CAIE IGCSECAIE IGCSE PHYSICS 1. Motion, Forces and Energy 1.1. Physical Quantities and Measurement Techniques Units and basic quantities, ‘+ Astandard or unit must be chosen before a ‘measurement can be made. ‘+The size of the quantity to be measured is found using {an instrument with a scale marked in the unit ‘+ Three basic quantities are measured in physics: length, ‘mass, and time. ‘+ Units for other quantities are based on length, mass, and time. ‘+ The SI (Systéme International d'Unités) system isa set of units used in many countries Length Unit of length: metre (mm) +1 decimetre (dr) ‘+ 1 centimetre (cm) +1 millimetre (mm) = 10-3 m ‘+ micrometre um) = 10m ‘+ nanometre (rm) = 10m Multiples for large distances: +1 kilometre (kan) = 10% m ‘+1 gigametre (Gm) = 10m ‘+ Many length measurements are made with rulers/meter rule For any length less than a meter, we use a tape measure Correct postion Eg sot wong asion em MTB (42 em) Am " ac Note: Take + readings for accuracy ‘Area ‘The area of a square with sides 1 cm longs 1 square ‘centimetre (1 cm. ‘+ Area formula: area = length x breadth, ‘+ Slunit of area: square metre (m’, whichis the area of square with sides 1 m long. Volume + Volume’ the amount of space occupied + Unit of volume: cubic metre im) + Commonly used unit for volume: cubic centimetre (em + Volume ofa cylinder: V = ar?h + -Ameasuring cylinder can measure the volume of a liquid, Ensure the cylinder is upright and the eye is at bottom level of the meniscus. Time + Unit of time: second (3. ‘+ Time-measuring devices use oscillations. + Choose a timer that's precise enough for the task (e.g. 2 stopwatch for the pendulum period or a millisecond timer for measuring the speed of sound). Scalars and VectorsCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS + Scalar quantity: has magnitude (size) only. ‘+ Examples: distance, speed, time, mass, pressure, energy, temperature, + Vector quantity: described by both magnitude and direction. + Examples: force, gravitational field strength, electric Fela strength, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum. + Representing Vectors: a straight line with length Indicating the magnitude and an arrow showing direction. ‘+ Adding scalars: ordinary arithmetic ‘+ Adding vectors: geometrically, considering both ‘magnitude and direction. For two vectors, FX and FY, at right angles: ‘+The magnitude of the resultant F=/FtFR time + tims tiem} + EE tte wen? v we et + Angle © between x and F tond= fe dz= 20m 20m = 20me teno= OM a04 tan’ (0.4) = 22: 1.2, Motion Distance and displacement Distance ~~ Displacement b + Distance isa length a body travels between two points. It is a scalar quantity. ‘+ Displacement is similar to distance but asitis a vector ‘quantity, direction is also considered. Distance-Time Graph Examples Distres fm) + Acrest( 80) + Constant speed (AB and CD) * Speed is higher when the gradientis steeper. For ‘example, the speed of the train at CD is 2mis, but that at ‘AB is tm. Ibis higher in CD, which can be seen as CD being steeper. Non-Constant Speed ‘+ When speed changes, the gradient of the distance-time graph varies. + Upward curve of increasing gradient: accelerating, + The upward curve of decreasing gradient: decelerating, + Example: Gradient of the tangent at:CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS 4B = © — 20m/s Speed ‘+ Speeds the distance travelled by a body in unit time. ‘+ When the distance traveled is (5) over a short time period (0, the speed () i given by ‘+ Key definition: Speed is the distance travelled per unt time. + General formula Average speed = etal tine taken + example: f3 car travels 300 km in five hours ts average speeds; Average speed = S22 — 60 km/h Velocity + Velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a given direction. le. Velocity = Speed given in a specific direction. + Speed is the distance travelled in unit time. ++ Example: Iftwo trains travel due north at 20 is, they have the same speed and velocity due north. fone travels north and the other south, their speeds are the ‘same, but not their velocities. + Key definition: Velocity is the change in displacement per unit of time. + Velocity formula + Velocity, — Distr msntinagien deta + Velocity is the speed ina given direction + Abbody’s velocity is uniform or constant if it moves ata steady speed in a straight line + Velocity is not uniform ifthe body moves in a curved path + Speed and velocity units are the same: km/h, m/s. Note: Speed isa scalar quantity and velocity a vector quantity. Displacement isa vector, unlike distance which isa scalar ‘Acceleration + When the velocity of an object changes, the object accelerates. + Acceleration is defined as the change of velocity inCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ++ bxample:tfa car stants from rest and reaches a vwelocy of 2 mis after 1 second ts acceleration i 2m/s*, due north + Key defniion: Acceleration is the change in velocty per unictime + Example: Fora steady increase of velocity from 20 m/s to 0 mis in seconds: Acceleration ~ S2-4nssit 6m/s? + Acceleration is a vector, and ts magnitude and direction shouldbe stated + For motion na straight ne, the magnitude of tne velocity equals the speed, anc the magritude of the acceleration equals the speed change in unt tie. + Example: Acar accelerating on a straight road wth the following speeds + The speed increases by Sms every second, and the accelerations constant at 5 mis «Acceleration is postive i the velocity Increases. + Acceleration is negative if the velocity decreases (Iso Called deceleration or retardation ‘Speed-Time Graphs ‘+ Speed-time graphs plat the speed of an abject against time. ‘+ Used to salve motion problems. Constant Speed ‘+ Example: AB Is a speed-time graph for an abject maving with a constant speed af 25 mis. A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph indicates: constant speed, Velocity! nvs 12.345 6 time/s Constant Acceleration Tina /s + The near shape (AB) of the graph indicates constant acceleration, ‘+ The speed increases by 4 m/s every second, indicating constant acceleration, Variable Acceleration Example 1: The figure shows acceleration from rest, constant speed, and deceleration. speed ‘acceecation Time Example 2: The figure shows changing acceleration with a curved shape.CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS veloctyinds ‘+ Speed increases over time, but by a smaller amount each second, indicating decreasing acceleration, ‘+The gradient ofa speed-time graph represents the acceleration. + For constant speed, the gradient is zero, indicating zero acceleration. ‘+ For constant acceleration, the gradient is given by: Gradient = 24 = Bo + For changing acceleration, the gradient changes, Indicating changing acceleration. + An object accelerates ifthe speed increases and decelerates ifthe speed decreases with time, ‘Area Under a Speed-Time Graph Speed ray 2» ~ e 0 9 0 0 5% mm Time ‘+ Measures the distance travelled ‘+The rule applies even if acceleration is not constant ‘+The distance equals the shaded area under the graph, Equations for constant accé + First Equation ‘+ fan object is moving with constant acceleration (a) ina straight line and its speed increases fromm (u )t0 vain time tty + Acceleration Is given by: ++ Rearranging gives: at (Equation 1) + Second Equation ‘+ Foran object moving with constant acceleration, its average speed equals half the sum of ts initial and final speeds: Average speed = “4 ++ if(9jisthe distance moved in time (then: Average speed ++ Combining these, we get ++ Rearranging gives: = 9.4 (Equation 2) Air Resistance and Free Fal + Inthe ir, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper due to air resistance. + Ina vacuum, both fallat the same rate + Air resistance has a greater effect on light bodies ‘compared to heavy bodies. + Airresistance is negligible for dense, heavy objects at low speeds. Acceleration of Free Fall + Allbodies falling freely under gravity accelerate Uniformly iar resistance Is negligible. ‘This uniform acceleration is called the acceleration of freefall, denoted by (). ‘+The value of (g) varies slightly buts about 9.8 m/s? on average. + The velocity ofa free-falling body increases by about 9.8m/s every second, ball shot upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s decelerates by about 9.8 m/s every second, reaching its highest point after 3 seconds. ‘As an object falls air resistance increases, reducing Its acceleration.CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS Parachute not + —___Syciver opens Parachute Terminal Velocity 2 Parachute open Velocity Time ‘+ When air resistance equals the object's weight, it falls at terminal velocity. ‘+ Terminal velocity depends on the objects size, shape, and weigh, ‘+ Asmall, dense object has a high terminal velocity and accelerates fr 2 longer distance, ‘+ light object or one with a large surface area, ike a raindrop or parachute, has a low terminal velocity and accelerates over a shorter distance. ‘+ Following is the velocitytime graph fora falling parachutist: Explanation: ‘+ Initial Phase: When the parachutist jumps out of the plane, they experience freefall. During this phase, their ‘velocity increases steady due to the acceleration of _gravty (approximately 9.8n/s® acting downwards. The raph slopes upwards steeply. ‘+ Slowing down of Parachute: Air resistance increases. significantly when the parachutist deploys thelr parachute. This causes a decrease in acceleration, leading to a less steep slope on the graph. The parachutis’s velocity continues to increase but at a slower rate compared to freefall ‘+ Terminal Velocity: As the parachutist continues to fall, their velocity eventually reaches a maximum constant value known as terminal velocity. At terminal velocity, the forces of gravity and air resistance (drag) balance out, resulting in zero net acceleration. On the velocity-time ‘graph, this appears as a horizontal ine where the ‘velocity remains constant. 1.3, Mass and Weight Mass + The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of matter init Itis a measure of the quantity of mater in ‘an object at rest relative to an observer. +The standars unit of mass isthe klogram (kg), with the ‘gram (g) being one-thousanath of a kilogram: 1g = 10g = 0.0015, *+ Massis different from welght, which is a gravitational force on an object with mass, Weight + Weight isthe gravitational force acting on an object that has mass. ‘+ The weight of an object can vary with location due to differences in gravitational field strength. ‘+ The unit of force is the Newton (N). Weight is measured in newtons and can be determined using a spring balance. nts Dae win erurren | sonoimasatanrgs | Wein args reiaicnr aes ” (Whol) Gravitational Field + Gravity acts through space, causing objects not in contact with the Earth to fall towards it + Gravitational field strength (g)is the force per unit mass land Is a vector quantity with magnitude and direction, + On Earth's surface, g= 8.8 Nikg or 8.8 mis*2, representing bath the acceleration due to gravity and the ‘ravitational field strength, 1.4, Density Definition *+ Density (p)is the measure of mass per unit volume e ‘+ Standard units for density include kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m) oF grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm?) Calculation MethodsCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS + Regular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance, and measure volume (V by direct measurement of dimensions. + Irregular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance. Measure volume (V) using displacement methods: Method 1: Immerse the object in 2 measuring cylinder filed with water, record the Initial and final water levels to find volume, Method 2: Displacement Can. Fill the can until the spout. Immerse the object in the water and find the volume of water displaced, That volume of water is the volume of the object. + Liquid: To determine the mass of an empty container, add liquid, measure total mass, and subtract to find the ‘mass ofthe liquid. Divide by the known volume to find density + Al: Measure the mass of a flask fled with air, then remove the air wth a vacuum pump. Calculate air density by dividing the mass difference by volume measured using water displacement, ‘Example Calculations ee eceataaincnce sears Selon? o Ra EReoecio ee with a volume of 73 cm® and a density of 2.7 g/cm* ope 2rglem Ten = ithe Floating and Sinking: + Objects float or sink in iquids based on their density relative to the liquid's density. A higher-density object sinks Ina lower-density quid and vice versa. 1.5. Forces Force + Aforce is a push or 3 pull that can change the motion, speed, or shape of an object + Itcan cause objects at rest to move or alter the direction, ‘of moving objects. Extension in Springs + Springs follow Hooke's Law, where extension is proportional to the stretching force up to the limit of proportionally. + Symbolially, extension oc stretching force Spring Constant + The spring constant () measures the force needed to cause a unit extension ina spring. k=, where (Fs the force applied and (2) isthe resulting extension Load-Extension Graphs ‘+ Used to graphically represent the relationship between, applied force load) and resulting extension in materials lke springs, + Nonvlinear graphs beyond the limit of proportionality indicate permanent deformationCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS Ferce (0) Extension im) Forces and Resultants + Forces have magnitude and direction, represented by arrows in diagrams. ‘+ Multiple forces acting on an object can be balanced (e.g. weight and support force) or have a resulant force. ‘+The resultant force isthe single force that has the same effect as all forces acting together. ‘+ Aresultant force can change the velocity ofan object by altering ts speed or direction of mation. Fp egog = 135 N 2 Resultant torce is Fyeghe = 735 N Newton's First Law ‘+ An object remains at rest or continues to move at 2 constant speed ina straight line unless acted upon by 8 resultant force. ‘+ This means that no force is required to maintain constant velocity fo external forces act on the object. mn neous force inno oui forces, atlonary objec! wll ‘movng obec! wil > =» Friction and Air Resistance + Forces lke friction and air resistance cause objects to slow down and eventually come to rest, + In their absence, objects would continue moving indefinitely with constant speed, Newton's Second Law + States that the acceleration of an objectis directly proportional to the force acting onit and inversely proportional to its mass. ‘+ Mathematically expressed as: F=ma where (F) isthe resultant force in newtons (N), (mn) is the mass in klograms (kg), and (a) isthe acceleration in meters per second squared (m/s). Proportional Relationships + Acceleration (a) is directly proportional tothe force (F) when mass (m)is constant axF + Acceleration (a) is inversely proportional to mass (mn) when force (F )is constant Units and Constant (A) + The unit of force, the newton (NV), is defined asthe force that gives a 1 kg mass an acceleration of Im /s? + in F = kma equals t when m kg and a=1 m/s? Resultant Force and Motion + Resultant force UF) causes an object to accelerate in the direction of the force ‘+ When forces are balanced, there is no acceleration, but ‘changes in shape may occur due to internal forces within the object. FrictionCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+ Friction isthe force that opposes the mation 0 of one surface over another. + tis essential for walking and gripping surfaces but can prevent proper movement on surfaces lke ice. ‘Types of Friction ‘+ Static Friction: The frictional force that opposes the starting of motion between surfaces in contact ‘Kinetic Friction: The fritional force that opposes the ‘motion of surfaces sliding past each other. ‘+ Fluid Friction (Drag): Resistance encountered by an object moving through a fluid (air or iquid, increasing with speed and reducing acceleration Effect of Force and Mass on Friction ‘+ Increasing tne force pressing surfaces together increases friction initially. + Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, ‘causing arise in temperature when contacting surfaces, Push Friction Centripetal Force ‘+ Ina circular motion, an object moves in a curved path due to a force directed towards the centre ofthe circle, ‘Acceleration in Circular Motion + Despite constant speed, circular motion involves ‘acceleration because velocity direction changes continuously, *+ Acceleration towards the centre of the circle is necessary ‘to maintain circular motion Factors Affecting Centripetal Force Centripetal force magnitude depends on the following: + Speed (1): Increasing speed increases centripetal force. + Radius (r): Decreasing radius increases centripetal force + Mass (m): Increasing mass increases centripetal force. Role of Centripetal Force + Itensures the object maintains a constant distance from the centre ofthe circle, ‘Moment of a Force ‘+The turning effect of force around a pivot point is called the mornent of the force + It depends on both the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force ‘+ Mathematically, the moment s given by: M=Pxd where d is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force + The unit of moment is the Newton metre (Vm). Force, F Perpendicular Distance, Balancing a Beam and the Law of EquilibriumCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+ To balance a beam around a pivot point, the principle of ‘moments (or law of moments) used. ‘+The law states that for a bear in equilibrium, the sum of| clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point. ‘+ This principle is essential for designing and Understanding the equilibrium of lever systems and other balanced structures, Conditions for Equilibrium ‘An objects in equilibrium if: ‘+ The sum of allforces acting on it equals zero (static equilibrium). ‘+The sum of all maments (clockwise and anticlockwise) around any point is zero (rotational equilibrium), Centre of Gravity ‘+The centre of gravity (or centre of mass) of an object is the point through which the entire weight of the abject acts. + Itbehaves as ifallthe mass were concentrated at this, single point. ‘+ For a uniform abject, such asa ruler, the centre of gravity Is at its geometric centre. Determining the Centre of Gravity + Finding the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped lamina involves suspending the object from different points and using a plumb line to mark the vertical line through which it hangs. The centre of gravity is where these lines intersect. cence a Stability and Toppling + The stability ofan object depends on the position ofits centre of gravity relative to is base + An abject is stable if its centre of gravity remains over its base of support. + Toppling occurs when the vertical ine through the centre ‘of gravity falls outside the base of support. + Increasing the base area and lowering the centre of Bravity improves stability Types of Equilibrium + Stable Equilibrium: An object returns to its original position when displaced slightly (eg.,a ballin a bow, + Unstable Equilibrium: An object moves further away fom ts original position when displaced slightly (e.g.,@ ruler balanced on its edge). ‘+ Neutral Equilibrium: An object remains in its new position when displaced (eg, 2 ball siting on a flat surface), “San vetonm Urbina Nat atom, ‘Momentum ‘+ Momentum (p) is the product of an object's mass (m) and its velocity ( + Mathematically, p = mu + tis a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction, ‘The S| unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second (kgm/s) or newton second (Ns). Conservation of MomentumCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+The total momentum ofa closed system of objects remains constant ifno external forces act onit (such as friction or air resistance. ‘+ This principe is known as the conservation of ‘momentum. ‘+ Momentum is conserved in collisions (both elastic and inelastic) and explosions. For example, in 3 colsion, the total momentum before and after the collision remains the same, Praia! = Past Example: Atrolley of mass my = kg moving with velocity uw: = 5 rms codes and couples with a stationary trolley of mass ‘ma = 2 kg, They move off together with the same velocity (v). We need to find (v) 1. Calculate initial momentum (Passa): Prat = My * th = 3g 5 m/s = 15 kegen/s 2. Calculate final momentum (Pina Since they move off together with velocity (v): 5ke-0 3. Apply conservation of momentum (Piss = Pra: 15 kgm/s = 5 kg 4, Solve for (v v= BEEt 3 m/s So, the velocity (0) ofthe two trlleys moving together atter the collision is [8 m/s Impulse ‘+ Impulse (J) isthe change in momentum (Ap) of an ‘object when a force acts on it over a period of time (At). + Mathematically, J = FAt= Ap ‘+ Impulse is also a vector quantity and has the samme direction asthe force causing it. Force and Momentum: + Relation of force tothe rate of change of momentum: + (F—32), whichis an alternative form of Newton's second ib. 1.6. Energy, work and power Types of energy stores + Chemical Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds of substances lke food, fuels ol, ga5, coal, wood). + Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy an object. possesses due to its position relative to a reference point (usually the Earths surface). + Elastic Strain Energy: Energy stored in an object when it is compressed, stretched, or deformed, + Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a moving object, + Electrostatic Energy: Energy stored in charged abjects due to their separation in an electric fel. ‘+ Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom, + Internal (Thermal) Energy: Total energy stored in the ‘microscopic motions and interactions of particles within a substance. Energy Transfers ‘+ Mechanical Working: Transfer of energy by the action fof a force, lke iting a weight. + Electrical Working: Transfer of energy by an electric current, such asin batteries or electric motors. ‘+ Waves (Electromagnetic and Sound): Transfer of energy through waves, lke light or sound waves. + Heating: Transfer of energy through thermal processes, Tke heating water in a boiler. Principle of Conservation of Energy + Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. Thus the total amount of energy is constant. Energy FormsCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS + Kinetic Energy (B3.): Energy possessed by an object due toits mation + By = }mnv?, where (m) is mass and (v) is velocty. + Example Calculation: For 2 football of mass 0.4 kg moving at 20 mis + Be=} x04 x (20)? = 805 + Potential Energy (E,):Energy an objecthas due to is position or condition or configuration. +B, =mgh, where (m) is mass (ghis acceleration due to gravity, and (h)is height. + Example Calculation: Fora 0.1 kg mass raised vertically, bytim + B,= 01x98 x Work 0.98.3 ‘= Work (Wis done when a force (F) displaces a body through a distance (dn the direction ofthe force. + Formula: W = Fd ‘+ Unit: The unit of works the joule (), where 1 J = 1.N Example Calculation + Ifa force of 50 Nis used to move acrate 3m horizontally W=50Nx3m=150I + If fting a mass of 3 kg vertically by 2m (where B= 10 m/s W=30Nx2m 07 Energy resources nara sovmnnte | "EET Meee et Teel tn vier erence | ‘he mimagreeroane SRM tronmn | RUM EES satan How Fossil Fuels are used in Power Stations + Coal: in coal-fired power stations, coals burned in a boiler to produce heat. + Natural Gas: In gas-fired power stations, natural gas Is burned directly in a gas turbine ‘+ The heat generated from burning these fuels is used to boil water, creating high-pressure steam, + The steam drives turbines connected to electrical generators, + Turbines are designed with sets of blades (rotor) mounted on a shaft, which rotates when steam is directed onto them. + Assteam expands through the turbine, its energy is transferred to che rotor, causing itto spin. ‘+The spinning rotor generates electricity through ‘electromagnetic induction in the generator, How hydroelectric power stations work ‘+ They run using the kinetic energy generated from the flow of water moving downstream, ‘+ This kinetic energy spin turbines which are connected to generators, ‘+ These generators then produce electricity chat can be used by households, How Nuclear Fuels (uranium) are used in Power StationsCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+ Nuclear power stations use controled nuclear fission, reactions with uranium to generate heat, ‘+ This heatis used to produce steam indirectly through heat exchanger. ‘+The steam, similar to fossil fuel stations, drives turbines connected to generators to produce electricity. ‘+ The operation involves the steam passing through a turbine's fixed blades (stator) onto the rotating blades (rotor), where the expansion of steam energy is converted into rotational motion ‘+The rotational mation of the rotor then drives the electrical generator, producing electricity for consumption. ‘+ The power ofa device is the work it does per second, or the rate at which it does work + Power also represents the rate at which energy is transferred from one store to another. + Formula: + power = farsa + P= © where W is the work done in time t + P= AE wnere AB isthe energy transferred in ime t + Key definition: Powers the work done per untime and the energy transferred per uit time ‘+ Unit of power: watt (W), where 1 Wi =1J/s + Largerunts: +. kW = 1000 W = 10° W + 1 MW =1,000,000 W = 10° W + Example: Ifa machine does 500 J of workin 10 sits poweris: a — sow Efficiency + scene formula for energy (SESRES TEE) » 100% + sEfciene formula for power Eiieney (9) = (Spinco) 5 100% Example a: Electric Motor Efficiency (%) Energy input = 400) Work done on toad = 300 Calculate Efficiency: Bificiency = (3224) x 101 ‘Example b: Electric Drill + Given: Power input to drill= 300 /s Useful power output (excluding thermal losses) = 200 Js + Calculate Efficien bitciney = ( noes * Sankey diagrams are used to represent energy transfers and efficiencies visual. + They show how input energy is divided into useful output ‘energy and wasted energy. ‘+ The width ofthe arrows in a Sankey diagram is proportional to the amount of energy they represent. + Awide arrow represents 2 large amount of energy, while a narrow arrow represents a small amount, Useful cutout eneray npet Wasted output eneray 17. Pressure ‘Pressure isthe force per unit area. + Formula: 9m: Pressure isthe force per unit are. ‘+ Unit of pressure: pascal (Pa), where 1 Pa=1.N/m* + Greater area over which a force acts results ines pressure Liquid PressureCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS + Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the further down you go, the greater the weight of quia above. + Pressure at one depth acts equallyin al directions + Pressure depends on the density ofthe liquid; the denser the liquid, the greater the pressure at ary given depth. + The change in pressure Ap ata depth Ah below the surface ofa liquid with density pis determined by considering a horizontalarea A + Force acting vertically downwards on area A equals the weight of the liquid column of height Ah and cross sectional area A above It + Volume of the liquid column: AAA. ‘+ Mass ofthe liquid column: m = pAhA (mas density x volume) + Weight ofthe liquid column: mg + Force on area A: pARAg + Pressure cue tothe liquid colurnn ’AhAg pressure = Bt eAide — pga + Formula: Ap — pgAh + Apisthe change in pressure beneath the surface of the liquid at depth AA due to the weight of liquid of density p + gisthe gravitational feld strength + This pressure acts equally inal directions at depth Ah and depends only on Ak and p. + Value will be in pascals (Pa) if Ah = is in meters (mn) and (9) isinklograms per cubic meter (kg/m). Ste tid poste dos ct pend one ‘Sta oa mass sic oo id Pressue = MOM MEL UE ogy 2. Thermal Physics 2.1. Kinetic Particle Model of Matter States of Matter S. CS GD oem Solid Liquid Gas ‘+ Matter consists of tiny particles Ike molecules and atoms. + Matter exists as solids, liquids, or gases, each with different characteristics. + Solids have a definite shape and volume, and particles are close together in fixed positions. + Liquids have a definize volume and take the shape of their container. The particles are further apart and can slide over each other. + Gases have no definite shape or volume, and particles move much further apart and freely. Brownian Motion + Describes random motion of particles in fluids (iquids ‘and gases) and is caused by collisions with smaller, faster-moving particles, Temperature and kinetic energyCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘Particles in solids vibrate in fixed positions at room temperature. ‘+ Heating solids increases particle vibrations, raising their average kinetic energy. + Cooling a solid reduces particle vibrations until absolute zero (273°C oF 0K) stops all motion. ‘+ Absolute zeros the lowest possible temperature achievable, Pressure and Kinetic Energy ‘+ Gases have particles moving randomly at high speeds. ++ Each gas particle collsion with a container wall changes its momentum, creating a force, +The average force per unit area on container walls, remains constant ata constant temperature. + Increasing temperature raises collision frequency, increasing average force and gas pressure. Effect on Pressure of a Change in Temperature (Constant Volume) ‘+ Heating a gas increases the kinetic energy of its particles. ‘+ Higher kinetic energy leads to more frequent and energetic collisions with the container walls + Increased collisions result in higher pressure according to.agas law: (PV=aRT) Effect on Pressure of a Change in Volume (Constant. Temperature) + Reducing the volume of a gas increases the concentration of particles, ‘+ More particles per unit volume lead to more collsions: with the container wall + The pressure increases proportionally tothe decrease in volume: Varlations in Gas Pressure with Volume + Boyle's Law states that at constant temperature, the product of pressure and volume i constant: (p.Vi = Va) + Graphing pressure (pagal the reciprocal of volume (Paves satghere ‘Absolute Zero and Kelvin Temperature Scal + Absolute zero, at-273°C or 0K, is the lowest possible temperature + Kelvin scale temperatures are derived by adding 273 t0 Celsius temperatures: (7(K) = (°C) +273) + Inthe Kelvin scale, all temperatures are always positive and directly proportional o the average kinetic energy of Particles 2.2. Thermal properties and temperature ‘Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases + Solids and Liquids: When heated, particles vibrate more, ‘causing ther to push apart slightly, resulting in ‘expansion, + Gases: Heating increases particle speed and collisions with container walls, which causes container expansion ‘to maintain pressure. Applications + Bimetallc Strips: Made from metals with different ‘expansion rates (.g,.copper and iron). Used in: ‘+ Fire Alarms: Bends to complete an electrical circuit when exposed to heat, triggering alarms, ‘+ Thermostats: Maintains temperature by bending to break or complete electrical circuitsCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS Copper oe eng ‘+ Shrinkfitting: Cooling components contracts them, fitting tightly into other parts upon warming. Used in ‘manufacturing for tight connections without fasteners. ‘+ Lid Removal: Expanding metal ids with hot water loosens them from glass jars, leading to easier opening, Precautions ‘+ Expansion joints are spaces left between rail tracks used in railways, and pipes to allow for thermal expansion without damage Internal Energy and Heating + Internal energy increases when an abject is heated + Different materials require varying amounts of heat to raise their temperatures due to differences in specific heat capacty + Specfc heat capacity (c) measures the amount of heat required to raise the temperature ofa substance by 1 degree Celsius per unt mass ‘Temperature and Thermal Energy ‘+ Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of particles. ‘+ Thermal energy is the total energy of particles in a substance, and more particles can hold more total thermal energy even if they have lower individual particle energies. Heat Transfer and Equilibrium ‘+ Heat transfers from higher to lower temperature bodies Lunt thermal equilibrium is reaches. + This transfer is caused by collsions between particles, ‘making their average kinetic energles equal Specific Heat Capacity + Speciticheat capacity (c)is defined as the energy required per unit mass per unit temperature increase, ‘measured in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (F/(ke"C) +The formuta relating heat energy (AE, mass (m), specific heat capacity (c), and temperature change (8) isn AE = meA@ + Specific heat capacity quantifies how much heat energy isneeded to raise the temperature ofa substance. Materials with higher specific heat capacities require more heat energy per unit massto achieve the same temperature change. Worked Example Calculation Given: + Heat energy supplied, (AF = 20000, J) + Mass of the substance, (m ~ 5, kg) + Temperature change, (Ad = 10°C) + Calculate the specific heat capacity (c) ofthe substance. Formula: + The specific heat capacity ())is given by: Raye Substituting the given values: Catettion: sone 1005 /(kg"C) Change of state ‘+ Heating can change a solid to aliquid (meking) and liquid to a solid (freezing) + Pure substances melt and freeze at specific temperatures, such as water at 0°. ‘+ Melting involves particles ofa solid overcoming intermolecular forces to become aliquid. + Solidification freezing) involves the transfer of potential ‘energy from particles to surroundings as a liquid becomes sai + Vaporisation requires substantial energy to overcome intermolecular forces in a liquid to become gas (vapour *+ Condensation involves gas particles losing potental ‘energy to the'r surroundings as they return to aliquid stateCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS oe 5 = 5 ae i i tesing a heatenerey > Evaporation ‘+ Higher temperatures, larger surface areas, and wind or draughts increase the rate of evaporation ‘+ Energy is transferred to the surroundings from the liquid during evaporation, cooling the liquid. + Evaporation cools the body through sweat, helping to maintain a constant temperature, ferences between boiling and evaporation ree ing. ‘apron rane STR THANE car nat fans | Sigal act eg inset“ afibe td’ | Mappers ony at ets tae 2.3, Transfer of thermal energy Conduction = Conduction is heat transfer through matter from hot to| cold without moving matter. ‘+ Metals conduct heat well (¢g., copper, alurninum); Insulators (wood, plastic) are poor conductors ‘+ Meals feel colder due to rapid heat transfer from the. hang compared to insulators atthe same temperature. ‘+ Liquids and gases conduct heat slowly because the particles are further apart and need time to transfer energy to each other. ‘+ Metals transfer heat via fast-moving free electrons, raising temperatures in cooler areas and latice vibrations, ‘+ Non-metals transfer heat through slower atomic or ‘molecular vibrations, lacking free electrons. Twat conducted inthis direction Convection ‘+ Heat transfer method in fluids lke liquids and gases. + Transfer of thermal energy by movement of the matter itself Convection Currents + Warm fluids rise because they expand and become less dense, + Cooler, denser fluids sink and replace the rising warm fia. This movement of fluids due to temperature differences is known as a corwestion current, Hat os dee pore =a Ra ‘+ Amethod of thermal energy transfer which occurs without matter, even in vacuum. ‘Emits as electromagnetic waves, travels at speed of light. ‘Absorption and Reflection + Surfaces vary in radiation absorption. + Black surfaces absors more than shiny white ones. Emission Sree ype Brin RaaCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+ Surfaces emit radiation differently when hot. ‘+ Dull black surfaces emit more than shiny surfaces. + Allbodies emit radiation above absolute zero, Greenhouse effect ‘+ Greenhouse gases trap heat similar to glass in a greenhouse. + Balance between incoming solar raciation and emitted Earth radiation crucial for climate stabil ‘+ Increased carbon dioxide and methane upset this balance and absorb more infrared which cannot escape. ‘The greenhouse effect 3. Waves 3.1. General Properties of Waves + Progressive waves carry energy from one place to another without transferring matter. ‘Two Types of Progressive Waves + Transverse waves + Longitudinal waves Longitodinal Waves ‘Transverse Waves HTT Stan + Wavelengtn (Ar Distance beeen 2 successive crest! troughs. + Frequency (fi Number of complete waves created per second, measured in ere ‘+ Wave speed (v): Distance moved by a crest or any point onthe wave in second + Arpltuce (a Helge of a crestor dept ofa trough from the undisturbed or mean postion + Phase: Parties in ‘phase’ have the same speed and ‘retin of bration. Wave equation ‘+ Faster vibration produces a shorter wavelength, *+ Therefore, a higher frequency results in a smaller vwavelength. + Wave equation: Wavefronts and rays ‘+ Wavefront: A straight ine where the wave has the same phase at all points + Ray: Line dravin at right angles to a wavefront showing. the direction of travel yl Reflection of a wave at a plane surfaceCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS + Straight water waves (transverse waves) hit a metal strip ina ripple tank at 2° angle. ‘+ Angle of incidence (i) and angle of reflection (rare both ‘Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection: ( ‘+ Same wavelength as reflected wave ‘+ Same wave speed » T- Ragle af inedarce 1 Angle of relecion Retaining wal Refraction ‘+ Continuous straighe waves in shallow water have shorter wavelengths than in deeper water. ‘+ Waves in shallower water have a smaller speed and smaller wavelength. ‘+ When waves move from shallow to dense regions, they bend towards the normal, and when they move from. dense to shallow regions, they bend away from the normal Diffraction + Straight water waves meet narrow gaps and create circular wavefronts. + Diffraction can also occur atthe edges of obstacles ‘causing wave spreading i] mn 7” 2 3.2. Reflection and Refraction of Light + Light travels in a path called a ray. + Abeam isa stream of light shown by several rays. ‘+ Beams can be parallel, diverging, or converging, ve za << SS 20, O00), + Itisused in medical imaging and industrial applications for precision and non-destructive testing, + Ultrasound waves behave similarly to audible sound waves but can penetrate materials and provide detailed imaging without harmful effects, 4. Electricity and Magnetism 4.1. Simple Phenomena of Magnetism ‘Magnetic Materials ‘+ Ferromagnetic materials ike iron can be made into magnets, ‘+ Magnetic materials are naturally attracted to magnets ‘even when not magnetized. ‘Magnetic PolesCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+ Magnetic poles attract magnetic materials and are found near the ends of magnets ‘+ Poles always come in pairs: north and south. ‘+ Every magnet has a North Pole (N) and a South Pole (8). ‘+The North Pole of a magnet points towards the Earth's ‘geographic North Pole, Law of Magnetic P ‘+ Similar poles (NV — N or S — S) repel each other. + Opposite poles (NV — $) attract each other. ++ The attraction of repulsion decreases as poles move farther apart. Induced Magnetism ‘+ Magnetic materials can become magnetized when near a magnet. jon of iron and Steet Magni + Iron nails and stee! paper clips can be magnetised by hanging them from a magnet. + Each nail or clip magnetises the next ina chain, with Lunlike poles attracting each other. + Removing an iron chain by pulling the top nall causes it to collapse because iron shows temporary magnet’sm. + Steel chains do not collapse when removed because they have permanent magnetism. + Soft materials (eg, iron) are easly magnetised but lose ‘magnetism quickly. + Hard materials (eg. steel are harder to magnetise but i Foam 0 0: '+ Magnetic materials (iron, steel, nickel, cobalt) are ‘attracted to magnets and can be magnetised. + Non-magnetic materials (eg, aluminium, wood) are not attracted to magnets and cannot be magnetised. ‘Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials ‘Magnetic FieldsCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+ Amagnetic field isthe region around a magnet where ‘magnetic forces act. ‘+ Field strength is higher where magnetic field lines are closer together and lower where they are further apart. ‘+ Magnetic fields are shown using lines of force, showing the direction from North to South poles. ‘+ The density of these ines indicates field strength: closer lines represent stronger magnetic fields Electromagnets 1+ They are formed from a cal of wire through which an electrical current passes. ‘Magnetism is temporary and can be switched on and off, Unlike permanent magnets, ‘+ They contain a core of soft iron that only becomes. ‘magnetised when current flows through the coil Factors Affecting Electromagnet Strength + Current increase: Higher current in the col results in stronger magnetism. + More Turns: Increasing the number of turns in coils ‘around the core increases magnet strength, + Closer Poles: Moving the magnetic poles closer together increases electromagnet strength. Coil, Iron piece {i+ Battery 4.2. Electrical quantities ectric charge + Like/same charges (+ and + or - and ~) repel, while Untke charges (+ and ~) attract. Force Between Charges + The force between electric charges decreases as thelr separation increases, + Positive charges repel other positive charges and attract negative charges. ‘+ Negative charges repel other negative charges and attract positive charges. BAS Charges, Atoms, and Electrons + Atoms consist of a central nucleus with protons (positive) and electrons (negative) orbiting around it, + Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges, ‘making atoms electrically neutral overall Production of ChargesCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS + Charges are produced by friction, which transfers electrons between materials ‘+ Electrons move between materials during rubbing: protons remain in the nuclel and do not move. Units of charge + Charge is measured in coulombs (C) and defined in terms of the ampere (A) + The charge on an electron is(e = ~1.6 x 10-9) 6. Electrons, Insulators, and Conductors ‘+ Insulators: Electrons are firmly bound to atoms; rubbing can charge them statically. ‘+ Conductors: Electrons can move freely; they require Insulation to hold a charge. eo ow, osners eg ence He aan Electric Fields ‘+ When charges are near each other, they experience a force known as the electric force. ‘+ Electric field isa region where a charge feels a force due to nearby charges. ‘+ Uniform electric fld exists between oppositely charged parallel metal plates, shown by evenly spaced lines perpendicular to the plates. ‘+ The direction ofthe electric fields indicated by arrows, representing the force acting on a small positve test charge (pointing away from positive charges and towards negative charges). Posi Charge Negative Charge | ‘The Ampere and the Coulomb (units of current and charge) + Electric Currents defined as charge passing a point per unit time, symbolized as =). + Unico currentis the ampere (A), with one millampere ‘mA) equal to one-shousandth of an ampere and is measured by an ammeter. + Unicof charge is the coulomb (C), defined as the charge passing 2 point when a steady current of 1 ampere lows fort second (1C = 14s). Charge Calculation Q=Ixt where Q is charge, [is current, and is time in seconds. Conventional Current * Conventional current flows from positive to negative terminals of a battery, opposite to electron flow. + Circuit diagrams show conventional current direction with arrows, while electrons move in the apposite direction. Direct and Alternating Current Beet ure eng caret Ra no IGS ri ‘rosaries recs yee Frequency of Alternating Current + Frequency refers to the number of complete cycles per second, + tis measured in Hertz (#12), where 1 Hz equals one ‘gele per second, es tte te (pa 4.3. Voltage, Resistance and Power Hlectromotive Force (¢.m.f.)CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+ Chemical actions inside a battery produce electron excess at the negative terminal and shortage at the postive terminal ‘+ Battery maintains electron flow (electric current) ina connected circult as long as chemical actions last ‘+The battery does work when moving the charge around the circuit. + Electromotive force (e.m.f.)is the electrical work done bya source in moving unit charge around a complete cireut, + Electromotive force is measured in vols (V). + Elecric current transfers energy from a battery to circuit, components and surroundings + Potential difference (pd. s the work done by unit charge passing through a component + Pd.is measured in vot + Voltage is sometimes used instead of p.d. + 1 yott=1 joule per coulomb 1 =1 2) + Formula: V = KorW=QxV Resistance + stecrons move more easly through some conductors wnen pi applied + Resistance's te oppostion ofa conductor teurent 5 Good condictors have lon resistance wile poor conductors have high resistance + Ohm isthe unl of resistance + Formula: = Variable Resistors ‘+ They can change current ina circult (rheastat mode) or ‘act as a potential divider by dividing voltage across ‘components as desired. + Resistance depends onthe length, cross-sectional area, and materia ofthe wire + Resistance increases wth length but decreases wth 3 larger cross-sectional area + Formulas(R x 4) I-V graphs and Ohm's Law + Metals and some alloys give I-V graphs that are straight lines through the origin, showing that I's directly proportionalte V or that I ce V. + Doubling V doubles I. + Such conductors obey Ohm's law: V = IR + Ohmic or linear conductors ate the conductors where resistance does not change with V. current (1) voltage (V) Semiconductor DiodeCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+ Diode has smal resistance when connected one way and very large resistance when p.d. is reversed. + Itconducts electricity in one direction only, and tis a rnon-ohmic conductor. Filament Lamp ‘+ Non-ohmic conductor at high temperatures + TLV graph curve flattens as V and I increase, showing Increasing resistance with increasing current and Increasing temperature. Thermistor + An increase in temperature generally Increases the resistance of metals, ‘+ Thermistors’ resistance is dferent and decreases with rising temperature, + Itisanon-ohmic conductor Light-dependent Resistor (LDR) ‘+ Resistance of some semiconductors decreases with increased light intensity + Light-dependent resistors (LORs) use this property to function + I-V graph for an LDRis similar to that of a thermistor + LDRis also a non-ohmic conductor. Power in Electric Circuits + Power defined as work done or energy transferred per time taken: P= © *+ P's power in watts (W), W is work done in joules (J), ¢ istime in seconds (6) + For a steady current (I) ina device witha potential difference V) across tthe work done has a formula WaIxtxV + Substituting work done withthe power P = IV multiplied by time in seconds (tthe energy transferred is B= Pt-IVt Example + Lamp with 240 V supply and 0.25 A current + Powers P = IV» 260V x0.254=60W + 60,J of energy transferred to the lamp each second Voltage in terms of power and currentCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS + Vole can be defined as a watt per ampere: V — P + fall energy transferred to thermal energy ina resistor of resistance R: P=VxIeIRxI°PR + Doubling the current produces four times the thermal energy per second P= 7R + Larger unit for energy: kilowat-hour (kW) + TRWh= 1000 2 x 3600 » = 3600000 J = 3.6 MJ + The cost of electricity in houses is calculated by using Wh where each kWh has a fixed price and is multiplied by the units you consume. 4.4. Electric Circuits Electrical component symbols SE HE -@ + -O -~O- -8- -F 4 9. Current in a Series circuit + Ina series circuit, there isa single path for the current to flow. ‘+The current remains the same throughout: ‘+ Current (Z)s consistent at every point in the series circuit + The reading on an ammeter will be identical no matter where its placed in the circuit. Current in a Parallel Circuit + Ina parallel circuit, components are connected side by side, providing alternative paths for current flow. + The total current s the sum of the currents through ‘each branch + Ifthe total current from the source is (Jp), and the ‘current through each branch is Ii, 12 and Js then Io ht+htl cia 1 Series Circuit Potential Difference (p.J.) in Series and Parallel Circuits + Ina series cicult, the total potential difference across the components isthe sum of the individual potential differences: Vy = Vi + Va + Vs + Ina parallel circuit, the potential cifterence across each ‘component isthe same as the potential diference across fone branch: Vacs exe teanch = Vo Cells, Batteries, and Electromotive Force (¢.7.f.) + Cells in series increase the total e-m. ofthe battery. For example, ito 1.5 V cells are connected in series thentheem.f=15V+15V=30V Resistors in Series + Ina series circuit, the total resistance (Ra) isthe sum of the individual resistances: Ry = Ry + Ry + Ry + Given resistors Ri, Ra, and Rs the total votage(V) across thems: V = Ix R Worked ExampleCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS + For a 4.5 V battery across resistors of 3 92,4 and 5 in + Combined resistance: Ro = Ry + Ra + Rye 3.2440. +5120 + Current: T= ¥ = 48% =0375 4 + ped across 4 Wresistor Vp =I x Ry= 0375 Ax 40 45V Resistors in Parallel ‘+ The combined resistance (Ry) of resistors in parallels givenby hehehe gd, + Two resistors Ri and Ry have resistance of k= 4 Rg = ext ne Properties of Parallel Circuits 1. The current from the source is greater than the ‘current in each branch, 2. The combined resistance of parallel resistors s less than that of any individual resistor. 45. Applications of electric circuits Increase in Resistance of a Conductor ‘+ Inmetals, current is carried by free electrons. AS the temperature of the metal increases: ‘+The atoms vibrate more, making it harder for electrons tomove, ‘+ This results in an increase in resistance, From Ohm's Law V = IR, ifresistance (R) increases while ‘maintaining a constant current(Z), the potential difference { V) across the conductor also increases. Variable Potential Divider + Ina thermistor, esistance decreases with increasing temperature + When its used in 2 potential divider circuit ‘+ As temperature rises, the thermistor's resistance decreases, ‘+ This lowers che combined resistance ofthe wo resistors, increasing the current ifthe supply vokage remains constant. ‘+ The potential ifference across the fixed resistor Increases relative to that across the thermistor. + Avariable resistor can also act as a potential divider by ‘adjusting the position ofthe contact, changing the ‘output potential difference, Potential Divider For two resistors Ry and I in series with a supply voltage (vy: ae + The total current (J) is given by: I = 54 Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+ ANLOR’ resistance decreases with increasing ight incensiy. ‘+ In circuit, as light intensity increases: + The LDR’ resistance decreases, allowing more current to low. ‘+ This increase in current can light lamp or cause other actions. Ve G ~ © ‘Sal oR Famene ub Thermistor + Athermistor’s resistance decreases significantly with temperature increase, + Ina series circuit with a thermistor: ‘+ As temperature rises, its resistance drops, decreasing, the potential difference across it. + This causes an increase In voltage across a serles resistor, which can trigger a relay or alarm. V2 Mi v YD rare + Thermistor L{ cooling Fan HY Relays + Arelay allows a small current to control a larger current ‘needed to operate an appliance + Ina switching circuit ‘ifthe switching crcult output is high, a small current flows through the relay, closing the mains switch ‘+ This isolates the low voltage circuit from the high ‘voltage mains supply, Light-Emitting Diode (LED) + An LED emits light when forward-blased (cathode ‘connected to the negative terminal ‘+ Reverse bias anode connected to the negative terminal does not emit ight and can damage the LED ifthe reverse voltage exceeds 5 V. + Asuitable resistor Reg. 300 9 ona 5 V supplyhis, needed to limit the current Semiconductor Diode + Adiode allows current to pass in only one direction: ‘+ Forward-biased: current flows when the anode is connected to the positive terminal and the cathode tothe negative terminal + Reverse-biased: the diode does not conduct and has high resistance. 46, Electrical safety Dangers of ElectricityCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+ Damaged Insulation: Exposes wires, increasing shock and fre risk, + Overheated Cables: Can lead to fire. ‘+ Damp Conditions: Increase shock severity due to reduced resistance. ++ Excess Current: From overloaded plugs, extension leads, and mutkple sockets, + Electric Shock: Current flaws from an electri circuit through a person's body to earth * Dry Skin: Resistance ~10,000 0 and current around 24 mA {tis safe). + Wet Skin: Resistance ~1,000 9 and current ~240 mA, (can be deadly. + Larger currents are more dangerous. + Longer exposure increases risk. Reducing Risk + Turn off power before repairs ‘Use earth pin and cord grips. + Keep appliances dry and away from water. Avoid traling cables and damage, especially with cutting tools First Aid for Electric Shock ‘Switch off che power ifthe person i stil in contact with the equipment. + Call for medical assistance, Causes of fires ‘+ Flammable materials near hot appliances or wiring. ‘+ Overheated wiring produces excessive current and can) lead to fire. + Preventive Measures: ‘+ Match fuse rating to appliance. + Do not overload sockets or use too many adapters. + Use thick wires for high-power appliances, House Circuits *+ Live and Neutral Wires: Both supply electricity and the neutral is earthed, ‘+ Earth Wire: Provides safety by connecting metal cases to earth, Eartaviice ve Wire Neves! Wire Fuse ceblesre Switches and Fuses + Switches and fuses are in the live wire to prevent shocks ‘Fuse breaks the circut ifthe current exceeds safe levels. Circuit Breakers * Electromagnetism breaks the circuit when current ‘exceeds a preset level + Advantages: Faster operation and can be reset. Earthing + Prevents shock by providing a path for fault currents. + Earth pin connects appliance metal cases to earth, preventing them from becoming lve. Double Insulation + Appliances with two layers of insulation don't need an ‘earth wire. 47. Electromagnetic induction + Process of generating electricity from a changing magnetic field. Electromagnetic Induction ExperimentsCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS + Straight Wire and U-shaped Magnet ‘+ Wire held still between magnet pole leads to no induced current. ‘+ Moving wire vertcaly (up or down) between poles Induces current because of changing magnetic fux (cutting magnetic feld lines) ‘+ Upward movement: current flows in one direction. + Downward movement: current flows in the opposite direction. ‘+ Deflection on meter is temporary and occurs only while wire is moving, oO Bar Magnet and Coil (solenoid) + Inserting magnet into coil (solenoid) induces current in ‘one direction, ‘+ Asolenoid is a col of wire wound in 8 helical shape that generates a magnetic eld when an electric current passes through tt. + Removing magnet from solenoid induces current in che ‘opposite direction, ‘+ No current is induced when magnet is stationary inside solenoid. + Current direction reverses with the direction of magnet movement. ‘+ This also works ifthe solenoid is moved instead of the magnet. Factors Affecting Induced e.r.f. + Faster movement of magnet or coil increases induced ems. + More turns in the call ncrease the induced e.m¥. + Stronger magnets increase the induced ems. + e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate at which the ‘conductor cuts through magnetic field Ines. Direction of induced e.m.f. (Lena's Law) + Induced e.m.f. always opposes the change causing t + Ifamagnet approaches 3 col, the induced current ‘generates a magnetic field that opposes the motion. + Ifamagnetis withdrawn, the cols induced current ‘generates a fleld that attracts the magnet. ‘Magnetic FieldsCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS + Straight Wire: ‘+ When current flaws through a vertical wir, iron filings around it form circles ‘+ Meaning that around a straight wire, there are Wp). + Step-down transformer: fewer turns on secondary. ( Vv, < Vp. Worked Example + Atransformer steps down the mains supply from 230 to10v. + Tums ration ME = 2 = + Ifthe secondary has 80 tus, the primary has 8D x 2: 182 tums. Energy Losses ‘ttotuetar sean sry aeSAGCNSUNBEDSSeON SHAY HSL ON 2UE2S,Ra ae + FV s stepped up, current Is stepped down proportionally. ‘+ Ideal transformer (100% efficient: Ip Vp = I + T,ano I, are primary and secondary currents, + IFV is doubled, Fis halves. 5. Nuclear Physics 5.1. Nuclear model of the atom Current atomic model + Electrons orbit a positively charged nucleus, “+ Mostly empty space between the orbits and the nucleus, Scattering experiments by Ernest Rutherford + asparticles directed at thin gold foll + Observations of a-particles: Rutherford's nuclear model ‘+ Positive charge and most mass are concentrated in 2 smal, dense nucleus. ‘+ Electrons orbit the nucleus ata large distance away. ‘+ Nucleus and electrons occupy about one-milion- rmillonth ofthe atoms volume. The nucleus + The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrans, + Three basic particles in an atom include protons, neutrons, and electrons. ‘+ Proton = a hydrogen atom minus an electron charge +1, mass about 2000 times that of an electron, + Neutron: Uncharged and with a mass almost equal to that ofa proton, ‘+ Relative charges: Proto electron =-1. + Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus and are together called nucleons. 1 and neutro while /————aronoris 7 a ee FE * eer + Ina neutral atom the numberof protons equals the numberof electrons. + toric number (2): Number of protons inthe nucleus (t {aso equals the numberof electrons). + Mass number (A): Total numberof nucleons (protons + neutrons} the nucleus + Relationship: Number of neutrons= A ~ Z: + Nucide notation: Atom X is represented as 4X, where Alisthe nucleon number and Z isthe proton number + Relative charge: Product of proton number (Z) and the charge ofa proton, + Relative mass Total mass of neutrons and protons approximately A times the mass ofa proton. IsotopesCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS + Forms ofthe same element withthe same number of protons but diferent number of neurons. + Example: Chlorine has isotopes CT and #7C1 while Hydrogen has isotopes LH, deuterium 7H, and tisum in. Isotopes have identical chemical properties but diferent physical properties. Nuclides ‘+ Radioactive isotopes are called radioisotopes or radionuclides and have unstable nuclei. Nuclear Energy + Einstein's equation: = me2, where Bis energy, ms mass, andes the sped of ight. + Mass los in nuclear reactions results in energy release. + Nuclear reactions invoe large energy changes compared to other physical and chemical changes. ‘+ Uranium-235 is an isotope that undergoes fission when struck by neutrons, ‘+ Fission breaks the nucleus into smaller radioactive nucle, releasing additional neutrons and energy. ‘+ Mass loss is converted into kinetic energy of fission. products. ‘+ Neutrons from fission can trigger further fission reactions. Nuclear fusion ‘+ Nuclear Fusion is the joining of light nuclel to form a heavy nucleus and releases energy Nuclear Reactor + Reactors use controlled chain reactions to produce energy. + Control rods absorb neutrons to regulate the reaction, + Graphite moderates neutrons to slow down fission. Je + + energy i ™ “So 5.2. Types of Radioactivity ‘Natural Background Radiation Radiation sources incluae: + Cosmic rays (high-energy particles from the Sun) are mostly absorbed by the atmosphere, but some reach the Earth's surface. + Radon gas present in the air + Granite rocks in homes, particulary In Scatland, emit radioactive radon gas that can accumulate in poorly ventilated areas. ‘+ Radioactive potassium-s0 is present in food and absorbed by our bodies. + Various radioisotopes are used in medical procedures. + Radiation from nuclear power stations and fallout from nuclear bomb testing, lonising Effect of Radiation + The ability of radiation to make atoms lose or gain ‘electrons and become charged. + Accharged electroscope discharges when a lighted match ‘ora radium source s brought near the cap. Blectroscope Discharge: Neutral Atom —» Positive lon + Electron.CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+ Alighted match knocks electrons out of air molecules, creating postive fons. ‘+ Radiation causes fonisation by neutralising the charge on the electroscope. Ionisation: Neutral Atom + Electron ~+ Negative Ion Gelger-Maller (6M) Tube ‘+The lonising effect of radiation is used to detect radiation, ‘+ Radiation entering a GM tube creates argon ions and electrons, which then cause more jonisation. ‘Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation + Alpha Particles (a) + The nucleus with two protons and two neutrons + Stopped by thick paper; range Ina is 2 few centimetees +The high ionising power of alpha particles is due to their increased mass (compared to gamma and beta), s0it's more likely to ionise an atom + Defected by electri and magnetic elds. + Represented as helium ions with a double positve charge. + Beta Particles (3) + fastamoving electron + Stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium range in airis several metres. + Lower ionising power than alpha particles + Defected by electri and magnetic fel + Streams of highenergy electrons, + Gamma Radiation (7) + Electromagnetic radiation having high frequency + Most penetrating + Stopped only by many centimetres of lead + Leastionising power. + Not deflected by electric and magnetic feds + Hlectromagneti radiation RK ao . B s—— -e Paper Aluminium — Lead ‘pat [ait mao) | “2 | torpedoed [Heh aif | ian) | 1 SOSPEESE FORT aa comin eto: WF Rieaay ent Particle Tracks + Cloud chambers reveal the tracks of particles based on the fonisation they produce. ‘+ Alpha Particles: Straight, tick tracks. ta Particles: Thin, straight or twisted tracks. ‘+ Gamma Rays: Eject electrons which then produce tracks similar to 8 particles. Electric deflection +The positive alpha particles are heavier and slowly deflect towards the negative plate ‘+ The negative beta particles are lighter and quickly deflect towards the positive plate. + The neutral electromagnetic gamma radiation remains undeflected. =: y ‘Magnetic deflection tee eeseCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘Alpha particles follow the rule of positive conventional current. ‘+ Fleming's left-hand rule is used with the middle finger pointing in the direction of alpha particles. ‘+ Beta particles are shown in the direction opposite to the middle finger, as they represent electron flow, which is the opposite of conventional current. + Gamma radiation is not deflected. + + + teen a es ays mmageetie field ors + poe tt 7 5.3. Radioactive decay and half-life Radioactive Decay ‘+ Radioactive decay isthe emission of an a-particle or a particle from an unstable nucleus. ‘+ This changes the nucleus into that of a different element unt a stable element is formed, 1+ These changes are spontaneous and random, ‘Alpha Decay (a-decay) + An apartcl a helium nucleus with two protons and two neutrons + When an atom undergoes e-decay, its nucleon number decreases by 4 and ts proton number decreases by 2 + Example: When radium Ra) emits and alpha particle, it becomes radon (2°Rn). ‘+ The equation for this decay is: 2"Ra —»22 Rn +4 He Beta Decay (B-decay) + In Bedecay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron +The proton remains in the nucleus, while the electron i emitted as a Prparticle +The nucleon number stays the same, but the proton number increases by 1 + Example: Radioactive carbon {'C decays into ritrogen( HN) by Beemission +The equation for this decay is: +!" N+", € Gamma Emission (y-emission) + After a or B-decay, some nuclei are left in an excited or ‘energetic state. + Rearrangement of protons and neutrons releases energy in the form of y-emissions, ‘+ yrerissions are high-energy electromagnetic waves with rho mass or charge. ‘Nuclear stability + Stabity of nucleus depends onthe number of protons (Z)and neutrons (N). + Stable nucides fll within aspect stably level called the stability ine. + Forlightrucldes, N = Z + Forheaviernucies, N > Z. + Unstable nuckdes decay to move towards the stabilty tne + Nudes above the stability ne decay by Bemislon to decrease the rato + Nucides below he stability line decay by beta emission (G+) w increase the # rave. + Nuclei with more than 82 protons usually decay by Half-LifeCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS ‘+The half.ife of an isotope isthe time taken for half the nucle in a sample to decay, ‘+ Itis a measure of the rate at which a radioactive substance decays. ‘+ Each isotope has its own special hal-ife. ‘+ Itcan be from fractions ofa second to millions of years. + Adecay curve plots the activty of a sample overtime, showing the exponential decrease in activity 1+ The activity decreases by halfin each halflife period from the previous half-life period. ‘+ Example: If a sample's activity is 80 decays per second, it will reduce to 40 in one half-life, then to 20 in the next, and so on, + Radioactive decay is random and unpredictable; the ‘exact time when a particular nucleus will decay cannot, be determines, ‘+The overall decay rate of a sample follows a predictable pattern, called its hall-e, 5.4. Safety precautions Dangers of Nuclear Radi + Exposure to small doses of radiation is not damaging, butlarge doses are harmful to health + Nuclear radiation's ionising effect damages cells and tissues, it can lead to gene mutations. + Damage can cause cel death and cancers. + axpartices are less dangerous unless the source is. ingested or inhaled. ‘+ Be and y-radiation can cause radiation burns, eye cataracts, and cancer, + Radiation hazard signs warn ofthe presence of radioactive material ay Safety Precautions + Minimize exposure time to radiation, + Keep a large distance between the radiation source and individuals. + Use shielding materials that absorb radiation to protect people. + Inindustry, sources are handled with long tongs and transported in thick lead containers. + Workers are protected by lead and concrete walls and: wear radiation dose badges, + Radiation dose badges track the amount of radiation exposure over a period, typically one month. + The badge has windows that allow different types of radiation to expose photographic flm, indicating ‘exposure levels when developed 6. Space Physics 6.1. The Earth and the solar systemCAIE IGCSE PHYSICS Motion of the Earth ‘+The Earth spins on its axis, causing day and night. + One complete rotation takes 24 hours. ‘+ Day's for the half ofthe Earth facing the Sun and night for the half facing away. Rising and setting of the Sun ‘+ Earth's rotation causes the Sun to appear to move east towest daily. ‘Rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west at equinoxes. ‘+ Innorthern hemisphere summer, the Sun rises north of east and sets north of west. ‘+ Inwinter, rises and sets south of these points. The seasons ‘+ Caused by Earth's motion around the Sun (365 days) and, tik ofits axis Motion of the Moon ‘+ Moon isa satelite of Earth, orbiting approximately every month ‘+ Average distance from Earth is about 400,000 kn. ‘+ Revolves on its axis, always showing the same side t0 Earth ‘+ Reflects sunlight, has no atmosphere, weaker gravitational feld one-sixth of Earth) Phases of the Moon ‘+ Moon's appearance changes during its monthly orbit ‘+ New Moon: Moon between Sun and Earth, unit side faces Earth + Crescent appears and increases until the first quarter (half of the Moon visible) ‘+ Full Moon: Moon opposite Earth from the Sun, fully visible \Waning (where the moon's illumination decreases) phases follow, leading to the last quarter and old crescent vemos orbital speed + Average orbital speed: w= 252 + risthe average radius ofthe orbit + Tiisthe orbital period (time for one orit + The Moon travels na circular path around the Earth + istance traveled in one orbtis the circumference of the circle, Jer + Time taken for one orbit is T + Speeds distance civded by time so orbital speed is The Solar System + contains: ‘+ The sun asa star ‘= Eight planets in elliptical orbits (slightly oval orbits) ‘+ Dwarf planets and asteroids orbiting the Sun ‘+ Moons orbiting many planets + Smaller bodies Ike comets and natural satellites Inner Planets