Hornaday, J. R. - Research Laboratories, General

Motore, "A Thermocouple for Measurement of Temperature Transients ''1
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Control in Science and Industry, March 27-31, 1961, p. 60, no. 13.4.4.

WADD TR 61-67 571

VOL I REV I

- . " ., ', ,%€ """ -.-

• % ""•" - ,"". . , ,..."...."..."..',-: ', .' ,. ' ,,..-." .. ".' .. ",, '- -"-
' . ,,•-"
.. , "-""
 BIIILIOGI(APIITY

763 Vinson, D. N. A Survey ot Commer cial Measuring 5).,tcm s, Associated

Pickups and T'ransducers. Flecerical Laboralory, Mtsil Sc ranch
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EL-M4 (1953).

764 Viskanta, V. A., Armour Research Foundation Chicago, Ill. AStnd.1yjj-

Rotary Speed Measuring Techniques, Ceiilract Al' 33(616)6.171 WADD-
TR-60-210, AD 257 998, Proj. 8224, February 1960.

765 Viterbi, A. 3. "On Coded Phase Coherent Communications" IRE,

Transactions of Professional Group on Space Electronic and Telemetry.

766 Voas, Robert B. "'Project Mercury the Astronaut Training Program, "
Paper presented to Symposium on Psychophysiological Aspects ef Space
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Electronics Volume ME-7, January 14, 1959.

767 Von Vick, George 'Transducer Evaluation, A Space Age Tool, '

Proceedings of National Telemetering Conference, May 1960,

Santa Monica, California.

768 Vrolyk, J. J. Rocketdyne, "A Rocket Engine Heat Flux Transducer,

Symposium on Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science
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769 Wacholder, B. V. and E. Fayer, Study of Instrumentation and Techniqiies

for Monitoring Vehicle and Equipment Environments at Iligh Altitudes.
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770 Wagner, E. B. and lIurst, G. S. "Advances in the Standard Proportional

Counter Method of Fast Neutvion Dosimetry. Review of Scientific
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771 Wagner, Walter, Hypsometer for Constant Level Balloon, June 1960,
ASTIA AD 250-583.

772 Walder, F. An Airborne Recording Tachomneter Using Thlyratrons.

Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (Great Britain)
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773 Walenta, Ivan E. , and Catmor, Benjamin V. A Sinusoidal Vibrator for

Generating Nigh Acceleration at High Frequencies. Jei Proliulbiui Lab-
oratory, California Institute of Technology, Technical Report Number
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774 Walker, R. E. and Westenberg, A. A. "Absolute Low Speed Anemometer.,"

Review of Scientific Instruments, Volume 27 (1956). Pages 844-848.

775 Wallach, Bernard H. "Rotational Vibration Response of Inertial Instru-

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776 Wanetick, Saul, Philadelphia, Pa. "Radioactive Transducer, " Patent

3, 024, 364, Official Gazette, March 6, 196Z,

777 Ware, Ray W., "A Method for In-Flight Measurement of Systolic and
Diastolic Blood Pressure, Pulse Rate, and Rate and Depth of Respiration.
(School of Aerospace Medicine, Brooks AFB3, Texas) Paper presented at
the Pan American Medical Assn. Scientific Meeting, Mexico City, May
1960.

WADD TR 6!-67 572

VOLI REV I

....................
. N ... . . . . . . . .. . ... . .%.
 13113B,10GRAP1 I Y

778 Warshawsky, I and Kulns, P. W. Lewis Research Center, NASA

"Review of the Pneumatic..Proge Thermometer, " Symposium on
Temperature, Its Measurement and Contrel in Science and Industry
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779 Warshawsky, I. "Measure'ment of Rocket Exhaust Gas Temperatures, "

Journal of Instruments, Society of America, Vol. 5, No. 11 November
9 1 9 8
1958, pp - .

780 Warzecha, T. D. "A Wide Band Radio Link Telenictecring System"

National Telemetexring Conferenc.e 1956.

781 Warzecha, T. D. "Pulse Code Modulation of Commutated Subcarrier -

Channels" IRE Proceedings of the 1958 National Symposium on
Tel m etcrng.

782 Watson, Larry C. and Goldstein, Melvin, "Compa itive Merits of

Analog and Digital Telemetering, " National Telemetering Conference,
(1959).

783 Webb, R. C. Data Processing Systems Part Z, Precision Shaft Angle

Transducers and Digitizer. Denver Research Institution University of
Denver Report Number AD 73495 (AS'TIA Document Number) (1955).

784 Webber, D. A. "Acceleration Measurements During Drop Tests."'

RAE Tn Struc. (Great Britain) Voluore 198 (1956) Page 15.

785 Webber, W. R. "New Determination of the Intensities of Primary

CosInic Ray Alpha Particles and Li, B Nuclei at x a 41. 50 Using
a Cerenkov Detector. " 11 Nuovo Cimento, Vol1ume 4, Series X
(1956) Pages 1285-1306.

786 Weigle, Robert E. and Throop, J. F. Report on the Preliminary Ex-

ploration and Evaluation of Methods for the Measurement of Pressure -_:
Deflection Characteristics of Ilourdon Tubes. Submitted to the Research [
Committee on Mechanical Pressure Elements of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers at the Cleveland Meeting June 20, 1956, ,
Rensselaer Polytechnic institute, Troy, New York (1956). -'

787 W.il, RS . ?ethod of Teloirete'riuig Temperature Data. "

"A
Journal of Instrument Society of America, Volume 2 (1955) Page 502.

788 Weinreb, H. L. , et. al. "The Measurement of Digital Arterial Blood

Pressure; A Comparison of the 'Flush-Throb' Method, Direct
Auscultatory and Electron Microphone Technique." AMA Archives
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789 Weippert, J. J, , Piontkowski, J. S. and Husky, M. J. , "Extreme

Environment Telemeter" Proceedings of 1959 National Symposium
on Space Electronics and Telemetry.

790 Weis, Edmund B. Jr. Captain United States Air Force (MC).
Development of an Oxygen Partial Pressure Transducer. Wright
Air Development Center, Air IUesearch and Development Command,
United States Air Force Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. ,
WADC Technical Note 59-395 (1959).

791 Weise, E. K. Jentschke, W. and Robinson, T. W. , Thermistors as

Tools in Research and Development, USAF Technical Report Number
5824, September 1949.
WADD TR 61-67 573
VOL I REV I

?3. .........-. .......- .......- ................

 BIBIIOGRAPHIY

792 Weisnian, Lloyd and Teltscher, Erwin, "A Pulse Position Telemetry
System" Proceedings of 1959 National Symposiwum on Space Electronics
and Telnietry.

793 Weiss, D. 0. "Design and Application of Accelerometers,"Proe. SESA.

Volume IV, Number 11.

794 Werner, F. D. Time Constant and Self-Hleating Effect for Temperature-

Probes in Moving Fluids. lRosemount Engineering Comnpany REG bulletin
106017.

795 Werner, F. D. - Rosemount Engineering Company, "Recent Developlnents

in Applied Platinum IResistan:e 'heirnioxnetry, " Symposium on Tempo ranr'
Its Measuremnent and Control in Science and Industry. March 27-31, 1961,
p.89, no. 13.7. 4.

796 Werner, F. D. and Geroyjirne, R. L. Applications of the Corona Discharge

for Measurements of Density and Velocity Transientg in Air Flow. Wright
Air Development Center Report Number 53-142. (1953).

797 Weraer, F. D. , Geronime, R. L_. and leppel, R. F. Development of an

Accurate, Rugged, Miniaturized Pressunre Gauge H eadily Adapted to
Digital Output. Rosement Aero Laboratory University of Minnesota
Report Number AEDC-TR-54-74 (ASTIA Document Number AD58363)
(1954).

798 Welch, A. P.- "A Proposed New Shock Measuring lnstrument!' Proc.
SESA, Volume V, Number 1 (1947).

799 Whalen, W. J. and Whaien,R. t. "Deilaan. CUniLlluvvo PJeu1-,Ograph. , m

Review Science Instruction, Volume 26, (1955) Page 1073. .

800 White, Charles E. "Pressure Standards Laboratory. " Instruments and

Control Systems, Volume 33, Number 8 (1960) Page 1.433.

801 White, S. C. Johnston, H. S. Pesnian, G. J. "Review of Biomedical

Systems for MR-3 Flight." Washington, D. C. Proceedings of a Con-
ference on Results of the First U. S. Manned Suborbital Space
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802 White, V. J. Performance Tests on Two Servo Accelerometers. National

Bureau of Standaids Report Number 6603 (1959).

803 Whyte, G. N. Principles of Radiation Dosimetry, New York; John Wiley

and Sons Incorporated (1959).

804 Wianco, T. H., "Angular Accelerometer'.' U.S. Pat, a, 759, 157 Aug. 14, '56. -'-

805 Wick, Robert S. - Nonlinear Aspects of Measurement of Oscillatory

Hlydraulic Flow, Jet Propulsion Laboratory Memorandum Numter "
20-104.

806 Wildhack, W. A. "Teleflight Accelerometers and Pressure Transmitters."

Review of Scientific Instruments, Volume 19, Number 5 (1948)

807 Wildhack, W. A. and Smitlhl1. 0.,'l Basic Method of Determining the . '.
Dynamic Characteristics of Accelerometers by Rotation," Delivered
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Instrument Society of America. Paper Nuivber 54-40-3 (1954).

WADD TR 61-67 574

VOL I REV 1

¶- "."-7'.v,2,_%-' -2.'-:-X'. , -.- '- "'-" .'-'. ........ %---,

 BIBLIOGRAPHY

808 Wilkinson, K. 1, Bradley, J. W. Orniord, L.,. A., Herman,lt.

"Naval Air Test Center PCM "Iclemetry Sys e.... National Teleietering,.
Conference May 1961 Sheraton Towers liotcl. ("hicigo. 4"

809 Williams, T. J. "''IdicatingGas Speed, Piclup for (Gthode Ray Oscillos- ope.,. ' -
Engineering (London), Volume 183 (1956) Pa'ts 36,-,-370.

810 Williams, W. F. "Space Telemetry Systenms" Proceednifl.rof th, IRE,

Volume 48, k.pril 1960, pp 685. *, *-

811 Willis, E. A., Performance Tests on Five Plistic Element Potentiometers,

National Bureau of Standards Report Number 5315 (1957).

812 Willmore, A. P. "Instrumentation for the First Anglo-American Scout -

Satellite. " Journal liritish interplanetar Sov. , Volume 18, January-- -
February 1961, Page 11.

813 Winkler, E. M. "Design and Calibration of Stagnation lenmperature Probes -

for Use at High Supersonic Speeds and Elevated Temperatures, " Journal
of Applied Physics, Volume 25, February 1954.

814 Wisea B. and Schultz, D. L. The Hot Wire Anci.iorneter 'or Turbulence
Measurements, Part 3. Aeronautical Research Council (Great Britain) . '
ARC Report Number 16679, Fluid Motion Sub-Committee Report FM
1537 b OUEiL-69 (1954).

815 Wissinger, A. B. "Stratc'scope 11 2elensetry and Command. ' Astronautics

Volume 6, Number 5, lacy 1961.

816 Witherspoon, J. E. "State of the Art, 1960 Insti. and Control. " - -
Astronautics, November 1960.

817 Wolfe, A. E. Shock Tube for Gage-Performan.e Studies. Report Number """
20-87, May 2, 1955. . * i

818 Wolff, E. R. The Dc clopment ef a Mass Flow Probe. Utniversity of Toronto

Institution of Aerophysics Technical Note 12 (1957). . "

819 Wood, Charles, Kearfott Divisi'on. General Precision, Inc. "'Hall Effect
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820 Wood, W, D., De(ni, II. W. and C. F. Lucks, Methods of Measuring

Emmittance, Defense Metals Information Center, Colunmbus, Ohio, DMIC
Memo Number 78, 19p. 30 rcfs. ile beui , P-60.
i6..

82. Woods, W. W, "Ihickness Gage fur Dielectric Materials," AIEE Trans

Paper (19541 ...-.

822 Woodbury, R. C. Some Instrurnentation Requirement of a Nonpecriodi c

6-nI s Sawtee•th Pulse. JPL Public atiUn, Number 790, NASA Contract
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823 Work, R. N., A Sensitive Differential Caipajitor Micr.....oiete. Plastics

iaboratory, Princeton Univers:ity '[echn:ical Report 37-A (1955). -

824 ''Working Group oii Therioistors and Va ristors, Teintilvcly Apprroved

Dvfinition," Electronic Industries Association, p 1. 6.

.-, .., -.1

WADD I1 61-67 575 - '.

"VOL
I RL-l I-- ,

-..... .<. `. `-.•`.-

. . . . Q...
. 2``
. . . '-.
`... *. -. ..... -N `..-. . -.. `..-
*. -....... '.'C
A.`,..A.,-- < -. < :..: .-2--
': `.`..- ...... ".." .-.-.--....
.... . ...
.-
 BIB3! JOGRAPI-Y .

825 Worinser, E. M. "I' Instrumentaiion a Sure Bet for Spacecraft. "

Space/Aeronautics, Volume 36, Number 2, August 1961.

8Z6 Worme E..M. Barnes Engineering Comnpany, Farrall, It. A. General ..-
Electric Company, Donovan, P. F. , Bell Telephone Lab., Inc. , "Solid
State Radiation Sensors.' Control Engincerina, pp 142-155, Sept. 1961. -

827 Wrathall, Taft "Mea.suring Impace Pressures of Re-Entering Missile

Nose Cenes." ISA Journal, Volume 6, Number 10 (1959) Page 54.

828 Wray, Phillip G. High Range Mach Number Indicator, Eclipse Pioneer .
Division, Contract AF' 33(038)14119. Equipment Laboratory, Wright Air
Development Center, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio Technical
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829 Yaffee, C. D,., et al, ';ncyclopedia of Instrumentation a Sure Bet for

Spacecraft." Space/Aeronautics, Volume 36, Number 2, August 1961.""

830 Yatnall, F. G., "High Temperature Strain Gage Research. " Atomic
Energy Commnission. Publ., AECU 3003, 120 pp TI. D.TJ. Unpubl.
Reb. list, Number 645, January 3, 1957.

831 Yeaple, Frank. "New Look at Temperature-Measuring Transducers.'

Product Engineering, May 22, 1961.

832 "Zero Length TUnbonded Strain Gage."1 Electromechanical Design Corn-

ponents and Systems. Volume 3, Number 2 (1959) Pages 18-20.

833 Ziegler, J. G. and Nichols, N. B. "Dynamic Accuracy in Temperature

Measurement, " Instruments, Volume 23, January 1950.

834 Zuehlke, Mr. A., Bourns, Inc., Acro-Space Instrumentation Symposium,

April 30-May 4, 1961.

835 Zuideina, George D., Edelbcrg, Robeot, and Salzmaan, Edwin, "Vi
Device for Indirect Recording of Blood Pressure. " Journal of Applied
Physiology 9, 132-134, (1956) Also Wright Air Development Center
Technical Report 55-427. ,. -

:'.'- "--

. , ",

•° •~. o, '.4

WADD TR 61-67 576

VOL I REV I

""--.- . . - .. -,, . -. . . . .r .. . . -. . . .- , . . . . -
 %. - * p -. .

INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY 4

ACCELERA TION

Doppler Speedometer- I
Drop Tests- 784
Iandicating System- 405
Flight Take-off - 513
Gravity - 169
Measurement- 540, 620
Measuring System - 380, 773
Pickup - 634
Pilot Tolerance - 142
Pitch - 117

ACCELERATION, ANGULAR A.-

Tests - 427

ACCELEROMETER

Aircraft Crash- 9'-" "

And Psychology - 110
Angular - 427, 613, 804
Application - 793 56.
Automatic Counting -561
British - 3 .'4.
Calibration - 375, 464, 554, 555, 697
Design - 793 -.-
Dynamic Characteristics - 807
Electrolytic- 568'-
Evaluation - 64, 736 7
Fuzed-Quartz Suspension - 359
General- 440
Generators - 374
Lteraturc Su r.v 128
Magnetic Springs - 659
Piezoelectric - 364, 82Z
Properties - 352
Recording- 606
Response - 443, 439
Rotating Pendulum - 642
Selection - 541
Self-Generating- 277

WADD TR 61-67 577

VOL I REV 1

I N *. I -. * ----. I . . . . . . . . . . . .
 - - . -- - -*-- *.--

INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

Servo - 137, 802 .""

Statistical - 357
Strain Gauge - 429 ""___
String - 11"
Teleflight - 806
Transit Time - 365
U.S. Patent - 511, 706, 722 " -A
Variable Inductance - 528

ACCELEROMETER, ANGULAR - -

United States Patent - 804

ACOUSTICAL '--.

Attenuation -482 -
Condenser Microphone - 395
Space Vehicles - 186
Standards - 13
Velocity - 48.

AIR-SPEED

Apparatus - 618
General - 552
Indicator - 705
Measurement - 179, 471 ,. -o

Response -162 ',

Test Results - 185 .

ALTITUDE ~..~
Gene r-al - 552
Measurement - 93, 251.
Survey of Measuring Methods -267 -.

ANEMOMETER ..

Calibration - 3Z9
Hot Wire - 329, 406, 814
Low Speed - 774
Thermocouple- 56

578
WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV1

.-.- ... ,.... ,.:.-.-..... ..,.. ...... :.............-....- .-....... .......•.......

, , ,:,. ,....-- ,? ?-
1- f.t. - --

INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANGLE- OF-ATTACK

Indicator- 92

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Human Engineering - 331

Instrument Parts - 59
Pressure - 94 .".
Temperature - 285
Vibration - 757

BIOPHYSICAL

Acceleration -142
Apparatus - 184,156, 495, 710
Automatic States - 156
Ballistocardiography - 673
Bio-Medical Monitorin.! In Space - 425, 109, 258, 270
Bios I- 152 -
Blood Flow - 636
Blood Pressure - 360, 99, 121, 182, 187, 249, 358, 531, 588, 589, 710,
777; 788; 735
COz Content- 615
Electrocardiogram - 735
Eye Movement- 91, 208
Eye Position - 208
Flowmeter - 236
Heart Rate - 475, 99
Instrumentation - 6, 310, 258, 320, 495, 670
Measurements - 595
Measuring Circuitry - 576
Mercury f-,,•Cs -= 210 A'1 "gL7 AOL V'-
on,

Respiration - 799, 99
Respiration Rate - 475, 530
Respiration Volume - 530
Satellite Instrumentation - 283
Telemetering - 47, 60, 75, 78, 250, 672
Temperature - 78
Training - 766
Transducers - 591
Volume, Body & Organs- 293
Whole Body Liquid Scintillation - 312"

WADD TR 61-67 579

VOLI REV1
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

CALIBRATION

Acceleration by Ballistic Pendulum - 375

Accelerometer- 555
Accelerometer Angular - 464
Anemometer - 329
Automatic - 383
Automatic Flow - 435
Definitions - 271
Displacement - 395
Flowmeter - 347
Force - 571
Handbook - 578
Mercury Manometer- 335
Microphones - 134
NBS Handbook - 73
Pressure - 323, 431, 581, 134
Stagnation Temperature - 813
Strain - 669
Thermocouples - 414, 724
Thrust - 1.07, 572
Torsional Vibration- 426
Variable ReluctanceS...........A!0hfl
Transducers
.... A - 539 f.. ..
vur,..."=,.,L UIA .t . J ts tf,-I) s-c& , 0 0, '±4 . ~~...
-11220 438p 470. 7531 701-
Vibration by the "Chatter" Method 389
Weight - 107
+4000 G - 554

CONVERTER

A to D- 14, 15, 16, 82, 3Z2, 413, 450, 505, 637, 671, 709, 658
Criteria - 321
Dic-ital ,- 176
Digitizer - 506
Photoelectric - 505 "Z
Synchro-to-Digital- 67 ,wJ-v

COUNTERS

Gas Cereknov- 29
Geiger - 345
Neutron- 770
Particle -139

Photon -- 88
Quantum -- 139

W'ADD TR 61-67 580 -

VOLI REV 1

-t~p2c- sq?.>.
† † † -. -.-- N † † - - - --- . . . . . .... - '.>. -.-.-
=
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEFINITIONS

Transducer Parameters - 305 .

Thermistors -824

DETECTORS

Cerenkov- 785
Gas Ionization - 457
Infrared - 674
Micrometeroritic - 195, 472
Temperature - 617
Ultraviolet Radiation - 396 K ?-p

DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER * -

Control Indicator - 465

Discussion- 534
Handbook - 286
Metrisite - 23
Miniature - 721

DIRECTORY

Temperature, Tension, Pressure, Thickness- 133

Transducer- 737
Transducer Compilation- 739

DISPLACEMENT

Angular - 50, 171, 658

Angul ar Positinn TranQsd1er-r-- AA668
Indicators - 264
Micrometer- 823
Optical Probe - Z1Z
Piezo-Resistive Materials - 484
Pullmeter - 590
Remote Indicator - 600
Rotating Systems - 311, 658
Tests - 84, 256
Underwater - 122
Using Microwaves - 172 2-.

WADD TR 61-67
"VOLI REV "

.. .- o
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

E ROSION

Rate- 2620

FLOW

Acoustic Flowmeter -369 ~-%

Anemometer - 157
Automatic Calibration -435

Calibration - 347
Direction - 8
Electronic Flowineter -370

Electromagnetic 347, 356

-136,

Gas - 809
Engine - 116
Mass Flow Measurement 662 -8,

Measurement - 226, 273, 805

Meter - 741
Metering - 499
Oscillatory - 806
Pulsation Effects - 444
Pulsating Flow, Survey - 538
Pulsed Ultrasolnic Fiowineter -236

Probes - 794
Temperature Profile - 376
Turbine Meter - 746
Velocity Profile - 376

FORCE

Aircraft Crash - 708

Measurement Techniques -2

Pi!ez0-xResistive Materials -484

Sensors - 307
Weighing -170

GLOSSARY

instruments Z 60
Transducer -259

WADD TR 61-67 582

VOL I REV I
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

GRAVITY

Measurement- 269 .
Meter- 268, 247

GYROS '..

Accuracy - 517 "

Control - 398
Evaluation- 354, 480
Integrating - 191, 125
Magnetohydrodynamic - 510
Random Drift - 124 h
Rate - 278, 504, 361 -.--
Rate of Turn -514
Theory - 639

HANDBOOK

Astronautical Engineering - 394

Control Engineering - 745, 567
Differential Transformer - 286
Index NASA Technical. Puiblications - 339
Instrument - 342, 567
Measurement & Calibration - 578 .
Process Instruments - 132 - .,j
Semiconductor Electronics - 333
Speed and Control -53
Stress Analysis -309
Transducers - 447
Victory Engineering - 755

HUMILITY

ilypsometer - 771
Inztru.mnentation - 388
Mhleasurernent - 8, 322

I-I YDROPHONE

Measurement - 436

WADD TR 61-67 583 ':

VOLI REVi ',

"%,- •. '%
%. • . - % " % , "% -. . - V . . .• " . '-" . .- ,•- - . , . -. -_ . - .. .• '. ... ,, . .
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

INFRARED . '-

General - 279
Horizon Indicator - 535 -y.
Instrumentation - 41, 206, 718, 341, 638, 698, 825
Measurement - 674
Observation 408
Radiometry- 27, 487, 58, 133 .. ..
Solid State Sensor -826 "
Spectrometer - 344 %
Temperature Measurement - 26

INSTRUMENTATION

Aircraft - 734 -"7

Aircraft Crash - 708
Application 211
Armament- 69
Atmospheric Components- 661
Atomic Factories - 740
Bio-Instrumentation - 6, 310 V -
Bio-Medical Requirements in Space - 425
Cosmic Ray - 459
Density- 324
Design -211 *.I

Dust - Interplanetary- 664

Electro-Optical - 569
Elvis Module - 160 -_.,)
Flow - 190. 324
Fundamentals For Industry - 244
High Altitude Vehicles - 769
Humidity- 388
Hygrometry - 322 ..-...
Hypervelocity Impact Data - 382
Industrial - 340
Inertial Guidance - 192
Infrared - 718, 829, 341, 535, 638
Interferometer - 371
Impact Pressure - 827
Langrnuir Probe - 252, 654
Liquid Propellants - 65
Liquid Velocity - 731
Low-Energy Particles - 35 -'

WADD TR 61-67 584

VOL I REV 1

%"'i I ,• ,[,-2,,¢
.".'• " ",% --- •" '-."'- -"- ,,-S............-. , .- _. , . .... .... . . -L ., 1.
*:,•,.: ? , .,'..C .'. ,.'.,'. --- ' : .. "..v ... ',.. ;.:: -.. :.....:.-.-.. -.. "... . . . . . . . . .
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

Magnetic Field - 448

Mechanical Electrical - 609
Mercury Capsule - 219, 272, 362, 486
Micrometeorite - 472, 482
Missiles - 4, 419
Nuclear-Electric - 20, 597
Oceanographic - 536
Photoelectric Spectrophotometer - 89, 683
Photometry - 42
Precision - 209
Pressure- 190, 324, 584
Radiation Probe -417
Radiometry - 42, 193, 287, 416
Ranger - 167, 225, 598
Ranging System - 197
§ Recording Optical Pyrometer -68

Re-entry Vehicle - 422

Rockets - 111, 653, 654
Satellites - 79, 80, 103, 104, 210, 218, 287, 303, 327, 328, 385, 458,
462, 485, 497, 500, 522, 546, 565, 598, 608, 648, 688,
733, 748, 812
Signal Processing - 130
Sounding Rockets - 79, 252, 303
Snare P1ysics - 292
Spectrometer- 641
State-of-the-Art - 816
"Tii )s - 497, 733
Wind Tunnel - 512

IONIZATION

Chamber - 18
Gage Pressure - 684.:-
~dvcy -451
Instrumentation - 416
Sheath Currents - 80

LIGHT

Polarized- 50

WADD TR 61-67 585

VOL I REV i

: "-............................................................
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

LIQUID

Level Switch - 751

Quantity Gage - 451

LOAD CELL

Weighing - 145

MACH NUMBER

Determination- 25, 49
Force Balance System - 93
Indicator - 8Z8
Measurement 115, 179, 314, 471

MAGNETIC FIELD

Earths - 299
Hall Effect - 90, $19
Magnetoresistive Sensor - 215, 704
World Magnetic Survey- 303

M&iN',TOMETER

Helium Sensitive - 604

Pendulum - 338
Proton - 6560

MAGNOSTRICTION .

Ferrites - 469

MJANUAL

Accelerometer Type TRU-3/A- 742

Instrumentation - 502
Thermistors 727

-
MASS- FLOW

Meter - 141, 744

Probe - 818

WADD TR 61-67 586

VOL I REV i
•-.- -• - --.- -- -, -- -.-
, --- --. --- -. "- - -- • .• -, -. -. -. ,-'-.- -- ' "- " ,- ' ,,-- .' - --"-. * -c' ,'* C - -" '•-- •" " -
 INDEX TO DIBLIOGR-APIIY

MEASUREMENT

Altitude, Survey - 267 @J

At High Altitudes - 519
Electron Density Profile - 346
9
Electronic - 55 ti-

Emmittance - 820
Flux, Extra- Terrestial Particles -127 "S@
NBS Handbook - 73
Radiant intensity - 454
Re-entry Body - 221
Sporadic E- 653
Thrust - 61, 332
Vacuum - 607
Viscosity- 284
MICRO PHONES

Condenser - 316, 395

Piezoresistive - 100

OSCILLATORS

Capacitive - 311)
Inductance - 83
PITOT TUBES $5-

Evaluation-
Flattened -
Quartz - 135.-.-
467
474
A
POTENTIOMETERS
Discussion - 378
Evaporated Film - 256
"PlasticElement -811
Tests - 811

PRESSURE .401

Atmospheric Components -661

N 1 1 -i',?"

WADD TR 61-67 587

"VOLI REV1

- . "-'.. ..
't '. , J.. . ."" .' . ".- . .
".". .. " " .' ..
nn ",. .. ... •n" ", , n n , , ,. ..
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY I

I.--

Calibration- 134, 581

Dynamic Response - 336, 580
Engine - 116
Impact - 827
Indicators - 264
Low Pressure Measurement - 682, 607
Manometer - 545
Measurement - 8, 582, 326
Measuring Techniques - 453
Microphones - 134
Nose Cone - 827
Partial Pressure - 661
Precision Manometer - 335 -

Re-entry - 827
Remote Indicator- 600
Rockets - 295
Thermistor Type Gage - 228
Transducer - 337
Transient Measurement - 198
Transmitting - 585
Upper Atmosphere- 685
Vacuum Gage - 294
Wind Funnel - 239

PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

Applications - 432
Bourdon Tubes - 786
Calibration - 323
Capacitor Type - 432 -
Ceramic Diode -39
Digital - 177
Digital Output - 797
yirnnmic Test-ing - 678
Frequency Response - 580
High Temperature - 39
Instrumentation Techniqaes - 584, 587
Ionization Gage - 684
Mach - 49, 466, 3-15
Missile Testing- 441
Osciducer 'rests - 428
Partial Pressure - 790
Piston Gage - 334
Pressure Sensitive Resistors - 381

WADD TR 61-67 588

VOLI REV 1

-~~~ - -...:-...:,
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

Radiation Effects - 586 "

-4
Sound- 316
Static - 93
Strain Gage - 430
Teleflight - 806
"Telemetering - 348
"Tests -34, 231, 232, 233, 234, 255, 430, 468
"Tests on Quartz Crystal Type - 431
Transient - 96
Vacuum Gagc - 44

RADIATION

Biologic Space Ambient - 563

Cosmic Ray Measu:'ements - 210
Detection Instrument - 367
Dosimetry - 803 •{:
Effects on Instrumentation- 291, 330, 379, 437, 586
Fission Probe - 696
Measurements - 614, 711
Monitor - 345
3. New Probe - 417
Semiconductor Indicators - 154
Radition - 41
aR
Solar X-Ray - 5, 575
Solid State Sensors - 826
Ultraviolet- 282, 396

"RATE
" ' -k'-' - .I
Turn- 45

RECORDING-

Airborne Digital System - 201.

Digital Data- 155
System Design - 144 ..
Telemetry- 114 <"1
Wind Tunnel - 147

RESISTANCE

Measurement - 150
Tester, Resolution- 12

WADD TR 61-67 589 .,*

VOLI REVI

-. *:.
.
... .
.-.. . .--...... -....-.. .- .- . . '. -.
"-.-..
-..-. ~.v-,,v-",.....
. . .-.-.....
. . .. .. .. ."°",,-.... .. ..... . ..-....
{- "...................................... - " -
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

SEISMOMETER

Magnetron Type -146 '.

SHOCK

Accelerometer Response - 423

Detonation- 391 ..
In Gases - 391
In Linear Systems - 143
Ionized Argon -442

Measurement - 498, 798 --

Self-Recording Gages - 761
Space Vehicles - 186
Standards - 13
Underwater - 129

SHOCK TUBE *_¾-

I
Facility 678
Measurement - IZ3, 817
Velocity Gauge - 477
Velocity Measurements - 732, 754

SLEDS

Position and Time - 564

Space Time - 651
Velocity - 579
Vibration - 46

SPE CIFICATIONS

Potentiometers - 574
Transducers - 305

STANDARDS

Acoustical - 13
Aerospace - 236
Atomic Frequency -30

Force - 108
High Pressure - 521

WADD TR 61-67 590

VOLI REV1

................................................................
..-.
. ..
. . ... .-.
-.- ''.,'':
" .'"",r.-J- $ *..'.'...: -:." -.... ' ... "-..'.. '"' .:-" -.- 2-'""' --....i..:."".-.'- .. " " '" --. '-- - ' '."- ,"- ." " , -" ,
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

High Temp. Radiation- 66 '"-

Materials - 690
Metrology Laboratory - 804 .
PCM - 691, 717
Pressure Laboratory- 800
Shock - 13
Transducers - 689 %
Vibration- 13, 202

STRAIN

Accelerometers - 429
Advancements - 360
Applications - 646
Calibration- 669, 402 -
Ferroelectric Ceramics - 377
High Temperature - 52, 54, 246, 830
"- -

Instrumentation - 24, 713

Measurement -473, 61Z, 698
Micro-Sensor- 629
Piezoelectric - 363
Piezoniagnetic Stress - 418
Piezo-Resistive Materials - 484, 363
Pressure Transducer - 430
Primer - 558
Techniques - 518, 700
Telemetering - 702 4-

Temperature Effects - 693

Transducers -729
Zero Length - 832 '-:.'-'
1000oF - 289 ,-.2:.1

SURVEYS

Accelerometers - 128
Altitude Measurement - 267
-_-
Automatic Coding Techniques - 350
Gas Ionization Detectors - 457
Hot Wire Theory and Techniques - 406
Nuclear Instrumentation - 597 L.t
Pulsating Flow - 538
Semi-conductor Strain Sensors - 695
Strain & Temp Sensors, High Temp. - 54 -.

WADD TR 61-67 591 -.

VOLI REV 1- "'.

.4..t--: -
%%'N''- C~\
 -. -- .- .
. -"/ "-- "

INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

Temperature Measurements- 6-52

Thermistor Applications - 28
Transducers - 763
Vibration & Noise - 758

SWITCHES

Electromechanical - 207 -
Glass-Incased - 547
Liquid Level 751

TACHOME TERS

Calibrator - 712
Drag Cup- 317
High Accuracy - 566
History - 551
Properties - 352
Recording - 772
Tests - 298

TELEMETERING -

Acceleration -188"-""
Aircraft - 481, 655, 752 "
Atlas System - 248
Centaur Vehicle - 113 -'.'
Coherent Synchonous Sampled Data - 19
Deltamodulation - 81
Digilock - 632
Digital - -,37. ,.i
Encoder 679
FM/FM - 355, 372, 543, 643, 725, 749
FM/FM/FM - 351
Fundamentals - 719, 153
General - 523, 529
Microlock - 605 . .,
PAM/FM- 387, 463
PAM/FM vs FM/FM - 280

WADD TR 6i-67 592

VOLI REVI

I'-.
-- .....
'.,- .'- -, -'--' "~~i-'. '- . .4.. . ..- •.... . . ..... . .. - - --.. . .. "" -" -..... ' '''
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

PCM- 85, 412, 119, 181, 265, 392, 393, 492, 493, 542, 665, 666,
717, 781, 808
PCM/PS - 592, 593
PDM/FM- 263, 750
PM/AM - 599
PPM - 792
Pressure - 188
Project Mercury - 245
Pulse Width Encoding 455, 276, 300
RF Links - 644, 780
Rockets- 296
SS/FM- 242, 386
System- 19, 529, 74, 113, 126, 140, 180, 196, 235, 242, 248, 263,
372, 392, 393, 434, 488, 610, 628, 630, 631, 667, 789
Temperature - 240, 373, 560
Variable Inductance - 525
X- 17 Missile - 140

TELEMETRY

Aerospace - 699
A•/A•K--14- 63, 325, 657
Azusa Transmitter - 102
Flight Testing at Boeing - 168
Gamma Ray Satellite - 384 -,
Information Theory - 433
Missile Evaluation -246
Satellite - 649, 714, 810, 815
Saturn - 318
Space Launch Vehicle - 241, 318, 387
Standards - 691
Study - 490, 491, 686, 71.6, 782
Systems - 19, 36, 63, 494, 74 ý 424.- 461, 476, 516, 573, 715, 723,
765, 810
Transducer Glossary - 259
"transmitter foe Satellites - 489

TElMPERAT URE;

Air Flow - 479

Air, Meteorological Study - 275
And Resistance - 570
Anemometer - 120, 157
Arc Temperature - Z00

WADD TR 6!-67 593

VOL I REV I
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bibliography- 285
Dielectric Bolometer - 288
Duct- 163
Electron Temp. Measurement- 22
Engine - 57, 116, 297, 743 -
Fibra Pt Elements - 315
Flame - 407 -- .. "
Gases- 404, 508, 524, 647, 779
Gas Viscosity Thermometer - 281
General- 552
Germanium Thermometers - 410, 411, 445
Heat Flux Probe - 224, 768
High Temperatures - 17, 22, 54, 174, 200, Z24, 227, Z38, 400, 407,
414, 415, 633, 813
Hypsometer - 771
Infrared Measurements - 26, 27, 58
Instrumentation - 718, 509
Intermittent Thermometer - 596
Jet Engine Exhaust - 297
Measurement 8, 37, 319, 26, 38, 40, 104, 158, 274, 353, 421, 509,
-
515, 544, 652, 692, 728, 831, 833
Measurement in Solids - Z54
Mvicropyrometry - 40"
Microwave Techniques - 173, 407, 420
Moving Fluids - 794
Near Absolute Zero - 149, 625
Nuclear Fuel Elements - 95
Optical Pyrometer - 68, 97 2
Optical Spectrometry - 174, 703
Plasma - 703
Pneumatic- 353, 663, 778
Pyrometry- 183, Z61, Z92, 403, 720
Resistance Elements- 532, 616 t-.

Resistance Thermometers - 17, 138, 257, 759, 112, 410, 411, 795, 57 0'-•%
Rockets- 295, 743, 779
Satallite 104
Sonic Measurements - 48, 720
Supersonic Air Flow - 376, 813
Surface - 95, 759, 290
Telemetering - 787, 560
Thermal Noise Thermometer - 548
-'Thermistor -7, 28, 726,1 727, 194, 622, 620, 62,4, 626, 627, 635, 640,
650, 791, 824

WAUD TR 61-6759
VOLI REVI

-' - C :-
 INDEX OF BIBLIOGRAPHY

Thermocouples- 25, 148, 77, 151, 227, Z38, 379, 414, 415, 437, 507,
577, 7Z4, 76Z
Thermoelectric Thermometry - 178
Thermoelements - 570
Thin Film Thermal Transducer - 266
Thin Wire Thermometer - 56Z
Transient - 57
Upper Atmosphere - 452, 611, 685
Use of Carbon Resistors 308

TENSION

Indicators - 264 Z.

TESTING

Complex Waves - 161

Gyro Drift - 124
Random Wave Analyzer - 87, 617
Saturn Development - 302, 675
Shock, 822
Simulator, Horizon Sensor - 21
Transducer Cable Noise - 553-"
Transducer Freq. Response - 86

THERMISTORS

Coordinates - 726
Manual - 727
Pressure Gage -. 228
Properties - 51
Survey - Z8
Thermometrv - 7

THRUST

Measurements - 61, 33Z, 730

Power Limited Systems - 496

TORQUE

Piezo-ResiZtive
4 fMaterials: - 484
Using Micxowaveu - 172

WADD TR 61-67 595

VOL I REVI

% "'-*- - wr..
4% ~ ~ sj2. - --
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

TRANSDUCERS

Accelerometers 594
Angular Position - 171, 668
Automatic Calibration- 383
Capacitive - 313
Characteristics - 687
Compilation - 737, 739
D. C. - 401
Development Status - 694, 501
Digital - 177, 390, 397, 797, 10, 229, 460
Digitizer - 783
Displacement - 360, 456, 559
Eddy Current Mutual Inductance- 336
Electromagnetic - 203, 204, 205
Electromechanical - 23
Evaluation - 767
Fluxmeter - 450
Force - 645
Frequency- 31
Frequency Response - 86
Gene ral - 44'7 O
Glossary -. 259
Hall Effect - 90, 819
Heat Flux - 224, 768
Horizon Sensor - 159
In Atomic Factories - 740
Instrumentation 447
Introduction - 306, 368
Ionization - 343, 449
Level Indicator - 98

Magnetorneter - 604, 656

Magnetostrictive Ferrites - 469, 418
Micrometer- 823 3'

Miss-Distance - 478
Motion - 131
Noise Problems - 520
Novel Mechanisms - 501.
Optical - 118
Partial Pressure - 790
Piezomagnetic Stress - 418
Potentiometer- 203, 204, 205

WADD TR 61-67 596

VOLI REV'

- %:.,.%*~ "t- ' .. .... '4

 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY

Pressure- 31, 177, 583, 228, 337, 526, 680 -

Pullmeter - 590
Pyroelectric - 557 K9:
Pyrometer - 97, 183, 261
Radioactive -776 -
Reliability - 834 - -
Satellite Guidance - 103
Selection Guide - 304
Sensor Study- -243
Shaft Position - 783, Z29
Solar Aspect Sensor - 10
Spacecraft - 533, 834 '
Spherical - 349
Spring - 594
Studies - 738
Surveys - 762
-Temperature- 62, 831
Thickness - 8ZI
Variable Inductance - 525, 528, 399
Velocity - 456, 478, 681
Vibrating String - 537
Vibration - 470, 527, 594
Wind Tunnel - 512
50 C. P. C. - 503

TURBULENCE .

Atmospheric - 483
Jet Gases - 446
Measurements - 814 W

VELOCITY

Acoustical - 482
Air - 376, 479
Aircraft - 331
Flow - 76
Gas - 809
Hypersonic- 251
Jet Gases - 446
Liquid - 731

I-
WADD TR 61-67 597
VOLI REVI

I:-.- .. ..- .--.-. . .. , ...... . > . . ,.,......-. ., -.....

. - . .. d.. '.... '."- .,, . ,.%
. •" "J€ N'. . . . . . .. ''- - .. . - .,.,,-" ."--"- . . . . .. --
 INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY I
Microwave Techniques 175
Meter - 681
Particle - 436 L"
Pickups - 756
Rocket Exhaust - 70, 71
Rotary Speed - 764
Shock -123

Tests - 556
Transient In Air 796
Wind - 685

VELOCITY, ANGULAR

Aircraft - 299
Engine Speed 237
Measurement- 619, 764
Propeller Speed - 222
Speed Regulation - 409
Tachometers - 153, 549 ...

VELOCITY, LINEAR

Measurem.nent-88..s,

VIBRATION

Analysis - 101, 161

Angular- 164, 165
Bibliography - 757 -
Calibration - 105, 106, 438
Chatters Method - 389
Engine - 116
/t ,.-- ..- •...4- Iflfl- Or)9 orf' i.:

Pickup - 634
Response - 443
Rotational - 775
Sleds - 46
Space Vehicles - 186
Standards - 13, 202
Sweep Random - 72
Testing- 377
Torsional Calibrator - 426
Two- Coordinate - 747

WADD TR 61-67 598

VOLI REV I

p -V---
 N-

INDEX TO BIBLIOGRAPHY .

VIBRATION AND SHOCK

Cable Noise - 553--

Calibration - 701
Designers Guide - 43
Ferroelectric Ceramics - 377
Fundamentals - 760 " "
Linear Systems - 143 -.
Test - 216, 660
Testing - 189

a.-:,:b

N.>

WADD TR 61-67 599

VOL I REVi1
 0

- .4,

APPENDIX I
C-

IRIG TELEMETRY STANDARDS* K

Prepared by
N

Tnlonne,.,.
- -' y Vi S - Group -

* This appendix consists of Parts 1. 0 through 5. 0 of IRIG

Document No. 106-69, approved in November, 1960 and lAm
issued in December 1960. A re-vision of this document
dated January 1, 1962 is available, but was received too
late for inclusion in this revision of the handbook.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLIREVi I-i

. .........................
.........................................
-. . '. . -. -. ¾ '. . Xx
....- -.. -' .P, --........-
----------------.----------------------.
- -.
.. ----------------------
,---------------------------------------

-----------.................------------- ------------------------------
 FOREWORD

A standard in the field of telemetry for guided missiles was estab-

lished in 1948 by the Comnmittee on Guided Missiles of the Research and
Development Board (RDB), Department of Defense, and was thereafter re-
vised and extended as necessary as a result of periodic reviews of the
standard by the Committee's Working Group on Telemetering of the Pan)el
on Test Range instrumentation. The last official RDB revision of the
standards was published as RDB report MTRI 204/6 dated 8 November 1951.
Since the termination of the Research and Development Board, new stan- 2
dards have been prepared by the Inter-Range Instrumentation Group (IRIG).
The Steering Committee representing IRIG and the Department of Defense
test ranges, has assigned the task of promulgating new or revised telemetry '.
standards to the Telemetry Working Group (TWG). IRIG Document No.
106-60 comprises the current Combined Standards and supersedes the
following TRIG Standards.

IRIG Recommendation No. 101-55 Testing for Speed Errors in

Instrumentation Type Magnetic
Tape Recorders

IRIG Recommendation No. 101-57 Magnetic Recorder/Reproducer -

Standards .'.- N1

TR•G Rnecom-endatot n. 101-6O Magnetic P ec.nrcle/R/P.nr)dlce.r ".

Standards

N IRIG Recommendation No. 102-55 Telemetry Standards for -

Guided Missiles

IRIG Recommendation No. 102-59 Modulationfor

Standards (PCM) Code
PulseTelemetry

IRIG Recommendation No. 103-56 Revised Telemetry Standards,-

fo Gpui M ss"

The Standards have been generated to further compatibility of air- '

borne transmitting equipments and ground receiving and data handling
equipments at the test ranges. To this end, it is the recommendation of
the Inter-Range Instrumentation Group Steering Committee that Tele-. -. >
metry equipment at the test ranges conform to these standards.

"-,4

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 12-

. ,.,- -' ... .. .............................. -..................... .... .. . ..- .- . . -

 TABLE OF CONTENTS .A

PART PAGE ,.

I RADIO FREQUENCIES (FREQUENCY

PARAMETERS AND CRITERIA FOR
DESIGN OF TELEMETRY TRANSMITTER
AND RECEIVER SYSTEMS) I- 7

1.1 Frequency Utilization 1- 7

1.2 Frequency Band 216-260 Mcs

o- 7

A. Efficiency of Spectrum Usage

(216-260 mcs Band) 1- 8

1. Transmitter Systems
(FM/FM; PDM/FM; PAM/FM;
and PCM/FM) I- 8

2. Receiver Systems
(FM/FM; PDM/FM; PAM/FM;
and PGM/FM) 1- 10

1.3 Frequency Band 1435-1535 Mcs I - 10

A. Efficiency of Spectrum Usage I - 11

1. Transmitter Systems
(1435-1535 mcs Band) I - 1_
2. Receiver Systems
(1435-1535 mcs Baad) I - 12

3. Bandwidths 1- 12

1.4 Frequency Band 2200-2300 Mcs I - 13

A. Efficiency of Spectrum Usage 1- 13

1. Transmitter Systems
(2200-2300 mcs) 1- 13

2. Receiver Systems
(2200-2300 mcs) 1- 15

3. Bandwidths I - 15
WADD TR 61-67
VOL 1 REV I 1- 3

S. . . . " ". . . .. . ... .. .... . " " ... . "- .. ... . . .i!! ! ! ? ! i ii i : !
.V -% - - - -. --
. '-•,.-.•
• ,:,..,.' .'.,;- -. ,- . %-..- " ..- \ ,.. . ..
¶yt. ., --.-,i""•
--,--- -," - -
'";' - - - - -.- '.-., .- .- - .--.- --.- ". -"- "= ""--"
 PART PAGE

pIi FM/FM OR FM/PM STANDARDS 1-17

"2. 1 General I- 17

2. 2 Sub-Carrier Bands I- 17

2.3 Automatic Correction of Sub-Carrier

Zero and Sensitivity Drift I - 18

2.3.1 General 1- 18

2. 3. Z Automatic Correction Command I - 18 F-.

2. 3, 3 Data Suboarrier Calibration I - 21 ,'"

2.3.4 Correction Capability I - 23

2.4 PAM/FM/FM Commutation I - 23

2.4. 1 Commutation Rates I - 23

2 A '3 'C
1lfzl "'ates - 23
2.4.3 Separated Data 1- 23

2.5 In-Flight Zero and Full Scale Calibration I - 27

III PDM/FM OR PDM/PM OR I,-

PDM/FM/FM STANDARD 1- 29

3. 1 General 1- 29

3. 2 PDM/EM or PDM/PM 1- 29

3.3 PDM/FM/FM i- 0

3.4 In-Flight Zero and Full Scale Calibration I - 32

IV PAM/FM OR PAM/PM STANDARDS I -333

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVPI 1-4

• .. , ......... ..-.........
 PART PAGE

V PCM STANDARDS 1- 34

5.1 General 1- 34

5.2 Bit Rate Versus Receiver

Intermediate Frequency (IF)
Bandwidth (3 db points) 1- 34

5.3 Bit Rate Stability 1- 35

5.4 Word and Frame Structure I - 35 -

55 Synchronization I - 35

5.6 Super-Commutation and Subcommutation I - 36

53.7 Pre-Modulation Filtering 136

5.8 RF Carrier Modulation I - 36

• ".-
"" '-•"
. ." .',, •'•-%"-'2
%" " •'"% ,%k
," •--W
•• .'"''- "- -- •" -'• '• '--'-"-• ''- '-".-',-'•-•. "• "- %=,-'••"- '-' -" '" ,% " •' •" "".'°.: "

-4. ' • | | |

WA.DD TR 61- 67 ,,-*

"VOLJ REV 1 I-5 . --
 PART I Ve
-'::

t- -.
RADIO FREQUENCIES
(FREQUENCY PARAMETERS AND CRITERIA FOR
DESIGN OF TELEMETRY TRANSMIT ER- t

AND RECEIVER SYSTEMS)

*1. 1 FREQUENCY UTILIZATION

The enclosed parameters and criteria have been devised by

the Frequency Coordination Working Group of the Inter-Range Instru-
nmentation Group, with the assistance of members of the Telemetry
Working Group, development groups of the three military services,
and aircraft industries. The purpose of these parameters is to pro-
vide development and coordination agencies with design specifications
on which to base equipment development and modification in an effort
to insure interference-free operation for all concerned and efficient
utilization of the telemetry radio frequency spectrum.
It has long been recognized that the frequency spectrum is a '
limited entity, a resource which must be conserved. It has been fur-
ther recognized that frequency utilization is a system problem; the
transmitter-receiver link must be conside-red as a systcm. rtcr. -

of spectrum utilization should be a goal.; susceptibility to interference

should be minimized.
Wasteful use of the spectrum by any system using electro-
magnetic radiation and reception can have far-reaching effects in many
phases of military and civil activities. It is firmly believed. that unless
the basic philosophy of spectrum conservation is recognized and applied
by all agencies in the electronic field, (designers, manufacturers, testers,
A* and users) serious consequences are inevitable.
L:i It is emphasized that these parameters and criteria have been
devised for anplication at military test ranges where congestion of por-
tions of the usable frequency spectrum is a severe problem. It is hoped L
that, where applicable, these same principles will be applied to other
; fields outside the scope of instrurnentation systems.

" 1.2 FREQUENCY BAND 216-260 MCS

Z16-225 mcs - Channel spacing is based on 0. 5 mcs separation

-. i on the integral and one-half megacycle channels. Assignments

WADD TR 61-67
,VOL'I JV1I 7

S. -- . . . . N.-- . *. . ..-- .-

"-'.-
,'):';.'2"."-'.•. ", . .••.
. .".
",'.-':'- .".-.,- < .-.-"?-' " '."-.'. ...-.-.-..
."-.,.".. ".-.. . . . .".. "...-..-.. .-. .,.-."-.. .-.-. .".."':'

' i. l "- - - -. - -i - I-i-i-l - - -I-i-i- -i-a-- - - - - - --

 4,. - .A

are made on a non-interference basis to established services.

225-260 mcs - A total of 44 (500 kcs) channels, are allocated

on a protected basis until 1. January 1970.

A. Efficiency of Spectrum Usage (216-260 mcs Band): .. ,(

1. TRANSMITTER SYSTEMS (FM/FM; PDM/FM; .

PAM/ FM; and PCM/FM)
a. Maximum rf deviation: plus or minus 125 kcs. .

b. Transmitter Frequency Tolerance: The trans- N

Wnittedrf carrier, includimg drift and all
other variables, will be within 0.01% of the
assigned carrier frequency.

C. Bandwidth: The bandwidth of the modulated

carrier shall not ex,:ceed 500 kcs. Carrier _
components appearing outside the 500 kcs band-
width must meet the limits for spurious and.
harmonic emission:s" as stated in paragraph
e. (1) below. -

d. Power: 100 watts a&ximum, never more tha'n

absolutely necessary.

e. Spurious and Harmioni Finis

cions:

(1) Spurious and harynonic emissions Erom

the transmitting ant-nna system are of

"primaryimportance insofar as these
"criteriaare concerned. Spurious and
"harmonic outputs, antenna conducted (i. e. ,
measured in antenna transmission line) as
well as anternna radiated (i. e. , measu-ed -.-
in free spa'.ce), shall be limited to the -..
values derived from the formula:

db (down from carrier ) = 55 + 10 log, 0 .

Pt, where Pt is the measured power
output in watts.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVL I- 8

C."
".,°!---.
 Measurements to determine relative
levels of -f power shall be made under
the following condition:

(a) Transmitter to be operated into a

matched shielded dummy load with
a suitable coupling device inserted
in the antenna cable to sample the
transmitter rf output. As an alter- :
native, the actual antenna can be
substituted for the dummy load with
provisions being made to remove
the field strength meter from the
influence of signals radiated from
the antenna.

(b) Transmitter to be tested under con- ..-

ditions of zero and full normal meo-
dulation.

(c) Commercial, Category Class "I""

Field Strength Measuring Equipmrent,
as listed in current IvIL-I-6 1 81 will
be used.

(Z) Spurious, harmonic, and fundamental

signals conducted by power lea.Ods or ra-
diated directly from equipment units or -
cable (except antenna) shall be within
the limits specified in the current MIL-T-,A
6181.

f. Flexibility of operation: Shall be capable of 'Nk,

operating on any of the following frequencies
without design modification:l'

236.5 rncs ZZ3ý 0 mcs 228, 2 .ic5 237.3 incs 248. 6 incs ..- t
216.0 mcs ?23.5 nca 22299 rcs 240. r2incs 249. 1 rics A,
..
217.5 mcs 224.0 incs 230.4 rcs 241. 5 rucs 249.9 mcs
218.0
S MCrs 224.5 Y-cs 230.9 rncs 242.0 nrcs 250.7 rucs ,
2135 ue 23.4Ina 43.8 i-nca 2-51.5 nies
21.9.0 mcE 231.9 incs 244.3 rncs 252.4 rncas

WADD TR 61-67
VOL, I PEV 1 1-9

So."S
219.5 mcs 232. 4 rncs 244.8 mcs 253. 1 mcs
220. 0 mcs 225. 0 mcs 232.9 mcs 245. 3 mcs 253.8 mcs
220.5 mcs 225. 7 mcs 234. 0 mcs 245. 8 mcs 255. 1 mcs
221.0 mcs 226.2 mcs 235.0 mcs 246. 3 mcs 256.2 mcs
Z21. 5 mcs 226. 7 mcs 235. 5 mcs 246. 8 mcs 257. 3 mcs
222. 0 inca 227. 2 incs 236. 2 mes 247. 3 incs 258. 5 inca
222.5 ice 227. 7 mcs 237. 0 ica 247. 8 nca 259.7 incs

NOTE: All telemetry assignments within the 225-260 mcs band shall con-
form with the above assignments. No change in assignments in the 216-
225 mcs band is contemplated. However, it should be kept in mind that
telemetry assignments in the 216-225 mcs band are on a non-interference
basis to other established users.

2. RECEIVER SYSTEMS (FM/FM; PDM/FM;

PAM/FM; and PGM/FM):

a. Maximum bandwidth between 60 db points:

600 kcs.

b. Receiver Stability: 0. 005% ,

c. Spurious receiver responses: More than ....

' ..Uda-mcntal frequency response.

d. Spurious emissions: Oscillator energy, V

either radiated from the unit or antenna con- .
ducted, shall be within the limits specified
in current MIL-I-6181.

e. Flexibility of Operationl: Shall operate on any

of the frequencies listed under Para. I. A. I. f.
without design modification. """ -

1. 3 FREQUENCY BAND 1435-1535 MGS

Channel spacing of the 1435-1535 mncs band should be on incre-

rnents of I ncs..

The 1435-1535 incs portion of the band should be reserved pri-

marily for usc in connection with aeronautical flight testing of
manned aircraft.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV I 1- 10

,-,-,-X
, -.- ,-.............................-.....
.-...

WNW....
-4

"The .486-1535 mcs portion of the band should be reserved pri-

ma ri! 1 for use in connection with aeronautical flight testing of
mrdissile and space vehiclets.

A. Efficiency of Spectrum Usage

.4 1. TRANSMITTER SYSTEMS (1435-1535 mcs Band)

a. Transmitter frequency tolerance: The trans-

mitter rf carrier, including drift and all .
N' other variables, shall be within 0. 005% of
the assigned carrier frequency.

b. Power: As dictated by intended use, never

more than absolutely necessary. LA

c. Spurious and Harmonic Emissions: Spurious

and harmonic emissions from the transmitting
antenna system are of primary importance in- .
sofar as these criteria are. concerned. Spur-
"ious and harmonic outputs, antenna conducted
(i. e. , measured in antenna transmission line)
as well as antenna radiated (i. e. , measured > ,
in. free space), shall be limited to the values
derived from the formula:

db (down from carrier)- 55 + 10 logl0 Pt, where .

Pt is the measured power outp•ut in watts

"d. Spurious, harnmonic, and fundanoontal signals >-- '-.

conducted by power leads or radiated directly

from equipment units or cables (except a7.ntenna)"
shall be within the linits specified in the cur-

e. Measureme-,ts to dete.rndne relative ]evels

of spurious and havnnonic signals shall be mnade
under the following conditions:

(1) Transmitter 1.o be op?.ratedinto a nmatched

shielded dunmmy icad with a suitable

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV I--.

'1 . . ~ --
"*,' -:,-.-- v
:.------ - 4 -. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

",' •' , -''""" - - -

"•" -" - "-"-"-.,' -- ""--
-.-. ' . , . '"-' . "-" . - , . . ,' , ' - " ." . ." - ,"- .' , .
 coupling device inserted in the antenna
cable to sample the transmitter rf out-
put. As an alternative, the actual an-
tenna can be subsitituted for the dummy
load with provisions being made to re- -
move the field strength meter from the
influence of signals radiated from the
antenna.

(2) Transmitter to be tested under conditions

of zero and full normal modulation. - .

(3) Commercial, Category Class "I" Field ..

Strength Measuring Equipment, as listed
in current MIL-I-6181, will be used.

f. Flexibility of Operation: The rf transmitter

shall be capable of operating throughout the
entire frequency band 1435-1535 mcs without
design modification.

2. RECEIVER SYSTEMS (1435-1535 mcs band)

a. Receiver Stability: 0. 001%

•-' - ---

b. Spurious receiver responses: More than 60 db

below fundamental frequencies.

c. Spurious emissions: Oscillator energy either -7-

radiated from the unit or antenna conducted
shall be within the limits specified in the cur-
ient MIL-I-6181.

d. Flexibility of operation: Tunable over the entire

1435-1535 mcs band without design modification'7 -
and with variable bandwidth selection.

3. BANDWIDTHS

a. In specifying bandwidths, the transmitter and

i-eceiver shall be considered as a system. De-
signer should be required to adhere to rigid -

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 1-2

%'K ""-
 engineering design practices to conserve fre-
quency spectrum. Each system should be
subjected to a critical review as to the amount
of information contained in a given bandwidth
versus type of modulation. Designer should
be required to demonstrate and prove sys-
tern design in order to justify frequency spec-
trum usage.

b. As a general guideline, it is anticipated that

for a deviation of plus or minus 125 kcs a
maximum of 1 mcs bandwidth as reference to
the 60 db points will be permitted. For a wide
band system with a deviation of plus or minus
1.4 mcs, a maximum of 10 mcs as reference
to the 60 db points will be permitted. Also, "
for PGM systems signal bandwidth in cps at .2
3 db points can be roughly calculated by 1. 5 -.A
times the bit rate and the bandwidth in cps
at the 60 db points can be calctulated by 3. 6
times the bit rate. It is anticipated the maxi-
mum bit rate will be I x 106 per second and
the minimum .bit rats will be 510 x 103 per second.
Bandwidth for telemetry systems in excess of
10 mcs as referenced to the 60 db points shall
not be used. Bandwidth requirements for trans-
mission of video (television) shall be considered
on a case-to-case basis. For further informa-
tion, refer to IRIG Telemetry Standards. I:

1.4 FREQUENCY BAND 2200-2300 MCS

Chan.nel spacing of t.h.e .V20-2v 1kcs band shall be on increments

of 1 mcs.

A. Efficiency of Spectrum Usage

1. TRANSMITTER SYSTEMS (2200-2300 mcs)

a. Transmitter Frequency Tolerance: The trans-

mitted rf carrier, including drift and all other

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 1- 13

S% . .. % -. . -. ,. N.-.• ....... •..........- - '-.. ...-..-..... ... .- - -'..'... '- .. '-_.'- . "-. .-. .-... '-.'.-.".'- _' -
 variables, shall be within 0. 005% of the
assigned carrier frequency.

b. Power; As dictated by intended use, never

more than absolutely necessary.

c. Spurious and Harmonic Emissions: Spurious

and harmonic emissions from the transmitting
antenna system are of primary importance ' l
insofar as these criteria are concerned. Spur-
ious and harmonic outputs, antenna conducted
(i. e., measured in antenna transmission line)
as well as antenna radiated (i. e., measured in
free space), shall be limited to the values de-
rived from the formula:

db (down from carrier) 55 + 10 logl0 Pt, I

where Pt is the measured power output in watts

d. Spurious, harmonic, and fundamental signals -

conducted bypower leads or radiated directly , .

from equipment units or cable (except antenna)
shall be within the linmits specified in the current .,
MTL-I-6181 specifications.A

e. Measurements to determine relative levels of

spurious and harmonic signals shall be made
under the following conditions:

(1) Transmitter to be operated into a matched

shielded dummy load with a suitable coupling
device inserted in the antenna cable to sam-.-
ple the transmitter rf output. As an alter- -"
rative, Uie actual antenna can be substituted -
for the dumnmy load with provisions being
made to remove the field strength meter
from the influence of signals radiated from,
the antenna.

(2) Transmitter to be tested under conditions of

zero and full normal modulation.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 -14

%%
%-.
 (3) Commercial, Category Class "I" Field
Strength. Measuring Equipment, as
listed in current MIL-I-6181, will be N-

used.

f. Flexibility of Operation: The rf transmitter

shall be capable of operating throughout the
entire frequency band 2200-Z300 mcs without .
design modification.

2. RECEIVER SYSTEMS (2200-2300 mcs)

a. Receiver Stability: 0. 001% LA

b. Spurious receiver response: More than 60 db
below fundmental frequencies.

c. Spurious emissions: Oscillator energy either

radiated from the unit or antenna conducted
shall be within the limits specified in the current
MIL-I-6181.

d. Flexibility of Operation: Tunable over the: entire

2200-2300 mcs band without design modification
and with variable bandwidth selection.

3. BANDWIDTHS

a. In specifying bandwidths, the transmitter and re- K -•

ceiver shall be considered as a system. Designer

should be required to adhere to rigid engineering
design practices to conserve frequency spectrum.
Each system should be subjected to a critical re- .
view as to the amount of information contained
in a given bandwidth versus type of modulation.
Designer should be required to demone.Late and
prove system design in order to justify frequency ---
spectrum usage.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV i1-1

...- .', ....

..... : '..' .'... . .'.v
.,..,.-..
.'.; .'.,v . .."....'-."-....
.'-.'..'. ,. ,-.-',."."-':;',.':.",, ,,':::-: .. ':.':.

"- - - -- " - '' - .

--.. '. ."" % , , " ' " . " -" . -" ' v ". -, , . ...
-.-. . .
-,.-'fq . ., -- •
*--~~~
,. , % ., .... - -- . * ~-'
.. sP •'•,,:,;
4
*fl '.u- €, " * .h,¢.
-A'•,kg ' .. -t ",.',.7
 b. As a general guideline, it is anticipated that
for a deviation of plus or minus LU5 kcs, a 0
maximum for 1 mcs bandwidth as reference
to the 60 db points will be permitted. For a
wide band system with a deviation of k 1. 4 mcs
a maximum of 10 n-ics as referenced to the
60 db points will be permitted. Also, for PCM
systems, signal bandwidth in cps at 3 db points
can be roughly calculated by 1. 5 times the bit
rate and the bandwidth in cps at the 60 db points
can be calculated by 3. 6 times the bit rate. It -. -
is anticipated the maximum bit rate will be
1x 106 per second and the minimum bit rate
will be 50 x 103 per second. Bandwidth in
excess of 10 mcs for telemetry systerns as .
reference to the 60 db points shall not be used.
Bandwidth requ.`-ements for transmission of
video (television) shall be considered on a
case-to-case basis. For further information
refer to the IRIG Telemetry Standards.

7M

:-64-

-:L '12-

.''' ''.C• ..-. ,.,. '-'"'''' .-.- ''" ..... 3 3 . i-: ' -7 '•-[.3 ' ? " ''' '-'-" .•.1.1.[ [. " . -' "- ; -' - .' " " ,

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV I I16 ,.,
 PART II

FM/FM or FM/PM STANDARDS .9'

2. 1 GENERAL

These telemetry systems are of the frequency division

multiplex type. That is, a radio frequency carrier is modulated by a
group of subcarriers, each of a different frequency. The subcarriers
are frequency modulated in a manner determined by the intelligence to
be transmitted. One or nmore of the subcarriers may be modulated by
a time division multiplex scheme 'commutation) in order to increase
considerable the number of individual data channels available in the
system. The modulation of the radio frequency carrier may be by either
---""
of two methods: frequency modulation or phase modulation.
2.2 SUB-CARRIER BANDS

Eighteen standard sub-carrier band center frequencies

with accompanying information on frequency deviation and nominal in-
telligence frequency response are specified in Table I-1. It is intended
that the standard FM/FM receiving stations at the test ranges be cap-
able of simultaneously demodulating a minimum of any twelve of these
sub-carrier signals. RM
The nominal frequency response listed for each band
is computed on a basis of maximum deviation and a deviation ratio of
five, and it is intended that the standard receiving station be capable of
NJ demodulating data with these frequency responses. However, it should.- ,
be remembered that the actual frequency response obtainable is depen-
dent on many things, such as the actual deviation used, the character-
istics of filters, etc. The primary reason for specifying a frequency
response is to insure that elements in the receiving station such as .
filters and recording oscillographs provide the frequency responses
shown in Table !-1.

Z. 2.1 While deviation ratios of five are recommended, devia-..

tion ratios as low as one or less may be used, but low signal-to-noise-
ratios, possible increased harmonic distortion and cross-talk must be
"expected.

N. -.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVl 1-17

A.-,-j.. .4 ¾ .- .
 2. 2. 2 The eighteen bands were chosen to make the best use -.
of present equipment and the frequency spectrum. There is a ratio of .- '
approximately 1. 3 : 1 between center frequencies of adjacent bands ex-
cept between 14. 5 kilocycles and 22 kilocycles, where a larger gap was 9
left to provide for compensation tone for magnetic tape recording. The
, deviation has been kept at ±-7. 5% for all bands with the option of ± 15%
deviation on the five higher bands to provide for transmission of higher
"frequency data. When this option is exercised on any of these five bands,
certain adjacent bands cannot be used, as listed in the footnote to Table I-1.
I@.

2. 2. 3 It is likely that certain applications will make amplitude

pre-emnphasis of some subcarrier signals desirable, and it is recommend-
ed that the ground equipment be capable of accommodating this pre-
emphasized signal. A de-emphasis capability of up to 9 db per octave may
.# ~~be required. -••-.-

"2. 3 AUTOMATIC CORRECTION OF SUBCARRIER ZERO AND SENSITIVITY

DRIFT

2. 3.1 General

In some cases, it is found necessary to automatically cor-

rect for subcarrier zero and sensitivity drift during the course of a test. ]
To provide for such corrections calibration signals are applied to the sub-
carrier oscillators which must have such correction by an in-flight cali- L =a
brator. In addition, a signal is required to arm and actuate the automatic
correction equipment in the receiving or data playback station. Automatic -
corraction command and calibration signals, when employed, shall conform
to the following standards: -
2. 3. 2 Automatic Correction Command

A standard IRIG subcarrier band multiplexed with the

data subcarriers shall be employed to transmit the correction commands.
Modulation of the command subcarrier shall be as follows: L.

2. 3. 2. 1 Command Sequence

The command sequence shall be: "data," 'correct for zero

drift, "correct for sensitivity drift, " "data.

WADD TR 61-6' -
VO I REVI 118

-tea•J.

--------------------------------------------------
 Table 1-1 Sub-Carrier Bands

Center Lower Tippet Max. Devia- Vreq. Ru-

Band Freq. (cps) Limit (cps) Limit (cps) tion (percent) sponse (cp,

1 400 370 430 +7. 5 6. o

"2 560 513 6C,2 I 8.4

3 730 575 785 " 11.

4 960 888 1 ,032 " 14.

5 1, 300 1, 202 I ,399 20.

6 1,700 1, 372 1, 828 " 25.

7 Z, 300 2, 12- 2, -73 ,35.

8 5,000 2, 775 3, 225 45

9 3, 900 3, 607 4-, 193 59.

10it 5, 400 4, 99 5 5,3805 II81.

11 7, 350 6, 799 7, 901 " 110,

12 10, 500 9, 712 1 1,288 H 160.

13 14, 500 13,412 15, 588 220

I 14 Z, 600 2G, 350 23, 650 330

15 30, 000 27, 750 32, Z50 "50

16 40, 000 37, 000 43, 000 " 600

17 52, 500 48, 562 56, 438 790

L18 70, 000 64, 750 75, 250 1 ,050

(continued)

Frequency respon' given is based on maximum deviation and

deviation ratio of :ivw (See text for discussion).

"VjADD TR 61-67 -
VOL I RE"/ II 19
 Table I-I Sub-Carrier Bands (continuation)

Center Lower Upper Max. Devia- Freq. * Re-"

Band Freq. (cps) Limit (cps) Limit (cps) tion (percent) sponse (Cps)"

A 22, 000 18, 700 25, 300 +l5. 660.

B. 30, 0(J0 25, 500 34, 500 " 900.

D. 52, 500 44, 6Z5 60, 375 1,600

E. 70, 000 59, 500 80, 500 2, 100

**Bands A through E are optional and may be used by omitting

adjacent bands as follows:

Band Used Omit Bands ".'

A13, l5 and B

B 14, 16, A and C

G 15, 17, B and D

D 16, 18, C and E

E 17 and D

NOTE:

In the process of magnetic tape recording of the above listed subcarriers

at a receiving station, provision may also be made to record a tape speed control
tone and tape speed error compensation signals as specified in part (6) ol thebe
standards.

W_"DD TR 61-67
VOLI REVJ I - 20
,.- .- . ,.
2. 3. 2. Z Commanr d Subcnrrier Modulai-on

2. 3. 2. Z. I The "data comnmand is indicated by the command sub-

carrier operating at its nominal center frequenicy *0. 711% of f

Z. 3. 2. 2. 2. The "correct for zero drift" conrnnai.-m is indicated by

a displacement of the commniand subcarrier upward in frequency to fc
plus (6. 75% f£ 40. 75% f.)" This comma-d shalt occupy 50% uf the total
calibration tiim.e interval. -1

.2.3. 2. 2. 3 The "correct fcr sensitivity drift" comnmand is indi-

cated by a. displacement of the commnand subcarrier downward in fre-
quency to f. ininus, (6. 75% f:LO. 7516 f. This command shall occupy
50% of the total calibration ti:,e interval.

2. 3. 3 Data Subcarrier (Calib:ration

2. 3. 3. 1 Calibra.tion Sequence

The calibration sequence shall be: "data," "center

. o 110 _~ fullUc'e, "daLa. ' .. i•

Z. 3, 3. ? Sabcarrier VIodu.lation (Ref. Fig. I-1)

Z. 3. 3. Z. 1 The "data" position is the subcarrier connected to its

normal da.ta source (transducer, commutator, etc. .

2. 3. 3. 2. 2 The "center frequency" positiotn is the subcarrier con- 2

nected to a L.igrna.! source which would result in the nominal subcarrier
center freonaency if no zc-,ro or sensitivity drift h-as occurred. The sub- .
carr ler shall remain at t).ts position for bU% of the calibration interval.

2. 3. 3. 2. 3 Tlh, "80% of full sca-le' position is the subcarrier con-

nected to a signal source which would result in a frequency f *30% of "
full scale ban&dwidth if rIo zero or sensitivity drift had occurre(d.. Tie
subcarrier shall remain at this position far 50T of the calibraL;ion-i.'e
val.

2. 3. 3. 3 Phasing of Calibration Signal

The data. subcarrier calibration signals shall lag the

command signals by 200 milliseconds (Ref. Fig. -i)

WADD TR 61-67"
VOL•T RE"- 1 21
 CORRECT FOR CORRECT FOR
ZERO DRIFT SENSITIVITY DRIFT
fc + 6. 71 c .75%f fc

* COMMAND
B3ANDT

-4.DATA DATA

T~

T T

BANDWIDTH

CENTER =- 800/o of FULL SCALE

FREQUENCY

t -200 MILLISECONDS, +50, -0 inis

T 5 SECONDS FOR J_ 10% CORRECTIONS PER
CALIBRATE CYCLE

Fig. 1-i Automatic Zero andi Sensistivity Drift Cilibration Command and
Data Channel Signals

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVi1-22
 2. 3. 4 Correction Capability

Automatic correction equipment shall be capable of cor-

recting zero and sen-itivity drift errors of up to +10% of full scale sub-
carrier bandwidth per calibrate cycle.

2. 3.4. 1 Calibration Duration "-

For maximum (±10%) zero and sensitivity dri.ft correc-

tion, the calibrate interval shall be 5 seconds. Where maximurm correcti-ns
per calibrate cycle are not required, the calibration interval may he cor-
respondingly reduced.

2.4 PAM/FM/FM COMMUTATION --

Commutation (time division multiplexing) may be used in § k

-.
one or more subcarrier bands. A nearly limitless variety of commnutation-
schemes could be devised, but a few relatively simple nrethods will satisfy .. ,
most telemetry needs. The specifications listed below for commutation
were chosen to give a rmaximum flexibility consistent with presently av01a--
equimnent and techniques, and it is intended that, in order to limit the
varieties which must be handled at test ranj es, the following restrictions on .. -
commutation be obsorved:

Z. 4. 1 Commutation rates as listed in Table 1-2 shall not be exceed-

ed on each subcarrier.

2. 4. 2 Recommended Sample Rtes ."'

Recommended commutation rates listed in Table 1-2 rcquire ,7> i

the use of discriminator output low Fass fiiters with cut off frecuencies
equal to four times the specified comurrutation rate.

2. 4. 3 Separated Data I

Where required, automatic channel separation (decomrnuta-

tion) equipment shall be provided in the receiving staticn to process cornmnu-
tated signals that conform to the following characteristics: (See Fig. 1-2 and
Table 1- 3).

WADD TR 61-67 2
VOLT REViSI
1 IRNV i - 23 •:7,•
 Table I-2 Commutation Rates - Unseparated Data

Sample Duration Commutation Rate

Center (milliseconds) (samples per second)
Band Frequency Recommended Recommended
Numb e r (cps) Values Value s

1 400 170 6.0

2 56•( 120 8.4

"3 730 91 11

4 960 70 14

5 1, 300 51 Z0

6 1,700 39 25

7 2,300 29 35

8 3,000 22 45

9 3,900 17 59

10 5,400 12 81

1 7,350 9.1 110

J2 10,500 6.4 160

13 14,500 4.6 220

1.4 22,000 3. 0 330

15 30, 000 2. z 450

16 40,000 1.7 600

17 5Z,500 1.3 790

18 70,000 0.95 1, 050

(continued)
WADD 111 61=- 7
"VOL RF\V I I - 24
 Table 1-Z,;ý>mrrvitaL-,on .(,ttes -Uns eparated Data (continuation)

Sa-mple Daration Comimutation Rate I

Oenor(r,ý2ihi second$) (samples per second)
Band Freq.1e:.cy RcicomrnrenC~d Recom-mended
N urn!)er tcp S) Value s Value s

A 21, 000) 1.5 660

B 30, 000 i 1 900

C 40; 000 0.83 1,200

D ~ ~ 50*,50 0o. 63 1,600

E 70, 00C 0.48 2, 100

NWAI)D TR 61-67
VOL I REVI1-25
 MAAXIMUM i-FR AME MAXIMUM
DEVIATION SYNC PULSE SIGNAL

MINIMU M
SIGN\AL

-~O TIME4

CENTER
FREQ-UENCY

20 TO Z5%o OF DEVIATION RANGE RESERVED

FOR CHANNEL SYNCHRONIZATION

-DUTY CYCLE
NT

Fig. 1-2 PAM Pulse Train Waveform

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 1- 26
 2.4. 3. 1 The total number of samples per frame (number of segments .:...
of a mechanical commutator) and the frame rates shall be one of the combi-
nation shown in Table 1-3. If a higher commutation rate is required for
certain information, two or more samples per frame (equally spaced in time)
can be used to represent one telemetered function at the expense of the total
number of information channels. This process is referred to as cross-
strapping or super-commutation.

2. 4. 3. 2 The commutation pattern in the subcarrier frequency versus -,

time domain, shall be as shown in Figure 1-2.

2. 4. 3. 3 A frame synchronizing pulse of full scale amplitude and dura-

tion equal to two "on" periods plus one "off" period shall be provided once
every frame, as shown in Fig. 1-2.

2. 4. 3. 4 The commutator speed (or frame rate) shall not vary more -
than plus 5.0% to -15% from the nominal values given in Table 1-3.

2.4. 3. 5 The duty.r cycle shall be 40% to 65%. . •

A 2.4. 3. 6 A channel synchronization pedestal is required for automatic

""i decommutation (See Fig. 1-2).

2.5 In Flight Zero and Full Scale Calibration

the synchronizingOnpulse
all PAM commutators, for
are recommended channels onefull
zero and andscale
two, calibration
following .

respectively.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 1 -27
I?
..
 Table 1-3. Commutation Specification for Automatic Decommutation
.0?

No. of Frame Rate Commutation Lowest

Samples Frames Rate** Recommended
per (per (samples Subcarrier bands .- i. N
Frame* second) per second) (cps)

S8 5 90 14,500

18 10 180 22, 000(± 15%) or

30, 000(±7. 5%)

18 25 3
450 0, 000(± 15O/ or
70, 000(4'7. 5%)

30 2.5 75 10,500

S30 5 150 22, 000(=L7. 5%)

30 10 300 22, 000(f 15%) or kI9•

40, 000(+17. 5%)/o-

30 20 600 40, ooo(z 15%)

30 30 900 70, 000(± 15%)

LI
*The number of samples per frame available to carry information
is two less than the number indicated, because the equivalent of
two samples is used in generating the frame synchronizing pulse, .-.

**Frame rate times number of samples per fran-e,.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI -28

-. ' ~-.:.%.
 4 PART HII

PDM/FM or PDM/PM or PDM/FM/FM STANDARD

3. 1 General . .I

The pulse duration modulation (PDM) systemns are intended

for use where a strictly time division multiplex system can meet the bulk
of the telemetry requirements of a given application. A relatively large .
number of information channels can be accommodated, but a relatively low
frequency response capability in comparison with the subcarrier channels 7%
of the FM/FM system.

3. 2 PDM/FM or PDM/PM

The following are the specifications for the pulse duration

modulated signal:

Number of samples per frame * 30 45 60 90 6 1

Frame Rate (frames/sec.) 30 20 15 10

Commutation rate (samples/sec. 900 900 900 900

The amplitude of the measurands being transmitted in each

channel shall determine the duration of the corresponding pulses. The re-
lation between measurands and pulse duration should, in general, be linear.

Minimum pulse duration (zero

level information): 90 =L 30 microseconds

Maximum pulse duration (maximumr'

level information): 700 ± 50 microseconds

Pulse rise and decay time (mea-

sured between 10% and 90% levels): 10 to 20 microseconds (constant
to ±1 microseconds for a given
transmitting set).

: The number of samples per frame available to carry information is two

less than the number indicated because the equivalent of two samples is-
used in generating the frame synchronizing pulse.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1- 29

"-I"- :-
 ** Commutation rate is equal to the frame rate multiplied by the
number of samples per frame.

3. 2. 1 The time interval between the leading edges of suc-

cessive pulses within a frame shall be uniform from interval to
interval withir plus or minus 25 microseconds. This time interval
shall have a .minal period equal to one divided by the total sampling
rate.

3. Z. 2 The commutator speed or frame rate shall not vary

more than plus 5. 0% to -1 5.0% from nominal.

A frame synchronizing interval equal to two succes-

sive pulse time intervals shall exist in the train of pulses transmitted,
to be used for synchronization of the commutator and the decommuta-
tor. A representation of the pulse train waveform is shown in Fig. 3.

PULSE DURATION (VARIABLE)

FRAME
S YNC,
INTERVAL

TIME

R = COMMUTATION RATE

Fig. 1-3 PDM Pulse Train Waveform

3..3 PDM/FM/FM

Pulse duration modulation (DPM) systems may also be

employed on the 155% deviation channels of the standard FM/FM multiplex

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV1 1- 30
 .. :. ..1

systems. When so used, they are designated as PDM/FM/FM Telemetry.

It should be recognized that this application of PDM is wasteful of band-
width and that it places three wide band modulation systems in cascade. -
Gaussian type output low pass filters should be used at the dibcriminator " -
outputs for this application. -"
3. 3.3.1 The recommended subcarrier channels for this application
are bands B, C, D, or E. Operating criteria for use of these specific bands
are specified in Table 1-4.

Table I1.4. PDM Modulation of FM/FM Sub-Carrier Channels

Recommended :
Samples Channel FM/FM Deviation Value of Min.
Per Second Allocation Channel Utilized Pulse Length

900 B 30. 0 kcps ±7. 5% 200 +30 rnicrosec-

onds minus none

900 C 40. 0 kcps ±7.5% 170 +30 microsec-

onds minus none
i
900 D 52. 5 kcps +7. 5% 150 +30 microsec-
onds minus none"N½

900 F 70.0 kcps *7.5% 110 +30 microsec-

onds minus none

Satisfactory performance is contingent upnnus of optim u

output low pass filters. ,

Reference: "The Transmission of Pulse Width Modulated Signals Over

Restricted Bandwidth Systems."
IRE Transactions on Telemetry and Remote Control.
Volume TRC-3, No. 1, April 1957.

3. 3.2 Time interval variation between leading edges of successive

pulses. Section 3. 2. 1 shall apply.

WADD TR 61-67 Lt
..

VOL I REV I 1- 31 A-
r.) •> ..
 3. 3. 3 Commiu~tation Speed

Section 3. Z. 2 shall apply.

3. 4 In-Flight Zero and Full Scale Calibration

On all PDM Commjiutators, channels one and two, following

* ~the synchronizing pulse, are recommended for zero and full scale calibra- -
tion respectively.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVl1 1 -32
 IPART IV

PAM/FM or PAM/PM STANDARDS

SThese
requested from:
standards will be forthcoming. Copies may be

Secretariat
Inter-Range Instrumentation Group
White Sands Missile Range
New Mexico

WADD TR 61-67
VOLT1 REVi1 33
 -~ 4

PART V

PCXM STANDARDS

5. 1 GENERAL

Pulse code modtuiation (PCM) data specified in these

standards shall be transmitted as serial binary coded, time division
multiplexed samples.

5.2 BIT RATE VERSUS RECEIVER INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY (IF)

BANDWIDTH (3 db points)

Selections of bit rates and corresponding receiver IF

bandwidth shall be made from those listed in Table 1-5 below. Only
those discrete receiver IF bandwidths listed shall be used (optional
below 12, 500 cps). The selections in Table 1-5 have been chosen with
the consideration that automatic tracking of radio frequency (rf) car-
rier drift or shift will be utilized in the receiver.

*1 Table 1-5 Bit Rate and Receiver IF Bandwidth (3 db points)

Bit Rate Receiver IF

System Type (bits per second) Bandwidth (cps)

A 8, 000 and lower 1Z, 500 (and as required

for lower bit rates)

B 2 000 to 65, 000 25,000 - 50, 000 - 100, 000

C 50, 000 to 330, 000 100,000 - 300,000 500, 000

D 320, 000 to 800, 000 500,000 1000,000: '

1, 500, 0C0'•

* For use in 1435-1535 mcs and Z200-2300 mcs telemetry frequency

bands only.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV - 34

.-.-..................................
**%.*'.. . . . . . . ..-. . '......
 - ... . . .

5. 2. 1 It is recommended that for practical design considerations,

a bit rate equal to the receiver IF bandwidth (3 db points) divided by a
factor ranging from 1. 5 to 3. 0 be used. The bandwidth - bit rate rela-
tionships in Table I-5 were selected on this basis.

5. 2.2 For reference purposes, a receiver IF signal-to-noise

ratio (power) of approximately 15 db will result in a bit error probabil-
ity of about one bit in 10 . A two db change (increase or decrease) in 0
this signal-.to-noise ratio will result in an order of magnitude change
(107 or 105, respectively) in the bit error probability.

5. 2. 3 It should be recognized that the range of factors 1. 5 to

"3.0 recommended in paragraph 5. Z. 1 may result in a compatibility pro- ..
blem when using current frequency modulation (FM) receivers for stan-
dard IRIG FM/FM and PDM/FM systems as well as PCMIFM systems
designed in accordance with the standard herein. Modifications may be
required to video amplifier stages and other circuitry as necessary.

5. 3 BIT RATE STABILITY -

"The change in bit rate shall not exceed 1. 0% of the nomi-

nal bit rate. It is recommended that rate of change of bit rate not exceed
0. 1% of the nominal bit rate per second. (The above values are tentative
and subject to change). fl

5.4 WORD AND FRAME STRUCTURE

The number of bits per frame shall not exceed 2048 in- '2.
cluding those used for frame synchronization. The frame length selected t.
for a particular mission shall be kept constant. Word length for any given
"channel can range from 6 to 64 bits but shall be kept constant for any
Sgiven channel for a particular mission. It is recommended that an odd
paritv bit be included where a higher order of confidence in b-1-it transrknission
is desircd,

5.5 SYNCHRONIZATION

Frames shall be- identified by a unique frame synchroni-

zation word. The length of w,'rd should be proportional to the length of
the frame, since longer frames require longer synchronization patterns
in order to provide adequate probab'lity of acqaisition. It is recommended, -..-.

"WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV I I - 35

44 .-•.. .. ,

. .•
., , , •. rd .' . % '' -" a. -. " , • •, . • , "., -. . -" . " ',- -*' -

y%

that a repeated 11-bit Barker code word be utilized with minimum lenigth -

1 -bit plus (complement 11-bit), and maximum length 11-bit plus (comn-
plement 11-bit) plus (complement 11-l.it). Patterns less than maximum
length may be formed by progressively deleting the latter bits of the
second complement I1-bit word. The 11-bit Barker code is 11100010010
and its complement is 00011101101. -

5. 5. 2 To facilitate rapid bit synchr'onization, it is recommended t

that, for a Non-Return-to-Zero (NqRZ) code, a change in state occur at
least once every 64 bits. Such change in state may be provided by odd
parity, fixed programming, the guarantee v.hat all data will not sinmul- -. - -

taneously go to zero or full-scale, etc.

5.6 SUPER-COMMUTATION AND SUBCOMMU%. TATION

5. 6. 1 Super-commutation and subcotnmutation are acceptable

methods for exchanging the number of nlcasurands and sampling rate. A -
selected coded word shall be used to iidi ate the beginning of the sub- --
commutator sequence. It is reconmrnzndced that a repeated 7-bit Barker W
code word be utilized with xninimu.n Ien-th 7-bit plus (complement 7-bit) "
and maximum length 7-bit plus (comrr.e,, ent 7-bit) plus (complement
7-bit). Patterns less than maximurn length may be formed by progress- -
ively deleting the latter bits of the sccond complement 7-bit word. The
7-bit Barker code is lli0010 and its complement is 000 0i.

5. 6. z The number of bitt per subcommutation frame shall not

exceed 2048 including those used for subeommutation frame synchroni-
zation. The number of channels in a subcommutation frame shall not
excee!d 130 including that used for subcommutation frame synchronization.

5.7 PRE-MODULATION FILTERING

A low pass filter with cutoff frequency (3 db) equal to

one-half the nominal bit rate shall be used before the transmitter mo- -

dulator. The use of a maximally linear phase response type filter with ,
a final slope of 36 db per octave is recommended.

5.8 RF CARRIER MODULATION

5. 8. 1 The rf carrier modulation method shall be frequency mo- 7

dulation (FM). Since frequency-shift-keying (FSK), where modulation "
--.-

WADD TR 61-67 .
VOL I REV I 1- 36
 is accomplished by switching from one discrete frequency to another,
is not compatible with pre-modulation filtering, it is not acceptable..,
Other modulation methods applicable to PCM (NRZ) transmission
have not been proven and therefore are not included at this time.

5.8.2 Frequency modulation of the carrier shall be of the

type where:

The carrier is deviated to the higher frequency devia-

tion limit to transmit a "one" and to the lower frequency deviation
limit to transmit a "zero. " Once a frequency deviation limit is
reached for either a "one" or a "zero, " the resulting frequency re-
mains constant for consecutive like bits.

.- p.

. . . ..... *., - - - -
-u-:*-..,.----.. \t''"" ..- .-. . . . -. '

WADD TR 61-67
VOLTI REVL1-37

. . .. i............. .-
 APPENDIX II

GLOSSARY

S OF

TELEMETRY TRANSDUCER TERMS

Prepared by

Telemetry Working Group LA

IRIG

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV I I- I

AVs-A
 Acknowledgements

The Transducer Committee of the Telemetry Working Group gratefully

acknowledges the assistance of transducer's users and manufacturers 9

who co-operated in preparation of the Transducer Glossary.

The Transducer terms herein contained are subject to revision one

year fromn date of approval.

The Transducer Glossary was generated as an aid towards effective

communication of engineers in the field of Telemetry Transducer In-
strumentation.
"-,. •-'

The ransuce
oftheTeleetryWoring
Comitte rou graekuly "'%.
.. A

'6.1,6
acknoledgs oftranduce's
th assstane uers nd mnufatures (-'•-•..
VOL I V=

wADD 2c-pratdi
61-67n fteTandcrGlsay i •'-
VOLI RE.i.11-_

----------------------------
----.. - - . 5..- -.-.--.--

ye r r r %dte o¾ta prova. ¾'-'"-"-. .

 ABSOLUTE SYSTEM OF UNITS

A system of units in which a sma'i number of units are chosen as

fundamental and all other units a:e derived from them.

ACCELERATION

The time rate of change in velocity and/or direction. -,

ACCELERATION SENSITIVITY

The difference between the output at zero acc(leration and the output
measured at a given steady state acceleration. Usually expressed in
per cent of full-scale output per "g. May be expressed as output
difference under acccleration at zero stimulus or at some other value -

of the stimulus.

ACCELEROMETER

A transducer which measures one or more components of acceleration.

ACCURACY

Freedom from mistakes or errors. A measure of conformity to a

specified value. ". -'

ACTIVE LEG

An electrical element within a transducer which changes its electrical

characteristics as a function of the application of stimulus.

ALTITUDE

The perpendicular distance from a reference line or level to an object V _..__

or point in space. ',1

ANALOG OUTPUT "-

Transducer output in which the amplitude is continuously proportional _

to the stimulus, the proportionality being limited by the resolution of

I'" .' . %

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 11- 3

3- 1

C- C -- 7- x'.. . . .--.-- -. -

.;.,"•'.,.. .- ,,.'.-,•.-.-',r•.-....,"
'..".-...." . .-.-. ,. ." ........ .-......-...-...........
.......... ,..............-.. .. ,
,, . ",• *... ,r•',¢,.-,. ..••. . .. . . . ••. ...... ,. .. ,.. -...-........-.....-..-.......... ,..........-._
 the transducer. Distinguished from digital output.

ANGULAR VELOCITY'

The time rate of change of angular displacement expressed in

radians per second and generally designated by the Greek letter
omega (w).

ARMATURE

The member, in certain transducers, which is displaced by the

collected forces in the force-summing element and which in turn
changes the characteristics of the electrical elements as a func-
tion of the applied stimulus. Also the component which completes
the mnagnetic path in "E" core inductive coils.

ATTENUATION

The relationship, in complex notation, between the input stimulus

and the output response of a system or device. Attenuation gen-
erally implies amplitude and power reduction and corresponding
phase change of a stimulus or signal between two points of the sys-
tem or device.
"'1~a
BEST FIT STRAIGHT LINE

A line chosen to represent the sensitivity of a transducer and from ,.

which non-linearity errors may be calculated. The line is chosen
such that the response curve contains as much of the function above
the line as below the line.

BEST FIT STRAIGHT LINE WITH FORCED ZERO

The line from which zero based linearity is calculated.

BEST FIT STRAIGHT LINE WITH "Y" INTERCEPT

A best fit straight line the posi.ion of which is fixed by a given out-
put of the transducer at zero measurand. Non-linearity errors may
be expressed as deviation from such a line. The phrase "best fit
straight line with '"' intercept" is often used to indicate non-linearity
error calculated from such a line.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVI 11-4

A2

"•:.-.•-_ , ,•-',•.• :.~< ".", .,."2"2.' "5: ' '. " . "" " -
." ". """ " - , ." " - . . . "
•--.¢ • ,",,- ,.\-,,.,-., ..
•,,,,,..- > ......
t &t t....,
. . -j~ -*....
,. .. .. -,.. , .K., .. :.. - --, ..--
, .
BONDED PICKUP

The preferred term is bonded transducer.

BONDED STRAIN GAGE

Strain-sen sitive elements arranged to facilitate bonding to a

surface in order to measure applied stresses.

BRIDGE RESISTANCE

The resistance of each element of a transducer whose configu-

ration is that of Wheatstone bridge, also the output resistance
of said device.

BURST PRESSURE

The pressure at which the housing or force-summing member

of a pressure transducer fails to support the associated stresses, ..
-

so that a rupture or leak results.

The total differential pressure between the pressure in the

internal cavity of a transducer and the ambient pressure. The
term is commonly used to summarize the limiting combined
differential and/or line pressure capabilities of differential trans-
ducers. :

CENTER OF SEISMIC MASS

±,,C jULiiL il Lilt Seiuiic iiibabs where acceleration and/or gravi-

tational forces are summed. The center of seismic mass provides
the reference from which the radius is determined when calculating,
or applying, linear acceleration levels generated by a centrifuge.
The center of seismic mass is often determined empirically by
spinning the accelerometer in the center of a centrifuge and observing
the position of the instrument when its output is equivalent to zero
acceleration.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 11 5

NX. ---....
 - . *0

CRITICAL DAMPING

The value of damping which provides the most rapid transient

response without overshoot.

GROSS ACCELERATION

The preferred term is transverse acceleration. 0

* CROSS SENSITIVITY

The preferred term is transverse sensitivity

DAMPED NATURAL FREQUENCY

The frequency at which a system with a single degree of freedom

will oscillate, in the presence of damping, upon momentary dis-
placement from the rest position by a transient force. In acceler-
ometers, the damped natural frequency is generally determined by
means of the 900 phase shift method. That is, by vibrating the
instrument at a constant amplitude and observing the lowest fre-
quency where there is a 900 phase shift between the accelerometer
output and the applied vibration which is monitored with a volCcity
coil or some other suitable reference signal.

DAMPING 1<.

Referes to the resistance, friction or similar cause that diminishes

the amplitude of an oscillation with each successive cycle.

DAMPING FACTOR

The ratio of any one amplitude and the next succeeding it in the same
sense or direction, when energy is not supplied on each cycle. In &. -g
second-order systems with single degree of freedom the decrement is
constant. The amplitude decays as e-6t

Where: t = time
= logarithmic decrement

WADD TR 61-67 . -
VOLI REVl - 6

%I "Z.
. . . . . . . . .
".%.'•.'kv..-.'.'.-•`•`•-••-•.•c•---.----.--.------.---.--.-.-..-.----.---.--------------.---..-.-'.--'-----.-.-.---"--"---..--.--....-..-
 DAMPING RATIO

The ratio of actual damping to critical damping. May be expressed

as the ratio of output under static conditions to twice the output at
the lowest frequency where a 90' phase shift is observed. - -

DEAD VOLUME

The total volume of the pressure port cavity of a transducer at the

rest position, i. e. , no stimulus applied.

DIGITAL OUTPUT

Transducer output that represents the magnitude of the stimulus in .

the form of a series of discrete quantities coded to represent digits
in a system of notation. Distinguished from. analog output.

* DIGITIZER

"A A device which converts analog data into numbers expressed in digits
in a system of notation.

DOUBLE AMPLITUDE

In the field if vibratory acceleration the term double amplitude is

employed to indicate the total, or peak-to-peak, dimensional displace.- -. -.-.- ,
ment of a vibrating structure.

DRIFT

A change in output attributable to any cause.

DYNAMIC RESPONSE

The preferred term is freqency response.

DYNAMIC TEST

A test performed on accelerometers by means of which information

is gathered pertaining to the over-all behavior, frequency response L
and/or natural frequency of the device.

"WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 11- 7

. .. ..... ... -. . .. . - :!"_ , -, "

%..-. •,- $.
• .. - ., -j~ . - .. - - •. ..- ... . ".. - - - .. , ".. '
 "E" CORE

The configuration of laminations used in certain inductive transducers

Swhich resembles the form of the capital Roman letter "E".

ELECTROMAGNETIC DAMPING "-

See magnetic dam2ipng.

END POINTS

The output values obtained at the points where the magnitude of the .-
stimulus equals the limits of the rated range of the transducer.

END POINT LINEARITY

The manner of expressing deviations from a straight line drawn between -.

the end points of a calibration curve.

ERROR

The difference between the indicated. value and the true value of the
measurand. '"
.- --

ERROR BAND

An error value, usually expressed in per cent of full scale, which de-
fines the maximum allowable error permitted f(_r a specified combination
of transducer paramneters.
ERROR CURVE

A plot of the difference between the indicated and true values of the
measurand versus the true value of the measurand.

EXCITATION ENERGY

The external electrical energy required for the proper operation of a

transducer.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV II-8
1- -18
 "F" FACTOR

The slope of the straight line from which nor-linearity is calculated,.

Given as microvolts output per volt excitation per unit stimulus. 7.

FLAT FREQUENCY RESPONSE ""

Response of a system to a constant amplitude function which varies

in frequency. The response is "flat" if it varies within specified
limits of amplitude, usually specified in decibels from a reference
quantity. "-" .

FLUID DAMPING

Accelerometer damping obtained through the displacement of fluid by

the mass and the accompanying dissipation of heat.

FREQUENCY- MODULATED OUTPUT C

An output which is obtained in the form of a deviation from a center

frequency, where the deviation is proportional to the applied stimulus.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE

,4.
The portion of the frequency spectrum which can be sensed by a de-
vice within specified limits of amplitude error.

FRICTIONAL ERRORS

The difference in resistance or output between readings obtained prior .

to and immediately after tapping an instrument while applying a con--
stant stimulus. Particularly applicable to potentiometric transducers. --

-'4 FULL EXCURSION

The application of mneasurarid, in a controlled manner, over the entire

range of a transducer.

"p WADD TR 61-67

VOL I REV 1 11 9

-- '-. -:-> . -- " : -. -:",-. - - .N.: .: . -! . - - : . > - -- -_. : - 2 -: -: - . . :% : "j -: : .: .- -- .:.: .:.: .:. :.: ,: -- - --- ",'.: .. .: -
 FULL-SCALE OUTPUT

The algebraic difference in electrical output between the maximum 0

andmininum values of measurand over which the instrument is
calibratcd. When the sensitivity slope is given by any other line
than the end point sensitivity, full scale expresses the algebraic
difference, for the span of the instrument, which is calculated fromr
the slope of the straight line from which non-linearity is determined.

CAGE FACTrOR

A measure of the transfer function of strain-sensitive resistive

materials. Numerically expressed as:

" GF _Ar/R
Al/L

Where A r/R unit change in resistance

A /L unit change in length

The term is often used as synonymous with the gage sensitivity.

GAGE PRESSURE

A differential. pressure measurement in which the ambient pressure

provides the reference. Also, a pressure in excess of the standard
atmrospheric pressure at sea level, e. g. , 14. 7 psia.

HYSTERESIS ERROR

The maximum difference between the readings of the transducer

for a fiXed vanlue of fhe measured stimulus taken when the stimulus
is increasing and when it is decreasing. Hysteresis error is often ..
expressed in per cent of full scale.

* INACCURACY

The terin sometimes used to indicate deviations from a specific

referencce in. which "all causes" of error attributable to the instru-
ment are lumped. It is too broad a concept to be applied properly,

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVl 11-10 w--1

(1 ."

. . - -- . - A A - - -- .-

i • •i •" l % i I• '-• " " " i. . .2i

i * 2 [ : [
 due to the multitude or parameters that must be specified as inclusions
c exceptions. Furthermore, corresponding magnitude for each condi--
tion would also be required. ..

INACIVF LEGT--

An electrical element within a transducer which does not change its

electrical characteristics as a function of the applied stimulus. Speci-
fically applied to elements which are employed to complete a Wheatstone
bridge in certain transducers.

INFINITE RESOLUTION

The ability to provide a stepless, continuous output over the entire range
of a device.

INSTABILITY

It is preferred chat this term not be used. See stability.

INTERNAL .- ZRESSURE

Same as case pressure.

INTERVAL CALIBRATION

The preferred term is step calibration.

LINEARITY '.

A relationship existing between two quantities such that the change in

one qi-antitr is exactly and directly (linearly) proportional to the change-
in the other quantity. Note: the quantities and ranges involved must be
clearly specified.

LOADING ERROR

The error introduced when more than rated current is drawn from the
output of a device. --

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVi IIi

'-i-i,?'.-'-
. . . . . . .-. t..~-. ..... '-:"--."-.--.
LOADiNG NOISE

A noise which occnrs in potentiometric transducers when current is

drawn from the instrumcnt. It it caused by fluctuating contact resis- ,.,-,
tance between the slider and the wire or film and by the surface of N'

contact between the slip ring and the slip ring contact. N

MAGNETIC DAMPING

Damping accomplished through the generation and dissipation of

electromagnetic energy.

MEASURAND

A physical quantity, force, property or condition being measured.

NATURAL FREQUENCY

The natural frequencies of an undamped body or system are the fre-

quencies of free oscillations.

NOISE

Any unwanted disturbance or signal which degrades the desired data.

NOMINAL RANGE

See rated range.

NON-LINEARITY .¾-X.-,

"Ti iti nrpferr,-r1 fhat th-i s terr-i nt be 11sed. See le;aritrv. "-

NULL

(Adjective) Pertaining to a condition of balance in a device or system

which results in zero output.

(Verb) To oppose an output which differs fiom zero by a counteraction

which returns the output to zero.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVI 11 -12

-. ,.... ~ *.- 2.....-....

-o-- -.-- - -

* .9.* - -A-.- - . -/--

* - ~ t. tA Up- . . -, .- -

OPERATING TEMPERATU RE

The range of temperatures, in which a transducer is expected to

operate within specified limits of error. N ',

OPTIMAL DAMPING :z

Damping ratio slightly less than unity which limits the overshoot to
a value less than the specified uncertainty of the instrument.

OUTPUT

The electrical signal from a system or device which is a function of

the applied stimulus or signal.

PEAK AMPLITUDE -.-

The maximum deviation of a phenomenon from its average or mean

position. When applied to vibration, same as single amplitude.

PEAK-TO-PEAK

The maximrnum algebraic difference between two or more stimuli or

signals.

PICKUP

The preferred term is transducer. .

PRIMARY CALIBRATION%

Calibration in which the transducer outnut is observed, or recorded,

while a direct known stimulus is applied under controlled conditions.

PRIMARY STANDARD

A unit directly defined and established by some authority, against

which all secondary standards are calibrated.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVi 11 -13 a'

* '.. ft' C ' -~.'~'.'

-'-%---.- -
 RANGE

A statement of the quantitative limits of a physical system.

RATED RANGE

The range within which a device should be operated in order to

maintain the performance characteristics specified by its manu-
facturer.

RATIO CALIBRATION

A method by which potentiometric transducers may be calibrated,

in which the value of the measurand is expressed in terms of decimal
fractions representing the ratio of output resistance to total resis-
tance.

REACTIVE BALANCE

The capacitive or inductive balance which is often required to null

the output of certain transducers or systems when the excitation and/or
the output is given in terms of alLernaLnlpg cttrrets. .- .

RELIABILIT Y

A measure of the probability that a system or device will continue to

perform within specified limits of error for a specified length of time
under specified conditions, -.
REPEATABILITY

The ability of a system to repeat a measurement of a fixed stimulus to

a specified accuracy.

RESOLUTION

The degree to which small increments of the measurand can be discrimi-

nated in terms of instrument output. The smallest change in applied
stimulus that will produce a detectable change in the instrument output.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV 1 11 -14

.- S ':. *42.-..,... . . . . -.
 RESOLUTION NOISE J
The step wise voltage variations due to the slider moving across .
discrete turns of the resistance winding in potentiometer type
transducers.

RESPONSE (TRANSDUCER) ,- --

A quantitative expression of the output of a transducer as a function

of the input, under conditions which must be explicitly stated,
RF.SPONSE TIME

The time required for the output of a transducer to reach 63.7% of

the final output when subjected to a step function input of stimulus.

SCALE FACTOR (TRANSDUCER)

The factor by which the number of scale divisions indicated or re-

corded by a transducer should be multiplied to compute the value
of the measurand.

S 0f NE D
C AR)7 N TIN10IJtLLXJ-J

A unit defined and calibrated against a primary standard. See primary

standard.

SEISMIC MASS

The element in an accelerometer which is intended to serve as the

force-summing member for applied accelerations and/or gravitational
forces.

SENSITIVITY

The change in the reading of a measuring instrument per unit of inea-

sured quantity.

WADD TR 61-67
Vol, I REV I II - 15

AID

M.'. .,. -.-... ,.'.. , < ."-'-....-..: .. '. - '_'..-,-, :.","., ,v'---.... - -vv v .. ; . .. ' -
 SENSITIVITY SET

A permanent change in sensitivity attributable to any cause, such

as over-ranging, shock, aging, etc.
SENSITIVITY SHIFT

A change in sensitivity from a reference value. That is, change

from a response slope previously obtained which is due to any cause.

SENSITIVITY SHIFT WITH TEMPERATURE

The change in sensitivity which is a function of temperature only.

SHOCK

An abrupt change in applied energy.

SHUNT CALIBRATION

A calibration in which aparallel resistance is placed across a like

.LV.LS J LeUL. torobtain
Lu a `niuowi an'iu` ue±uei•ae elecLricai change.

SPEED OF RESPONSE

The preferred term is response time.

STABILITY

The quality of imperviousness to unwanted changes in parameters. -.

A value or concept that has been established by authority, custom, or

agreement, to serve as a model or rule in the measurement of a quan-
tity or in the establishment of a practice or procedure.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 11 -16

. . . . ..-- -.. . "- . . c--.... - .,- '-. -

.- - , '-'. -..- -.. .
A,, --. -.. -. -. .- .! :
,--- -.. ',A. Cv-,'.'-vv 'v v••,'.•i'•,::-.::-'.
V -" -. - -•"- . . . -
 .:0i
STANDARDIZATION

The act or process of reducing something to or comparing it with

a standard.

STATIC TEST A

A measurement taken under conditions where neither the stimulus

nor the environmental conditions fluctuate.

STEP CALIBRATION

A calibration in which the stimulus or substitution of stimulus is

applied in discrete increments.

STIMULUS Li
A cause which produces change.

STORING TEMPERATURE

The range of temperatures at which a transducer may be stored or

transported without degradation of performance.

STRAIN

The deformation of a solid resulting from a stress, measured by

the ratio of the change to the total value of the dimension in which
the change occurred.

STRAIN GAGE, ELECTRIC

A type of transducer used in the telemetering of stresses and strains

usually consisting of an element, or group of elements which change
their resistivity as a function of applied stresses.

STRESS

The force acting in a unit area of a solid.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV I I- 17

.-- NL.-,•-

Vv.•.
"N. .
C
.,. ., , -.- ,----.-
I , ,
.
9
-
,
- -
-
" ',
,,
, --.-. - .. .
-.. --.. -. , . .-- - - -- . -,-. . --- . ., , .' . ", . •.'"
 -° -" - .-

SWEPT RESISTANCE x -.

- The portion of the total resistance of a potentiometric transducer

over which the slider travels when the device is operated throughout
its total range.

TANGENT SENSITIVITY

The slope of the line tangent to the response curve at the point being
measured.

TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION

Same as thermal compensation.

•• TEMPERATURE EFFECT

The difference between the output at room temperature and at any

other specified temperature at any one value of the stimulus within
the range of the measuring device.

TERMINAL-BASED LINEARI'f Y

Same as end-point linearity.

TERMINAL LINEARITY 'N,-

Same as end-point linearity.

THERMAL COEFFICIENT OF RESISTIVITY

The changes in the resistivity of a substance due to the effects of

temperature only. Usually expressed in ohms per ohm per degree
change in temperature.

THERMAL COEFFICIENT OF SENSITIVITY

The change in full-scale output due to the effects of temperature only.

Usually expressed in percentage of the full scale output at room krn

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV1 1-18

, .-
 temperature per unit, or interval, change in temperature.

THERMAL COMPENSATION

A method employed to reduce or eliminate the thermal effects on one

or more of the performance parameters of a transducer.

THERMAL ZERO SHIFT .1

The change in output, at zero measurand, due to the effects of temp- --

erature only. Usually expressed in percentage of full scale output at
room temperature per unit, or interval, change in temperature. .

THERMISTOR

A resistor whose value varies with temperature in a defininte desired

manner.

THERMOCOUPLE

A transducer which depends on the production of an emf in two dis-

similar metals as a function of the temperaturc or temperature change.

THRESHOLD t
*The point at which an effect is first produced, observable, or other-
wise indicated.

THRESHOLD OF SENSITIVITY

The smallest change in stimulus that will result in a detectable change

in output.

TRANSDUCER (INSTRUMENTATION)

A device which ;-esponds to a phenomenon and produces a signal which -

is a function of one or more characteristics of the phenomenon.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 11 -19

-- 2' ~C-. "'.- C

NN
[iI
 AP4.

TRANSDUCER, ALTERNATING CURRENT J

A transducer which, for proper operation, must be excited with al-
ternating current only.

TRANSDUCER, BI-DIRECTIONAL
•.1~
A transducer capable of nmeasuring stimulus in both a positive and
a negative direction from a reference zero or rest position.

TRANSDUCER , BONDED

A transducer which employs the bonded strain gage principle of

transduction. ,

TRANSDUCER, CRYSTAL

The preferred term is peizoelectric transducer.

TRANSDUCER, DIFFERENTIAL ..

A transducer -which is capable of sinmultaneous e__-,_osure to two sa=- A "e

parate stimulus sources and which provides an output proportional
to the difference between the stimuli. .

TRANSDUCER, DIRECT CURRENT

A transducer capable of proper operation when excited with a source--"

of direct current, and the output of which is also given in terms of
direct current unless otherwise modified by the function of the stimulus.

Amn A ?.TCf7lyTfT r7-b T' T T'r'C CfTI'Tf TU' &T1 AT

f
1 Ix I
'ltMX±NkIjU %_0I!f, X, :'4-jJ.:-,%\J % I I~V" %-
I XL'\J fl
;74'

A transducer which uses a chemical change at the input to generate an

A ~electrical output.-

TRANSDUCER, FORCE BALANCE -

A transducer in which the output from the sensing member is amplified

WADD TR 61-67 .-.

VOL I REV 1 I-20

4. A....

-' -- Nt N.~-.
N N- NN ¾N
. - - - - - - - - - -.. - -- • .i
 and fed back to an element which causes the force-summing member
to return to a condition of balance. The magnitude of the signal fed k"9

back constitutes the output of the device.

TRANSDUCER IONIZATION

A transducer in which the displacement of the force-summing membe,-

is sensed by means of induced changes in differential ion conductivity.

TRANSDUCER MAGNETOELEC TRIC

A transducer which measures the ernf generated by the movement of

a conductor relative to a magnetic field.

TRANSDUCER PHOTOELECTRIC

A transducer wvhich converts changes in light energy to changes in

electrical energy.

TRANSDUCER, PIEZOELECTRIC

A transducer utilizing a piezoelectric element.

TRANSDUCER POTENTIOMETRIC

A transducer in which transduction is accomplished by the changing

ratios of a voltage divider.

TRANSDUCER', SELF-GENERATING

A transducer which provides output signals without external electrical "-

excitation.

TRANSDUCER, SERVO

Same as force balance transducer.

TRANSDUCER, UNI-DIRECTIONAL

A transducer which measures stimulus in only one direction from a

reference zero or rest position.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV 1 1-21 ,
TRANSDUCER, VARIABLE CAPACITANCE

A transducer in which the output is a function of the change in

electric capacitance.

TRANSDUCER, VARIABLE INDUCTANCE

A transducer in which the output is a function of the change in a

variable inductance element.

TRANSDUCER, VARIABLE RELUCTANCE

A transducer in which the output is a function of the variation

in the reluctance of a magnetic circuit.

TRANSDUCER, VARIABLE RESISTANCE

A transducer in which the output is a function of the change in its

electrical resistance.

TRANSDUCER, VELOCITY

A transducer which generates an output proportional to velocity. L-01

TRANSVERSE ACCELERATION fl
The acceleration which is applied in any direction perpendicular to
the axis of sensitivity.

TRANSVERSE SENSITIVITY

The ratin nf r.hange in output to an incremental change in a given N .

stimulus along any axis perpendicular to the sensitive axis. In

accelerometers, it refers to the change in the transducer output at
zero acceleration and at some other acceleration value applied along
_N!
a plane perpendicular to the sensitive axis.

VIBRATION 7.-.,

Motion due to a continuous change in the magnitude of a given force

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV I11- 22

*.*-- -~ .- . . - . -. .- . - . .. - - - - - - - - - - -
 which reverses its direction with time. Vibration is generally
interpreted as symmetrical or non-symmetrical fluctuations in the
rate at which acceleration is applied to an object.

VIBRATION EFFECT

The peak instantaneous change in output at a stated vibration level

for any Ptimulus value within the range of the transducer. Usually
expressed in percentage of full-scale output per vibratory "g" over
a stated frequency range. It may also be specified as a total error
in percentage of full-scale output for a stated level of vibration. -

VIBRATION SENSITIVITY

The preferred term is vibration effect.

VISCOUS DAMPING

Same as fluid damping.

t
ZERO ADJUSTMENT

The act of nulling out the output from a system or device. Also, the
circuit or means by which a "no output" condition is obtained from an
instrument when properly energized.

ZERO BASED LINEARITY

-;• A manner of expressing non-linearity errors as deviations from the

%I most favorable straight line which crosses the instrument output at
zero measurand vniue. The line f--,rn which zero base linearity i6
calculated is also termed bst fit straiglne with forced zero.
"ZERO-COMLPENSATION

A. method b-y which tranducer output at zero measurand mnay be mini-

mized and maintained within known linmits.

ZE:RO DRIFT

:N" A change in output at zero measurand attributable to any cause.

""' WADD TR 61-67 -'

""V , OLI REV 11 -23
,°.--

. . - ..- . " ",-

- - - . . . . . . . . . -

¢--,-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
-.. -.-.. ,..< '--.-. .-. . '....v" .. . '..v :... -- / -. '. ...---- vv : - .:.v .
" - '•-- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
 APPENDIX III-

PHYSICAL EFFECTS AND PRINCIPLES 2

WHIUCH FORM THE BASIS FOR TRANSDUCTION-

"-c,.
-N

4m
. .. .. . . % . .
. \.-,-.- . . .
.4.. . . . .
. .--

* WADD TR 61-67
".-4
VTOLI REViIrni
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART

II
I INTRODUCTION
PHYSICAL EFFECTS AND PRINCIPLES

a. Edison .r Richaid.-on Effect

PAGE

111 5
III

111- 5
- 5
*
b. Galvanornagnetic and
Thermon.agnetic Effects Ill- 5
(1) Hall Effect III- .5
(2) Ettingshausea Effect 111-6
(3) Nernst Effect li- 6
(4) Righi-Leduc Effect 111-6 )i:!

c. Thermoelectric Effects III- 6

(1D Seebeck Effect III- 6
(2)• Peltier Effect III- 6
(3) Thomson Effect III - 6
d. Gyromagnetic Effects III- 7 (
e. Biezoelectric Effect 11I - 7
i. Ferroelectric Effect III - 7
g. Electrostrictive Effect III - 7
h. Magnetostrictive Effects III - 8
(1) Joule Effect III - 8
(21 Villari Effect Iii - 8
(3) Werthe. n Effect III - 8
(4) Wiedemann Effect III - 8 -
i. Ivfagnetoresistive Effect III - 8
j Thermoresistive Effect III - 8
k. Mechanoresistive Effects TTT - 9
1. Electroresistive Effect III - 9
ni. Mechano-Capacitive Effects III - 9
n. Variable Inductance Principle III - 10
0. Generator Principle III - 10 -
p. Proximity Effect III -1 10
q. Pyroelectric Effects III - 10
r. Triboelectric Effect III - 10 E
s. Volta or Contact-Potential Effect Ill - 10
t. Luminescent Effects III-11 .

hA?__._

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV I 111- 3
 PART PAGE

(1) Triboluminescence III-. 11

(2) Thermoluminescence III - 11
(3) Chemiluminescence III ,- 11
(4) Gathodoluminescence III - I.
(5) Electroluminescence III- 1
(6) Photoluminescerice 111 11
u. Photoconductive Effect III - 12
v. Photoelectric Effect (Photoemissive Effect) III - 12
w. Photovoltaic Effect III - 12
x. Electro-Optic Effect III- 12
y. Faraday Effect III - 12
z. Photoelastic Effect III- 12--
aa. Photo-Electromagnetic (Photo-
"Magnetoelectric) Effect 111 -13
bb. Photo-Thermoelectric (Thermal-
Photoelectric) Effect 111 -13
cC. Electrokinetic Effects III - 13
(1) Electroosmosis III - 13
(2) Electrophoresis III - 13
(3) Stream or Flow Potentials III - 13
(4) Dorn Effect III- 13
dd 1-1"aic (Electrochenicral) Wfft III - 13 --
ee. Photochenmical Effect III - 14
ff. Additional Thermal Effects III - 14
gg. Effects Involving Radiation from Radioactive
Sources as a Medium III - 15
hh. Mechanical Displacement and
Strain Effects III- 15 VIsE

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV I 111- 4
7.7,, -4.
•.4.-.:

4 .- ,-,- ,-, .-,., -.-.- .... :- ... , -... .... .,,. . . . .. - . . . , .. , ., .. ,.., ,•. • .- 0--..\.,•
: . , . ,,,.:,.,
..-' .:. . ...:. ,..'. . ,.. -. .....:' .-, " -. -': -.: :, . . . . . .:.. ' , '. . ,. - .• , , : -:. . ,• ., .,'-. .- ., . ." , % . .. '. ,• , .,, . '. ., , ..- ,.. . -. , -,,
 PHYSICAL EFFECTS AND PRINCIPLES WHICH
FORM THE BASES FOR TRANSDUCTION (Ref. Irn-i)

I INTRODUCTION

An awareness of the effects and principles described in the

following paragraphs may be of considerable use to transducer design '
eugineers who are searching for new ways to convert measuraads to
electrical signals suitable as inputs to telemetry systems. The reader's
attention is called to a book titled Physical Laws and Effects by C. F.
Hix, Jr. and R. P. Alley, published by John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
copywright 1958 by General Electric Company. On pages 1 through 4 .
the authors present some excellent comments and examples concerning
previous applications and future possibilities of using physical laws
and effects which are generally thought of as being laboratory curiosities.

U PHYSICAL EFFECTS AND PRINCIPLES

a. Edison or Richardson Effect

The thermionic emission of electrons from hot bodies at . -

a rate which iacreabeu rapidly with temperature.

b. Galvanomagnetic and
Thermomagnetic Effects

(1) Hall Effect

The development of a transverse electric potential

gradieat i., a current-carrying conductor upon the application of a mag-
netic field (see S,ction II, Volume I of this handbook).

rn-I Peariatein, J., Searching the Literature for Transducer In-

format•oE Part 1 " A Guide to the Literature", Diamond Ordnance
Fuze Laborator.ies, Washington, D. C., pp 16- Z3.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVI 11 5-"

["-
w •- •. . 'C .'- , " % ." C-. .
' V,•k-
' % 7%
.'' " --. '--" J'" _ .- •-. . . •"" ." 2 •'-'- ... _2 . - ''. -'.-.-. '.'- . -' "~
 C ~ Ettingshausen Effect

If a strip of metal in which an electric current .

flows loagitudinally is placed in a magnetic field with the plane of the
strip perpendicular to the direction of the field, it is found that cor-
respondiIg points on opposite edges come to different terxperatures.

(3) Nernst Effect

If heat As flowing through a strip of metal and the

strip is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to its plane, a difference
of electric potential develops between the opposite edges.

(4) Righi-Leduc Effect

If heat is flowing through a strip of metal and the

strip is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to its plane, a tern-
peratare difference develops across the strip. -

c. Thermoelectric Effects

(1) Seebeck Effect

T]he elnf produced in a circuit containing two con-

tacting conductors of different metals having two junctions at different
ten oesatures. This effect may be thought of as the result of two opposing --
effe,•;ts; namel 5 , the Thomson enf and the Peltier emnf.

(&) Peltier Effect

This is the inverse of the Seebeck effect. When two '.

unlike conductcrs are joined and kept at a constant temperature while
a current passes through the junction, heat is generated or absorbed at
the junction (in addition to the IZR loss).

4 (3) Thomson Effect

, - .4 -,.- :_

A potential gradient is developed along a homogeneous

conductor in which a thermal gradient exists. The inverse effect, the
production of heat by the •assage of a current, also occurs. This should
not be confused with the I R loss.

WADD TR 61-67 I-.

VOL I REV I MT 6

-- - -- - ."-- - - - - - - - - --. '-Ib.--'-

. 4 - -,-
 d. Gyromagnetic Effects

Change of magnetization by rotation (Barnett effect) -..

and, inversely, change of rotation by mnagnetiv'4tion (Einstein Deflaas
effect).

e. Piezoelectric Effect

The interaction between electrical and mechanical stress-

strain variables in certain materials. Thus, compression of a crystal
of quartz or Rochelle salt generates an electrostatic voltage across it,
and, conversely, application of an electric field may cause the crystal
to expand or contract in certain directions. Piezoelectricity is only
possible in crystals which do not possess a center of symmetry. Unlike ....
electrostriction, piezoelectric deformations are directly proportional to
the electric field (as long as the crystal is outside the ferroelectric re-
gion) and reverse their sign upon reversal of field.

f. Ferroelectric Effect

So far as macroscopic observations are concerned, a

ferroelectric crystal (seignette-electric) may be defined as having a
critical temperature (Curie Point) on one side of which the dielectric
properties exhibit nonlinearity and hysteresis (the ferroelectric region)
while on the other side there is no hysteresis and the relation between
polarization and field is nearly or quite linear. In the case of certain''
crystals, e.g., barium titanate, which become centrosymmetrical,

the piezoelectric properties disappear above the Curie point. Ferro-

electric crystals (except those which become ceatrosymmetrical above
the Curie point) are piezoelectric on both sides of the Curie point.

g. Electrostrictive Effect

All dielectrics, whether gaseous, liquid, or solid, when

placed in an electric field undergo a deformation which is independent-.
of the direction of the field and proportional to the square of the field. "- '-

The effect is so minute that, although it is always present in piezo-

electric phenomena, it can usually be ignored. Only in fields stronger -.
than 20, 000 volts/cm can it be comparable with the effects of piezo- -'- "-"
electricity. U

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REVl M -- 7

i?; :..'o,•.

r--~~~.....---
..-...-- -- - ".,. ,-. ".". -'.. . , .' " ' . - . '- * -.'--",. -"-" '. - "-.'..-"- "".-":.
 I S-

h. Manetostrictive Effects

(1) 5iuule Effect

The change in length of a ferromagnetic material

subjected to an increasing or decreasing longitudinal magnetic field. " -

(2) Villari Effect

A change of magnetic induction within a ferromagnetic

material under longitudinal stress (inverse Joule Effect).

(3) Wertheim Effect

The development of a transient voltage between the

ends of a wire which is twisted in a longitudinal magnetic field.

(4) Wiedemann Effect,

The twisting' of a rod carrying an electric current

when subjected to a longitudinal magnetic field. The Inverse Wiedemann
Effect is the axial magnetization of a current-carrying wire subjected
to twisting.

i. Magnetoresistive Effect

The electrical resistance of a metal or semi-conductor

is altered by the presence of a magnetic field.

j. Thermoresistive Effect

The change in electrical resistivity of a metal or semi-

conductor as a function of temperature. This change in resistivity
(resistance of a centimeter cube) is due to the change in some property -- -.
of a material subjected to a temperature change; that is, the material
has a temperature coefficient (positive for most metals, negative for . -.-
certain semiconductiag materials, e.g., thermistors) of resistivity.
Since the application of heat to a conductor also changes its dimensions, . .. -

the net change in resistance of a conductor is the combined effect of

the temperature-dependent resistivity and dimensional changes.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 111- 8

.- W~tQN~&$.t..-., x :..
-- ' " " '
 k. Mechanoresistive Effects

(1) The chatnge in electrical resistivity of a semicon-

ductor as a function of applied stress; that is, the material has a stress
(or strain) coefficient of resistivity. Analogous to tl-at of a thermo-
resistive element, the net change in resistance of a strain-sensitive
element is the combined effect of a stress-produced change in resistivity
(property) and change in dimensions. -

(2) The change in ohmic resistance of an electric element

by movement of contacts (changing either effective area or length of re- .. "
sistance element). The movement of the contacts can be produced by
linear or angular displacement, by applied pressure, etc.

(3) Variation of the transconductance or the plate re-

sistance of a vacuum tube by movement of one or more of the elements.

1. Electroresistive Effect

The change in resistivity of a material as a result of a

change in applied voltage. The Varistor (essentially silicon carbide
with metallic contacts) is an electroresistive material with a nonlinear
resistance-voltage characteristic.

M. Mechano-Gap acitive Effects

Variation of electrical capacitance of a capacitor by any

one or any combination of the following:

(1) Change in separation of the plates.

(2) Change in area of the plates.

(3) Change in the dielectric constant of the dielectric.

In the reverse effect, a change in the charge on a capacitor

causes movement or distortion of its plates.

WADD TR 61-67
VOLI REV 111- 9

-. -- , -. o'

S....
l ~ l " i - 4.-- . . . . . . . . . . ., .. , . .. .. ..
 n. Variable Inductance Principle

The change in inductance of an inductor as the result of

relative displacement of its elements (core position, armature position
with respect to core, i. e., variable air gap, or the change in effective
inductive reactance of a coil as the result of a change in mutual in-
ductance between it and another circuit. The mutual inductance of a pair
of coils can be changed by changing the distance between them or their
relative orientation, or altering the length, cross-sectional area, or
magnetic permeability of an iron core coupling the coils.

o. Generator Principle

The development of an emf as the result of relative motion

between a conductor and a magnetic field.

p. Proximity Effect

The change in current distribution (with the related changes

in resistance and capacitance) in a conductor due to the field produced
by an adjacent conductor,

(1) The separation of electric charge in a crystal by

heating.

(2) The converse, or electrocaloric effect is the change %

in termperature of a pyroelectric crystal caused by a change in the
electric field.

r. Triboelectric Effect

The separation of electric charges by friction between,. -

bodies.

s. Volta or Contact-Potential Effect

The development of opposite electrical charges on two

dissimilar uncharged metals when placed in contact.

: _--.- " ,

WADD TR 61-67 -S
VOLI REV1 111 -10

- .. i.% %.
- >" - -, •
 .9

t. Luminescent Effects

The emission of light due to any other cause than high

temperature.

(1) Triboluminescence

Light emission due to rubbing or grinding certain

solids, usually crystalline materials.

(2) Thermoluminescence

Light emission due to heating certain substances

(such as diamond, marble, and fluorite) at temperature below a red p.

heat.

(3) Chemiluminescence

Light emission due to chemical action. k

(4) Cathodolurninescence

Light emission due to excitation by fast electrons.

(5) Electroluminescence L-•4Uj

Light emission due to excitation by strong alternating

electric fields.

(6) Photoluminescence

Light emission due to excitation of certain crystals ,''''

by optical radiation (e.g., ultraviolet light, X-rays).

If the time between the introduction of excitation

L
energy and the emission of light is very short ( < 10- sec), the pheno-
menon is usually called fluorescence- if the time is longer, it is usually
called phosphorescence and the crystals exhibiting this phenomenona- .
are called phosphors.

WADD TR 61-67 - °I
VOL1 REV1 III - 11

• ,-<<::•:•~~~~~......
-.....
.-.. ......................
-... . ,.................•-...-,-............
- . . . ........... N...t - ,..
. .. . -.
 u. Photoconductive Effect

The change (usually increase) in conductivity of certain

crystals under the action of light. In general terms, the light excites i..
electrons into the conduction band where they can move freely, and
carry a current.

v. Photoelectric Effect (Photoemissive Effect)

The liberation of electrons from a surface when light falls,

upon it. In this effect, radiation of sufficiently high frequency, impinging
on certain substances, particularly, but not exclusively, metals, causes
bound electrons to be given off with a maximum velocity proportional
to the frequency of the radiation, i.e., to the entire energy of the photon.

w. Photovoltaic Effect

The production of an electromotive force by incidence of

radiant energy, commonly light, upon the junction of two dissimilar
materials, such as a p-n junction of metal-semiconductor junction.

x. Electro-Optic Effect

The alteration of the refractive properties of an optical

medium by the application of a strong electric field. In a liquid medium
the effect is designated as the Kerr effect and in a piezoelectric crys-
.: talline medium it is known as the Pockels effect.

y. Farday Effect

-_ The rotation of the plane of polarization produced when

plane polarized light or microwave energy is passed through a substance
in a magnetic field, the radiation traveling in a direction parallel to
the- field

z. Photoelastic Effect

The change in the optical properties of isotropic, trans-

parent dielectrics when subjected to stress. For example, a block of
glass, free from optical flaws, exhibits "forced" double refraction
when put under compression or tension parallel to one of its dimensions.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV 1 111- 12

~P r.
- - -. . . . r-- -.. g
 aa. Photo-Electromag netic (Photo-Magnetoelectric) Effect

When a slab of a semiconductor, placed in a magnetic

field, is illuminated in a direction at right angles to the field, a voltage
is developed in the mutually perpendicular direction.
bb. Photo-Thermoelectric (Thermal-Photoelectric) Effect

The development of an electromotive force in a semi con-

ductor carrying a thermal current when exposed to light.

cc. Electrokinetic Effects

There are four phenomena involving the electrical forces

set up by the relative motion of solids and liquids and such relative
motions set up by electromotive forces.

(I) Electroosmosis

An applied emf causes a liquid to move along the

stationary walls of a tube.

(2) Electrophoresis

An applied emf causes solid particles to move through

stationary liquids.

(3) Stream or Flow Potentials ,

The production of an emf by the motion of a liquid

through stationary tubes.

(4) Dorn Effect

The production of an emrf by the motion of solid par-

ticles through liquids.

dd. Galvanic (Electrochemical) Effects

The production of electrical energy by chemical action

(including changes in ion concentration at electrodes, i. e, changes in

WADD TR 61-67 7-
VOLIREV 1 111-13
current flow as a function of concentration polarization) and inversely,
the production of chemical change through electrolysis, i.e., the conversion
of electrical energy into chemical energy by transfer of electrons and .
ions and recombinations of electrical charge.

ee. Photochemical Effect

The initiation of chemical reaction by the absorption of

light.

ff. Additional Thermal Effects

All materials and devices are affected by temperature in

one way or another. In most measurements temperature must be con-
trolled, compensated, or otherwise taken into consideration to minimize
errors in measurement of the primary physical quantity. A number of
effects which serve as bases for temperature measurement have been
listed above. Additional effects which may be utilized for temperature
measurement are given below:

(1) The change in spectral radiation irom a body as a

function of temperature.

(2) The displacement or change in size of a body as a. t': .o

function of temperature (temperature coefficient of expansion or differential-
coefficient of expansion).

(3) The change in pressure of a confined gas or vapor as .

a function of temperature (gas laws). LI'
(4) The melting, softening (e. g. , of pyrometric cones),
or vaporization of materials at fixed temperatures.

(5) The relation between the amount of ionization in gases

and temperature (above 4, 000°C).

(6) The change in magnetic susceptibility of certain para- xxx.

magentic materials with temperature. (This effect can be used to measure
temperature below 4°K.)

WADD TR 61-67 sill

VOL I REV 1 1II - 14
 (7) The change in color of temperature-sensitive paints.
A certain amount of time, several minutes at the appropriate temperature,
is required for the change. A.t least one paint works on the dehydration ; 0
principle, and gives a reversible indication. That is, the color change is
reversed on cooling again. Other paints undergo a permanent chemical
change. The same paint may pass through a gradual change involving
several distinguishable colors, and so can give indications of more than-
one temperature. One firm (The Tempil Corporation) supplies 16 dif-
ferent types, which indicate temperature from 175Y to 1470 0 F.

gg. Effects lnvolving Radiation from Radioactive

Sources as a Medium

Four types of radiation emitted by radioactive materials are .

alpha, beta, and gamma rays, and neutrons. Many of the effects involving
light and charged particles as transducing media, similar to those listed
above, are exhibited when the radiation from radioactive materials is
used as the transducing medium. The properties of this radiation that
are utilized in measurements are: its penetrability; capacity to be absorbed, -0
reflected, refracted, and diffracted; ionization power; and ability to in-
duce radioactivity in certain materials from which measurement are
desired. The principal transducers used for detection and measurement.
-of tIhe radiation are phosphors, photcgraphic film, Geiger-MAueller
tubes, scintillation counters, and ionization chambers.

hh. Mechanical Displacement and Strain Effects

In this category are included all displacements and dimensional

changes of bodies (or devices) that occur in response to various mnech-- t.

anical quantities, e.g., pressure, torque, acceleration, velocity, mom-

entum, kinetic energy. The more important principles governing the
operation of mechanical transducers are the following:

(1) Newton's laws of motion and gravitational attractLon.

(Z) The law of conservation of energy.

(3) The law of conservation of linear and angular momentum.

The operation of a gyroscope as an instrument for measuring and con-
trolling displacement, velocity, direction, etc., is primarily based on
the law of conservation of angular momentum.

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REV1 111- 15

..,.,..,.-..-..:..,.-.',..-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.....
. ,....... ,....... . ........... .,:-....."-........ .. ?..:...........
. . ...-.-. ...-- :- . : :- .:.2....,
 (4) Hooke's law (1ni an elastic material, strain is pro-
portional to stress).

(5) The lever principle.

(6) Static equilibrium principles (Parallelogram prin-

ciple. force polygon, etc.)

(7) Bernoulli's theorem.

(8) Archimedes' principle.

(9) Pascal's law.

S.'KIWI

WADD TR 61-67
VOL I REVi1 111 6

N .........................
 APPENDIX IV

I. ACCELEROMETER FUNDAMENTALS (Ref. IV-i)

Figure IV-I shows a schematic of a fundamental linear

accelerometer in which a mass is suspended from the accelerometer
case by means of a spring. Damping is accomplished by either
mechanical or electrical means and the case is mounted rigidly to
the device whose acceleration is desired. The relationship between ..'.-..
acceleration of the case and motion of the mass may now be developed.

X displacement of accelerometer case in space, cm

Y - displacement of accelerometer mass with respect to the case,cm ..- *.-.
a =acceleration of accelerometer case in space, cm/secz
M= acceleration-sensitive mass (sometimes called seismic mass), gm -.
B damping, dynes/cm/sec
K= spring constant, dynes/cm

Units given above are representative only, and in developing the

equations the operator p will be used to denote the derivative of a quan-
tity. The basic equation of motion of the accelerometer indicates that
the force to accelerate the seismic mass comes from the damping and
the spring.

Mp 2 (X-Y) = BpY + KY (1-1)

Mp2 X =Mp2 Y + BpY + KY '."•'2

Y M/K (1-2) 7 " "

zN
p X pZ + Bp + 1
K K 26

Butip a. Therefore, the transfer function (Ref. IV-a) seismic mass

displacement to case acceleration is:

Y M/K (1-3)
a p2+ B P +
K K

IV-i S•ane as Reference 179 L-.

Ref. IV-2 Ritow, Ira "Automatic Control System Design--3, Frequency
Response and Transfer Functions," Electrical Manufacturing, June 1959, p. 129

WADD TR 61-67 iV-l

VOLI REV 1
 Oil filled -

r r-ide rod
Direction of motion L~0O

Accelerometei cose9

Fimg.n Fudmna linar ___1

toin miiiedito n rvn asfo en

foce aaeltguderoobmaceertersaln

axes other than the sensitive one. .~

R if F11' ,\ 12 db/oci0.e

Frequency. rod/sec
(lng Icale)

Fig. IV-3 Block diagram of accelerometer shown Fig. IV-4 Bode diagramn of system
in Fig. IV-2. in Fig. IV-3,

Ff Idb/ocio,C Rlf(~,~

F, if~ ,, if0 (RE)

Ii R, R

1
2

Fig, IV-5 Bode diagram of system in Fig. IV-3 with

load-'b:i network added to improve stability.

55.

WADD TR61-67 IV 2
VOL, I REV 1

* ..- BEIM
This is the cl~assic transfer -function equation for a spring-mass
systema. The ratio of mass to spring constant gives the steady-state
displacement of the system) to unit acceleration. In addition, the
denominator of the expression may be rewritten as follows:

1 (1-4)

wheore'
W1n1 undamnped natural or resonant frequency, rad per sec
Z= d~amping constant
•. 4"

When. Z is unity, the accelerometer is cr-itically damped and the

denominator i-s factorable into a pair of repeated roots. If Z is less
than unity, th~e accelerometer is under damped and the factors of the
quadratic are complex. Damping of slightly less than unity is quite
common. If Z is greater than unity, the quadratic is factorable into
two real roots.

Figure IV-2 shows a more sophisticated version of fundamental s

accelerometer. The equations of motion of this device may be written:

Mp
z (X -Y)zBp Y+ KY

which is the same as Eq (1r-1). Additional parameters are:

sse= motor force constant, dynes per milliarnp

u =amplifier gain, milliamp per volt
Kp pickoff gai~n: volts,- per cm
Rl= resistance in series with motor, ohmn stx 3 te L
i = current in force motor, milliamps
Co = acceleromneter output, volts

Since the spring constant now is th, nroduict Of t lick-off, amplif'i er

and force motors gains-
tw rea root°-.._-

K Ku
K K (1-5)
0

tAl so: i - unde (1-6)

i~ YKu (1-7)
p

WADD TR61- 67 IV-3 6

VOL IRV.
 Substituting Eq (1-6) into Eq (1-7) and solving for Y,

KpuR

If Eqs (1-5) and (1-8) are now substituted into Eq (1-1) and solved, the
transfer function relating output voltage to acceleration is as follows:
e MR/KF
a
a _ p + (1-9) .
KF u K K--Fu-.'.
p ~pF
Again looking at Fig. IV-Z and assuming that no damping is
present in the unit, the following equation may be written in regard to
the mass: t

F = Mp (X-Y) (1-10)

where F = force in dynes. Solving for Y,

1 z21-1
Mp- (Mp X- F)

Since X input acceleration a,

Y Mp 2 (Ma F) (1-12) -_ .

A block diagram may now be drawn of the accelerometer without in-

ternal damping as shown in Fig. IV-3 where

G = complete amplifier transfer function

f = the force error of the system (which exists only when ;

acceleration is changing)

Equation (1-12) is represented by the mass transfer function and

its inputs (Ma--F). A study of the servo open- loop transfer function F/f
indicates that if gain is used only in the amplifier, the system will have
no damping and will be unsatisfactory. A Bode diagram plot of the open-
loop transfer function, as in Fig. IV-4 indicates a 0 db axis crossover
of 12 db per octave and 0 degree phase margin. Practically, the system
will oscillate due to other time constants in the system which normally
can be ignored. However, the addition of a lead-lag network to the

WADD TR 61-67 IV-4

VOLI REVI

.,-...... .-, . -..... ...............-...--........... .-- :..

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .4 ....
 * '.- --* * ... -' - .... " 2 . . °- -

amplifier will provide a satisfactory system, as indicated in Fig. IV-5.

It will be necessary to raise the gain of the amplifier to compensate
for the loss of gain in the network. The closed-loop transfer function U.
of this system relating output voltage as a function of acceleration
is: 1
MR (I + p
e -r

a Kf KPZ pP
+3 IW +p 1 (1-13) ,.
K W2 K W
c2 c
where

Kp Ga K f
c M

Ga = product of amplifier gain and gain loss in lead-lag

network, milliamps per volt

Wl - frequency, rad/sec, at which lead time constant 1/W 1 occurs

W = frequency, rad/sec, at which lag time constant 1/W 2 occurs

The frequenccs "I and V..2 are Ciubell to be respectively above and below
the 0 db axis and classical servo synthesizing methods may be used to
give the required performance.

Another class of instrument is represented by the pendulous

type of accelerometer shown schematically in Fig. 2-103 where

K = spring constant, dyne-cm/rad

B damping, dyne-cm/rad/sec -..

1 = length of simple pendulum, cm-

M mass of pendulum, grams

O<= angle of pendulum with respect to case, rad

X = linear displacement of case in space, cm K

Y = linear displacement of pendulum mass with respect to
case, cm

WADD TR 61-67 IV- 5

VOLI REVL

" ,"" ',.-.-. _ .. _ _'...~ .- -. .. ... _... . " . .... . .- - . . . . . ..... .... . . . .
 a acceleration of accelerometer case in space, cm/sec.
In this instrument a pendulum is suspended on an axis so that it is free to K.
move through an angle with respect to the accelerometer case. Damping
again is accomplished by either mechanical or electrical means and the 0
pendulum is restrained by a torsion spring. In developing the equations
of motion for the simple pendulum, it is assumed that the angle the
pendulum makes with the case remains small. The basic equation -

of motion is very similar to Eq (1-1): -.-.

2 2
Mp (X -Y) = Bpo<+Ko (1-14)

For sraall angles, Y = Ia. Substituting this into Eq (1-14) and solving:

a Mi/K (1-15)

p X Mi 2 z B
}p + p + 1l
K

Since p X = a, the transfer function relating angular motion of the

pendulum to case acceleration is:

____ M1/K (1-16)

a MgZ p2 + B +1
K K

The numerator of the expression gives the steady-state angular displacement

of the system to unit acceleration. The denominator of the expression may -. -

also be replaced by Eq (1-4) where"-

'i1/2

Wn ( 2-
Wn B
= 2K s-'.-•-:

Fig. 2-104 shows accelerometer with compound pendulum. Using

1 = length of unbalance mass from center of rotation, cmL
M= the unbalance mass concentrated at its center of gravity, gin
J inertia of the balanced mass about the center of rotation, - - -

gm-crn 2 " the equation of motion can be written:

2 2 "- ""
Mp (X Y) I Jop + Bp + K

WADD TR 61-67 IV-6

VOL I REV I

-,.
Again,for small angles, Y la. Also, acceleration a = p 2 X. The
transfer function relating angle of rotation of pendulum to linear accel- .-
eration becomes:
04 Mi/K N:.!.

2 (B-17)
a M1 +J
p
S B+ p+
K K

Thus, the undamped natural frequency is determined by the square

root of the ratio of spring constant to inertia of the compound pendulum
about its axis of rotation. Angle of rotation for steady-state acceleration
is determined by the total pendulum mass and the length of the center
of gravity from center of rotation, the product of the two quantities
being divided by the spring constant.

The pendulous accelerometer of Figure IV-6 represents one of

the more complex (although highly accurate) devices that may be used.
It consists of the conventional single-axis, floated, damped HIG gyro
modified so that the gyro gimbal is unbalanced by a known amount.
A servo amplifier accepts the error from the gyro signal generator and,
by means of a servo motor, drives the gyro about its input axis to null
the signal generator output. The following terminology will be used:

SA = spin axis of gyro wheel

OA = output axis of gyro
1A = gyro input axis (perpendicular to plane containing
SA and OA) !1
0C = angle of gimbal about OA, rad
0 = angle of gyro input axis, rad
N = 0 = angular velocity of servo motor, rad/sec
p
SG = signal generator on output axis
M = unbalance mass on gimbal, gm,
1 = moment arm to unbalance mass, cm
2
I = gyro wheel inertia about SAA; g-cm
= gyro wheel velocity about spin axis, red/se"
(IlL) = gyro wheel momentum, gm-cm 2 /sec
B = damping about OA, dyne-cm-sec
Jo= gyro gimbal inertia about OA, gm-cm2 -
Jm= inertia of complete accelerometer about motor axis
rotation (same as IA) gm- cm 2 -
Ksg= signal generator gain, volt/rad L"'&
R = motor armature circuit resistance, ohm
Kt = motor torque constant, dyne-cm/amp
Kv = motor back-emf constant, volt/rad/sec

WADD TR 61-67 IV-7

VOL I REV !.5-.

v•r
 .6
SATop
~~of
gimbal

tAA
Gyro
gimbal SGyro c se r m

m r~blont mbh

1A1

Fig. IV-8 igl Acclromter petdumotorgbrit intolpendulum

Gyr imrbal Sig gen Servo ampMor

Fig. IV-9 Block diagram of accelerometer in Fig. IV-6.

Wimba TRnd6 IV l8,"

tie
VOL
RENi 5

..............................
 L = motor armature inductance, henrys
Ksa = servo amplifier transfer function
T = torque, dyne-cm
Tg= torque about gimbal OA, dyne-cm .
2
a = linear acceleration along sensitive axis, cm/sec

To find the transfer function of the gimbal within the gyro, the
torque applied about the output axis may be equated to the sum of
the torques to accelerate the gimbal inertia and overcome the damping:

Tg Jp (C + Bpoc (1-18)

C><
Solving for the transfer function,

T
I
j p +1 (1-19)

The ratio of gimbal inertia to damping is sometimes called the

characteristic time constant. A high-quality gyro will have small
inertia and heavy damping to give a characteristic time constant of
6 rnillisec or less,

The torque applied to the gyro gimbal comes from the pendulous
effects when the device is accelerated along its sensitive axis. Thus 2-"4
the gimbal transfers the torque from linear acceleration into a small
angle about the output axis. The signal generator converts the angle
into an electrical error signal which is operated upon in the servo
amplifier. The servo motor then rotates at the required angular
velocity so that the torque developed through the action of the wheel
momentum balances the torque caused by linear acceleration. A
block diagram of this loop is shown in Figure IV-7.
-*'.'-"-N
Most textbooks on physicsc or mechanics rierive the basic
gyro equation that converts angular rate about the input axis to a -
torque about the output axis through the medium of gyro-wheel
momentum. The block for the motor gives the transfer function
of a d-c motor whose derivation also is available elsewhere. The
servo may be stabilized by classical techniques. A further inspec-
tion of the system reveals that the angular velocity of the motor
is directly proportional to linear acceleration of the device along
the sensitive axis. A complete closed-loop analysis indicates that:

N _Ml (G0
aD

WADD TR 61-67 IV-9

VOL I REVi1

N.- .. °

* , . -N 4. .. , - -. , --. . - . . .. -. . . - . ' {:fZZT I•ZZL I-E jE.Z( j ) I. i " 2Z 5 f2 -2lZ Z ZZ Z . Z

 where O/D = closed-loop transfer function of servo, regarding it as
a position servo controlling motor angle 0. Its steady state gain is unity.

Because the accelerometer is pendulous, the gain of the servo

must be high in order to keep cross talk within acceptable limits. Also,
since motor angular velocity is proportional to linear acceleration, it
follows that the motor's angular position is proportional to linear velocity.
Thus the device is a self-integrating accelerometer and desired output
may be obtained by use of an appropriate pickoff.

An accelerometer which used a motor in a rather interesting

way is shown in Figure IV-s. A gimbal is supported in bearings within
the accelerometer case and a signal generator is present to convert
the mechanical error into an electrical signal. The gimbal also is
pendulous and supports the stator of a motor. The rotor of the motor
is free to turn within the gimbal and torque to restrain gimbal motion is
transferred across the motor air gap when the servo amplifier receives
an error from the signal generator. The following terminology will be -
used (already-defined terms which apply are not repeated):

position of gimbal with respect to case, rad

= position of motor rotor with respect to outer accelerometer
case, rad
Jg= gimbal plus stator inertia about axis of rotation, gm-crn2
2
JR= inertia of motor rotor, gm-cm
i = motor armature current, amp
E voltage applied to motor armature, volts

The block diagram of the acceleromneter is given in Figure IV- 9 and con-
tains the same gimbal transfer function as previously developed for the
system of Figure IV-7. In finding the transfer function for the motor,
the armature circuit inductance is neglected and the basic equation written:

The torque developed in the motor is equal to the product of the current L.- t94
and the torque constant which, when solved for current, is

T T (1-22) "" ""

1 =

This same torque, developed across the air gap, accelerates the rotor
inertia and also overcomes the gimbal inertia and damping:
T22
T 0 p C + Bpo< (1-23)

WADD TR 61-67 IV- 10-"

VOL I REV I

_]
 Equation (1-23) when solved for a becomes:
jp (1-2.4)

J p + B

Equation (1-24) and the first part of Eq (1-23) may now be substituted
into Eq (1-21) with help of Eq (1-22) to product the motor transfer
function:
0 ( 3g/B)(p) + (
E vp JRJgP p2 + J R J + J p +i'
Kt Kv B Kt Kv B )P:j

The torque which is compared with the input-order signal torque is

also expressed by the first part of Eq (1 -23) and the block diagram is
completed.

If time constants are ignored and the servo gain t/Tg is

represented by the constant G, the closed-loop transfer function may
be written:

00/p -
2
= (1-26)
M la 1 + --
Gz (JR P p (1 + G 5
R)
.,""- "

Solving for transfer function relating angular acceleration of motor

to linear acceleration input:

_24 MiG (1-27)

a~ l+GJR

If the servo gain is large:

£24) r-' Ml(128)-4

a JR

Thus the angular acceleration of the motor is proportional to

the linear acceleration of the device along its sensitive axis. Further-
more, angular velocity of the motor is proportional to linear velocity

of the device, and angular position of the motor is proportional to the

linear distance the device has travelled. This instrument may now
be called a double-integrating accelerometer and velocity or position _7
information
selected. may be directly acquired if the proper pickoff device is .,".-
•

WADD TR 61-67 IV-1 1

VOLI REV1

-- .. r, . --.-. '

-, ...-.--
£.- .- -.-..- -
,./ -, ..-....- -,.. - .--- - - - - -- - - - - -
,.-- - - .- .-- ,.- -.---
. .--- ,. ,- . . --. ,. .-.. -.. ,.-...- -..-.-
.---. -
.---.-
.- ,:''',-
'-,,' : ', .. -- '- .-. -'. '-..- '-.-""--' .. - ' -*---- .- . -. .-... v -.. -...-.. ..-.. '- - -?- '.--v -... .
 *2. TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT FUNDAMENTALS (Ref. !V-3) - -

a. Semiconductors

In an isolated atom, the potential energy of an electron as

a function of distance from the positive nucleus 44 can be seen in
Fig. 4-10., The point of zero energy is at the nucleus, and the energy
increases as an electron is moved away from this point.

Quantum theory states that an electron can have only certain

permissible orbits and therefore only certain pern-issible energy
levels. In a metal or other crystalline solid, there is an interaction
between adjacent molecules resulting in the energy level diagram shown
in Figure IV-1l. The Pauli Exclusion Principle infers that no two
electrons can have the same energy. Therefore, as atoms corn'•ni.c
to form a lattice structure, their electronic orbits tend to over,
bringing together electrons with similar energy levels to form continuous
bands of permissible energies in a solid.

In a good insulator, the valence band as in Figure IV-11 is

coŽmpletely filled and the forbidden energy gap is large enough to %.%
prevent thermal excitation of the valence electrons into the unfilled
conduction band. Since there are essentially no vacancies (holes) for
electrons to occupy, electron travel through an insulator is at a mini--a
mum.

A material is a good conductor if either its valence band is

- unfilled or if the conduction and valence bands overlap. With this
arrangement, electrons are free to move to holes within the unfilled
valence band, or if the valence band is filled, electrons are able Lo
-move to holes in the conduction band.

A semiconductor is a material whose valence band is filled and

has a forbidden energy gap intermediate between that of a conductor and
an insulator. In intrinsic semiconduction, the energy gap is sufficienti,
Ssmall so that electrons from the valence band can be thermally excited
across it. In extrinsic semiconduction, impuý-ity atoms are added to
a substance to produce new energy levels within the forbidden energy
.-
"
I
gap. A P-type semiconductor is one which has an. electron accepting
energy level slightly above the valence band. Au N-type semiconductor
is one which has an electron donating energy level slightly below the r
conduction band. These various energy level configurations are illustrated
in Figure IV-12.

Ref. IV-3 Same as Ref, 180

WADDgTR6-67 IV-12
¶VOLT REV I
 (a) Strutcture of an atorn

AMA1

Valencc. orbi

Nucleus
()Energ> leves Of Or-bital clecýt rns in ai frcý aturn

Fig. IV-10 Energy Levels of Electronis in an Atom

El ,ý t r -jti

Fig. IV-] I Energy Bands in a Solid

WADD TR61.-67 IV -13

VOL, I REV 1
 The conductivity in an intrinsic seniconductor is given by the
following equation:

T e n e u e + e nn u-
tn ,,-1)

where:

T = Conductivity
e = Electronic charge
ne Electron Concentration
nn= Hole Concentration
ue = Hole Mobility

Mobility Velocity/Electric Field

Upon heating, the electron and hole mobilities decreases slightly due
to an increase in collisions with thermally agitated molecules. Both
ue and un are proportional to T-3/2.

This decrease in conductivity with rising temperature is completely

offset by a very large increase in electron concentration in the conduction
band, and hole concentration in the valence band, owing to electron ex-
citation across the energy gap. As might be expected there is a mathematical.
relationship between the temperature of a semiconductor and its conductivity.
it is derived below gy means of Fermi-Dirac statistics. iviuch of the de- k- a,
velopinent is shown graphically in figures.

By methods of wave mechanics, the following equation can be

realized which gives the number of electrons per unit volume that have
energies below an arbitrary energy level E at 0' K:

8r( 2m)3/2 E 3/ 2
(2-2) . "
3
ne 3h

where

ne Electron concentration

m Electron mass

h Planck's Constant .

E = Energy level

WADD TR 61-67 IV-14

VOL I REYV

'-R-d-'
- -. . . .- . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .

"•"•
. , ."2'.,""
-,'-. - . -v- . .v- "-. v. -v. ".-. - .- - -'-. -*..,
v- - -. -, - -- - - ---. .. . .- _..- . -.-.
-.--- " - - - -.--- -':
.- -' . . . '. %'.- . '. '. %'. '. : --. - " ." --....-.... .-. ...- .. " ... , , -... ,.-- - .- .- - - . . . -... - ..-. -. , .- - , -, - -. .-.. ..-.-.- . . -..
By differentiating the above equation, the number of electrons 0
per unit volurne having energies from E to dE is found to be

2 2
4 7r (Zm)3/ E/ dE (2-3)
dU e - h3

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function shows the probability

of electrons occupying higher energy levels at temperatures
above 0 0 K.

e 1

where

EF•= Fermi level

k = Boltzmann's constant

T absolute temperature

e = 2.732

Under normal conditions IT,~~• e (E 1- EF)/ki

-
is much greater than one. .-

Th•e d.st-,butiuon function can, therefore, be written as

(EF E)/kT

f(E) e (2--)

The following equation will give the concentration of free electrons

in the conduction band for any temperature..

WADD TR 61-67 IV-15

VOL I REV I %% -
 n J 4w 3/Z
E
1/Z
e
(Ew- E)/kT
dE (2-6)

Ec
E in the above equation is the lowest energy level in the conduction
band. By letting Ec represent a reference level, it is possible to
integrate from zero to infinity by using the Gamma Function of 3/2 ..
This results in Eq ( -7)

3 2
ne - (4=m
h kT)
"e / - (Ec EF)/kT (2-7) "'"- i -

A similar method shows the concentration of holes in the valence band

to be

3 2
(47 m kT) / (Ec - EF)/kT (2-8)
n= hZ e

By assuming the concentration of holes in the valence band to be equal

to the concentration of electrons in the conduction band. the Fermi level
must fall midway between the limits of the energy gap (see Figure IV-13).
The final equations for the hole and electron concentrations are then

nAn4."r kT) 3 /2 -AE/ZkT (2-9)

e h2

A E = width of energy gap

Since the conductivity of a semiconductor is dependent upon

the product of its electron and hole concentration and their respective
mobilities, the T 3 1 2 factor cancels out and the conductivity varies as
-AE/ZkT. Similar results hold for extrinsic semiconductors.
ml1-~tLS t ilbUibIf bD inict tn in'eas in
T he . . ... of tl...... ... .... ...- "1 .i-d~... m. . .. ... ". .' -
temperature would increase the conductivity of a semiconductor and
vice versa. Semiconductors are therefore said to possess positive
temperature coefficients of conductivity or conversely, negative tem-
perature coefficients of resistivity.

b. Thermionic Emission

The difference between the energy reqrired to overcome theC-'

barrier Ea and the Fermi energy level EF, discussed in section a
in connection with semiconduction, is called the work function of the
metal. From equations (2-3) and (Z-4) of section a, the number of

WADD TR 61- 67 IV-16

VOL I REV 1

. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . .

""....... '.'. '-' .

"-. . . . . .. " ..-- ..
"- -' "-. -. . .-- '... ."-.-.-.-'. -J .. ". .'.... ,/-N "
 Conduction Conduction
conrduction band and
baJsid
Energy gap
Valner )"Energy gap

WY
illIe d
valence >,N
band .rVaence band

Conductor Conductor Insulator

(a) (b) (c)

Conduction Conduction Conduction

band band

Energy gap
Energy gap Donor level -Accseptor _level

Energy gap

r n In,.
b.
Valence tan I 'I,(,.-'-Y"
K, Valneh ×
Valnc bn

Intrinsic N. Type P-Type %

semiconductor semiconductor semiconductor
(d) (e) (,)

Fig. IV-12 Energy Band Configuration for Various Conduction Mechanisms

-II

i I

Condiuction/
band aE ~~*. ...- i

Energy 91p concentration aem level

LAE j
-E

Valence l
bandnt

Number of Fermi-Pirac ElectroniticsUoFree elect ron

permissible occupation concentrato and hole
4energy level p~robability ((a) x (b) ) concentra-
(a) (b) (c) (d)n

Fig. IV-13 Effect of Fermi-Dirac Statistics Upon Free Electron and Hole
Concentrations in a Semi-conductor.

WADD T1161-67 IV - 17
'-- VOL I REV I

••..:. 4,.
. . "-
%%A.
, . , *.-Ns-.
" " ..% , ."". . . .,- . .. , _, . , . - "." . . . . . . . -. . -.''
- . .- - - .- . .. .... ., . - ' .. .. -:
f. .v'l•
'- ."". • •" . " 4""- --%"
%• ' 4" -'• "'•"'•. •% % % % " .% - -• -- • • °-,.--. "" '.-' ~. *.-' -. '.•, . - "-. -" ' ."•. "" 7%'
IN

electrons per unit volume having energies from E to dE is given

by

de=4r(2mn)3/2 El/2 dE (2-10)

dne
... h 3 e(EB- E)/kT
+ 1

"Eachenergy level has a definite velocity related to it be E 1/2 rnvz

where m equals mass and v equals velocity. It is therefore possible
to develop the following expression for the number of electrons that
arrive per unit time at a unit surface with energies in the range from
E to dE.
dN-4Tmn kT en(EF -E)/kT + (2-11),••_

To determine the number of electrons emitted fro2 the surface

of the conductor, it is now only necessary to integrate the above expres-
sion from Ea, the energy required to overcome the potential barrier, to
infinity. [o(-P 1

N = 41rm kT f.' In Le(E - B)/kT+I1..1dE (2-12)

03 Ea '.''-

For all practical cases, EF - E is in the range of 20kT, and E is always

greater than EF, therefore, e(EF -E)/kT is much smaller than one. The
equation can than be reduced to:

N- 4r m kT eF - E) /kT dE (2-13)
h3 Ea

0 (Ea El: )/kT ."""

4 wrm k 2 T 2 e -- Ba1-B / T( - 4
""2-14"-)
j -- h3

Since each electron carries a charge Q, the emission current density j

equals QN.
4rm Qk 2" T 2 -(Ea- EF) /kT (2-15)

h3

3
Setting 4r m Q 1/0h = A
and Ea - EF/k = work function/k b
The above equation becomes Richardson's Equation:
J AT 2 - e-b/T
A -6

WADD TR 61-67 IV- 18

\VOL I REV I

S....... :.....Y.. ' ~ "... " "N'>....... ' .... "

:. 2< . . ..
c. Bridge Techniques in Temperature Measurements (Ref. IV-4)
"The Half Bridge
Table I summarizes the bridge equations for the various The second sensitivity relates the output voltage to changes .
configurations. The first type shown in (a) is termed the half in temperature:
bridge because two power supplies replace the single supply Er, SAT
and the two arms-of the full bridge shown in (c). The bridge IAT - 0
output, measured across detection arm Rg, is: SýR,k (E)E" AT (8)
= E,/R, - E./A., (1E,/
S/Rk + hiR, 4- 1/R, s.= E1k _ r--...
The transducer is represented by RA,. 2 R, E 2 / II "-'
1+
The null condition, obtained when Eg is zero, occurs when E5 R, R,,"
the numerator of the right hand side of (1) is zero. A special case of great interest occurs when E, E- E
Rr, = Rp, = EA R
R, •,(2) and R, = R," A.Then:

The value of R,,, which is a function of temperature, that 3R AR

nulls the bridge is defined as RA.,and deviation from this Ek IT i)
value, AR, 3 AT (9)
Therefore: A practical condition often placed on a bridge is the self
RA, = RA + AR (3) heating limitation within the transducer, expressed as the
number of watts dissipated within the probe to yield one
For materials usually employed in a resistance transducer, degree temperature rise for a particular set of ambient
R, varies linearly with temperature and, for limited ranges, conditions. Generally, the most conservative value is for the
may be adequately described by the linear approximation: unmounted transducer in still air. In all other cases, the tem-
RA, = RATo) (I + kAT) (4) perature change for the same power level will be less; an
The factor k in (4) is defined as the temperature coefficient example is a probe mounted on a plate or heat sink. The
of resistivity in ohms/ohio/degree and is usually given at .probe manufacturer generally provides W,,,, the power sensi-
68 0 F (2000. For purposes of this discussion, T0 is the tivity, or power which may be dissipated in the probe to
tc.,mprature 0,. wi-,' Inh inidye is nulied; R,,(TO) " R is the achieve a given rise. This, in turn, provides a constraint upon
corresponding resistance of the transducer; and AT is the E2 for the split bridge as follows:
temperature change from T.. E2 < VA'R W,, . (10)
in equation form: In (10), R'p is the minimum expected value of RA,.When the
RA = R,(T,) bridge is operated from null with only a positive output,
AR = RmkAT (5) then:
k = 1f (RA(T. R•, + AT) -A
IR'P A",,-Am Re
Under these *.cumstances, the output is related to the ft
The equation relating output to resistance variation, ob- bridge constants by
tained by substituting (2) and (3) in (1), is AR W,-
APE= • • Am (!1)
E_ R,1 Equation (I Il delfino. the maximum sens-tivit . r the- 7r m.
+ + R) + ± Rk) metrical half bridge in terms of the probe parameters alone.
ý F -Similar constraints may be calculated for the general case
16) of the half bridge and the full bridge.
From (4) and (6), two sensitivities may be derived. The first The half bridge finds its best application when there are a
relates output voltage, Eg, to resistance change about the large number of channels, since point a of Table la may be
null and has the dimensions of current: grounded and the output measured from b to ground, per-
E, SARA mitting the power supplies to be common to oil channels,
AR = 0 and reducing the cost per channel. However, two pre- -
S, = E, 1 17) cautions must be considered when employing the half .- 91

R, RA E2 l1 l.\ bridge. The first precaution: R, nust be large relative to

1+ i-iE ,- + ,±--i
A R any lead wire resistance to prevent errors due to the

Ref. IV-4 "Bridge Techniques in Temperature Measurement," Astra Technical

Instrument Corp. ,Sub. , of Arnoux Corp,, Application Bulletin No. 2.

WADD TR 61-67 IV - 19
VOL I REV 1

~~...-:-.., ,..,.
S<";-:,-',...'2":,,_',¢~~
N.. ... . ......-.-....... - . ~. 0-.
..... ............
 The 'Ilciiso Ijiseazrizatieni Bridl-e
variation c lead wire resistance with temperature. If this
is not possible, then the Siemans three-wire equivalent Thermistors, since they wre related to temperature by an
bridge of Fig.it bmay be employed with the condition that e.ponenticl function, are not linear in any sense. However,
R, = Rl(T,]. Since the lead wire resitance contributes they are highly sensitive to temperature changes and find
equally to both legs of the bridge, the balance point is wide use ir resistance thermometry. One method of ex-
undisturbed by lead wire resistance. However, sensitivity tending the ocquivolent I[near range of a thermistor is by
factors ore decreased by the ratio of lead wire resistance employing tInc circuit shown in Table lb. The combination
to leg resistance, and sensitivity also becomes a function of of the thermistot with the voltage divide circuit yields
the change in lead wire resistance due tb ambient tempera- E'rf EAe/T'
tire variations. The null condition, however, is unaffected ER T -Pt- Aeyi/ (12)
by temperature variations in the Lead wires. R, = A. ,
A second precaution in employing the half bridge: If, By choosing R, with the valu.e:
through any cause, the power supply outputs do not change.B - 21T, ,
in the same proportion, then a fraction of the difference R, = - RT(T,,), (13)
of the absolute values of their voltages will appear as an the second order term of the expansion of Equation (12) is
output voltage. Thus, small power supply output changes zero and the maximum error in degrees is
can yield large errors, since E, and E., are large relative to c max • 003 AT' BT' (14)
the available output. For example, if E1 and E, are 28 volts over the span AT,
and RI is large and ~~ ~ toobbe~neglected,
nuh
enough eletd ~ ~ an~ increase
hnnices
then ~ ~ oe
It is the spa AT,
important to note that T must be in degrees Kelvin or
in E1 to 30 volts would increase the output by half the Rankine if the scale is in Centigrade or Fahrenheit, respec- ',- %f

change, or one volt. This would represent a large error tively. The method can be readily extended to bridge ap- %
relative to the typical full scale of 5 volts. To minimize this plications if the detection arm presents a small load to the
requires highly regulated bridge power supplies designed bridge arms.
to be extremely stable or coupled so that they vary in the Thermistor circuits have been constructed in this manner
same proportion. linear to within .2 0 F over the range 36 to 901F. -
In practice, E, and E,. are generally not lower than approxi-
mately 5 volts. This, in turn, limits the half bridge to probes The Full Bridge
in the 10,000 ohm class. General Case
Fig 14 a illustrates a practical half bridge circuit with zero The resistance bridge of Table 1 c may be employed either
and span adjustmenit. in uppli•utiin, "1 is adjusted for thc in the nulling sense to measure probe resistance or as a
desired output voltage.at, for example, a specified upper means for converting variations in temperature to voltage
temperature, and R., a potentiometer, is varied for any across detection arm R,. The exact equation relating bridge
desired sensitivity below the maximum available. As shown, output to resistance is
the aodjustments are independent. E R, (RR, - RIR.,) " "
For convenience, a precision adjustable resistor is often RIR1 +R4 ) (Rg+RpR)± R-P
+ 1,R--R
2 R4 + R,.R,,(R,+R)"
substituted for the transducer, and the zero and span are (15) - -
established from the calibration chart supplied with the If R, is approximated by (4), then the null condition ob-
transducer by the manufacturer. tained, as with the split bridge, is
With E, = E, = 28 volts, R, = 20,000 ohms, and R, = Rp, R5,, = RR.,/R,. (16)
20,000 for a Balco probe element for which k = 0.0045 The equation for the deviation about null is:
Q/Q/aC, the probe dissipation is approximately 39 milli- E R, (R.
watts, yielding a small self-heating error. The output sensi- - + R 4 IA.
tivity is large enough for the bridge to yield an output E, -

change of 5 volts for a 300'F temperature change. R2 R,-l- R4 (1-

CR4R)l -+- AR R1lFp-.
R -1Rj
One further point: The nonlinearity of the bridge may be R1
used to advantage with a probe element that has a positive (17)
second order resistance temperature coefficient, as in Balco, Assuming the same sensitivity definitions as with the split
nickel, and tungsten. The bridge can be made to compen- bridge, then:
sate for the nonlinearity of the resistance-temperature curve, (18) -
yielding an output voltage which is relatively linear over a ERg (R, \
* wide temperature span. \R_1 1 R1
Transducer-bridge linearization may be accomplished by 4. -

determining the best power series for the resistqnce-tem- R2 •-R R,

R J4- (R., 1-
.- R•)]
perature curve in the range of interest and by matching it (19)
to the power series expansion of E,. By matching the terms kER g (R4 \
of the series, the bridge constants mnay be determined to RA R.
S: -- "".
minimize the nonlinearity.
RA R4 + CR.:A RJ~

V/ADD TR 61-67 IV -20 '- "

VOL I REV I1".-
 .,ANA

Resistance in series wilh the supply, E,, does not affei.t the The Completely Symmetrical bridge
null. Hoeever, the source appears more like a current In the case of the completely symmetrical bridge, for which
source than a purely voltage source and this does affect m -- 1, ,'.-.
bridge sensitivity. Replacing the voltage source with a cur- E R, AR
rent source also has the effect of linearizing the bridge R'
output for a given Rg, which often is highly desirable. This Er, ( - R
point will be discussed in a later section. R- AR.2-.'.-.
(261

4R,. RH+Rg,
The Half Symmetrical Bridge (271

A number of special cases of the full bridge are particularly S2 : (RtR k A..R+ R, -
interesting. The first of these is when (281 -
Rý - R: =R For maximum power transfer in this case, m - 1, R, ý R,
R.= R11 nR.
m and
,
In this case the two resistors in the upper half are equal, E
E-; EAR E nR -- E kAT : "AT
....
requiring the two in the lower half to be equal at null. Then 8R±5AR 8R 8 .. . -

lo determine the value of m (the degree of dissymmetry(29]in

Eg
_____________
R 2 R
E(Rg/R)l
(
AR
[ 1 -'. "
R(m+1)[2m4R,(m±11]-l AR 2m-+-1+ R,(m± 1) .-.-..-
a half symmetrical bridge) under, for example, maximum ',-- "-"
R power transfer concjitions, Equation 123) may be substituted
(20) in (20), and the result rewritten as:
E(R/R).._-
$, -
S+lM)[2mR -A R, (m+l)J E,; X
(2 1) E I + bX---. - :

E mRg k where
(im)
S j2mR + R,(m+i)] a
(221 2(m-+ 1)
Tnese equations apply to the three bridge configurations of b = 4m +1
Fig 15 in which the transducer resistance at bridge null is 4Cm 1)" -
-2 equal to mR. This causes the effect of lead wires and X = AR
variations in the lead wire resistance to act equally in both mR
legs of the bridge so that the null is undisturbed. For the This equation is plotted for various values of m as a function -
some configuration, variations in R, appear in series with of X.
the power supply and also alter the effective value of m, Note that as m decreases the effective sensitivity at null -. > -
changing the sensitivity constants of the bridge. also decreases, but not in the same proportion, and that
It is important to know the relationship between R, , R and m the curves become more linear. In the temperature trans-
for maximum power trunsfer to R,. This is desirable for those ducer application, since the power dissipated in the probe
cases where a power amplifier (such as a magnetic ampli- is specified at some maximum value, then Eb,,,, the maximum
fier), as opposed to a voltage amplifier (vacuum tube), is value of the bridge power supply voltage, is permitted to
employed as the load or bridge detection arm- For maximum increase by the factor (m F 1), raising the effective sensi- -
power transfer, R, is related to m and R by tivity. The table included in Fig9.b illustrates thae the sensi-
R2m tivity under these conditions actuail is higher than in the
Rg m symmetrical case, where m 1-
I all referred to the latter,
123) as in column 4 of the tube. Further, the curve of bridge
a 2m\ EAR output versus X is considerably more linear than in the
and E,,= -I- - ('(m41) .4mR i-t R (4n1+ Ij symmetrical case. . tn- o
(24) The expenses of achieving these two benefits are a higher
EAR Em k AT power supply voltage and an increased power dissipation -"'-";'
E, 2R (1 +n!) - 2 (1 -Am) in the bridge. However, both are nominal. There is relatively -.- " -

(25) little advantage in making m smeller than 0.1 to 0.2. -,

WADD TRý 61-67 IV-21

VOL r R7V I

4:.... .. ,.,...........,.-.....-...-...,....... ......

"•","•'
-. :.:".'; ,':".--:.- . .-.-
-"". ,-.,--'.. . -.-..
. . ,-. •, , ',. ''.,: ,. .: .,:.- , '
 Power Limitations As for the three-wire case, variations in lead wire resistance
As in the case of the split bridge, the full bridge voltage are distributed equally in both arms and thus do not affect .-.. -

is determined by the power sensitivity of the resistance the bridge null but do change m.
transducer for a given application. The voltage across the By adding a potentiometer as in Fig 15 e the bridge becomes
probe at null is given by Equation (10) and it follows for the Callendar:Griffiths Bridge which provides complete null
the case of the half symmetrical bridge that: compensation if R, =R R,. This type of bridge has an ad-
fm ) (1) vantage over the three-wire types in that the contact resist- - -

m m (30) once of the null potentiometer is placed in series with R,

For the symmetrical bridge: and for all practical purposes may be neglected. By
E. 2V WmR (31) eliminating the effect of lead wires and contact resistance, '.
To secure still larger voltages, the bridge may be pulsed. the Callendar-Griffiths Bridge is particularly useful when
In this way, the bridge output, a square wave, may be quite the transducer resistance is low -- in the order of 10 to -. - .
large if the duty cycle is small, limited now only by the 100 ohms.
average power dissipation and the peak voltage specified In the three-wire bridge of Figsl5b and lbcsome lineariza-
for the probe element and housing. Th;s technique is par- tion is secured by making m small, as noted previously;
ticularly useful when a number of temperatures are to be useful results ate obtained for m ranging as low at 0.1 :M
measured and a commutated output signal is desired. It is to 0.2.-
important to note that if the bridge output is to be single It is important to note that variations in the power supply
ended and one side of the detection arm common, then one voltage do not affect bridge null but do alter the sensitivity
power source must be provided for each bridge. If the factor in direct proportion.
output is differential then a common supply may be pro-
vided for a number of bridges for economy. Example
Reduction of Lead Wire Effects -a-.

Fig.15a illustrates a bridge with independent and variatle An example of the use of the full bridge is now of interest.
null and span adjustments. As discussed previously, the null Assume a temperature prob. of 1000 ohms with a maxi-
. furction of !-ad wire resistance and of variations in the mum power dissipation of 10 mw for a 1 F self-heating
resistance. The thee-wire bridge was conceived by W. error. It is desired to secure maximum power to the bridge .-- - -

Siemens in 1871 as a means for eliminating the effect of detection arm in a completely symmetrical bridge. For this ,., j
lead wire resistance in the null. Several examples of three case, from Eq. (10):
wire bridges are shown in (b) and (c). A rheostat is generally Em = vW, = t -0.01 x 1000 = 3.16.
placed in series with the transducer to null the bridge. How- The value E,, 3.16 limits the. self-heating error to 1F.
ever, variation in the contact resistance of the rheostat For maximum power transfer, m = 1, and the voltage across
upsets the bridge null which limits the bridge usefulness to the bridge is:
relatively high resistance transducers. Fig. 15d illustrates E - 2 x 3.16 = 6.32 volts.
a variation of the bridge with four-wire compensation. Since m = 1, R, = R2 = R, = 1000 ohms.
For the case in Fig. 15d: The null condition is R1,= 1000 ohms and
E I•AR E, -E AR .79 x 10--3 AR..

"' 4mRR,± ( 1--) ] (32) This is a sensitvity factor of approximctely .8 mv/ohm.

E R, k A T Assuming a probe wound with Balco wire for which

0
F~m+1X
1k = 0.0025 u/Q/ F,
4 [Rcf4,-+--) Rj (33) E
Er -k A -1 - 1.98 x 10-' A T
For maximum power transfer: 8
R (34) for a sensitivity of approximately 1.98 my per 'F. The
R= (I -m) resistance of the detection arm must be
and R, = R -11000 ohms
EAR (35) and the power available for a 1.80 F (1WC) deviation from 4
null is
2 (3.5 x 10-3) 2
8 k A T (36) W = E2/R 1000 0.012 microwatts

WADD TR 61-67 IV-22

VOLT" IEVi ..

. t
.-.,, 7 ,,- ,- ,* C,,.,, .. -.- . -. .-.- -. -- .- - - ......- %•.. -, . .. . .. .. . .. - ..
... .
.-. N. .- .. ... -. . • --. ,-,.
 RIc

0 Adjustment

Output
Sensitivity

a. A Practical Split Bridge

E t i.....Rpo
0 Adjustment

7: r-

E Ajutmn Output [k )Rp

b. A Practical Split Bridge
with Lead Wire Compensation

Fig. IV-14 Practical Split Bridge Circuits

WADD TR 61-67' IV-23

VOL I REV I

~~~ . . . . . . . . . . . .-.. . ..
 Fig. IV-15 Examples of Full Bridges

R4 . A 1 0 Ajs R, 0 dRtRz

Et
.1 Rg
Sen/s.
R Adj.
,ER
0 Adjust, Ru'
~~~Rg m R-Ro+R
Re

a. A Val riatio WithZeroadb Siemans 3 Wire Bridged.AFu WieBdg

RR

R, R'

E-7 Re

VLI
RRV
Re
R4 Se"'0)

R4 Jn . E Re--.-.~--

R4 + RU. -P ~
 In - .6- ,4 -

- •_ +

+ý E

C -' -.--

I _ + k
Laa

U- - at;I
- '-L,-+ C,,¶•.lI -. •__

:1 I I I i •

+ ++4 +- '" •'•

L L L

Eli~
" 4".I1•ia. L.++--

1-."+E ...- I2 . .
ii ii-I I[,I iI•i _

i "%
% " "' ' I'
". ' ": ' ' ' .e '
% " " " • "' - • "
- "" .-- . ."
-" ' . .'%. .-' a-- ' - .' - .- " -' ." " -"'
' ' ' ' " J - " ' " " "
-°
" "
.- "" .- . - ." " .
" " " " " 0' '
.- " . -" "• - %a ' '
. .- . - " - ' - " -- " -" ""-
" "
- ."
- " " " "
'-)" -

WADD R 61-67 IV -25

VOL, I REV I
 - 3. THRUST MEASUREMENT FUNDAMENTALS (Ref. IV-5)

a. Accelerometer Technique

Basically, the output of three accelerometers, mounted such

that each corresponds to the acceleration components along each of '.
three platform oriented axes, is combined with outputs from force
sensors and a mass flow meter to solve for both the magnitude and
direction of the vehicle thrust. No special device for measurirng the
gravitational acceleration is required since the accelerometer outputs L

correspond to the algebraic sum of the inertial acceleration

and the gravitational acceleration g" Hence, calling the output
acceleration from each accelerometer a.i the total acceleration vector,- .
as determined by a system of three mutually orthogonal accelerometers
mounted on a thrusting vehicle will be
S~a = r - g

•- (3-1)
= a 11 + aala + a 3 13

1
"where 11, 2, and 13, represent the unit vectors in the direction of
each of the three accelerometer axes, respectively. The function of
1A.,--
a computer to solve for the rocket thrust is then reduced to that of
mechanizing a solution to the now mudified thrust equation ,."-
T-7L: M Fi (3-2) -.

The two most significant external forces that a vehicle will

encounter over its flight path will be the aerodynamic drag and lift forces.
When a high velocity condition prevails, the aerodynamic drag force is.-
quite large. If the rocket engine is canted or swivelled so that it is not
thrusting along the longitudinal axis of the vehicle, a component of the lift -
"force
-• exists in the direction of thrust and must be accounted for. A direct
measure of these forces seems unlikely; therefore, a means must be
* provided for estimating these forces based on measurable quantities. The
drag force, for example, which depends on the air density, velocity of the
vehicle, angle of attack, and effective drag geo xetry might to a first
approximation, be estimated by measuring the velocity of the vehicle and
the air density directly, or relating the density to a measure of the altitude.
Similar approaches would apply equally as well to the determination of the
lift force or any other significant aerodynamic forces. Admittedly, these

Ref4 IV-5 Same r-s Ref. 227B.

7 WADD TR 61-67 IV-26

VOL I REV I

- 4d

•. ,' ,• %
.,•-:2';.•,q.•:•.
-i.' '_:.;-'•.'-•-,-") >i-f]]• .,.•.,-i i :if i ".i -]•-i .i., --
],-- ---- i . i , -• -"
 estimates might be crude, but in a high thrust condition such an approach
might be adequate. Refinements in the estimate could be made, but at
the expense of additional complexity. -

For flight regimes outside the atmospheric envieonmcnis of any -.- n -

planet, the aerodynamic forces become negligible and the determination

Iofthe vehicle thrust vector involves simply a solution to the equation.
-. n..,_ d -
-a, ' ¶~~ -(3-3)

T= M (a 1 1 + a2 1 + a3 13) F1 0
i= 1''"

However, a complete accelerometer system for determining the in-

flight thrust of a vehicle will, in general, include the capability of
determining all forces acting on the vehicle. A. functional diagram of
the complete system is illustrated in Figure IV- 16.

b. Application of Combined Accelerometer-Force Transducer

to the V--2 Roc'ket System "q

An appiication of the accelerometer-force transducer technique

is illustrated here using the characteristics of the German V-2 rocket.
For this vehicle the weight W 1 'proportional to the mass Ml in the text) .
is considered to be the entire propulsion unit which includes thrast chamber,
generator, air bottle and thrust frame. This weight is approximately
*2, pounds. ' 2 at Idulich is 26, 000 pounds and includes payload, fuel,
and containirng ctructure. In terms of mass then.

2000 (3-4)
Mass 1 or M 1 - slugs

and "

M-> (to) - ..t00L slugs (3-5)

4.
Hovever, D,42 (t)is a variable with time and to calculate M 2 at any txA
tiue during Ladning the following relationship is used:

Ma M? (to) - !Tit (3-6)

where mo is the mass flow rate, assumed constant aid t is the time. In
the case of the V.-2 ... 77
Ishgs/sec (3-7)
g - - -O-,
g
and the total burning time is on the order of 65 seconds. .

"WADD TR 61-67 iV- 27 . .

"VOL I REV 1I

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Li~iiii~ air svrWoA7~

II
-~~N"., 1~~~Roo.rF

7.h1* 7 pAD
z -I~l -0~
VCL~r
) 11/1

........... T.

* .. ~,
*............
-..--
.... .... ...
 Figure IV-17 shows the acceleration which is applied to the,
vehicle during the time that thrust is appliedý This is the acceleration
which will be measured by an accelerometer in the vehicle.

Figure IV-18 shows the linear decrease in weight or W 2 due -

to expulsion of the fuel and is obtained from the previous equations. - .

These curves are applied to the equation previously developed

for thrust:.

T M 1 a+P (3-8)

to develop Figure IV-19

The compression force P as measured by the force transducer

between the mountinxg brackets and the forward mass M. (t) is presented
in Figure !V-19 vwhere P is given by

P 1A 2 (t) a (3-9)

The relative magnitudes ox tile compon-nts which make u p the total

thrust are apparent. Since the Mla term is a small portion of the
total, errors in M2 due to different amounts of fuel being present in the .
motor or errors in the acceleration due to small structural deflections
are relatively insignificant compared to the total value of thrust. There
is one further point concerning variation in weight of fuel that is in the
motor at any given time. That is the fuel makes up only 1/100 of the
total motor weighlt, rmakinrg itts effect on errors in total thrust even
more insignificant.

This technique can be applied to solid or nuclear rockets as

well as liquids; however, special design considerations are necessary
to make workable systems.

c. Liquid Propellant Systems

Consideration is made of the structural layout for a typical

li';uid propellant rocket, LFi:gure IV-?0, and a simplified one-dimensional
example of the thrust ph•enornena in space, Figure IV-21 is presented.
W riting the equations of motion we have

T L + IA (t)J a (3-10) . 1
wMhere a is the tot-al thrust acceleia~tion of the entire mass sv-ter-, as
mecasured by a systemr of accele.rometers niounted onI tile veh'icle.

WADD TR 61-67 TV Z9
VOL I REV I
 I - -
k*

274

... 30 a . SO. 0 6 .-- - *

~t //

F,/-/T W70,40 ,'4 .-

1- 0Co,6',S Fig. IV-18 Plot of gM2. For V-2 Rocket

Fig. IV-17 Plot for Acceleration Versus Time

of V-2 Rocket

-4
4'0

S/o Z;
-•
70 1;' 7'*sM
-' 0C .-- ,-.-

"Figq IVVI9 Plot Showing the Variation in the

Accleraiiwo, Forces with Time of Burning

30
WADD 'ri61-67
VOl, I IDEV I.

,'1
 The load P in the mounting bracket will be a compression
given by the expression

P = T - Mla = M. (t)a (3-11)

solving for T in Eq (3-10) yields

T Mla + P (3-12)

Now consider the vehicle in atmosphere. The two major external

forces acting on a missile are gravity and aerodynamic influences. How-
ever, since seismic mass-spring type devices cannot distinguish between
inertial and gravitational type acceleration, and both masses in this
scheme are influenced by gravity, both sensors (to measure P and a)
will measure force and accelerations relative to a freely failing body
and the external force of gravity will not be sensed. The aerodynamic
forces will influence the acceleration and load measurement as can be
seen in the following development.

From Figure IV-2Z we write the equation of motion for the

entire mass system

and writing a. free-body force relationship for M, (t) we obtain for the
load P

P D + M 2 (t) a (3-14)

where D is the total drag force acting on the missile and is assumed
to act only on the mass M?2 (t).

k.•± vll li~WnL±xiz n LUL -Y mq -1-6*LLL111

into .q (3-ii) - -
we obtain

T= Mla + P (3-15)

It can be noted that Fq (3-12) and (3-15) are identical showing that the
only rmeasurements necessary to determine thrust while in and out of
the atmosphere are the acceleration and the force.

WADD TR 61-67 IV-31-

VOL I REV I

A' - " ' ' • " " " '' . ' " . " . % - " ' ' " " ' " " . - . . . .• " " . " . " . " '" - " " . "" -. ". - , ' . " - " " -- " . - ' . . - - "
 '2 - 2 C.'_.
2:,

Mia 7Z7Ae Af
McO'IA/' I, 8e4CA-•KcrJ -

L_ ID '~-6 7AZ ...

Fig. IV/-20 AfZ~• (X 1P""-_

IIw

Fig. IV-21

Fig. IV -22
'2*'
Liquid Propellant Syster-w Diagrams

WADD TR 61-67 IV-32

VOL,I REV I

¶. -. .-. ...
 d. Solid Propellant Systems

An analysis of the combined accelerometer-force technique '.

as applied to solid propellant rocket engines is illustrated by Fig. IV-23,
In this diagram, ml(t) is the mass of the rocket motor and fuel, m2 is
the mass of the balance of the vehicle including structure, payload, etc.
D is the drag force, T is the thrust of the motor, and P is the force
measured by the transducer.

Summing the forces on the vehicle

ZF = mta (3-16)

T - D Kmz + ml (t a

Considering the payload portion of the vehicle only, the following equations
can be written

ZF =m 2a

P - D m 2 a (3-17)

Combining Fn (3-16) and 13 7) producc s

T = P + mI (t) a (3-18)

but ml is a time varying function dependent on the rate of discharge of

the propellant, which introduces the original accelerometer problem,
the measurement of instantaneous weight.

However, this technique can be applied as well in solid propellant

-A rockets as in liquid rocket motor with the approach shown in Figure IV-24,
T_ 4n
thia the
LSC, foLce
LraLasducer is placed on the motor shell directly in
front of the nozzle, The weight of the vehicle is broken down into M
wh ch is the mass of the nozzle and any gas which may be in it and in (t)
which includes the balance of the vehicle, i. e., payload, propellant, 2
rocket motor case, etc. It is worth noting that m 1 is small relative to
"the balance of the vehicle.
it
. '-"

In order to analyze this system, it is necessary to examine the

method whereby thrust is produced in a rocket motor. The total force
on a rocket motor can be considered as the sum of the pressure acting
over the entire area o This is shown in Figure I'V-Z5.

WADD TR 61-67 IV-33

VOL I REV 1

v%....... . ............ ..........

 Fig. IV-23

Iman

Fig. IV-24

Fig. IV-25

Solid Propu-1kant System~ Diagramsw

WADD TR61-67 IV -34

VOL I REV I
_r*flV. rr .•rc.• ,Yq•.-r7 .; l:.N:Ix.Z, " -," '. .- :,'-' . . . . . * .
*". . - . .. . . . .' -

Neglecting the pressure forces which do not act axially and,

consequently, do not produce thrust, the remaining forces are:

1. The force caused by the pressure acting on the bulkhead

2. The force caused by the pressure acting on the

convergent section of the nozzle..:

3. The force caused by the pressure acting on the diver-

gent section of the nozzle.

The force on the bulkhead is simply the chamber pressure times

the cross sectional area. or F = PcAC. The pressure on the convergent
section of the nozzle varies from chamber pressure down to throat
pressure (approximately one-half chamber). The force produced by this
pressure is equal to the integral of the pressure over the area of the
convergent section of F?2 PcondAcon. The pressure on the divergent
section of the nozzle varies from throat pressure down to something
less than atmospheric. The force produced by this pressure is equal
to the integral of the pressure over the area of the divergent section or
F 3 =fPdivdAdiv.T F FI
Summing up these forces and noting direction -F7

1 2 3
=_ Pc A P - AfPiouncAcon +
P___rIA___+fPAivdAdiv_ r /-19)o':•:
(3•._

With this in mind, assumne the force measuring device is m-ounted

immediately ahead of the nozzle and measures F3 - F 2 . This force
is called P. Now the equation of motion for the vehicle can be written
as follows:

T -D=1 1 + m2t)Ja (3-20) -

recalling that in is the mass of the nozzle and mr(t)2 the balance of the -[ -
... ... lhl .. the forces on M112L %J
Udcring 1y * hfrlc LIiJig.
can be written:

F P D m 2 (t)a (3-21)

Substituting this into the previous equation the desired res'lt is obtained

T - = mla + F 1 - P-V
(3-22)
T F - P 4 m a

WADD TR 61-67 IV-35

VOLI REV1

. -. ,_.,2.2.,,e
-,,7,r..-,,.
- - - -.-- -•-- -..-- - -.---- ,- - ,---
- .- - - - --.--.--- %. ,.-.- - - - - . .-- -. . • . *.-- ... ---. • . " -. ... ...-
---.- , -,.- - .. . .. '..- .' =
or, in another form

T = P AC -P + mea (3-23)
""
It is apparent that the only additional measurement necessary
to convert this thrust measuring scheme to solid rockets in chamber
pressure at the bulkhead of the motor. This value times the known
cross-sectional area produces the additional term necessary in the
thrust equation.
t...:

Here again, m 1 is small compared to the total, and any error

due to unforeseen nozzle erosion will contribute insignificantly to the
total error in the thrust measurement. The remaining terms in the
equation are either known or accurate measurement is possible making
accurate determination of thrust a reality.

e. Flight Thrustmeter, Theory of Operation (Ref. IV-6)

The net thrust of a turbo-jet engine is equal to the change

in momentum of the working fluids as they pass through the engine
installation. Thus:

n 9

F-rvoVogVS/G:-
Wa:o/G

The above relationship may also be stated as follows: net

thrust equals gross thrust (wgV8/G) minus ram drag (waVo/G). .,

Ref. IV-6 "A Flight Thrustmeter for Turbo-Jet Engine, " Schaevitz
Engineering Technical Bulletin TR-100, November 27, 1961.

WADD TR 61-67 IV- 36

VOLI REVI

-. - v .' ,-" ":,,',",'..

""-"4 .'•v'."..,':,,'.,*.:,%
- ",".''i.'..""'( "-" ' """"£ """ " "-•-"---"- ,",",' " " N.
 TABLE TV-2. DEFINITION OF TERMS i.-

STATIONS
CTTON - "

Inlet
Diffuser
and
Duct Compressor Burner Turbine
Exhaust Pipe
or
Afterburner
Exhaust
j-ri
Exhaust-
Nozzle I Jet

SYMBOLS SUBSCRIPTS

A ......... Cross-section area in2 a ...... Air (Wa)

C, K ...... Coefficient
F, Fg, Fn. Thrust, gross am .... Ambient (Pare)
thrust, net thrust -lb cr Critical (Fcr)
G ......... Acceleration due g ...... Gas (Wg); Gross (Fg)
to gravity ft/sec2
k ......... Ratio of specific
heats (cp/cv) n...... Net (Fn)
m ......... Mass Slug,
lb-sec?/ft o ...... Standard sea level,
Pt, Pt6 .... Total pressure lb/in2 To = 518. 4°R,
R ......... Gas constant ft-lb/lb-°F Po = 29. 92 in Hg
T, Tt6 ... Absolute total Vo = velocity, air speed
temperature
Rankine, Kelvin OR, oK t ...... Total (Stagnation)
, v ......... Specific volume ft 3 /lb (Pt6)
V ......... Velocity, airspeed ft/sec
, w ......... Weight rate of 1, 2, 3.. Stations as shown on
flow (Wa) lb/sec, lb/hr above sketch N
A (Delta) . Finite difference
Ai)

WADD TR 61-67 IV-37

VOL I REVI

.-. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . .

•" ; "" / ", " .. ...... . . . . . .,. . . . . . . .. .

 When there is no forward speed (Vo 0), the net thrust is
equal to the gross thrust. The gross thrust of a turbo-jet installation
can be determined easily and accurately on the ground by means of a
thrust cradle which measures the forward force on the installation.

In this brief summary, no attempt will be made to develop ."-

the relationships here stated:

For Pam/Pt6 numerically greater than critical (sub- critical

flow),

F 0.749
Fg7.7KA
g=7.97K t6
A7 Pt6 [Pt6 Pt6
Pami - Pam (i)

For Pam/Pt6 numerically less than critical (critical flow),

Eg 1. 901 K A 7 Pt6
9
±- Pam'
lPt 6I
.50 N
At critical pressure, both equations yield the same result.
For K - 1. 335 (an average value of the ratio of specific heats), the
critical. pressure ratio is Pan/t6 = . 539.

Equations (1) and. (Z) can be used to calculate a thrust, given

values for the variables P.am. and A 7 . The value for Pt6 can be obtained
frorn the engine by means of a pressure probe or a rake inserted in the '4
flow path. The value for Parm can be obtained from a tee connection in the
altimeter line. The value for A7 can be determined by physically measuring
the diameter of the outlet of the engine exhause nozzle. Actually, the values
thus obtained will. not be the effective values because (1) the efficiency of ."
the pressure probe or rake will not be 100%, (2) the gas expans;ion results
in a vena contracta of the jet thus realizing a different effectivc area than
the one measured, and (3) minor variations affect the ratio of specific heats,

WADD TR 61-67 IV-388

VOL I REV I

- ~ .t-rN\
~ . t ,.' . . S. - • ' " . -.. . . .m ' " i " " - I
 If the actual gross thrust is determined by static operation
on a thrust cradle and divided by the theoretical thrust as determined
by the above formulas, the ratio will be a thrust coefficient or calibra-
tion factor represented by K in equations (1) and (2). Once the value of
K has been determined, it can be set into the Thrcustmeter by means of
a simple adjustnment in order to yield correct readings.

The thrust coefficient remains sensibly constant over the

operating range for any one type of installation. Its value is usually
somewhat less than 1.

The relationships de.fined by equations (1) and (2) have been

plotted in figure IV-26. In plotting the curves, both sides of the equations
have been divided by K A 7 Pt6" The theoretical engine performance is
represented by a composite curve consisting of the dotted curve (sub-
critical) to the left of the critical pressure ratio and the solid curve
(super-critical) to the right.

It may be seen that the super-critical formula, if extended

to the left as indicated by the solid curve ABC, closely approaches the
composite curve A'BC within the pressure-ratio range of 0. 3 to 0.7.

The range of values of the pressure ratio Pam /Pt6 between

0. 3 and 0.6 (and to a lesser extent between 0.6 and 0.7) represents the
region of cnginc operation in which a 'Knowledge of the tl. urst value is of
greatest interest. The region beyond 0. 3 represents power and flight
speed beyond the usual capability of the engine and air-frame, while the
region beyond 0. 7 represents idling and low-power operation well below
"normalflight conditions.

The Thrustmeter may be adjusted to follow either curve ABC

"orA'BC, whichever is desired, A'BC being slightly more accurate. . -',.

Simplified Formula

Equation (2) may be simplified by a straight-line approxi-

4 mately between the normnal working limits of pressure ratio 0. 3 to 0.7
with very little loss in accuracy (0. 35% at the point ox maxrnuiun deviation)
to the form.-

Fg 1. 278 K A 7 (Pt6-0. 808 Pam) (3) 44

This equation is comparatively easy to mechanize.

'1WADD TR 61- 67 IV-39

VOLTI REVl1
°-..... . . . . . . . . . . . -.....- ,

. . . ,--.
 Since the engine area is a constant and known value, the equation
may be further simplified to

Fg CK' (Pt -0. 808 Parm)

where K' 1.2.'8 KA 7 (3a)

Lin-iits of operation for a particular engine are shown in

figure IV-.Z 7U

One of the primary advantages of the straight-line approxi-

mation is the extremely simple computer design which is made possible.
The computer requires no vacuum tubes (excluding the indicator servo-
amplifier, which is physically located in the computer) and no moving
parts (the pressure-sensinag elemnents are not considered moving parts no,
in the usual sense). The calibration can be expected to remain stable
indefinitely. By viztue of the design, the readings are insensitive to
acceleraticn and to variations in line voltage, frequency, and temperature.
Another important advantage is the flexibility of the straight- L
line computer coinpareu with any computer that might be designed .o - -.-
ol~ve the thrust equation "exactly". For example, if the ratio of specific
heats shouldIhe f',•in1 tr rliffpr from the value assumed in derivg
equation (2), the effect would be to change the coefficient 1. 901 and the
exrponent 0. 2509. A. computer design based on the exact formula would
probably be unable, without considerable complexity, to adjust for
different values of this exponent. However, a straight-line approximation
can be fitted quite closely for any exponent over a considerable range of
values. Referring to equation (4), the effect of a change in exponent - ,.
would be to chay.nge, th.e coefficients 1. 278 and 0. 808 in order to get the - ...
best fit betw&,emn the straight line and the cu-ve. Adjustments for this
prapose are available in the Schaevitz Thrastrueter; although normnally ..

adJustmnent i provided for setting in the correct value of K A 7 , which

mast be determined by test.

AE pointed o*'r. above, some theoretical improvement in accuracy

would be obtained by foliowing curve A'BG rather than ABC in figure IV-26.
Since A'BC is a cornipisite curve, the sections of which obey different
equations, the "exz :A" n'.echanization of this curve might be even more corn-
¾ plex than tht: mnec-haniat•t.ior. of either equation alone. Here again the .
.. ,flexibility
of the sragi.t,-ne method is a great advantage. By means

"WADD 'FR 61-67 IV-40

""""VOL I RSV 1I

,..+'••x...
 0- .0

T 0.7 LEEN

<0.Li D",T 74.-_ ,9

EED -97
Li K p6 (i. -) - P
404 'd 'DtTD P 746 p6
I-) I-

00.2 /I

0.
C0 [,0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0ý5 U.4 0,3 0.2 0.1 0
NOZZLE PRESSURE RVIO-. ~~PctE,

Fig. IV-26 Gross Thrust vs Nozzle Pressure Ratio

a. a.

40 lY .T
(PI -0.06
6 V]' 7 -7 -TI
00

30 - - ''-

(PSI) cE

'I201- 0

0711

VOLI I RE

1
01 *%
 of; adju entsto providt:d hi the Thruirn -eter, a straight lie could b1,I
fitted to 'the coniposite curve A'G i.f des.ired instead of j\BC. In t01.vs :.
case, if. the line were fitted to keep the deviation at the upper end with--
in 0. 5% of full scale, fhiere would be somre le .. of accuracy at the lower
end. Down to a Tres sure. ratio of 0. 66 the deviation would still be below
f.0.5%, but it woutd reach 1. 2% at a presssuir rati)o of 0. 7. ix

Any, discussion abou.t matching>, the. thcoretical curves witli.

a fraction of 1% is probably adt.,nc, for while the ThrustmeAter te.' is
"capable of such c.ccuracy, the aciual engine performance curves may differ .
s ornmewhat fromn the theor etUical. cutvyes of figure IV-26 because of minor differ-
ences between the nominal and the Lctual parameters. A'ailable data,
however, indicate that actuna. engine curvres, if they do not exa.cty1, con-
form to the curves of figurel.V-26, are at l.east of the same .foR);, and in par-
ticular, that they can be closeely approximated by straight lines.

For the reason-s given above, it is believed that the Thrust-

meter based on a straight-:-]ine approximnationý will prove to give nieoe accurate,
stable, and reliable operation, and to be simpler, yet m-ore versatile, in
calibration than a th-irustmetcr which attempts to solve the thrust for-mula L *
exa.ctly.

MECITANIZATI ON

. Remembering that ai) p;ressure values in equation (3) are in

absolute units, the equation can be written

1" (Pt6 --Pa) 0.808 (Pamn - Pa.) - 0.192 (0-Pa) (4) " "1

Three Bourdon- tubes are used, one connected to the rake

measuring (1-6 -Pa ' The second, connected to a source of ambient
9
"prescure, measures Yan.c- a; the third, which is evacuated and sealed,
rxmcasures u-P1 or simply F.'.. kL w-. be noted Mac. Fa rna-. differ from.
11-a Sinc.e Pa repcrtes,entsc the pressure surrounding the Bourdon tubes and
Pa,,, is the pressure- outside tohe aircraft.

Measurement of the Bourdon tube tips is accompli-shed using

Schaevitz Linear Variable Differential Transforrn-rs (LVDT's). The out-
puts of the three LVDT's are connected into adjustable voltage divider
networks, the P unit being reduced in the ratio 0. 8'8 and the vacuum
LVDT in the ratio of 0. 192 cormpared w• L. the Pt6 T1ese
h settings correspond
to the coefficl entis in equaticn (4[)

WADD TR 61-67 NV-,Z.

VOL I REV I

,. .-. . .- . . .. . . -
 The outputs of the LVDT's are closely phase matched, causing.
the outputs to comnbinec algebraicallyý when connected in series. Neg;ative
signs are represented by opposite phase. In this manner, a voltage is
produced which changes proportionally to gross thrust. A fourih LVDT >P
is added in series, its core position being mvanually adjustable so as to -
concel out any bias voltage resalting in a net oucput accurately proportional
to gross thrust.

4 iil):4
es

, _ -. ..

<cv-.
-- -- ......-. N*

WQADD TR 61-67 Iv-43

VOL I I{EV I
 4. Bio-Instrumentation (Re(f. IV-7)

The School of Aerospace Medicine at San Antonio has the

greatest experience and the most advanced approach in terms of flight
instrumentation for blood pressure measurement. They have two in-
strurnen~ted F-lO0 aircraft in which blood pressure records can) be taken
during floght. One of their units has been flown. in a TF-102 at the AFFTC,
Edwards Air Force Base. The instruments are individually made by the
shop at SAM.. A great deal of de-bugging and reliability work has gone
into the current devicas. They are small enough to be included in a seat
3it, which also contains other physiological transducers. The information
is telemetered during flight. Limitations have to do with the fixed nature
of the blood pressure program; a cam repeats the cuff inflation cycle at
any chosen time interval, depending on the canm used and the rate of drive
of the inotor. The system could be further miniaturized. The device is
particularly adapted to usage in fighter aircraft.

Ames Reseatrch Center at NMoffett Field, California, ba,,

constructed a device derived from the SAM design, with certain improve-
ments in mechanical features, layout, and packaging. The development
is based in part on the flight experience at Edwards Air Force Base with
the early SAM unit, Plans for further improvement were initiated by
submitting the design to Datalab Division of Consolidated Electrodynamics
Corporation for critical apprai.sal and recommendations for reducing "
bulk and increasing reliability, safety, and signal strength. Thi pre-
sent device is significantly affected by acousi "c no),Le in the environment .- -,

and by movement, the weakest element being the microphone, an ins;-

pe.nsive, srmall hearing aid device. While it has been successfully used
on the centrifuge and in flight (at least sevel flights; in flit T-33, eight
"inthe F-104B), it does not appear suitable for space vehicle usage in its
present form.

At AiResearch, a demonistrator model has been rade.

Its particular advantage is that the method appears to bt-, of any seen, the
least affected by noise in the enviironment and. movernent on the part of the
subject. This is ahieved through the use of a special broad surface con-
tact microphone which is quite directionl-I that is, it ignores inputs
from the back of the housing. Finally, the signal froee the microphone
is pas2.ed through a very n,arrow batnd pass filter centered at 35 cps. .---.
This frequcncy probably represents a ha.rrmonic for the basic resonant -.
freq';ency in the arterial systeir. Body motions, such ab a circular
motion of the torearm, do not obscure the pulse signal, althouix the
pr.e.ssure trace is, of course, affected. External noise fields affect it

Ref. IV-7 Same as Ref. 236

WADD TR 61-67 1V-44

VOL I REV I

%--"- - - - . -- - - - - --- --.

".'...- .".
 -- . .-. -'.- -- N -*._ _

very little. Special adaptation of this device to the Mercury capsule is

presently under way, the company being already familiar with installation
restrictions.

Wright Air Development Division has a device made by

the Systems Research Laboratories of ]Dayton for monitoring subjects under
various kinds of experimental stress. This is the Cadillac of automatic
blood, pressyare devices. An electronic computer-programmer which
controls cuff inliation causes the cuff to inflate up to the diastolic pressure,
detect diastolic pressAre, confirm it by insisting on coincidence of
atterial soun)d with puffs of a.ir from the cuff, waits for a confirming second
sound and ciff p,'WE, then rapidly inflates and searches for systollic pressure
in the saine way. The readout of the device is in termns of the two pressures, F
systollic and diastolic. The device is strictly a laboratory unit in its
presnet forin,, It is presently in use in water flotation studies in the Bio-
physics Branch.

Systems Research J..ablratories of Dayton, which made the WADD

device, has just comr:ipleted a miniaturized and transistorized, self-contained
unit for field use, for the Civil Aeromedical Research Institute (CARI) of
the Federal A~viation Agency, Oklahoma Cit6y. The device is identical in
operation to the one made for WA.DD, but it contains its own small gas
bottlcs,•- anti a telen.e tering transrritter, all packaged neatly in a box
measuring approximately 10 x IZ x 3 i.:iches. The weig] t of the unit is
approxirmately 10 pounds. This device has been built for a specific purpose, so
that certain other features -- for example, flexibility of program -- are
limited for space applications. However, the basic instrument is extremely
adaptable to any situsAtion, Limitations include inexperience of this company
with missile hardware, and iimited experieince with getting rid of movement
and noise artifacts.

In summary, the device most nearly ready and suitIab1e is that

offe d by AiResearch. The exne:ience at the School of Aerospace Medicine
and ines is valuable and pertinent. The device made by Systems Research
Laboratories "s perhaps the most attractive from the data-handling and
programming standpoint.

L I'
z* - --

WADD IR 61-67 IV-45

VOL I REV I

<Vt......'--.....

,. . . ,, : v .''. " .-"'..

. . .. .. : : . -. . , ..- . .. ,*. .. .. ' -,". -.. - .. ", . . ,. -' ' .. . ..- : ., v "-" - .. - .- ' - :. . ." "
PRESSURE TRANSDUCER EVALUATION PROCEDURE(GENERAL)

1. Scope procedure will be used in- evaluating pressure

-This

sensing transducers at DRP, Edwarcs AFB.

Z. Test Equipment and Procedure

2. 1 Test Equipment

2. 1. 1 The output voltages in the range of 0 to 1. 4 volt

will be measured with a Leeds and Northrop K3 Potentiometer.
This system will provide an accuracy of ± 0. 05,%of the reading.

2. 1. 2 Output voltages in the range of 1. 4 volt to 5 volts

(D. C.) will be measured with a John Fluke Company Model 801A
differential voltmeter.

2. 1. 3 Any D. C. supply input voltage will be monitored

during all testing by a J. Fluke Company Model 801A differential
voltmyete r.

2. 1. 4 Pressures will be provided by an oil deadweight

tester in the 100 to 5000 psi range, while pressures up to 100 psi
will be measured by means of an electro-manotneter or air dead-
weight tester, each capable of ±0. 1% static accuracy or better.

2. t 5d The environmc.etal temperatur '3 applied to the

transducer will be mneasured by a laboratory mercury thermometer.
The environmental temperaturea will be applied with a Statham
termperature chamu er.

2. 1. 6 Atmospheric pressure will be mcnitored with a

recording barometer when absolute pressure transducers are
tested.

2. 1. 7 A. Tektronix Obcilloscope with appropriate plug-in.

unit (and auxiliary amplifier if needed) will be used in Section 5
to monitor the transducer output -oltage.

VADD TR 61-67"-t .
VOL I Revisiuo I

S".:'f:
 2.2 Test and Data Procedures

2. 2. 1 The test procedures will be carried out with the

utmost care and precision. Any deviation from the procedures
must be approved by the Test Engineer and should be noted on
the test data sheet.

2. 2. 2 All test equipment and power supplied will be

activated and allowed to stabilize for at least 6 hours prior to
making any measurements. The L & N K3 potentiometer and
associated equipment should be connected and allowed to stabilize
at least 15 hours before measurements are made.

2. 2. 3 The test data will be recorded in duplicate. The "

original copy will be submitted to the Test Engineer, while the
duplicate will be kept by the Technician conducting the test.

2. 2. 4 The transducer manufacturer's name, model and

serial number and range will be recorded on each data sheet. In
each observation in Section 3, 4, 5, & 6 the input and output voltages of the
transducer will be recorded. The pressure applied, date, time
of day, and environmental temperature will be recorded for each
observation made under Sections 3, 4, 5, and 6. The atmospheric
pr,ýssure recording (2. 1. 6) will be included with the test data if
an absolute pressure transducer is being tested.

3. Static Accuracy

3. 1 Linearity and
Hysteresis otersern

3. 1. . The linearity and hysteresis of the pressure trans-

ducer will be checked by applying pressure in five (5) equal steps
in the up-sca•le direction., increasing from zero to full range
pressure, followed by five (5) equal steps in the downscale
direction, decreasing from full range to zero pressure.

3. 1.2 Step 3. 1. 1 will be done three (3) times.

3. 1. 3 The hysteresis at any point will be determined by the

following expre s sion:

Percent Hysteresis: Down scale output reading - upscale output readingjx 100
Full range reading-zero reading (downscale)

WADD TR 61-67 V-z2.-S4

VOL I Revision 1

S- - -. . . . . . ... i
." ' "-"' " - . -. . . ' --" ' --" " _
 3. 1. 4 The percent non-linearity at a specific point will be
determined by the following relationship:

%Non-linearity {Output reading at the press. point (downscale)

rFull range output - output at zero press. (downscale)

-
Input Pressure x 100
Full range press. J
The non-linearity will be calculated using the data points which I 0
decrease from full range to zero pressure in 3. 2. 1.

3.2 Effect of Supply Voltage Change

3. 2. 1 The supply voltage will be varied in 3% steps, two(2)

above and two(2) below the rated supply voltage with full range
pressure applied to the transducer. Repeat this series of measure-
ment two times.

3. 3. 2 The results will be recorded along with the environ-

mental temperature and time of day as per Section 2. 2 for zero and
full range pressure for each supply voltage step.

3. 3 Functional Zero and Sensitivity Drift

3. 3. 3 Supply voltage will be applied to transducer and it will

be allowed to stabilize for 15 minutes just prior to a 0 to 3. 5 hour "
test period. During this stabilization period, the hydraulic system
will be exercised and the measurement system tested.

3. 3. 2 At time zero, full scale pressure will be applied

and approached from the down scale side. The pressure is re-
.< laxed and zero pressure is approached from the up-scale direction.
Recordings as per Section 2. 2 are made for the zero and full range
pressure. Ambient temperature and supply voltage will be held
constant throughout the test. *
3. 3. 3 Step 3. 3. 2 is repeated every 15 minutes for the first
*[ 60 minutes and once every 30 minutes for the remaining 2. 5 hour period.

4. Temperature Effects

4. 1 Static Temperature Effects

4.1.1 The transducer will be subjected to 25°C steps of

WADD TR 61-67 V-3

VOL I Revision 1

-...- ?: ,-::,3-,
 %IN! . --

temperature and allowing the transducer to "soak" for 90 minutes

at each temperature. The 25'C steps will extend from roomn temperature
to the extreme low and high operating temperature ratings specified by
the manufacturer. When the transducer has stabilized at the particular
temperature, full range pressures approached from downscale and zero
pressure approached from upscale will be applied followed by an
electrical unbalance resistor applied to the bridge of the transducer
set for 80% of full range output voltage at room temperature (25°C).
Data as per 2. 2 will be recorded.

4. 2 Dynamic Temperature Effects

4. 2. 1 The Temperature will be increased at the rate of 10 degrees C

in a 5 minute period. This increase will continue until the maximum L-._
rated operating temperature has been reached. Zero pressure output
reading approached from an up-scale direction and the full range .
pressure output reading approached from a down-scale direction will
be recorded at 25'C intervals starting at room temperature (25'C) -
and extending to the upper temperature limit specified by the manu-
facturer. The data recordings specified in 2. 2 will be made.

5. Vibration Effects

5. 1 The transducer will be subjected to the following vibrations

in a direction normal to its major axis with full supply voltage and
atmospheric pressure applied. -

Frequency Force Tine

(cps) (G's) (sec)
20 10 30
50 30 15
100 30 15
z00 30 15
500 30 15 -. 4
750 35 15 LA,,A
*1000 35 10
1250 35 10 -
1500 35 10
2000 20 10

WADD TR 61-67 V-4 . 1

VOL I Revision 1
A ii •2!
 5.2 The output voltage of the transducer subjected
to vibration will be monitored with auxiliary amplifier-oscilloscope
combination with a combined vertical sensitivity as defined by the
following equation.
Vertical Sensitivity (v/cmn). < FulRange Transducer Output Voltage
i -- 600 GM

5.2. 1 Data as per Z. 2 will be recorded, along with .* "

observed peak to peak output voltage ._aused by the applied vibration.

"6. Dynamic Accuracy

6. 1 The following tests will be conducted on the

Shock Tube.

"te 6. 1. 1 Three "shots" will be made on the shock tube at

Athe highest practical and/or reliable full range pressure. An
oscilloscope photograph will be made of each shot. An AFFTG form
0-3136 will be completed for each shot and the photograph attached.
"",6 2 andThe environmental temperature, transducer
1.f input voltage, and time of day will be recorded as per Section
2. 2,

7. Dielectric Test

"-. -• 7.1 The resistance to ground or case of each lead

"atthe connector both input and output, will be checked at a voltage
of 50 volts. The resistance will be measured under laboratory
"environmental conditions at room temperature. The resistance
of each lead and environmental temperature will be recorded.
Caution: Do not apply the 50 volts between any two
pins of the transducer.

8. Special Tests
* I. . . .
8.1 Special tests w.ll be added to this procedure
"fromtime to time by the Testing Engineer to cover the special
characteristics of certain pressure transducers.

"WADD TR 61-67 V--5

VOL I Revision 1

S•. . . . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . .. .. . . . . ,-,-*" , , ' - '

 USER'S COMMENTS

In the interest of providing future revisions to the Telemetry

Transducer Handbook with improved technical content and usefulness
to the reader, it is urged that the following questionnaire be completed
and returned to the follcwing:

Radiation Incorporated
Melbourne, Florida

Attn: Telemetry Transducer

Handbook Project L.,

VOLUME -

Section I - Radio Telemetry Systems

The purpose of this section is to provide basic information and

fundamental characteristics of the transmission systems used in overall
telemetry systems. The discussion along with over 100 selected referenc-
es attempts to describe the principle oi operation of various techniques
and present in general the considerations involved in the use of each L,,,
technique..

Sufficient basic information is presented.

Recommend additional technical data be pre-

section.•:•,,
sented for those systems described in- this

I Recommend the following systems be added in

Suture revisions of the Handbook:

____ ___ ____

__ ___ ____ ___ ___ ____ ___. -*. -: j

Comments being sent in separate letter.

No comment.

Section Ii - Transducer Fundarnentals

.J 4
....-. A- i

'. .-.. .. . . . . . . - A .-. . . . . . . . .

~~~~~~~~~.
. ... .. - . .,. """.""-"*
.. •,. . . ......... .... . .. ..- . . ..

S. . . . . . . " .. . . . . . . . . . . . . " .. i. . . . . . . .- • " "

 This section attempts to present a discussion of basic funda-
mentals in the measurement of physical parameters, and how they are
or may be used in the translation of the measurement to ausable signal
as employed in telemetering systems.

W Technical coverage of types of measurements

described in this section needs impruvement,
specifically,

D] Technical coverage of types of measurements

presented is adequate, for my purposes.

The following types of measurements and associat- ,.r

ed instrumentation should be included:_-_-_._.-

Comments being sent in separate letter.

D No comment. -

Section III - Transducer Applications

In this section an attempt is made to present a few examples of ",2-.'

overall instrumentation requirements encountered in tests and oper-

ational flight programs, general aspects in the selection of the instru-

mentation hardware, and assor.iated application details of some V.
devices. 2i!:i:ii
disThis section should include the following applica- ,.

tions of telemetry transd-ucers: ___'____.____,,_

The following sources of information are sug-

gested : o
_"-"
-M
_ _ ."-__
._

*. -. - . . . -. . 4<. . .
-B-
-t.- . -. -- . -, - .

*.t~.N. ... . .. . . . .. .
 . . . . . . ..

SWill re comminended data under separate

submit
cover.".' ':

Cmet being sent in separate letter.

No comment. •..',

Section IV -Testing and Calibration ''':

The material presented in this section hias been compiled

from technical reports and manufacturer's bulletins solicited for .2"'
inclusion ini the Telemetry Transducer Handbook. The desire is (7+•
to present information on the considerations involved and methods"-'"-
and techniques used to test and calibrate various transducer".-:-.
devices. -

_ This section should include testing and calibra- £

tion techniques pertaining to the- following trans- , -.
ducer types: ""-,

The following information sources are suggested: •,..

: nlsini-teTleer Trndcer -adb

. Will submit recommended data under separate

-4'.%
". ..- -'. .'."
%
. rsn "-"..' no . m- to
-
"cover.
"~~~~t
.. on- the considerations'- involved-•
" and" methods" ""
0

LE Comments being sent in separate letter.

B No comment.

V - T esting and Calibration Facilities SSection

The information presented in thissection was obtained by

.'•": ~solicitation, from testing laboratories, government agencies, trans-.. "•'
fm users
c c androducer
manufacturersd m f u ' li it

. . . . - . -
 DRecommend data be requested from

D Will submit data under separate cover.

Section VI- References

The original format of the handbook endeavored to cite all

references both in footnotes at the bottom of the associated page and
in a numnerical-order-of-appearance listing in a Reference Section of
the handbuok. The large number of references pertaining mainly to
suggested detailed discussions made footnoting unwieldy. A comment
is desired as to the reader's preference on placement and usefulness
of reference notations,

Footnotes 2onl are sufficient.

L- A List of References only is sufficient.

Li] Both Footnotes and a List are desirable.

List of References should appear at end of each

section.

D• Recommend the following improvements in

denoting reference:

D-Comments being sent in separate letter. ."..

D No comments.

- D- ::::•:"

..............................- -*-

• ."•. •._.•W'.."%,
.... •-•., ." -. ..",- ..-."-°. ".." . .-..- "..' . '" " ... "- .'.-S .- -. '-.'. _-."-.-.-.'.-.-.-.'•" %.%.•.-' ' "J
Section VII -Bibliography

DRecommended bibliographical. material beinig

5ubmitted under separate cover.

Index to Bibliography my-ay he improved in the

following manner: ________

El Bibliography at end of each section is desired.

F]Comments being sent in. separate letter.

Li No comment.

Appendix I -Telemetry Standards

DComments being sent in separate letter.

UNo comment.

Telemetry Standards presentation could be

improved by: ________________

[ZRecommended reference material to add to

Telemetry Standards:
Appendix II - Glossary of Telemetry Transducer Terms

[9 Comments being sent in separate letter. .--

D No comment.

Appendix III -

H Comments being sent in separate letter.

No comment. t.

VOLUME II

Secticn I - Transducer Manufacturers

H Recommended changes and additions are being

submitted in a separate letter.

_ No comment.

Sections II and HI Non-Switching and Switching Transducers

[-] The following transducer types should be added

in future revisions to this volume:___.'-_____

H Data sheet format is satisfactory.

D Specifications are too numerous and detailed, in

the majority of data sheets.

•_ Recommendations being submitted in a separate

letter. • -

D No comnment0 '--

-" -'"".
,". 'o'"''-' '• . '. '-'' . '. '-' , - .- - .- . '. - -"-
. - - .- ' " - - •"- - -" " " -* '. . -•, --- " "-F •
 I.-

Section IV - Drawings

Separation of drawings from data sheets:

D is not objectionable, Fj is objectioaable

--" Comments being forwarded in a separate li:tter.

[]No comment.

Section V - Research and Development Programs

D Format should be expanded to include th- :ol-

lowing information:__________ ____

%I

-4.-..<•

F- Comnments being for. arded in separate letter.

S- No comment.

The above comments are presented from the following viewpoint:

"Li Engineering

LII Engineering supervision

DSales

When available, revisions and supplementary handbook pages

Fl are desired
are not desired.
Li-

-G--

4
,. p % † † .-. ,. ". ".†† °N

4 .- 4. 4- 4 . . 4.°

- ,' . " -4. . . . - . . -- . . - . - . - .- , . , . . . .

 Revisions and EuPplementary pages should be mailed to the
following individual.. who will be cognizant of the handbook's custody:6

Name

Title

Gomnpa~ -

Addres*,

This questionnaire was completed by:

Name

Title

Company :

Date

4..2

-H-