Unit 4

Evolution
We can know about the ancient organisms by the study of their fossils. It is estimated that
very simple organisms originated first. The simple organisms developed into complex organisms.
The process of gradual and orderly changes in the organisms from simple to complex form is
called evolution. During evolution, advanced eukaryotic cell was originated from simple
prokaryotic cell. Multicellular plants and animals were developed from unicellular plants and
animals.

Evidences of evolution
a. Evidence from fossils or paleontological evidence
b. Evidence from comparative morphology and anatomy
i. Homologous and analogous organs
ii. Vestigial organs
c. Evidence from embryo or embryonic evidence
d. Evidence from bridge animals

a. Evidence from fossils

The traces or impressions of dead and decayed plants and animals preserved in
sedimentary rocks are called fossils. The study of fossils is called paleontology. The evidence
from fossils is taken as strong proof of evolution. Carbon dating and uranium dating are the
techniques used to determine the age of rocks and fossils.
Fossils are found in sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary rocks are layered. The fossils of
simple organisms are found at the lower layer and the fossils of complex organisms are found at
the upper layer of sedimentary rocks. It proves that complex organisms are developed from
simple organisms. In this way, evidence from fossils supports evolution.

b. Evidence from comparative morphology and anatomy

The study of external structure of organisms is called morphology and the study of
internal structure of organisms is called anatomy. The body structure of living beings is of their
own type. But, they have some common features. It implies that they are evolved from same
ancestor. The evidence from comparative body structure is as follows:
i. Homologous and analogous organs
ii. Vestigial organs

i. Homologous and analogous organs

The organs which have similar basic structure but different functions are called
homologous organs. Example: the forelimbs of whale, horse, man, bat, cat, bird, etc. The
forelimbs of them have the same type of bones like humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals
and phalanges. The forelimbs of birds and bat are used for flying and that of horse for running.
Similarly, forelimbs of humans are used for gripping things and performing different activities.
The organs which have different basic structure but same function are called analogous
organs. Example: wings of birds and insects. The wings of both of them are used for flying but
their structure is different.
 Study of homologous and analogous organs shows that birds, bats, humans and horses
evolved from one ancestral block while insects evolved from another ancestral block. In this
way, homologous and analogous organs provide support to evolution.

Fig. Homologous organs

ii. Vestigial organs

The organs which are present as reduced form and are functionless in the body are called
vestigial organs. Example: vermiform appendix, nictitating membrane, muscles of external ears,
hairs on the body, canine teeth, tail vertebrae, etc. in humans. Such organs are well developed
and well-functioning in lower organisms like cows, buffaloes, fishes, dogs, etc. It proves that
humans and such animals evolved from the same ancestor. In this way, vestigial organs provide
evidence of evolution.

Fig. Vestigial organs

c. Evidence from embryo or embryonic evidence

 The multicellular structure that is formed by developing zygote which gives rise to new
offspring is called embryo. The branch of biology which deals with the study of embryo is called
embryology.
When the embryos of different vertebrates like fish, salamander, tortoise, chicken, pig
and human are studied, it is seen that they are similar to one another in the early stages. It proves
that such animals evolved from the same ancestor and while growing, they differentiate into
different species of animals. In this way, evidence from embryo supports evolution.

Fig. Embryos

d. Evidence from bridge animals or connecting links

The animals which have the characteristics of two groups of animals are called bridge
animals. For example; platypus, protopterus, archaeopteryx, etc.
Platypus has the characteristics of birds and mammals. It has beak like in birds while
mammary glands and hairs on the body like in mammals. Protopterus has the characteristics of
fishes and amphibians. It has scales and fins like in fishes while lungs like in amphibians.
Archaeopteryx has the characteristics of reptiles and birds. It has wings and feathers like in birds
while teeth, long tail and claws like in reptiles.
By the study of bridge animals, it proves that one group of animals are originated from
another group of animals i.e. complex organisms are originated from simple organisms. In this
way, evidence from bridge animals supports evolution.

Fig. Platypus Fig. Protopterus Fig. Archaeopteryx

 Fig. Fossil of archaeopteryx

Theory of evolution
Many scientists contributed in the postulation of evolution. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck,
Alfred Russel Wallace, Charles Darwin and Hugo de Vries coined the various theory of
evolution. Among them, the theory of Lamarck, Charles Darwin and Hugo de Vries are discussed
here.

Lamarck’s theory or Lamarckism

Lamarck is a French naturalist who fist coined the theory of evolution. His theory was
published in the book ‘Philosophie Zoologique (1809). The Lamarck’s theory can be explained
in following three points:
1. Direct environmental effect
2. Use and disuse of organs
3. Inheritance of acquired characters
1. Direct environmental effect
According to Lamarck, the environment directly influences the modification of organs in
organisms. He believed that due to the changed environment, there is a new need for organisms
which brings modification of the organs. Such modifications create new organs. For example,
yaks and sheep found in the Himalayan region have thick fur due to the influence of extreme
cold climate.
2. Use and disuse of organs
The development of an organ is directly proportional to its use. Disuse of an organ leads
to the gradual weakening of that organ. A constant use and disuse of an organ leads to its
modification. The less used organs are reduced and untimely they get lost. For example;
wrestlers develop strong muscles of the arm due to its constant use, snakes have elongated bodies
with the loss of limbs due to constant creeping through holes, etc.
3. Inheritance of acquired characters
The characters obtained by an organism after the birth by direct environmental effect and
use and disuse of organs are called acquired characters. The acquired characters transfer from
one generation to another generation and after many generations, new species are originated.
Lamarck explained the elongation of neck of the giraffe on the sample principle.
According to him, long necked giraffes were originated from short necked giraffe. The ancestors
used to graze on land. When their number increased, grass was not enough for their food. Due to
 the scarcity of grasses, they started stretch their neck high up on trees. So, their neck started to
elongate and it transferred to next generation. Ultimately, the giraffes with a long neck appeared.

Fig. Elongation of neck of giraffe

Criticism of Lamarckism
1. Lamarck has not proved experimentally that use and disuse of organs can modify organisms.
2. It is absolutely incorrect that new organs can be developed as per need and wish of an organism.
3. All the acquired characters do not transfer from one generation to another generation.

Darwin’s theory or Darwinism

Charles Darwin, an English naturalist published a book ‘Origin of New Species’ in 1859 AD.
Darwin’s theory is also known as the Theory of natural selection, which can be explained in the
following points:
1. Enormous fertility
2. Struggle for existence
3. Variation and heredity
4. Natural selection
5. Origin of new species

1. Enormous fertility
Each organism has enormous power of reproduction. If all the offspring survive, it will
double in the next generation. The population of living beings tends to increase in geometric
ratio. For example, one couple of elephants can produce 1,900,000 (Nineteen lakhs) of offspring
in 750 years. But, it is found that the number of organisms remains constant in nature.

2. Struggle for existence

Every animal has to compete among themselves for food and shelter and it is called
struggle for existence. The struggle may be intraspecific i.e. among the individuals of same
species or interspecific i.e. among the individuals of different species. The successful animal in
the struggle can survive and unsuccessful animal will be extinct.

3. Variation and heredity

The difference in characters among the individuals of same species and also among the
parents and their offspring is called variation. The process of transfer of parental characters from
one generation to another generation is called heredity.
The variation takes place due to either environmental change or genetic reason. New
characters are acquired in living beings due to variation. The variations may or may not suit with
the environment. The suitable variations are transferred to the next generation.
4. Natural selection
The process of selection of living organisms by the nature by the presence of suitable
variations in them is called natural selection. Nature itself determines the organism that how and
why they survive. The organisms having suitable variations survive and those which do not have
such variations die.

5. Origin of new species

The characters of parents transfer to their offspring. After many generations, the
individuals become quite different from their ancestors and they evolve into new species.

Criticism of Darwinism
1. Darwinism does not describe the fact clearly that evolution of organisms occurs from the
variation.
2. It is not always the case that useful variations are selected.
3. Natural selection is not only the cause of forming new species because new species also arise
due to mutation.
4. Darwinism does not explain the vestigial organs.

Variation
Every organism shows differences from the other organisms of the same species as well
as from other species. The offspring of same parents are also different from each other and from
their parents. These changes occur due to environmental reason or genetic reason.
The morphological or physiological change in organisms due to either genetic or environmental
reason is called variation. It may be somatogenic or blastogenic.
The variation acquired by an organism due to the influence of the environment is called
somatogenic variation. It is not transferred from parents to offspring. Some examples are
development of muscle in an athelete, loss of leg of an individual in accident, etc.
The variation acquired by an organism due to change in genetic characters is called
blastogenic variation. It is transferred from parents to offspring. Some examples are colour of
skin, hair colour, eye colour, etc.
The variation also may be continuous or discontinuous. The gradual change in organisms
is called continuous variation. For example; skin colour, height, colour of hair, etc. The sudden
change in organisms is called discontinuous variation. For example; a baby with six fingers, a
cow with six legs, etc.

Mutation
The sudden chromosomal change by which new characters are developed in offspring is
called mutation. It is discontinuous variation in an organism. It occurs by the effects of radiation
and chemicals on chromosomes. Some examples are six fingers in one hand, cut lip baby, two
headed baby, a cow with six legs, a chicken with four legs, etc. The organism affected by
mutation is called mutant. The causative agent of mutation is called mutagen.

Hugo de Vries mutation theory

Hugo de Vries, a botanist from Netherland coined the theory of mutation in the beginning
of 20th century. He coineded the theory on the basis of the result obtained by the experiment on
evening prime rose plant (Oenothera lamarckiana). The theory of mutation can be explained in
the following points:
1. New species is originated from mutation.
2. The mutation is transferred to next generation.
3. The new characters appear in mutation are functional soon.
4. Mutation may be neutral, useful or harmful.
5. The harmful mutations may persist or get eliminated by the nature.
6. Mutation provides the base for evolution.

Criticism of Hugo de Vries mutation theory

1. Evening prime rose is a hybrid plant in which new characters are formed by crossing but not
by mutation.
2. This theory does not explain the role of nature in evolution.
3. This theory does not provide fixed direction to the evolution.
4. The characters that appear from mutation are generally recessive.
5. Most of mutations are negative.

-The End-