Extension Program Planning and Evaluation

Students’ Handout, 2006

By Mahdi Egie (M.Sc.)

Chapter one: Introduction

1.1. The Concept of Planning

The conviction that man can influence his activity by intervening in specific processes lead
him to the construction of planning theories and instruments. Because every segment, nook
and corner of every type of enterprise and environmental factor has been subjected to
planning to some degree. In this sense, planning means the preparation of purposeful
actions in daily activities of every individual. Furthermore, some authors defined planning
as follows:

Definition 1. Planning is a process by which managers’ set objectives, assess the future
and develop courses of actions to achieve those objectives (Boone and Kurtz,
1984 as reviewed by Terry and Franklin, 1991).

Definition 2. Planning is defined as selecting information and making assumptions

regarding the future to formulate activities necessary to achieve
organisational objectives in a profitable manner (Terry and Franklin, 1991).

Definition 3. Planning is a continuous process, which involves making decision about

alternative ways of using available resources with the aim of achieving a
particular objective in the future (Conyers and Hills, 1995 as reviewed by Terry
and Franklin, 1991).

Definition 4. Planning is thinking out and then working out in detail what has to be done
and how it has to be done (Davies, 1997).

In general, from the above definitions, we can understand that in the process of planning
not only selecting of information, making assumptions and setting objectives should be
performed but also a planner has to design how all the resources of the firm are effectively
integrated to accomplish those objectives in a profitable manner within specified period of

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time. It is composed of numerous decisions oriented to the future. It represents the
expenditure of thought and time now for an investment in the future.

In this regard, the concept of planning contains the following elements:

 Formulation of goals and specific objectives of an organisation and

determination of timetable for achieving them.

 Drawing plans indicating the activities and the resources required for the
implementation of the plan in order to realise the objectives of an organisation
in a profitable manner.

 Monitoring and evaluation of a plan to check and confirm whether events are
happening at the right time and the resources are used properly or not.

1.1.1. Types of Planning

As might be expected there are many types of plans in management. Because every
segment, nook and corner of every type of enterprise and environmental factor has been
subjected to planning to a certain extent. However, one common ingredient of all planning
the length of the planning period, which is partly a function of the particular enterprise’s
production cycle, sales fluctuation, stability of service pattern and desires of top managers.
In general, in management, with respect to time and scope of operations, we have two types
of planning:

A. Strategic Planning
B. Tactical Planning

Strategic Planning is defined as the process of determining the major objectives of an

organisation and then selecting the courses of actions and allocating of resources necessary
to achieve those objectives (Boone and Kurtz, 1984). It is a long range planning that focuses
on the organisation as a whole and provides the organisation with long-range direction.
Thus, managers consider the organisation as a total unit and ask them selves what an
organisation will be doing in the future (for the next 3 to five years) to attain organisational
objectives. Hence, in the process of strategic planning, managers should try to determine

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what their organisation should do to be successful at some point in the future. Since after
the accomplishment of the strategic planning process, for a manager, strategic plans can:

 assist in coping effectively with future contingencies because during preparation

of strategic planning, planners may employ each and every information available
to make assumptions about their environment in order to anticipate and plan the
methods to cope with the changing environment. Even though, planning does not
change the future, it certainly can change the future of an organisation by improving
the ability of the manager to respond contingencies more confidentially and
systematically; and
 provide an early opportunity to correct inevitable mistakes – because it
provides a means for the continual analysis of events and standards for actual
operations of an organisation. As a result, that a manager can simply identify the
presence or absence of deviations between the planned and the actual operations of
an organisation to achieve the specified objectives. If there is a deviation between
the planned and actual operation of an organisation, the managers have a
responsibility to take some actions to correct it before the occurrence of an adverse
situation on the organisation as a whole.

In general, strategic planning answers the questions: Where does the organization stand
and where does is want to go. This type of planning consists of the following steps:

1. Determining objectives that an organisation wishes to achieve in the future course

of actions. Example1: government objectives could to improve the quality of life, to
increase the job opportunity of the people, to increase farm income by 20%, etc.;

Example2: Objectives of Shoe factory could be to increase profit, to increase market

share etc;
Example3: Extension objective could be to improve the managerial skill of the farmers;
and
Example4: A health officer may have an objective to improve the health conditions of
the farmers, etc.

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2. Gathering and analysing information: to identify the relevance of the information
gained and the important source of information for quick access as well as the reliability
of information to assist in evaluating the feasibility of various objectives.

3. Assess environmental dimensions: that may have an impact on the success of a

project or a program. It includes competition of other enterprises, sociological and
political factors, etc. Because of the fact that the strength and weakness of an enterprise
are meaningful in relation to the external environment in which that enterprise operates.

4. Conducting resource identification and establishing strategic alternatives: the

amount of human, financial and physical resources should be estimated for different
activities and alternative strategies required in order to achieve the main and specific
objectives of an organisation should be established.

5. Making a strategic choice is the last step of strategic planning format and is probably
the most difficult of all because the ultimate basis upon which managers select a
particular strategy is the extent to which it meets top manager’s belief that it will in fact
accomplish the firms’ objectives. But this approach may reflect the interest of the
managers rather than organisational interests.

B. Tactical Planning: is a short-range planning that emphasises on the current and/or day
to day operations of various parts of the organisation. It gives more emphasis on how
the operations or activities of an organisation will be accomplished to achieve the
specified strategic objectives. Short-range period refers to a period of time extending
from about one year or less into the future. Managers use tactical planning to outline
what the various parts of the organisation should do for the organisation to be successful
at some point in the near future. Hence, in this type of planning the planner should try
to identify the major activities and resources required in achieving strategic objectives.
In general, this type of planning answers the question: how does the organization get
there? And/or how the organization achieves its objectives in the future?

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In this type of planning, the following tasks will be accomplished:

1. Determine the major tasks to be done at various parts of an organization to

achieve strategic objectives;
2. Establish who is responsible for what – it becomes obvious that to perform
certain tasks some units of the company should take responsibility for every
task;
3. Allocation of financial funds and time for each of the tasks to be performed.
Because a healthy financial position of an organisation may permit the
management to act with reasonable flexibility and the time constraint may also
limit the number of tasks to be done to achieve the determined objectives of an
organisation.
4. Set quantitative measurements for each task to be performed at various parts of
an organization – because some acceptable means of measuring
accomplishments must be included in every tactical plan and is important to
establish such measurement in advance. Devices to measure tasks may vary
depending on the nature of the action being measured.
5. Help in making decisions about the right things at the right time to adjust their
operations in changing environments; and
6. Focus on what actions to take in order to shape the future as desired - the
managers may select and organise their activities in order to meet their
objectives effectively.

Major Differences between Strategic and Tactical Planning

1. Strategic plans are usually developed by the upper-level management and tactical plans
are developed by the lower-level management. Because the upper-level managers have
a better understanding of the organisation as a whole than do the lower-level managers,
and since lower-level managers generally have a better understanding of the day-to-
day organisational operations than do the upper-level managers.

2. The facts on which to base strategic plans are usually more difficult to gather than the
facts on which to base tactical plans. Because strategic planning emphasises on

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 analysing the future and tactical planning emphasises on analysing the everyday
functioning of the organisation.

3. Strategic plans are based primarily on a prediction of the future and tactical plans on
known circumstances that exist within the organisation; strategic plans generally are
less detailed than tactical plans.

4. Strategic planning focuses on long term and tactical plan focuses on short term
operations of an enterprise so that strategic plans cover a relatively longer period of
time than tactical plans.

Major steps in Planning

1. Clarify the problem – visualise the problem clearly that requires some sort of solutions
and for which the planning is undertaken.

2. Obtain the information about the activities involved – knowledge of the activities
to be planned and their effect on other activities both internal and external to the
enterprise is necessary for intelligent planning. In this case, experience, past solutions
to the problems, practice of other organisations, observations, records and some other
secondary data are popular sources of information.

3. Analyse and clarify the information – each component of information is examined

separately and causal relationships among information revealed as well as the needed
data to planning at hand are examined.

4. Establish planning premises and constraints - from the information available about
the problem as well as beliefs deemed important in the determination of the plan,
certain assumptions regarding the future are being made to evolve the plan and the
constraints that may affect the implementation of the plan and its results will be
predicted.

5. Determine alternate plans – usually several alternate plans exist to achieve the work
to be done and the various possibilities involved in this steps. In this case, the following
questions may be considered:

- For each plan, what adjustments, if any, will be needed in the event it is adopted?
- Are cost, speed, and quality requirement satisfied?

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 - Will mechanisation expedite (speed up) the work?

6. Choose the proposed plan – the decision is now reached regarding which plan to
adopt. The plan’s expediency or suitability, adaptability and cost are important. In this
case, considerations contributing to the proper selection of the proposed plan include:

- flexibility of the plan to adjust to varying conditions;

- acceptability of the plan to the operating personnel;

- requirement of new equipment, space, personnel, training and supervising – As much

as possible the plans should be implemented by using some resources at hand
because of the fact that operation of the plan becomes easy as well as the cost of
operation becomes lower.

7. Arrange detailed sequences and timing for the proposed plan. The details of where
the planned action should be done, by whom and when are put in a proper order for the
intended purpose.

8. Provide progress check up to proposed plan – success of the plan is measured by

comparing the actual results with the established standards developed during the
planning process. Therefore, provision for adequate follow up to determine compliance
and results should be included in the planning work.

1.2. Benefits of Planning

There are numerous advantages of formal planning that should encourage all managers at
all levels of any organisation to give more time and to make more effort on this primal
management function. Among these advantages the following are the principal ones.

1. Makes for purposeful and orderly activities – planning helps to concentrate all
efforts towards the desired results. An effective sequence of efforts is accomplished
and thereby unproductive work can be minimised. In this case the usefulness of the
achievement is stressed.

2. Improves decision-making - Planning is a decision-making process and the decisions

that are made about the organisation’s objectives and the means to achieve them
provide the guidelines for making subsequent decisions.

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3. Answers “what if” questions – such answers permit a planner to see through a
complexity of variables that affect what action he or she decides to take. Planning helps
the managers to visualise future possibilities and to appraise key fields for possible
participation. Moreover, it helps the management to see the organisation’s problems
and opportunities in light of a dynamic external environment of changing markets,
technology and economic as well as social conditions.

4. Provides a basis for control – the twin of planning is controlling, which is performed
to make sure that the planning is bringing about the results sought. Because, by means
of planning, deadlines are determined for the start and completion of each activity and
standards of performance are set. These serve as basis for controlling.

5. Encourages achievement - the act of putting thoughts down on paper and evolving a
plan provides the planner with guidance and a drive. Spelling out desired results and
how to achieve them is a positive force to wards good management.

6. Increases the efficient utilisation of resources and facilities – planning reduces

random activities, overlapping efforts and some irrelevant actions. So, for any given
period of time the best use is made of what is available and activities become balanced
both in time and amount.

7. Assists managers in gaining status – proper planning helps a manager to provide

confident and aggressive leadership.

On the other hand, there are also some shortcomings of planning. These are

 Planning is limited by the accuracy of information and future facts – the

usefulness of the plan is affected by both the current and subsequent correctness
of the premises made, as manager cannot predict completely and accurately the
events of the future. If conditions under which the plan was formulated or must
be implemented change significantly from those assumed by the planner, in
such conditions, much of the value of the plan may be lost.

 Planning costs too much – some argue that the cost of planning work exceeds
its actual contribution. They believe that the money could better be used in
actually performing the physical work to be done rather than planning.

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  Planning has psychological barriers - people have more regard for the present
than for the future because the present is more desirable and certain for them
than the future. Thus, some feel that if planning is soft –pedalled or flexible the
changes and the possible danger of the future will be minimised. But, this
feeling or approach may not always hold.

 Planning, sometimes, may contribute for delay of some sudden and urgent
actions that may have a negative impact on the performance of an enterprise.

 Planning stifles initiative – because planning forces the manager into a rigid
mode of executing their work and these rigidities may tend to make the
managerial work more difficult than it needed to be. So, instead of helping,
planning may hinder the manager from their managerial work and thereby affect
the effectiveness of managers as well as the whole performance of the
organisation.

It is, however, observed that the advantages of planning out weigh its shortcomings.

1.3. Planning as a function of management

Extension management involves taking resources that an organisation has at its disposal
and combining and co-ordinating them in such a way that goals are attained. Hence
extension managers, like the managers of any organisation, have responsibility for efficient
and effective use of the scarce amount of human, financial and physical resources.

Thus, extension managers must perform the following functions to effectively discharge
their responsibility:

Planning – is one of the management functions. It involves selecting organizational

objectives and future course of actions for the accomplishment of the
selected objectives in a given period of time. This means that, an extension
manager should set organizational objectives and then outline how, when
and who should perform the tasks to attain the selected objectives and
establish standards of performance for the activities to be done in the
implementation process of the program.

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Organizing – dividing jobs or tasks developed during planning among groups and
individuals and coordinating group and individual activities. So that the
output of individuals contributes to the success of groups, which in turn
contributes to the success of an organization.

Leading – inducing or persuading individuals and groups to assist willingly and

harmoniously in accomplishing organizational objectives.

Controlling – Assuring the efficient achievements of organizational objectives by

comparing the observed performance against the established standards and
encouraging success and correcting shortcomings.

Therefore, planning is the primary function of management and consists of all those
decisions about objectives and how those objectives will be achieved. Effective managers
plan before taking action rather than commit themselves to vaguely conceived objectives
and hope for the best.

1.4. Meaning and Principles of Extension Program Planning

1.4.1. Meaning of extension program planning

Extension programmes are the basis of extension teaching and are the means by which
the extension service seeks to accomplish its purpose. Results in extension are dependent
on the quality of the program and the quality is implied by the methods used in
developing the program.

To understand the meaning of extension program planning certain concepts of extension

program and extension planning need to be understood.

a. Extension program

The word “program” has several meanings in the dictionary and it means a prospectus, a
list of events, a plan of procedure, a course of action prepared beforehand or a logical
framework to be performed in solving a problem. In this sense, program helps to answer
the question “What is to be done?”.

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But when it is preceded by the word “extension” the word program added several
implications and called as extension program and answers the questions “What is to be
done? Why it is to be done? and To whom it is to be done? In this sense, extension
program should not only indicate the activities to be done with in the given period of time
but also the reasons why these activities should be performed in an area in a given period
of time.

According to USDA (1956) extension programme includes a statement of:

- The situation in which the people are located;

- The problems that are a part of the local situation;
- The objectives of the local people in relation to those problems; and
- The recommendations or solutions to reach these objectives.

Moreover, Lawrence (1962) said that an extension program is a sum total of activities and
undertakings of a country and includes:

- a program planning process i.e. analysing situations, identifying problems and its
priorities as well as setting objectives to solve them;
- a written program statements about the situations, problems and the possible
solution of the problems;
- a plan of work – refers to an outline of actions to be taken to solve problems and
helps to answer how, where, when and by whom the actions to be taken;
- program execution – refers the implementation phase of the program;
- monitoring of results and evaluation of the program.

Thus extension program is defined as a written statement of situation, objectives, problems

and solutions which, has been prepared on the basis of an adequate and systematic planning
effort that forms the basis in the implementation of the program to solve specific problems
in a specific area.

b. Extension planning

As we have discussed before, planning is defined as a process of:

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  selecting information that helps us to analyse the situations and making assumptions
about the external and internal factors that may have negative and positive impacts
on the success of an organisation;
 identifying and prioritising problems that an organisation and/or people have;
 setting objectives to solve them;
 determining the actions to be taken and resources required to accomplish the tasks
effectively and thereby to meet the objectives of an organisation; and
 designing methods to check the progress of an organisation in line with achieving
its objectives.

Extension philosophy strongly stress the importance of extending scientific and

technological know-how that will help people to solve their problems. This fact dictates
that, some sort of priorities should be set on the problems, objectives and the allocation of
resources so that optimum aid in terms of kind or idea can be provided to help people to
solve their problems and to achieve the overall objectives of the people in the given area.
This is because extension organisation cannot and should not solve all the available
problems within a short period of time. This concept leads us to the concept and
requirement of planning. Moreover, the word extension also dictates the involvement of
people in the process of planning.

Thus, based on the above idea, extension planning can be defined as a conscious inter-
actional process involving extension agents, subject matter specialists and people in
identifying problems, setting objectives and extending scientific and technological know-
how or solutions for the identified problems of the people in a given area.

From the above definitions of extension program and extension planning, we can
consider extension program planning as

♣ A process through which representatives of the people are involved with the
extension agents and other subject matter specialists in:
 analysing the situations;
 identifying the problems and opportunities to solve them;
 making decisions about the priorities of the problems and its possible
solutions; and

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  selecting objectives and solutions to solve the problems.

♣ A decision making process where by people in a given area plan their extension
program with the help of extension agents and subject matter specialists in
identifying and prioritising problems as well as the possible solutions of the
problems.

♣ An organised and purposeful process initiated by an agent to involve a particular

group of people in the process of studying their needs, interests and problems as
well as deciding upon actions to be taken to change the situation of the people in
the desired ways and making commitments regarding the responsibilities of the
participants.

Therefore, extension programme planning can be defined as a procedure of working with

people in an effort to recognise unsatisfactory situations or problems and to determine
possible solutions or objectives and goals. It is a carefully designed and conscious effort of
an extension agent to meet the needs, interests and wants of the people for whom the
programme is intended.

Thus, to fulfil the definitions of extension program planning, in the preparation of an

extension programme we have to have some key information about:

 Existing economic, social, cultural and natural conditions of an area;

 What types of problems people have?
 How can these problems be identified?
 What should be done to solve these problems?
 What types and amounts of resources required to implement the program and
thereby to solve the problem?
 When, where and by whom the actions should be taken? and
 How should these resources be organised to solve the problems of the people?

This helps us to know the existing feeling and problems of the people as well as the
objectives of the people in relation to the problems they have. So that we may better judge
on what to do and how to do it? And this gives meaning and system to action as well as
prepares the basis for a course of future action.

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1.4.2. Principles of Extension Programme Planning

1. It is based on an analysis of facts of the situation- facts about the local situations and
others affecting the program are the foundation upon which planners should build to
carry out an effective program. Because these facts can reflect the needs and desires of
the local people as well as social, economic and other situation of the target area as a
whole. They show not only what people think and need but also what is best for them.
Thus, extension program usually drawn based on the results of the situation analysis of
the target area to identify problems and its causes, as well as to choose the possible
solutions of the problems rather than simply imposing ideas or technologies on the
people and/or area with out the complete knowledge of the environment. As some
researchers argue that there is no greater mistake than to assume that technical know-
how alone will solve the problems of the people (Burner and Young, 1949 as reviewed
by Davis, 1997).

2. It selects problems based on the needs and interests of the local people: In the
planning of an extension program, the planner prioritise the problems to be solved
based on the results of the situation analysis that reflects the interest and needs of the
target people as well as the severity of the problem as indicated by the local people
themselves. Because, it is believed that, this approach may positively contribute for
the success of an extension organisation as well as for the sustainability of an extension
project outcomes.

3. It defines objectives and solution, which offer satisfaction for the rural people: In
the planning processes of an extension program, the general and specific objectives of
an organisation and solutions will be identified based on the results of situation analysis
and interest of the people to solve the selected problems of the target people. This
approach may help to increase the involvement of local people in the planning,
implementation and evaluation processes of the program. This in turn helps to share
responsibilities with local people as well as to offer satisfaction for rural people on
achievement of an organisational objective. This may increase the chance of success of

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 an extension organisation in achieving its objectives and thereby offering the
satisfaction of the local people with its achievements.

4. It has performance with flexibility: It means that during planning of an extension

program, usually, the planners leave a room for the changing circumstances that may
occur in the implementation process of the plan or program. Thus, extension managers
relatively have a responsibility and freedom to act depending on the situations provided
that the main and specific objectives of the organisation should be meet successfully.

5. It has a definite plan of work: During extension program planning, the outline of
actions to be taken should be clearly described by the planner to indicate where, how,
when and by whom the actions or tasks will be performed to achieve organisational
objectives. Because of the fact that an extension program plan is not only used at the
planning stage but also used in implementation as well as post implementation of a
program as a guide and a check that the planned activities are proceeding as required
or not.

6. It involves local people and their institutions: It is believed that, the participation of
local people and their institutions in extension program planning, implementation and
evaluation of extension programs play a decisive role for the successful
accomplishment of the program as well as for the sustainability of the results of the
program. Because they
- provide information which is necessary for planning and implementation of an
effective extension program;
- have information which can improve the program;
- will be more motivated to co-operate in the extension program and play crucial role
for the sustainability of the outcomes of the program, if they feel that, they share
responsibility for it.

7. It provides bases for evaluation of results: because by means of extension program

planning, the amount and types of resource required will be determined, deadlines
should be determined for the start and completion of each task to be performed to

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 achieve the main and specific objectives of an extension organisation and at the same
time, standards of performance are set. Thus, this process provides basis for evaluation
of results of an organisation.

8. It is an educational, a continuous and co-ordinating processes:

It is educational process, because extension program planning involves local people in the
process of analysing and identifying problems and its possible solutions, implementation
and evaluation of the program. With this process the local people may learn how to identify
and prioritise their problems as well as set objectives to solve them in their future life.

It is a continuous process since the extension program planning is considered as an

educational process and education is seen as a continuous process, it should be logical to
say program planning is a continuous process.

It is a co-ordinating process because in the preparation as well as in the implementation

process of the program requires the involvement and the co-operation of the local people
and their institutions. Thus, it co-ordinates the effort of all involved people in process of
planning, implementation and evaluation of the program.

References

1. Harmut, et.al. (1984): Agricultural Extension: Basic Concepts and Methods.

Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
2. Sanduh, A.S. (1994): Extension Program Planning. Oxford and IBH publishing
Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, Calcutta, India.
3. Davies, A. (1997): Managing for a Change: How to Run Community
Development Projects. Intermediate Technology Publications, London WCIB
4HH, UK

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 Chapter two: Collecting Information for Extension Programme
Planning, Monitoring & Evaluation
When we are working in a development sector, whatever our field would be, we need
information in order to plan what we want to do. Besides the information, which we can
get from our technical background and training, or our experience, we should also have
information about the socio-economic and other situations of an area where we are working
in.

Furthermore, there is a good deal of information that an extension programme planners or

agents may need about the people in a given area, i.e. their farming systems, natural
resources, social structures, local cultures, education level of the households, etc. that may
help them to have good understanding of the situation of the people and to draw a good
and successful extension program. This information can be collected from secondary and
primary sources. But the basic questions which extension agents have to asked themselves
when they are deciding on their information needs are as follows:

 What information is already available? This helps them for evaluation of

information already obtained from secondary sources and from their experience since
it provides background information about the people and/or area.
 What we do not know about the area where an extension program is intended to
be planned? This helps them to identify the information required to plan effective and
successful program.
 How can this unknown information be found? This may help them to design the
methods of data collection.
 How much is it going to cost? Because it is also important to know the rough
estimation of cost of data collection including transport and other related costs to fix
the sample size to conduct a survey. And
 How long is it going to take? Since the agents should collect the required information
within a given period of time.

These points are also basic concepts for situation analysis to identify the gaps between what
is happening and what should have happen.

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2.1. Acquisition and Evaluation of Secondary Data

The information gathered from secondary sources are called secondary data and help us
to acquire some background information about the target population and/or area.
Secondary data refer to a background information that comprises all data already available
in published or unpublished forms and could help to describe various aspects of target
groups. The sources of these information or data could be Maps, Photographs, senesces
reports, previous research reports, official reports, research reports from universities and
other organisations and some verbal information from people who live and work for long
period of time in a given target area.

In general, the purposes of collecting secondary data are:

 to review existing information on the physical, social, economical and political

conditions of the area;
 to identify the gaps in existing information; i.e. to identify the type and amount of
information required and to be collected to plan an effective extension program;
 to identify the existing gap between what is happening and what should have
happened or to predict the possible constraints and under utilised opportunities;
 to save time and money that can be expend in looking for information that is
already available; and
 to define the preliminary domain of the research or the programme planning.

However, there are some preconditions in using secondary data. These include:

- accuracy of the data;

- reliability of the data for the project to be planned;
- adequacy of the data for the project to be planned and
- whether the data is recent.

But, the method to check these preconditions from published and unpublished documents
is not clear so far. Thus, most of the users of secondary data prefer to use them as a
background information as well as a supplementary information for their primary data
rather than using them for analytical and program planning purposes.

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2.2. Collecting Primary Data

Primary data is the data that can be collected directly from the target groups and used to
meet the objectives of the extension program and can be collected by using different
methods of data collection. Among these methods

a. Participatory rural appraisal and

b. Non-participatory methods are the main ones.
- Interviewing Key Informants
- Conducting group interviews
- Structured survey method
In the non-participatory methods people are involved in the process of data collection and
planning of an extension program only as a source of information but the other activities
such as compilation and analysis of the collected information, etc. can be done by the team
or the planners.

2.2.1 PRA- What is participatory rural appraisal?

Theoretical concepts:

Background

In the 1950s and 1960s, it was widely believed that all it took to improve the economic
situation of developing countries was financial inputs and modern technology. Thus,
development efforts had tended to concentrate on creating infrastructures and financial
institutions as well as creating of new technologies to transfer them from developed to
developing nations. In the 1970s, however, it became clear that the transfer of technology
model did not solve the problems of most people in developing countries. Because, even
though much has been achieved in terms of raising production and diffusion of
technologies, there was a general dissatisfaction with the way in which these benefits to be
distributed. As a result, the model failed to bring a real impact on the living conditions of
the large part of the people in developing countries. Thus, some people argue that, the
system as a whole has to be understood in order to identify the real problems of developing
countries to help them to bring desired changes.

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Consequently, this encouraged development workers and researchers to spend more time
and resources on understanding the social, economic and cultural context of development.
In doing so, they began to understand the complex relation ships between environment,
economy, culture, and politics in rural societies of developing countries. And they also
became increasingly aware of the fact that the fundamental problems of developing
countries (that is poverty, marginalization and distributional imbalances) that caused
underdevelopment could not be addressed simply by introducing modern institutional
structures and proposing technical improvements (which were not alien to local
environment, cultures and social structures).

Thus, new research techniques were developed to achieve a better understanding of the
complexity of rapidly changing and uncertain societies of developing countries. One of
these new research methods was Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), that emerged in the late
1970s as an alternative approach to conventional sample survey (FAO, 1984).

RRA is, even though it is difficult to give precise definition, a tool which can be used in a
lot of different situations to achieve different objectives and it consists of a set of guidelines
which help people to work in a structured but flexible way in rural communities.

However, RRA had the following features:

- It usually involves collecting information by talking directly to people.

- It uses a set of guidelines on how to approach the collection of

information, learning from that information and the involvement of local
people in its interpretation and presentation.

- It uses a set of tools (such as secondary data review, workshops, ranking

and classification techniques, community meetings, diagrams and
mapping techniques), which can be used to help the people in carrying out
data collection, interpretation, encourage discussion and present findings
in a clear and concise way which can be understood by a wide range of
people.

20
Hence, this approach was a better way for outsiders to learn from local people and to
understand the real situation of the local environment than it was for the people who have
information to offer with TOT (transfer of technology) model. However, it has some
strengths and weaknesses.

Strengths of RRA approaches:

 The approach is responsive and flexible to new learning and conditions of the
environment

 Achieves a complex understanding of processes and dynamics and connection

between different disciplines, activities and sets of conditions.

 The analysis and interpretation of findings is carried out during the appraisal at spot
and providing opportunities for crosschecking.

The weaknesses of the approach are

 The findings may not be statistically sound.

 Risk that the information gathered by the RRA may not be representative because of
the fact that, mostly samples are chosen purposively rather than randomly.

 It is very dependent on the skills of the people carrying it out and having the right
combination of experience and viewpoints on the team.

 The participation of the local people in the planning and decision making process is
very minimal.

As a result, in the 1980s attempts were made to make RRA more participatory, thus,
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) was developed as a new form of RRA and PRA uses
similar guidelines and tools of RRA but it focuses on the stimulation of participation by
the local people. So that specific techniques are used to encourage the involvement of the
local people to play a leading role in appraising conditions and identifying possible
solutions. Means that, in this approach the local people are involved not only as a source
of information but also in the analysis, planning, implementation and evaluation of
programs.

21
Thus, PRA is considered as a way of learning from, and with community members to
investigate, analyse and evaluate constraints and opportunities, and to make timely and
informed decisions regarding development projects. So, it is a method for:

- general analysis of specific topic or problem of the local people;

- need assessment to identify and prioritise problems and program objectives;
- feasibility studies to analyse the possible negative and positive impacts of the
program in the local area; and
- project monitoring and evaluation.

However, its purpose is more to gain an understanding of the complexities of the variables
in question rather than to gather highly accurate statistical data about the variables. In this
case, understanding qualitative differences is as important as finding general averages
means that PRA is more interested in variability of situations than an average situation.
This method is applied most effectively in relatively homogenous rural communities,
which share common knowledge, belief and values. Its relatively short duration and low
cost of data collection make it possible to carry out a series of PRAs rather than having to
rely on the results of one large survey.

Therefore, PRA is based on shared knowledge and flexible yet structured analysis. It is
applied in the field by a multidisciplinary team working closely with local people and it is
designed to quickly generate new and general information and understanding about local
conditions and livelihoods. It requires:

- Participation of rural people

- Respect for community members
- Interest in what the community know, said, show and do
- Listening not lecturing
- Methods, which empower community members to express, share, analyse and
enhance their knowledge.

PRA can be used as one of the method of primary data collection that encourages the
involvement of local people to play a leading role in reflecting the existing problems
and identifying possible solutions. In this method of data collection local people are

22
 involved not only as a source of information but also in the analysis, planning,
implementation as well as evaluation of extension program.

However, this method of data collection is more relevant to gain general understanding of
the complexities of the situation rather than to gather highly accurate statistical data and/or
specific and detail information about specific topic.

Generally, this method of data collection is applied

- in the field by a multidisciplinary team working closely with the local

people;
- to quickly generate new and general information about the local
conditions; and
- most effectively, in relatively homogeneous communities which share
common belief, knowledge and culture.

FEATURES OF PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL

The main features of Participatory Rural Appraisal are:

1. TRIANGULATION-is a form of cross checking. Accuracy is achieved through diverse

information and different kinds of course of information, not statistical reliability. If
you can introduce two, three or four different points of view into your analysis, you
will begin to get a more complete and accurate picture of the situation you are
trying to understand. This can be done by using:

 a team made up of people with different skills, experience and viewpoints, gender;
Multidisciplinary

Team
Insiders/outsiders
Men/Women

 different tools and techniques for collecting and analysing information, and

Interviews and
Discussion

23
 Tools/
Techniques
Observation
Diagram
 collecting information from different sources.

Events or Processes

Sources of
information

People Places

2. Multidisciplinary team – The members of the PRA team should have different skills
and backgrounds. The different view-point of team members will complement each
other and will provide more comprehensive picture of the subject. All members of
the PRA team are involved in all aspects of the study design, data collection and
analysis since PRA is a learning experience in which the participants also learn from
each other.

3. Mix of techniques- the PRA techniques are taken from wide range of possible tools that
are tailored to the specific requirements of the study.

4. Flexibility and informality- plans and research methods are semi-structured and are
revised, adapted and modified as the PRA fieldwork proceeds.

5. Participation of the community – The team should be able to see their lives and their
problems through the eyes of the community members. Most of the activities are done
jointly with the community members. PRAs are generally too short to outsiders to
become insiders, therefore, it is important to have community members (insiders)
participation in the appraisal to facilitate interpretation, understanding and analysis of
the collected data.

24
6. Optimal ignorance and appropriate imprecision – The PRA team avoids the
unnecessary detail, accuracy and over collection of data (as in sample survey) which
is not really needed for the purpose of the PRA

7. On The spot analysis – learning takes place in the field and the analysis of the
information gathered is an integral part of fieldwork itself. The team constantly
reviews and analyses its findings at spot in order to determine in which direction to
proceed. It builds up understanding and narrows the focus of the PRA as it
accumulates knowledge.

8. Offsetting biases and being self-critical – The PRA Team actively seeks out the poorest
and other disadvantaged groups in remote areas, during the worst time of the year, at
any time of the day and avoids talking only the well-off and better-educated
personnel. The team also has to be careful to analyse its own biases in order to prevent
the PRA from turning into development tourism and collecting of rumours. The team
reflects what it is said, observed and but not the sources of errors and how they
influence the interpretation of the gathered information. The team must also try to
avoid value judgements about others.

Advantages of PRA

1. Genuine identification and prioritisation of problems of the target groups- It

allows local people to present their problems and their own priorities for improvement
to get them incorporated into development plans and programs to solve given problems
and improve living situation.

2. Share of management responsibilities – Because PRA encourages participation of

the local people and gives as much of the responsibilities for the management and
implementation of development activities to local people themselves. This helps to
improve the efficiency of the development work and the feeling of the local people with
respect to the activities and benefits of the development work.

25
3. Motivation and mobilisation of local people – participation in PRA by local people,
whether from NGOs or other agencies can greatly increase the motivation and level of
mobilisation in support of the program of which it is apart.

4. Forming better linkage between local people and development institutions – It may
assist to strengthen the linkage between local people, the extension agents and
development institutions concerned with rural development.

5. Use of local resources – where local people had more say in the planning of programs,
they are also more likely say something in the implementation processes of activities
which make full use of existing resources. This helps to decrease the level of reliance
of the program on outside inputs.

6. Make the program or project activities more sustainable – The combination of the
effects of the above advantages lead to more sustainable project or program activities
and its impacts. Which are less reliant on support from outside agencies and is
technically, environmentally and socially appropriate.

The benefits from participation can only be realised where the full implications of
participation for the development agencies which are taken into account and
accommodated as well as the institutions involved are willing to support the sort of long
term changes in social, political and institutional frame works which proper participation
and PRA can set in motion.

Disadvantages of PRA

1. Raising expectations, which cannot be realised – one of the most immediate and
frequently encountered risks in PRA is that it raises a complex set of expectations in
communities, which cannot be realised given the institutional, economical or political
contexts of the area. Because the development or extension agencies are not in a
position to do all what the community wants to have with in a specific period of time.

2. Proposal of program or project plans which participating agencies cannot

respond to – the program planned (i.e. the problems and the possible solutions
identified during the course of PRA) may not be simply implemented adequately by
the participating agencies. This may create some level of dissatisfaction of the local

26
 community and thereby some level of inconveniences among the local people and the
development agents.

3. Risk of “capture” of activities and/or benefits by the interests – by giving decision

making responsibilities to communities and leaving the identification and planning of
activities to them, there is also the real risk that particular elements in the communities
i.e. the more educated, the wealthiest and talkative people may find it easier to capture
the activities and monopolise benefits.

2.2.2 Non-participatory Methods of Data Collection

A. Interviewing of Key Informants

The key informant is an individual who is accessible, willing to talk and has great depth of
knowledge about the environmental, economic, social, cultural and other conditions of an
area. Key informants are not only community members but they may also be well informed
outsiders.

Interviewing of Key Informants is a method of primary data collection in a form of a

questioning characteristic or in the form of dialogue by the fact that an interviewer employs
verbal questioning as the principal technique of data collection. However, during
interviewing of key informants it is important to:

• realise that every informant has his own interest to promote in the process;
• be aware that some key informants may give misleading information so that it
is necessary to challenge unsatisfactory responses
• select or use old people since old people are very valuable sources of
information with respect to environmental changes.

But the truthfulness of the data in this method of data collection is highly influenced by:
- The willingness of the interviewee to provide the real information;
- The ability and effort of the respondent to remember the past events;
- The level of relationship of the enumerator with the respondents;
- The level of understanding of the interviewee for the questions asked by the
enumerator and
- The communication skill of the enumerator.

27
In general, this method of data collection has the following disadvantages:
a. It may be very expensive because the interviewer may spend a lot of time and money
to select the appropriate individual to be used as a key informant in the process of data
collection and to get the needed information; (before selection the interviewer should
know about the knowledge; economic and social status of individuals and after that he
should also ask the willingness of individuals to participate in the research process).
b. Generalisation may not be possible – because key informants are usually selected
purposively on the basis of their knowledge, economic as well as social status from the
general population. So that the idea of key informants may not reflect the idea of the
whole people and may not represent the whole community in the area.
c. Mostly it is difficult to generate quantitative data that can be summarised to provide
valid general estimates such as mean and standard deviations; etc.
d. The findings are susceptible to biases, which arises out of the recording and
remembering ability of the interviewers. Because, mostly an interviewer uses verbal
questioning technique of data collection, then he or she may try to record all of the
information after the completion of an interview process. So, there may be a chance of
failure to remember exactly what the key informant said. Thus, an interviewer may
write what he feels right and appropriate answer for the raised questions.

But, the advantage of interviewing of key informants is that very detailed information can
be gathered relatively within short period of time as compared to survey method of data
collection. Since the number of key informants to be interviewed is very less in number
as compared to the number of respondents to be selected for survey method of primary
data collection.

B. Conducting Group Interviews: is a method of data collection, which can be

conducted by one or more interviewers, with or without an interview guide and with
groups of varying size and composition. This method of data collection is useful to get
the collective wisdom or memory of a community. This fact is indicated by Rhoades

28
 (1982, p14 as reviewed by Mettrick, 1993) as “Interviews with group of people are
frequently more lively than with only one person”.

The participants are selected on the basis of some criteria, which may vary depending on
the objectives of the study but efforts should be made to include diverse participants by
classifying the target population on the basis of selected criteria relevant to the study and
then selecting participants from each category. The group of interviewee can be formed
from:

- different age groups such as youth, adults and old people;

- different sex composition such as male and female; and
- different occupation such as farmers, housewives, teachers, nurses etc.

It is realised that, group interviews have the advantage of reducing the imbalance of status
that often limits the effectiveness of the forum. Because, usually group interviews are
conducted by relatively small number of interviewers as compared to the number of
respondents and this helps:

• to encourage the community members to discuss about events confidentially;

• to change the dynamics of the interactions among the interviewee and interviewers.
Example. A group of interviewers meeting with a single interviewee has proven to be
least effective forum for effective dialogue than the single interviewer meeting with
a group of interviewees.

There are two types of group interviews. These are:

1. Community interviews (CIs) –To which all members of the community or villages are
invited for an interview. It is very useful for getting extremely quick, rough and factual
overview of an area.

 are conducted on the basis of an interview guide and take the form of public
meeting.
 only small amount of discussion points will be raised in the form of questions
by the interviewers and each participant is not expected to answer all the
questions individually.

29
In this case, an interdisciplinary teams rather than single interviewer is more effective for
data collection. Because, note taking is more accurate if all team members make notes and
compare their notes afterwards, and different disciplines will complement one another in
asking questions.

2. Focus group interviews (FGIs) – is conducted with a small number of participants

and it tends to focus on a limited range of topics. Its distinguishing feature is that
participants discuss ideas, issues, insights and experiences among themselves under the
guidance of the moderator (interviewer). Each member is free to comment, criticise or
elaborate on the views expressed by the previous speakers.

The participants are selected on the basis of some criteria, which vary depending on the
objectives of the study but efforts should be made to include diverse participants by
classifying the target population on the basis of selected criteria relevant to the study and
then selecting participants from each category.

Advantages of Group Interviews

a. Group interview enables the interviewer to gather the information in a rapid and
economical manner. One can interview five or more persons in an hour or two hours
where as to interview them individually might take two or three days. This may reduce
the time and money required to collect the needed information.

b. Group interview sometimes reduces individual inhabitation and thereby provides

information, which might not otherwise be revealed. In the group interview people feel
a sense of security in the group so that they are willing to share feelings, emotions and
concerns in-group, which they are reluctant to do in more private settings.

c. Information gathered by using group interviews is some times more accurate than
obtained in individual interviews because respondents are reluctant to give in accurate
answers in front of people in the group.

30
d. The group dynamics encourages people to respond to the ideas and comments of
others.
e. It permits a direct interaction between respondents and interviewers.
f. Group interviews lend themselves to an open ended and flexible approach since an
interviewer usually uses open-ended type of questions and some additional questions
can be raised from the idea of interviewees.

However, there are also some possible dangers of using group interview methods of data
collection. These are:

1. Forceful and talkative individuals may dominate the interviews. Because such
individuals normally believe that they talk about events on behalf of the others and
completely took over the discussion. But, these people may have their own interests
to promote and may not reflect the true views of other participants.

2. Many people may be reluctant to share their views on sensitive issues in public.
So that an apparent consensus may represent only the views of the dominant social
groups.

3. Group interviews are highly susceptible to interviewers’ biases, which can

undermine the reliability and validity of the responses because even though an
enumerator uses questionnaire he/she may give more attention for some questions and
answers that he or she feels important than others.

31
The similarity and/or difference between PRA and group interview methods
of data collection

PRA method

1. There is no specific topic of

discussion before the team goes Group interview method
1. The topics of the discussion are
to field.
identified by the interviewer before
2. People can be invited for
he or she goes to field.
discussion without any criteria.
2. The interviewer acts as a leader of the
3. The team acts as a facilitator
forum to discuss about given points.
of the discussion process.
3. Members of the group can be selected
4. The community discusses
based on a given criteria which is
conditions freely and frankly
suitable to the objectives of the
since the team does not act as a
interview.
boss.
4. The community may give misleading
5. It can be used to get general
information by considering the
information about general
enumerator as government official or
conditions in a very short period
a boss.
of time as compared to group
interview. 5. It can be used to get very detail
information about specific topics of
discussion

C. Survey Method of Data Collection – It is a method of interviewing people to collect

information in which a formal questionnaire is used as a principal technique to gather the
required information for the purpose of extension program planning.

In this method of data collection, usually, the sample of respondents can be selected by random
sampling techniques to represent a particular population in the given area. Of course the planner
can use also purposive or other sampling techniques to select his or her sample cases. Because,
it is believed that,

- producing large amounts of data about the whole population that would be processed and
analysed for a given purpose will be costly and time consuming exercise.

32
 - most of the users of the data to be collected may not need the data on each and every
elements of that population rather they want general idea about the population.

So that, the information will be gathered from only a sample of the population who are selected
through randomisation processes and are representative of a particular population. But the
sample size should be sufficiently large to allow valid statistical inferences to be drawn and to
ensure the representativeness of the samples for the particular population (Mettric, 1993).

This method of data collection is used to study wide range of subjects ranging from the
composition of the target population, to its reaction against a program, to its more general
attitudes towards the program and perceptions of changes in production activities as well as
standards of living.

For example, socio-economic survey is a survey of the target population used as source
of information for the appraisal of an extension program. This survey helps to get reliable
data on those economic and socio-cultural characteristics that a project or a program is
expected to affect in a given area and that can be used to measure the effects and impact
of a given extension projects during and after its implementation.

This method of data collection is conducted on the basis of questionnaire so that all
enumerators can ask the same question provided that:

- the questions should be short and precise;

- the question should be easy to understand by everyone; and
- the question should not embarrass or annoy the interviewee.

In this case the questions can be

a. Open-ended types that some space is left besides the questions so that the enumerators can
write down the respondents answer exactly as they said. But this can be a fairly time
consuming process and may be difficult to get information at the same degree of detail due
to the recording ability of the interviewer or the interest of the respondent to discuss about
the specific events in detail.

b. Multiple choice- questions, which has lists of possible answers already written down. Thus,
the enumerator can simply encircle the answer chosen by the respondents. This may help to

36
 get all answers at the same degree of detail and make it easy to record, check and tabulate
the answers of the respondents. But the types of questions chosen depend upon the topic and
the objective of the survey. For instance for a reconnaissance survey open –ended questions
are more appropriate than multiple choice questions and can bring to light important and
unforeseen elements, even though the answer may be more tedious and difficult to analyse.
Compilation of data, however, is more easier in the case of multiple choice or closed types
of questions than the open-ended questions.

Advantages of using this method of primary data collection are:

1. To gather very detail and reliable information on socio-economic aspects of a given area
such as the number of households and its composition, income and expense related
information, input-output related data, personal information of household heads; etc.

2. To collect qualitative and quantitative information that can be used to summarize about
the general events by providing valid general statistical estimates such as means,
standard deviations and others about the population.

However, there are also some limitations of using this method of data collection:

a. It may be very expensive because the number of people to be interviewed to get the needed
information since the planner alone cannot interview them there is a need to recruit and train
enumerators to collect the data. This may increase the time period required and cost of data
collection.

b. Collection of poor quality information because of:

- the biased approach and recording ability of the enumerator;

- misleading information given by the respondents themselves. Because of the fact that,
consciously, the sample cases may not want to tell the truth about a given event due to
inconveniences of interviewing time, place or other reasons.

37
References
1. Hal Mettric (1993): Development Oriented Research in Agriculture. ICRA,
Wageningen, The Netherlands.
2. Sarantakos, S. (1998): Social Research. Macmillan Press Ltd. London, UK.
3. Casely, D.J. and Kumar, K. (1988): Collection and Analysis of Monitoring and
Evaluation data. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London.
4. FAO (1996): Rapid Rural Appraisal, Participatory Rapid Appraisal and Aquaculture.
Rome.
5. FAO (1984): Agricultural Extension reference Manual. 2nd edition. Swanson, E.B. (ed.).
Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, Rome.
6. Van den Ban and Hawkins (1996): Agricultural Extension, 2nd Edition. Blackwell
Science Ltd., Australia
7. Whyte, W. F. (1991): Participatory Action Research. New Delhi, India.

38
Chapter three: Extension Programme Planning Method

As we discussed before in chapter one, Extension Program Planning is a procedure of working

with people in an effort to recognise unsatisfactory situations or problems and to determine the
possible solutions or objectives and goals. It is a conscious effort to meet the needs, interests
and wants of the people for whom the program is intended. And an extension program is usually
one of the policy instruments within a larger development program. Therefore, we need to
understand the whole program and especially the way in which other policy instruments are
combined with the extension program. As a rule sub-goals of the development program will
become the extension program goals.

Extension is not a haphazard activity but it needs careful planning. Hence extension managers,
like managers of any other business organisation, have to make decisions either by themselves
or jointly with others regarding:

- what the extension organisation should do;

- how the desired outcomes can be obtained:
- how the desired activities should be done; and
- when and by whom those activities should be done.

This may help them to identify and decide on:

- the target group they wish to help;

- the problems of the target groups they want to solve;
- the goals they are aiming at;
- the content of the extension message or the possible solutions of the problems;
- the methods to be used and how they will be used and
- the organisation of all activities.

To work on the above activities of an extension organisation, situation analysis that is the
analysis of problems, needs and opportunities of the target groups, is the first and most important
step in planning of good and successful extension program.

Thus, an extension program planning should be preceded by a field survey to analyse the
situations i.e. to identify the problems, their causes and devise acceptable solutions. The

39
outcome of the survey helps to develop a well-conceived agricultural development plan for the
area that will provide extension workers with a clear program to follow. However, the type and
amount of survey work required depends on:

- the cultural and social complexity and the size of the area;
- how much is already known about it;
- the extent to which similar areas have already been studied and
- the available fund for the survey.

3.1. Situation analysis

Situation analysis is defined as an effort to identify the problem or need gap or condition that
exists between “what is happening” and “what should have happened” or between what is more
desirable and the opportunities available to achieve the desired situation.

During situation analysis information should be gathered on problems, needs and opportunities,
which is needed to have an insight and make decisions for actions afterwards. Information
gathered with respect to environmental factors and actors will be often used in situation analysis
and information will be collected on various aspects like:

- problems faced by people directly or indirectly concerned with extension programme,

- the possible causes of the problems,
- the opportunities to solve them,
- the existing knowledge, attitudes, skills, practices and behaviour of people in the target
area as well as
- the economic, social, cultural and environmental situation of the area.

The result of situation analysis may help the involved people in the process:
- to have good understanding on the existing social, cultural, economical and other
conditions of the target people/area;
- to identify the problems to be solved or the gap that exists between what is happening
and what should have happened as well as ways to solve them; and

40
 - to develop effective and successful extension program plan that will provide an
extension workers with a clear procedure to follow in the process of implementation of
the program.

But, we have to bear in mind the following points when collecting information for situation
analysis.

- Each person has his/her own perception and vision of the present and desired situations.
- Each person has his/her own perception of a certain problem, its causes and solutions
- Some methods of data collection makes more use of the differences in perceptions and
visions amongst people than others as the same time some allow more involvement of
farmers than others.
- Different methodologies that can be used for situation analysis focuses on different aspects.
Example. Some focus on farming activities and/or village resources (such as FSR/E, PRA
and RRA) and others focus on people, information and knowledge they generate,
exchange and use it for development (such as Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge
Systems).

3.2. Target Group Identification

After situation analysis, objectives of the extension programmes are defined based on the
situation of the target groups that is the groups in which the extension organisation intends to
serve. Therefore, target group analysis is the next and most decisive step in the extension
program planning process for deciding on which:

- problems that an extension program will be aiming at;

- objectives are more appropriate to solve the problem of the target group and
- extension communication methods and contents are appropriate.

Thus, target group analysis should provide information about:

 the current behaviour of the target group in the area in relation to the changes that an
extension organisation wishes to promote. For instance, if an extension organisation
wishes to promote marketing co-operatives information like:

41
 1. How farmers currently market their products?
2. The marketing channels they currently use,
3. Marketing facilities they have,
4. What problems they have with marketing?
5. Their experiences with co-operatives and other organisation should be
known.
 specific problems that target group members consider to be their problems;
 level of knowledge, skills and attitudes the target group members do have towards what they
consider to be their problems and towards the problems for which extension agents consider
as desirable and this helps to:
- identify knowledge – skill –attitude gap that can be addressed by intervention of an
extension organisation;
- capitalise on already available indigenous knowledge, skills and attitude to bring the
desired change.
 Which members of the target groups or organisations make which decision? And who
influences this decision? Men/ Women/ Opinion leaders/ religious leader/ political leader/
rich or poor people? This may help us to persuade the influential people first about what our
organization wants to do for the community and to facilitate the whole operation of
organizational activities.
 the communication channels that the target group members use now and also in the future
and the language or dialect are used by the target group;
 level of access of resources to different categories of the target group; and
 the situation of the target group and the factors, which affects the behaviour of these groups.

Based on the result of the target group analysis selection of the target group will be done. Since
a good extension program is directed at precisely defined target group and clear decision can be
made about choice of goals, contents, methods and resources needed to achieve the goals.

But different program managers may have different information needed for their decision-
making. Thus, it is usually desirable to segment the target groups in to sub-groups according to:

- the types of information required and decision made;

- the types of help needed with their decision making;

42
 - their available resources; and
- their access to inputs, credit, etc.

These cases have a major influence on the recommendation on which route an extension
organisations should follow.

Mostly, the criteria that may be used to identify the target group that an extension organisation
wishes to help depends on the following:

 The predetermined objectives of an extension organisation, such as if a given organisation

wishes to help women in a given area from the beginning, the target groups of that project
will be definitely women.

 Based on the interest of an extension organisation i.e., if an organisation is very impressed

on the result of the situation analysis that reflects its own interest automatically the target
group of an organisation will be those people who have specific problem that can be solved
under the existing condition of an organisation.

 The priority of the problem to be solved.

Steps of target group identification

1. Collect additional information that indicates the

- personal history and behaviour of individuals;

- level of knowledge towards the problems they have;
- language and dialects they use as well as
- resource endowments of individuals.

2. Analyse the collected information to know more about the general and specific
behaviour of individuals in a given area.

3. Try to group those individuals, who have almost the same type of problems, level of
knowledge as well as common language and the resource endowment as a homogenous
group of individuals.

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 4. List the name of individuals who are considered to be homogenous and consider them
as a target group to solve a specific problem in a given period of time.

In general when we are selecting the target groups, we can ask the following questions.

1. Is it clear on which group we will or will not concentrate our attention?

2. Have the reasons why we should concentrate on this group been well thought about? Do we
know enough about the target group’s specific extension needs and the way we can reach
the group?
3. Can we achieve our goal if we succeed in reaching this group?
4. Have we segmented the target group? Is each segment more or less homogenous with regard
to extension needs?
5. Is it possible to reach the target group with the means and manpower available?

3.3. Problem Analysis - identifying the core problem of the target population

Problem analysis is the next step of the target group analysis and selection in the process of
extension program planning. Program planning is usually performed by a team of experts to
deal with interdisciplinary problems of the target groups. It is important to include the target
groups or representatives in order to make the planning process more participatory and the
impact of the program sustainable.

A problem does not happen in isolation but it has a cause and an effect. So in order to solve or
alleviate the problem one has to try to tackle its causes. Thus, analysis of the problem and its
causes is very important to design the appropriate method to solve it and to get the appropriate
solution for a given problem since “the secrete of solving a problem is proper problem
identification”.

The relationship between cause, problem and effect called cause-effect relationship and its
pattern looks like:

CAUSE PROBLEM EFFECT

Example, Cause: Storage tank is empty

Problem : There is no water in the house and
Effect : There is no water for washing and drinking

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Of course, in some cases, some problems may have different causes and effects and the reverse
is also true meaning one problem may have more than one causes and different problems may
be caused by one cause the same is true in the case of problem – effect relationship.

Example, 1. Cause A Problem Effect

Cause B
Cause A: The storage tank is empty
Cause B: The main water supply is out of order
Problem: There is no water in the house
Effect: There is no water for washing and drinking.

2. Cause Problem Effect A

Effect B
Cause : The storage tank is empty
Problem: There is no water in the house
Effect 1: There is no water for washing and drinking.
Effect 2: There is no water to water the garden.
It can, therefore, be seen that even for a simple problem there are many combinations of causes,
problems and effects. So that the causes, problems and effects may form a complicated network
stretching in all directions. Thus, how can it be possible to identify the true or core problem?
In the process of problem analysis, i.e. to identify the true or core problem, its possible direct
and indirect causes as well as effects, we can use different ways. But the following are the most
known ones.
1. Problem Tree Method
2. Problem analysis chart

A. Problem Tree Method

The Problem Tree Method is simply a way of drawing out the cause and effect relation ship
regarding a particular problem situation. In this method, in drawing your problem tree locate the
causes at lower levels and effects at the upper levels and the core problem connects the two.

45
Thus,

- The tree trunk represents the core problem

- The roots of the tree represents the causes of the problem and
- The branch of the tree represents the effects of the problem
In this method, we have to keep in mind the following:

 The more basic the causes are, the more likely they are to lie at the lower levels of the
diagram.

 The location of a problem on the tree diagram does not necessarily indicate its level of
importance rather it indicates the strength of relationship among the variables.

 There is no single correct way of drawing up of a problem tree diagram because

different individuals, given the same list of problems, causes and effects will normally
organise them differently in a tree diagram.

Procedure:

1. Each member of the planning team first writes down just one problem which he or she
assumes to be the core problem provided that
 The problems are expressed as a negative state and
 The core problem must preteintly describe the central point of the problematic
condition.

2. A brief substantiation is then given for each proposed core problem and the team members
will discuss on the collected problems to decide or agree on what is the core problem.

3. Analyse the causes and effects of the core problem.

Step1. The substantial and direct causes for the core problem are placed parallel to each
other underneath the core problem.

 Core problem

 Causes of the core problem

46
 Step 2. The substantial and direct effects of the core problem should be put parallel to each
other directly above the core problem.

} Effects of the core problem

4. Causes and effects are further developed along the same principle so that multi-level causal
links and branches are created.

Indirect effects of a prob.

} Effects of the core problem

Causes and root causes

of the core problem

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The problem analysis, in this method, can be concluded when the planning team is convinced
that the essential information has been used to build up a causal network explaining the main
causes- effect relationship characterising the problem situation being analysed.

Example: To illustrate the use of the above method, the example of not having any water supply
for the house can be analysed.

Step 1. The group members doing the analysis make the list of problems that deems to be the
core problem such as the main water supply is out of order, water storage tank is empty, the
available water is not clean, etc.

Step 2. The group discusses and identifies the core problem from the above listed ones and also
tries to list the possible causes and effects of the core problem called “not having any water
supply for the house”.

Step 3. Enter each of the problems and their possible causes and effects in tabular form.

Step 4. Each of the problems, causes and effects are written on a piece of paper.

Step 5. The group discuses the relationship between causes and effects and then, using the stick
tape to fix them, the cards or papers are arranged on a wall in the form of the problem
tree. To do this:

- place the causes where the roots of the tree would be and the effects where the branches
of the tree would be.

- start by placing the most basic causes at the lowest level, then work your way up.

48
Then the problem tree looks like the following:

The house is not Nothing can be Garden plants are (Indirect

Clean as it should washed dying effects)
be

No water to wash No water for bathing No water to water (Direct

Utensils and washing clothes the garden effects)

No water supply for the (Core Problem)

household
Consumption

Water storage tank is The river water is so

Main water supply is empty dirty
(Direct
out of order causes)

Main water supply

pipeline is broken for
During dry season
the last 10 years
the river will dry
No rain for the last Storage tank is too (Indirect
three months small causes)

By using the problem tree method the core problem, the direct and indirect causes of the core
problem and the direct and indirect effects of the core problem are identified.

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B. Problem Analysis Chart

This is the second method of problem analysis to identify the core problem. A problem analysis
chart can be used to analyse and identify even very complicated situations with a number of
either inter-related or inter-dependent causes of problems and finally with the correct use of
procedure the root or core problem, and the possible causes and effects of the core problem can
be identified.

Procedure:

1st. The group or each of the team members writes down one problem that it deems to be the
core problem

2nd. The group discusses and analyzes the core problem and tries to identify the possible causes
and effects of the core problem.

3rd. Draw the problem analysis chart that has four or more columns

Root causes Possible Core problem Possible Possible

direct causes direct effects indirect effects

The number of columns used in the problem analysis can be varied to suit the needs of the
analysis. There might be a need to look further back into the chain of causes until the root causes
are identified or to ensure that the current core problem has been identified to examine the chain
of primary and secondary effects.

4th. The group writes the core problem on the core problem column or in column 3 counting
from the right.

5th. Enter what are considered to be the direct causes of the core problem into column 4 counting
from right or causes column

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6th. The group examines the causes and decides whether there are the root causes or not, if there
are more important indirect causes of the problem enter them in the root causes column.

7th. The group then moves to enter the direct and indirect effects of the core problem in their
respective columns.

8th. The group must now determine whether the initial identification of the core problem was
correct or not by examining the variables and the inter-relationship of one with the other
so that the group can decide whether the problem represents a bigger problem than the
initial core problem. If not, it can be assumed that the initial choice of the core problem
was correct.

Example of problem analysis chart method - Let us assume that many farmers’ group around
Haramaya identify their main problem as too small farms.

1. The possible direct and indirect causes of the core problem may be
- not enough money to buy more land  Direct cause
- farm does not make a profit  Indirect cause

2. The possible direct and indirect effects of the core problem may be
- not enough crops harvested  Direct effect of the core problem
- not enough money made from farm  Indirect effect

Then the chart looks like:

Root cause Direct cause Core problem Direct effect Indirect effect Further effect
Can not afford
Not enough Not enough to buy more
Farm does Not enough Farms are too crops can be money can be land
not make money to small harvested obtained from
profit buy land the farm Cannot afford
to buy farm
inputs

3. Analysis of the correctness of initial identification of the core problem, causes and effects
will be followed. Based on the results of the analysis, further examination of both is

51
 necessary in order to look for and decide whether any represents a bigger problem than the
initial core problem. In this example, in fact, lack of money began to show up as a cause of
the problem as it can be seen from the above chart. So that one can consider this as a core
problem rather than the initial one i.e. farms are too small. Then, the new chart becomes

Land is
too small
Farm does
Not enough make profit
crops were
harvested
Low yield
from the
land the farmer
Not enough cannot
Too little Money improve
Poor quality money obtained his farm
crops harvested from the crop productivity

Low price
obtained for No off farm
crops income
Others can
produce better
quality of Absence of
crops off-farm activities
______________________________________________________________________
Root causes 3rd Causes 2nd Causes 1st Cause Core Problem Direct effect

Here from the chart, it can be seen that in addition to the shortage of land, there are other
problems to be considered including the choice of crops to be grown and quality of land.
Therefore, in order to solve the core problem, one has to try to solve it from the root causes of
the core problem. Thus, the root problems to be solved are therefore:

- farmers have insufficient land

- poor quality of land and choice of crops to be grown to produce good quality and
quantity of crops.

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3.4. Setting objectives

Objectives: are defined as the specific results or outcomes to be attained that some one or
an organisation believes to be desirable.

Once, the target groups and their core problems have been identified, then setting of objectives
to solve the identified problems will be the next step in extension program planning. During
objective setting (analysis) the already identified problems are converted into objectives towards
which activities can be directed. The objective setting or analysis is performed based on the
following core points.

1. All the negative problems are restated as positive objectives. For example, there is no water
in the house (problem), then “To provide water for household consumption” will be an
objective.

2. The objectives are then examined to ensure that they are both desirable, realistic and
achievable in an acceptable time frame.

3. The objectives that do not meet the conditions mentioned above are modified or should be
dropped.

4. Any new objectives and means identified during the analysis can be added.

5. The overall relationships and interactions between the problems and objectives are
examined to ensure that they are true.

 If a defined problem cannot be easily converted into a positive objective statement, it

may indicate that the problem has not been clearly identified and further examination of
the problem is required.

Procedures of objective analysis:

1st. Work from top downwards to rephrase all problems and the possible causes of stating them
into objectives i.e. – the problems worded as negative will be changed as positive condition
to be achieved in the future (= Objectives) and the core problem is transformed in to core
objective of an extension programme.

2nd. Check - whether rewording may lead to practically non-sensible or ethically questionable
statements. If this is the case we have to drop it automatically.

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 - whether the contents set down in the specific objectives are sufficient for us to
achieve the next highest objective or not.

3rd . Ensure that cause-effect relationship have become means – ends relationship, that is if cause
A then, effect B  means X in order to achieve end Y.

For example, main water supply is out of order then, there is no water for household
consumption  repair main water pipelines to provide water for household consumption.

4th. Draw the objective tree as an independent separate over view.

Effects Ends

Core prob. Main objectives

Causes

Means

5th. Discussion on alternative objectives, means and ends in the objective tree identified to
constitute the alternative solutions.

The selected objectives to be met in the future courses of actions should fulfil the following
requirements. That is objectives should be:

1. Quantity and time specific Example, To increase crop production by 10% by the end
of 2003.
2. Measurable by using some performance indicators. Example, Qt/ha, Birr/qt etc.
3. Focused on results but not on activities
4. Realistic and Achievable.

Example: from the previous example of the problem analysis, one can understand that, for
some years the mains water supply pipeline has been out of service, households have had
relied on storing rain water and it is now the dry season.

54
 Thus, from the derived problem tree, the objective tree is drawn as follows:

To clean the
house as it To make every To grow plants in the
should be thing in the house garden
clean

To obtain water for To obtain water to water

To obtain water to bathing and washing the garden
wash utensils clothes

Provide a water
supply to the
house

Main water Obtain fresh water

supply is Stored water available supply
working

Find sources of fresh water

Repair mains water
pipelines  Bigger storage
tanks

From the above objective tree, the core objective of the extension program will be: To provide
water supply to the house. Because the core objectives has been derived from the core problem
of the target groups and the other specific objectives can be:

1. To repair the mains water supply pipelines

2. To provide fresh water during dry season; and

3. To provide the easiest way of getting water for the households, etc.

55
But it is necessary to bear in mind that extension program may not and cannot respond to all
of the interests and needs of all people as well as it may not meet all the objectives drawn by
the planning group. Thus, choices of objectives is essential but the choice of objectives of an
extension organisations may be influenced by the opportunities its management can see for
achieving the desired situation as well as the vision the management has of the present and
the desired situation. Thus, we must bear in mind the following when choosing extension
program goals.

1. Our perception of the present situation;

2. Our vision of the desired situation;

3. Our perception of why the present deviates from the desired situation and to find the
reasons for that we can ask the following:

- Is there insufficient knowledge and skills? Which knowledge and skills? and, from
which group of farmers?

- Are there some undesirable characteristics that have not been identified?

- Does social structure of the society contribute for these undesirable situations?

- Does social control make it difficult to achieve the desired situation?

- Are there laws, which lead to undesirable consequences? If yes, which laws? What are
the consequences?

4. The opportunities that the managers can see for achieving the objectives of an
organisation in relation to the type and amount of resources required and available at hand.
In this regard:

 We have to direct our efforts at variables, which can be changed by extension

organisation and for which we have the manpower and resources available to bring about
changes.

 We have to also remind ourselves that extension can achieve limited changes and more
can be achieved with an integrated policy of which extension is apart. These include:

- Agricultural research;
- Funding agencies;

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 - Marketing and pricing policies;
- Water and sewage authority, etc.

Finally, we have to select whether we want:

- to provide the farmers with a solution to their problems;
- to help them to find their own solution; or
- to teach them how they can solve similar problems in the future.

And prioritise the objectives of an extension to achieve the desired results. In this regard we
have to differentiate between different levels of goals (objectives) in order to specify program
objectives concretely. This means that:

- Develop a hierarchy of objectives starting from main or core objective to the others and
programming is directed towards a number of specific or intermediate objectives,
which show how we think to achieve the ultimate or main objectives of the extension
programme.

Example of the priority or hierarchy of objectives

Ultimate or main objective To improve welfare for the citizens of

county A
Intermediate objective 1: Higher income
a. farm income
b. off-farm income
Intermediate objective 2: Higher productivity on farms
Intermediate objective 3: Higher milk yield per cow
Intermediate objective 4: a. breeding for increased genetic potential
b. improved animal nutrition
c. improved health care
d. improved housing
e. improved milking techniques
Intermediate objective 5: a. farmers who know the optimal way to
feed their cows
b. improved feed production on the farm
c. local availability of supplementary feed

It is expected that the implementation procedure will start to achieve the lower level of
objectives to the above one. Because it is believed that the achievement of the lower level
objectives will contribute to reaching the higher goal (objective). Example, to achieve the

57
ultimate goal called to improve the welfare for the citizens of country A an extension
organisation should start the implementation of its program from the achievement of the lowest
level of intermediate goals that is objective 5.

Thus, Specific objectives like increasing farmers’ knowledge of cattle breeding enable an
extension agent to work out concrete activities to be performed like:

1. Organise a team of research workers, extension agents and interested farmers, who develop
recommendations for cattle feeding in the local situation
2. Prepare a leaflet and distribute to local farmers
3. Give a lecture to local farmers’ organisation on cattle feeding
4. Organise a course on cattle feeding for the farm women who are responsible for the task
5. Train the home economics on cattle feeding so that they can provide follow up to the course;
and
6. Organise a competition in cattle feeding.

Moreover, objectives could be stated in terms of fundamental, general and working objectives
where fundamental objectives are all inclusive objectives of the society such as improvement of
the living condition of the society, democracy, etc. General objectives are types of objectives,
which are general but definite social objectives such as helping rural people to have better living
condition; helping farmers to increase their income from crops. Furthermore, working
objectives are specific in their nature that can be stated from the point of whish of the planner
to achieve something in the future or in the direction of the interest of the people to achieve
something in the future.

In general, the selected objectives to meet in the future courses of actions should fulfil the
following requirements:

1. It should be specific that is it should not be stated in general terms. Examples, to increase
production by 10% by the end of 2002. But not as to increase production.
2. It should be measurable by using some performance indicators. Example, Yield/ha;
3. It should be time specific i.e. objectives should have time frame within which they will be
accomplished. Example, At the end of 2005, etc.

58
4. They should focus on results of a given program but not on the activities to be done for the
successful achievement of a given project.
5. It should be realistic and achievable; and
6. If possible the people, who will be responsible for its accomplishment, should set it.

Points or questions raised to evaluate the correctness of the objective setting are:

1. Are the goals or objectives clearly in tunes with the farmers’ problem?
2. Are the objectives spelled out clearly? Does an outsider read and understand what the
extension organisation is trying to achieve?
3. Are the objectives important both in the eyes of the target group, the extension agent and
their supervisors?
4. Do these goals contribute optimally to the implementation of a larger change program of
which an extension program is apart?
5. Do the objectives specify clearly what the farmers will know, want, can do or do they
indicate only what an extension agent will do?
6. Given their skills and the means available, can the target group achieve them?
7. Are the objectives specified in such a way that clear conclusions can be drawn for choosing
the extension message (i.e. identify solutions) and methods?
8. Are the objectives specified so that we can evaluate whether or not they have been achieved?

3.5 Selecting Extension Content or possible solutions of the problem

Selection of content of extension recommendation (message) is normally based on what the

extension organisation intends to achieve (i.e. objectives already selected) and the situation of
the target groups. It is important that the message, which we might also call the possible
solutions recommended, can be implemented by farmers using resources, knowledge and skills
and other inputs they have already. Thus, resources, knowledge, skills and attitudes of the target
group should be considered while developing extension messages or recommendations of the
possible solutions of a given problem.

59
In this step, once the target groups, the problem and objectives have been already identified, a
start can be made to identify all possible practical solutions for a given problem to achieve the
stated objectives.

Caution: It is important when identifying a solution not to choose own favourite solution too
quickly, but one have to approach the idea with an open mind.

How to identify and determine the possible solutions of a given problem?

Procedure:

1. Before starting to look for solutions, list all the identified problems, possible causes and
effects of the problem as well as objectives, and also agree upon their order of importance.

i.e. Problems⇛ Objectives ⇛ Solutions.

2. All of the members of the planning group, at a given time limit, try to write down all the
solutions they can think of for all of the objectives they have.

3. Then, list all the solutions identified by the whole members.

4. Work through the list and decide which of the solutions are possible and which are
impossible. Note: try to avoid choosing the solution too quickly.

The choice of possible solutions from alternative solutions can be supported by:
- Cost-benefit analysis of alternatives prepared in the scope appraisal reports and feasibility
studies;
- Additional analysis results such as analysis of interest groups and target groups;
- Group and management discussions

 When there are no alternative solutions available, we should nevertheless take the alternative
approaches into account of options at the implementation stage.

5. Try to analyse the sustainability of the program because in selecting the solutions,
sustainability of the solutions identified is a critical factor considered by funding agencies
to make alone or give a grant to fund an extension program.

60
 Sustainability – the ability of an extension program or a project to continue to provide
a solution to the problem as long as is required (Davis, 1997).

To analyse the sustainability of a given solution recommended by an extension program, we

have to raise the following questions:

* Will the solution work under the existing economic, social, cultural and institutional
conditions?
* Will the members of the group support the idea?
* Is the solution worth doing? Because, some times the proposed solutions may cause
bigger problems than the problem it was initially meant to solve.
* Can the solutions be seen to make things better?

Therefore, at the last stage, all options should be thoroughly examined and the list of the
solutions narrowed down to one or two solutions.

In general, we can judge whether the contents of an extension program have been well chosen
or not with the help of the following questions:

1. Do the contents or solutions match the chosen objectives or goals?

2. Are the contents described precisely? Are they based on the latest scientific insights and
on the experience of successful farmers or target groups?
3. Are the contents adapted to the time available?
4. Do the contents link up well with what farmers or target groups already know, are able,
and are willing to do and actually do?

Example: To illustrate the above procedures lets see how the possible solution of the problems
identified in the previous sections to meet the selected objectives of an organisation.

Objective 1. To provide fresh water  Get bigger tanks to collect rain water
during dry season  Repair the mains water supply

 Build a big storage thank pipeline

 Buy a truck which can be used to  get supply of bottled water

transport water to the village

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 Objective 2. To provide an easier way  Install water tanks in each house to
of getting water collect rain water
 Drill the water well in the village  Repair the mains water supply
 Pay a village men to fetch water system
 Buy a donkey to carry the water

3.6. Selecting Extension Methods

There are different types of extension methods that have been used by different extension
organisations to identify and solve different problems and thereby to achieve different goals as well
as to help target groups from opinions to decision making. These methods include:

- Mass media such as newspapers, radio, TV, leaflets etc.

- Group extension method such as meetings, demonstrations and group discussions.
- Individual extension that is mutual discussion between extension agents and the target
groups, interviewing of key informants, survey method of data collection.
- Folk media such as theatre plays, songs, puppet shows, etc.
- Modern information technology such as audio-visual aids, computer and
telecommunication facilities.

However, the choice of any of the above methods available may be depends on:

- the specific goals of an extension programme;

- the circumstances in which the local community living in (or an extension agent works);
- size and educational levels of the target groups;
- the extension agents’ skill;
- manpower and resource available and the level of trust between the target groups and
extension agent; and
- the cost of the method and the time available to use it.

Moreover, the choice of extension methods to be used is also influenced by the cost of the method
and the time given by the extension agents. The effectiveness of an extension program is influenced
not only by the choice of the methods but also by the way in which these methods are used and
some experts recommend that, the effectiveness of extension methods can be increased through the
use of the combination of all extension methods.

2
We can judge whether or not the method (s) is (are) well chosen based on the following questions.

1. Is the chosen method adapted to the question of whether we wish to achieve a change in
knowledge, skill attitude or behaviour?

2. Are the educational activities clearly specified so that we know what the farmer will see, hear
and discuss to carry out?

3. Are the different methods integrated in such away that they reinforce each other?

4. Does the planned time scale make it possible to carryout all these activities well?

5. When choosing learning activities, have the needs, skills and means of the target group been
considered adequately?

3.7. Organisation of activities or making operational calendar

A well-run extension program requires definite commitments about who will contribute what and
when. It is also important to indicate the amount and types of resources required to accomplish the
tasks to be performed as well as the estimation of the costs of the resources to be used to implement
the program and thereby to meet the main and specific objectives of an organisation. So that an
extension program should be put on paper and all agreements are recorded.

In the process of organisation of activities we have to:

 Identify all of the activities to be done;

 List them in the order that they should be accomplished;
 Assign individuals for each of the tasks to be performed;
 Identify the types and amounts of resource required to accomplish each of the tasks;
 Define the time and place for each of the tasks to be performed;
 Estimate the costs of each of the activities to be done with respect to time and resource
required; and
 Establish the standard or the desired performance to measure the success or failure of
individuals and/or projects inline with the accomplishment of their tasks and
achievement of its objectives.

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It should also be noted that timing is very important for an effective extension program since the
purpose of planning is matching together activities, time and resources. Generally in
organisation of activities a manager and/or planner is expected to pass in the following three
phases.

Phase 1. Construct or establish operational calendar;

Phase 2. Estimation of cost for each of the activities to be performed; and
Phase 3. Establishment of standards or desired performances of each of the activities
to be performed

For instance before launching a new program we may need to improve competence of extension
staff in a new topic included in the programme. We, then, must agree on:

 Who is responsible for staff training?

 How that person will do the training?
 When and where? as well as
 What resources are required?

Hence, we must put these points on paper in the form of work plan. At the same time the extension
program should not be rigid. Extension agents should be flexible in their reactions for emerging
needs of the target group so that the manager can adjust implementation of the program with the
changing situation provided that the main and specific objectives of the program should be meet
with in specified period of time.

Because, timing is very important for an effective extension programme since extension messages
should be given at the moment when farmers need those information. For example, information
about the best variety to sow should be given just before it is time for them to order their seed.
Thus, extension program should include a calendar which indicates when and which messages are
given and when the preparation and training should start, etc.

Therefore, in order to make an operational calendar for each of the activities that an extension
organisation should do to solve some identified problems and thereby to meet its objectives, the
manager and/or the planner should follow the following steps:

1. List all of the activities that should be done in the implementation process of the program.

110
2. Place them in the order that they should occur.
3. Estimate how long each activity should take.
4. Decide whether more than one activity can be undertaken at the same time or not by examining
each activity and asking the following questions:
- What has to be done first?
- What activities can be done at the same time? and
- What will be done next?

5. Construct the activity net -work by using net- work analysis approach.

For example: If a given group of farmers have a problem of crop failure due to lack of fertilizer,
to solve these problems an extension organisation may analyse the problem and try to solve
the problem by delivering fertilizer to the farmers on credit or other forms. But fertilizer
delivery requires the following activities and the organisation estimates the time needed to
complete each activity.

Activity Time needed in weeks

1. Register fertiliser needs of individual farmer 1

2. Make list of amounts needed 1
3. Make fertilizer distribution plan (including rules and regulations) 4
4. Compare prices asked by supplies (collect program) 4
5. Order fertilizer 1
6. Transport to central store 1
7. Build storage capacity in the village 8
8. Train farmers 2
9. Prepare fertilizer distribution to village stores 1
10. Rent lorries 1
11. Distribute fertilizer to village stores 1

To make an operational calendar, after listing of the activities needed to do a given task and
estimating how long each activity should take, an extension agent should decide whether more than

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one activity can be undertaken at the same time or not. Since the purpose of planning is matching
together activities, time and resources.

This can be done by using network analysis approach, which gives a visual representation of the
program plan.

Net-work analysis

Network analysis is a technique of great potential value in aiding the planning and implementation
of an extension program work. Essentially network analysis is a method of scheduling the activities
of a project or a program in an orderly way through the preparation of a number of diagrams and
schedule tables. This helps:

 For planning of a particular operation of the program especially for planning the timing
of different parts of the work.

 To strictly implement the program- this means that a delay in the implementation of
activities in the critical path affects the overall implementation period of the program, and

 Provide basis for evaluation of performance.

There are two key concepts or elements of network analysis:

1. An activity is one of the individual processes consuming both time and resources into which a
set of actions can be divided. The other definition of an activity could be that it is the set of
associated actions that either cannot be undertaken before another activity is completed or
which themselves must be completed before another activity can begin.

- in a network diagram, an activity is shown as line with an arrowhead at the completion or

end of the line.

- the length of line should not necessarily indicate the length of time to complete a given
activity, although estimates of the length of time needed for the completion of each activity
will need to be made for use in both diagrams and schedules.

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 Activity A
Example.

2. An Event – is the ‘state’ at the beginning and end of an activity and it marks the start or
completion of a stage in the operation of a project or a program. It is denoted by a circle placed
at due ends of the activity line of an event will mark the beginning or end of more than one
activity and usually labelled with a number, such as event 1 and event 2.

The typical presentation might be

Activity
1(time &resource 2
Event Event

It is conventional that activities generally flow from left to right. The use of Network analysis
depends on splitting particular process into a number of activities that can be organised into a series
of logical sequences. In particular network diagram consists of:

- several activities or sequence of activities that can be carried out simultaneously typically with
several separate events associated with each sequence. However, activities or sequence of
activities can be linked only through an event.
- every network diagram must begin with a single starting event and finish in a single end event.

Sequences of activities and events in a network

After listing of all activities needed to operate a given program to arrive at the logical sequence of
activities and events, the following questions must be asked for each activity.

1. What activities must be finished before another activity can be started?

2. What activities cannot be started until the previous activity is finished?
3. What activities can be undertaken at the same time with some other activities?

This is the most fundamental and possibly time consuming part of the use of net work analysis
since a manager or analyst have to think and estimate about the following:
- duration of each activities;

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 - the relationships and the flow of activities to achieve the final objectives of the program.

Once this information has been obtained, preparing the network diagram is simply a question of
working out the possible order of the activities, and then fitting them into a diagram of activities &
events. This can be illustrated in the following simple hypothetical example.

Assume that a given program involves 7 activities, whose relationships to each other are as follows:

Activity Relationships
A ------------------------------------------------------------ After G, before F
B ------------------------------------------------------------ after E
C ------------------------------------------------------------ after D and F
D ------------------------------------------------------------ after G and before C
E ------------------------------------------------------------ before B
F ------------------------------------------------------------ after A, before C
G ------------------------------------------------------------ before A and D

Then we have to sort these activities into a proper order by drawing up the summary table as
follows.

Activity Activities that Activities that must c

must come before come after activity
activity in question. in question

A G F
B E
C D, F
D G C
E B
F A C
G A,D.

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 From the above summary table, we can do the following:

1. Activities, which come before others but after none will begin from the start Event. There are
two such activities, namely E and G.

2. Activities, which come after others but before none will finish from the end event.
There are two such activities, namely B and C.
3. From their descriptions, we can see that one path from Start Event to End Event is E followed
by B. Thus, we can draw this as
E B
S.E. E.E.
4. Another path starts with G. The Event at the end of Activity G is the starting point for
Activities A and D. Activity D is followed by C, which has nothing after it, so it completes
another path which can be shown. Thus,

G D C

S.E. E.E

5. Following Activity A, we see that F comes after it, but F must be completed before Activity
C begins. Thus, the path through A and F must come to the Event at which C begins, like
this.

G A F C

S.E. E.E.
6. These paths cover all the sequences. The complete Network can now be drawn as:

B
E

S.E. E.E

G C
D

A F

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Generally this would be drawn with the Events labeled by numbers, not with Activities named. By
convention, the Start Event has the lowest number and the End Event the highest. Generally, any
sequence passes from low numbers to higher ones.

6
1

5
3

Activities are also known by the number of their start and End Events. Thus, activities would be
coded as Activity 1-2, 1-3, etc. The complete Network Diagram can then have added to it the
duration for each activity in months.

Activity 1-2 12m

1-3 3m
2-6 12m
3-4 4m
3-5 9m
4-5 2m
5-6 8m

The Network then appears like this :

2 12m
12m
6
1
3m 8m
9m
3 4m 5
2m
4

The duration of each path can then be easily found. Paths are now known by Event numbers, not
Activity names. There are 3 points.

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 Total Duration
1
12m 2
12m 6
24 months

1
3m 3
9m 5
8m 6
20 months

3m 4m 2m 8m 17 months
1 3 4 5 6

From this sequence of activities diagram, we can see that one path requires more time than the
other paths. This set of sequences is called the critical path through the network. It is critical in
the sense that the activities along it fix the minimum length of time for completion of the program
or project. Thus, delay in starting or ending of any activity along the critical path will increase the
completion time of the whole project. Similarly efforts to complete the whole thing in a reduced
time must be based on the time needed to complete activities along the critical path. Because they
are critical in the time sense, and minimizing the time spent on a project is a very common
objective, identifying the critical path and measuring its time length is one of the most important
advantages of network analysis. It is also important to identify the critical activities that are very
important for the accomplishment of the tasks to be performed and there by to achieve the
objectives of an organization and give priority to them that network analysis is often given the
alternative title called critical path analysis.

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Example, suppose a given group of farmers in Alemaya district have a problem of low yield from
crops due to poor managerial practices. To solve this problem, an extension agent analyzes and
tries to solve it by improving the management practice of the farmers through practical training.
To do so he has to perform the following activities with a specific sequence and with in a given
period of time.

Activities to be done Sequence Time needed

(Weeks)
A. Train farmers on the preparation of land Before B and C 1
B. Help farmers to saw their crops at the After A and before E 2
recommended rate
C. Train farmers on the types of fertilizer to be used After A but before D 3
based on the fertility status and types of the
soil
D. Conduct training on the rate of application of After C before E 1
fertilizer
E. Train farmers on the appropriate techniques of After B and D but 5
crop management such as cultivation, before F
weeding etc.
F. Train farmers on the appropriate harvesting and After E 2
post harvesting techniques.

From the above table we have to be able to identify:

1. The starting event and activity, which comes before others but after none. In our example the
starting event can be coded as zero or one since by convention the start event should be
labelled with the lowest number and the end event with the highest number.

2. The activities that come after others but before none that will be finished with the end event.
Then, we can construct our network analysis diagram as follows.

0 A 1 B 3 E 4 F 5
1w 2ws 5ws 2ws
3ws C D 1w

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 Then, the duration of each path can be easily found and can be identified as

1. Path 1: A, B, E, and F and the duration for the accomplishment of these activities is 10 weeks.

2. Path 2: A, C, D, E and F and the duration for the accomplishment of these activities is 12
weeks.

Thus, the minimum and the maximum length of time required for completion of the program will
be 10 and 12 weeks respectively. And from the diagram, we can understand that one path requires
more time than the other and the set of the sequence is called critical path through the network.
It is critical because delay in starting or completion of any activity on the critical path will
increase the completion time of the whole program.

Then, our operational calendar will be the following by assuming that the first activity will be
started on 1st of May , 2004.

Activities to be done Schedule

A. Train farmers on the preparation of land May 1st – May 7th
B. Help farmers to saw their crops at the May 8th - May 21st
recommended rate
C. Train farmers on the types of fertilizer to be used May 8th – May 28th
based on the fertility status and types of the soil.
D. Conduct training on the rate of application of May 29th - June 5th
fertilizer
E. Train farmers on the appropriate techniques of crop June 6th – July 11th
management such as cultivation, weeding etc.
F. Train farmers on the appropriate harvesting and July 12th – July 25th
post harvesting techniques.

Identification of Resources and Estimation of Costs of each of the activities

A. Resource identification

After preparation of operational calendar that identifies the critical activities and time required for
the completion of the program, based on the information obtained in the network diagram about
the types of activities to be done, time and resources required to accomplish each activity, the
planning team should start to work on identification of resources required to accomplish a given
program. In this phase, the types and amount of resources required for each of the activities to be
done should be identified by using the following steps:

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1st . Construct a table (i.e. Program resource form) that has about 7 or more columns and label it
with the type of resources to be used.
2nd. Using the information of the program plan, the activities to be done should be listed in their
sequence in the first column of the program resource form.
3rd. Examine each of the activities in turn and imagine how and by whom the activity will be
done. To do so it is important to consider the questions like who is going to perform the
activity? And what type of special knowledge is required? This may help the planner(s) to
determine and decide on the type and amount of human labour required to perform each of
the activities to be done during the implementation process of the program.
In this step, after decision, enter the quantity (number of people) and their field of
specialization required in the second and third column of the program resource form.
4th. For each of the activities to be done, decide if equipments will be required and then identify
the sources of the equipments (i.e. the equipment might be bought, rented or borrowed) and
enter the information in the fourth and fifth columns of the form as quantity, type and
sources of the equipment.
5th. For each of the activities to be done, decide what type and quantity of materials are required
to perform the tasks to be performed in the implementation process of the program and
enter the information in the 6th and 7th columns of the program resource form.

To illustrate the above steps let us try to construct a program resource form for the previous
example, i.e. improvement of the managerial capacity of Haramayan farmers through
practical training by the extension agent.

It should be remembered that identifying the types and amounts of resources required for
completion of each of the activities involves:
 The types of the activities they want to do;
 How those activities will be performed? and
 Who will be responsible for which activity to be performed?

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 Program Resource Form
Resource Required
Activity Qty Human Qty Equipment Qty Material
Training on land 1 Soil Scientist 5 Farm implements 60m Rope
preparation 1 Plant Scientist (To be bought)
1 Agr. Extension 1 Tractor
4 Labourers ( to be rented)
Training on sowing 1 Agr. Extension 2 Sowing machines 2 qt. Improved
crops at a 1 Plant Scientist (to be rented) varieties of
recommended rate 4 Labourers sorghum
1 qt. Improved maize
Training on fertilizer 2 Plant Scientist -- Lab. Equipments 20lit Pesticides
selection and 1 Soil Scientist (to be borrowed (to be bought)
application 1 Lab. Technician from AERO) 2qt Urea
6 Labourers 1 Truck to transport 2qt Dap
fertilizer (to be (both to be
rented) bought)
The same for the The same The same The same
remaining activities
should be done in the
sama way

Then, we should decide on the types of resources required (as labour, equipment’s and materials)
and the quantities of resources required (as quantity, man days, etc).

B. Cost Estimation

In this step the cost of the program will be estimated based on the information obtained in the
resource identification part and then a start should be to find the unit price of each of the resources
to be used in the process of implementation of the program

1. Cost of Labour – This can be estimated by using the information related to the number of
individuals involved in each of the activities to be done, the number of working days as
indicated in the net work analysis program and the unit cost of labour per day.

In this case, the amount of money required for labour for each of the activities to be done should
be estimated based on the aforementioned variables and aggregation of the costs of labour can
be taken as total labour cost of the program.

Example: Labour Cost

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 Activity People required Working days Unit cost Total Cost
1. Training on land 1 Soil Scientist 7x1= 7 70 490
Preparation 1 plant Scientist 7x1= 7 70 490
1 Agr. Extension 7x1 = 7 70 490
4 Labourers 7x4= 28 20 560
2030

2. Training on Sowing 1 Plant Scientist 14x1= 14 70 980

rate 1 Agri. Extension 14x1= 14 70 980
4 Labourers 14x4= 56 20 1120
3080
… ...
Note: The same … … … ...
should be done for … … … …
the rest of the … … … …
activities etc. etc. etc. etc.
Total Total =

After estimating the labour costs of each of the activities to be performed by taking the number of
people required, number of working days and unit cost of labour per day in to consideration the
total cost of labour of the program can be obtained by summing up the sub totals of the labour costs
of all activities to be done in the implementation process of the program.

2. Equipment and material Costs - This can be estimated using the information obtained from
program resource form about the type and amount of equipment and /or materials required, the
sources of those equipments and materials as well as the unit cost of each equipment and
materials to be used that can be obtained from suppliers or owners of the equipment.

After estimating the equipment and material cost of each of the activity to be performed by taking
the number and unit cost of equipment and type and amount of material required, number of
working days and unit cost of labour per day into consideration the total cost of equipment and
material can be obtained by summing up the costs of all activities to be done in the implementation
process of the program.

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 Example: Equipment and Material Cost of the Program (the previous example)

Activity Description Qty Unit Total Description qty Unit Total

(Equipment) cost (Birr) (Material) price (Birr)
(Birr) (Birr)
1. Training - Farm Rope 60m 1.5 90
on land implement 5 25 125.00
preparation - Tractor 1 200/d 1400.00
(to be rented
for 7 days)

2. Training Sowing 1 50/d 700.00 -Improved 1qt 90 90

on sowing machine (to maize
rate be rented - improved 2qt 150 300
for 14 days) sorghum

… … … …
… … … …
… … ... …
7.

Total

3. Transportation cost – this cost includes the cost of transportation for experts, labourers, as well
as cost of transportation of materials and equipments to be bought or rented. The transportation
cost of the experts and labourers can be estimated by considering the number of people travelled,
number of travelling days, means of transportation and cost of fuel, depreciation of the vehicles
per year and perdiem of the driver if the program is able to use the available car of the given
institute or organization.

4. Miscellaneous Expenses – are expenditures that can occur at any time of implementation
process of the program, which cannot be grouped with any of the other costs such as labour,
material, equipment and transportation costs. Example, treatment expenses in case of sickness
of the involved people, etc.

Finally, to obtain the estimated total cost of the program, the costs of each of the activities of the
program in terms of labour, material, transport, equipment and miscellaneous as well as other
requirements have to be totalled up and form the following format.

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 Program Cost Form

Estimates of Costs
Activities Labour Material Equipment Transport Miscell Total
-aneous
1. Training on
Land 2030.00 90.00 1525.00 1000.00 -- 4645.00
preparation

2. Training on
sowing Rate 3080.00 240.00 700.00 150.00 500.00 3690.00
…
…
…
…
7.
Total =A
Administration Cost @ 5% of the estimated total cost =B
Total Estimated Program Cost = A+B
Contingency @ 10 up to 15% of the total cost C=10%( A+B)

Total Estimated Cost of the Program A+B+C

In addition, the total cost required to accomplish each of activities we have, allowance should be
made for the following:

1. Administration – includes postage, telephone calls, stationary, etc and the simple way of
handling these costs is to make an allowance based on the percentages of the total cost
estimated at 5-10%.

2. Contingencies – sometimes it is very difficult to estimate the precise cost of materials and
equipments since the cost of these items can vary depending on the inflation rate of the
given currency as well as the amount supplied in the market and resulting in additional
expenses. Therefore, allowances must be made to cover all these possibilities. Thus, the
contingencies should be calculated as percentages of the total program cost and can vary
from 5 to 25% depending on the confidence the planners have in the accuracy of the cost
estimates and the rate of inflation of the given currency.

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 After doing the estimation of costs of the resources to be used, the third phase of the
organisation of activities is the establishment of standards of performance for each of the
activities to be performed should be done to measure the success or failure of individuals in
line with accomplishment of each of the tasks to be performed and thereby to meet the stated
objectives.

References

1. FAO (1984): Agricultural Extension reference Manual. 2nd Edition. Swanson, E.B. (ed.). Food
and Agriculture Organization of the UN, Rome.
2. Van den Ban and Hawkins (1996): Agricultural Extension, 2nd Edition. Blackwell Science Ltd.,
Australia
3. Davies, A. (1997): Managing for a Change: How to Run Community Development Projects.
Intermediate Technology Publications, London WCIB 4HH, UK.
4. Sanduh, A.S. (1994): Extension Program Planning. Oxford and IBH publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd,
New Delhi, Calcutta, India.

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Chapter 4. Logical Framework as a Planning aid
4.1. Concept of Logical Framework

The logical framework analysis as a program planning aid was first developed and used in the
1970’s by USAID. It is considered as the most powerful planning and management tool and aims
to link in logical way the objectives of a program, program activities, assumptions about the
internal and external environment of a given program and the results of a program but it cannot
guarantee the success of the program. It was also used to link the general objectives of a program
to sub or specific objectives of a program in a given program or parts of a given program.

Logical framework analysis (LFA) can be used in the preparation of the program, and then in
management of a program during the implementation processes, monitoring and evaluation as well
as in revision of the program. Thus, in the preparation of the logical framework the objectives of
the program, the means of achieving those specified objectives and the main assumptions behind a
program can all be presented on one page statement.

Generally, logical framework analysis is essentially a process of developing, in a logical and

consistent way, a program or a project that:

 can achieve realistic objectives within its economic, social and biophysical environment.

 need the participation of people as a team where all the main beneficiaries and stakeholders
contribute to developing a program framework that represents a consensus view on realistic
objectives, viable activities and the realities of external conditions.

Therefore, it allows program planners, managers and/or evaluators to the components of their
activities and identifies the logical linkage between a set of means and a set of ends. So, it is
considered as an aid to logical thinking and a means by which a project may be structured and
described for analytical purposes.

4.2. Key Terms and Steps in Logical Framework Preparation

A. Key Terms

1. Goal - is the overall goal that a program operates under. It represents the ultimate objectives
of the program to which the specific program will contribute.

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 Example 1. To increase food and cash crop production by 10% at the end of 2003 in Alemaya
2. To increase the managerial ability of farmers in crop production at the end of 2002
in Alemaya District.

 Goal should explain why the program is important to the society at large in terms of long-term
benefits and some times it may not be fully achieved by the program alone.

2. Purpose – A program may have some specific purposes that can be achieved through the
implementation of the program and the attainment of the purposes of the program has positive
contributions for the successful achievement of the program goal. Therefore, purpose is the
expected impact of the program through the production of outputs of a given program and
sometimes is considered as a long-term objective of the program.
Example 1. Improvement of the feeding conditions of the farm household and raise
households’ cash income in Alemaya district.
2. Increase the level of knowledge of the farmers in crop production in Alemaya
district.
3. Outputs – The specific results to be produced through utilization of inputs in the
implementation process of a given program and it is considered as a short-term objective of
the program.
Example 1. The consumption level of the farm families will be increased by 5%.
2. Farmers have sufficient knowledge to manage their farms effectively.
4. Activities – are what should to be done to obtain the specified outputs in the implementation
processes of a given program.
Example 1. Water harvesting to overcome shortage of irrigation water and to increase the
food and cash crop production in Alemaya as well as provision of farm inputs
such as improved seed and fertilizer, etc.
2. Train farmers that help them to improve the managerial skill of farm households.
5. Inputs – are resources that are required to implement or perform program activities. These
resources range from goods, facilities, labour and services and are termed as program inputs.
Ex. 1. Construction materials to provide irrigation schemes and provision of fertilizer
and improved seed, etc.

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 2. Training facilities and knowledgeable individuals to train farmers, their perdiem,
and materials to be used in the training process that includes stationary
materials, etc.

B. Steps in Logical Framework Preparation

1st. Define the program goal – it is the first step in logical framework preparation. In this step the
overall rationale of the program or the reasons for undertaking the program and the ultimate
objective of the program to which a given program will contribute should be identified.

 Sometimes those overall objectives or goals may not be achieved due to the
implementation of a given program alone so it may require the impacts of other
programs as well.

Ex. To improve the living conditions of farmers by 5% in Alemaya district at the end of
2005 (this goal involves accomplishment of many programs).

In describing the goal or general objectives of a given program it is important to avoid general,
misleading or imprecise as well as ambiguous statements which are subjected to misinterpretations.

2nd. Define the program purpose – In this step, planners should define or explain about what the
program is expected to achieve in the long run through the achievement and utilization of the
short run outcomes or outputs of a given program.

Example 1. To Increase food production for households’ consumption and ensure food security in
Haramaya district at the end of 2004.
2. To increase income from sales of crops in Haramaya district.
3. To improve the quality and quantity of meat and milk to be produced for the next five years.
 In principle the program purpose should be one at a time that enables the managers to address
the main problem of the target population.

3rd. Define the outputs of a program – In this step the planner should say something about the
expected short term results of the program which will allow for the successful achievement
of the purpose of the program.

Example 1. Establishment of irrigation schemes in farming area of Haramaya district

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 2. Training farmers on the use of improved agricultural technologies and irrigation
practices.
It should be noted that the outputs of the given program should address the possible causes
of the problems of the target population and can be achieved through effective
implementations of activities of the program and can be considered as short-run objectives
of the program.

4th. Define the program activities – these are the actions of the program managers to be taken as
well as the tasks to be performed in order to achieve its outputs. In this step it is important to
describe the types of actions to be taken and the activities to be done by the managers as well
as the workers (if possible) of a given organization for the successful achievement of an
organization in line with the attainment of the expected outputs.

Ex. 1. Construction of dams for the establishment of irrigation schemes

2. Arrangement of training workshops on on-farm and participatory approach to train
farmers on the use of improved agricultural and irrigation practices.

5th. Define the program input – the planner is expected to specify the goods, services, facilities
and money required to the activities to be done for the successful attainment of the outputs
of the program and thereby the purpose and overall goal of organizational programs.

Example, Labour and other construction materials, stationary materials, skilled individuals or
trainers, number of class rooms required, improved agricultural technologies, etc

6th. Identify important assumptions- is the next step of logical framework preparation. In this
step it is important to identify the external environmental factors (which are outside the
control of the program) on which its success depends on it. So, the planners should make the
assumptions that explains about the extent of the impacts of those identified external factors
on the achievements as well as sustainability of different levels of the program: Goal,
purpose, outputs and activities.

Example, Goal: 1. Successful implementation of economic reforms and social stability;

2. Good governance and political stability.

Purpose: 1. Weather conditions

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 2. Availability of improved farming technologies and the size of the farm
Outputs: 1.Availability of construction materials at the required quality and quantity at the
nearby towns.
2. The types of technologies and the extent of information available about them.
Activities: 1.Weather conditions
2. Availability of trained manpower on those specified fields to perform all the
activities to be done.

7th. Determine indicators (verifiable) in terms of quality, quantity and time – this is the step
where a planner is expected to define indicators at each of the four levels which will be used
to monitor and assess the performance of the program in achieving them. And indicators
should specify quantity, quality and time taken to achieve them. At the activity level
indicators will be the inputs needed to undertake the activity and should include a budget or
financial summary. These indicators may help the managers to measure the progress of an
organization in line with the achievement of its four levels: goals, purposes, outputs and
activities.

 It is often useful to use more than one indicator if a single indicator does not provide a
full picture of the change expected from the implementation of a given goal, purpose,
output and activities of the program.

Example 1. Goal : The type and amount of food consumed by the members of the farm household
and the number of time they eat per day, the amount of money expend to purchase
goods and services per year, the number of household members who have access to
education, etc.

2. Purpose: The quantity and quality of food crops produced per year, the amount of
surplus produced for bad seasons, the amount of money obtained from sale of crops,
the physical condition of the livestock, the amount of livestock feed provided per day
etc.

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 3. Output: The quality and length of irrigation schemes constructed per year per units of
costs of inputs, the number of farmers trained per year, level of increment of knowledge
of the farmers about improved managerial and /or farming practices, etc.

4. Activities: the amount and types of construction materials and labour used, amount and
types of stationary materials used, the number of skilled persons participated in training
of farmers, etc.

8th.Determine the means of verification – this is the last step of logical framework matrix
preparation that a manager and/or planner is expected to identify the means to verify the
indicators for each level. This should include the sources of information, which would contain
this data and sometimes the methods to measure these indicators.

In this step, the possible sources of information and the methods used to collect and measure
the possible indicators to be used as standards to measure the success or failure of
organizations to achieve its objectives should be clearly indicated. Generally, the
means of verification should specify:

1. the format in which the information is available as progress report, records, official
statistics, etc.;
2. who should provide information; and
3. the method in which the available the information is collected and reported.
Because this information helps to test whether or not the indicator can be realistically measured at
the expense of a reasonable amount of time, money and effort.

4.3. Structure of Logical Framework

The structure of the log frame consists of a four by four (4*4) matrix in which the row represents
the levels of project objectives including the means required to achieve them and the
columns indicate how the achievement of these objectives can be verified.

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Table 1. Structure of logical framework matrix
Narrative Verifiable Means of Important assumptions
summary indicators verification
Goal:
Description of the Qualitative and/or Sources of Main external conditions or
highest level quantitative information and events necessary to achieve
objective to measures used to methods, the means and sustain the objectives in
which the show the extent to for checking the short run and long run.
program will which the goal is indicators that are
contribute. meet or fulfilled. used to establish
what has been
achieved.
Purpose:
Description of the Qualitative and/or Sources of Main external conditions or
impacts or effects quantitative information and events over which the
of the program, measures used to methods, the means program has no control but
which is expected show the extent to for checking necessary to achieve and
to be achieved as which the purpose indicators that are sustain the goal to be
a result of its is meet or fulfilled used to establish achieved.
outputs. what has been
achieved
Outputs:
Description of the Qualitative and/or Sources of Main external conditions or
results of the quantitative information and events over which the
program should measures are used methods, the means program has no control but
achieve during its to show the extent for checking which must be prevailed if
lifetime. to which the outputs indicators that used the purpose is to be
are produced. to establish what has achieved.
been achieved
Activities: Inputs: Monitoring Activity to output
Description of the
activities that the Goods, facilities Means to be used to Main external conditions or
program will and/or services check or monitor events over which the
undertake to needed to carry out progress of the program has no control but
produce its stated the stated activities. program’s activities. which must be prevailed if
outputs. output is to be achieved.

 The vertical logic identifies what the project/program intends to do and clarifies the causal
relationships and specifies the important assumptions and uncertainties which are beyond
the control of the program managers.
 The horizontal logic relates to the measurement of the effects of, and resources used by
the program through the specification of key indicators and the means by which the
measurement of indicators will be verified.

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Let us try to put our examples in the logical framework matrix.

Table 2. Logical framework matrix (our example)

Narrative Verifiable indicators Means of verification Important
summary assumptions
Goal: To improve - The amount of food Ministry of Agriculture, Successful
the living consumed/day Reports from NGOs implementation of
conditions of the - No. of members of and Government economic reforms,
Haramayan the household who organizations social and political
farmers by 5% at have access to stability, etc
the end of 2005. education, etc.
Purpose: Amount of food crops Reports of the Weather conditions,
Increase food produced per year, implementing size of the farm, the
productions and amount of surplus organization, Ministry types of technologies
ensure food produced for bad years of Agriculture, Reports available, etc.
security in per year, etc. from NGOs and
Haramaya district Government
at the end of 2004 organizations, etc.
Outputs: - reports of the - availability and
1. Establishment 1. Quality and length of contractor, change of price of
of irrigation irrigation dams observations, etc construction
schemes in the constructed per unit - survey reports, materials, etc.
farming area of input costs - reports from NGOs - types of
2. Train farmers 2. Number of farmers and Government technologies and
on the use of trained per year organizations, etc. extent of
improved agri. information
and irrigation available about
practices them
Activities: Inputs: Monitoring Activity to output
1. Construct dams - 2 Engineers, 20 Periodic review reports - weather conditions
2. Arrangement of labourers, steel, stone, of the implementing - presence of trained
training works etc. of 100 Birr organizations manpower on
- X amount and type of those fields
stationary, trainers/day

4.4. Limitation of logical framework

1. Detail information about the procedures of extension program planning cannot be put in the
logical framework. The procedures to be used in the process of problem and target group
identifications, setting objectives, selecting solutions and organization of the activities to be
done in the process of implementation of program cannot be indicated in the logical framework.

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2. The information about the objectives of the program, the expected outcome of the program
and the activities to be done etc. should be put in general terms.

References

1. FAO (1984): Agricultural Extension reference Manual. 2nd Edition. Swanson, E.B. (ed.). Food
and Agriculture Organization of the UN, Rome.
2. Van den Ban and Hawkins (1996): Agricultural Extension, 2nd Edition. Blackwell Science Ltd.,
Australia
3. Coleman, G. The Logical Framework Approach. Paper presented to Monitoring and Evaluation
Workshop, 15-26 June 1987, Addis Abeba.

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 Chapter 5. Extension Program Monitoring and Evaluation.
5.1. Monitoring and Evaluation

What is monitoring? It is a means of checking of use of resources.

It is the continuous or periodic review of information by management at every level of
implementation of an activity to insure that input deliveries, work schedules, expected outputs and
other required actions are proceeding according to the plan.
The purpose of monitoring is to achieve efficient and effective program implementation
performance by providing feedback to the managers at all levels of implementation processes of a
program so that managers should get answers for the following key questions.
a. Are the activities being implemented as planned?
b. Are these activities leading to the expected out comes?
c. What is causing delay in the accomplishment of activities to be done or unexpected out
comes?
d. Is there anything happening, which would lead the management to revise or modify the
original plan?
Because, the information obtained from the answers of the above questions may help the manager
to make corrective actions timely, in case of short falls and constraints that affects the expected
performances of the activities to be done or before the occurrence of the adverse situation on the
expected implementation performance of a program.

Therefore, it is part of the management information system and is an internal activity, which is
performed by the persons who are responsible for the program implementation at every level of
management hierarchy.

What is evaluation?
It is the process for determining systematically and objectively the relevance and effectiveness in
the direction of resource utilization as well as impact of activities in the light of the stated
objectives. And it also helps to draw lessons for future development planning i.e. for better
formulation and implementation of programs in the future. Thus, it is concerned with the

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assessment of the negative and positive impacts of a project/ a program on the living conditions of
the target groups.

In the process of evaluation, evaluators should try to get answers for the following questions:
- Who or which group has benefited or adversely affected due to the implementation of a given
program?
- By how much as compared to the situation of the group before the activities to be performed?
- In what manner directly or indirectly? And why? (i.e. establishing causal relationship b/n
activities and results).

Evaluation is mostly conducted by outsiders who are not responsible for the implementation
process of the program but rather for the assessment of the negative or positive impacts of the
program. It helps for improvement of the activities in the process of implementation of the program
and providing information for management that can be used in the future planning and decision-
making process of program planning.

Reasons for Evaluation

There are many different reasons why evaluation is carried out. Some of the reasons are to measure
progress and effectiveness; look at costs and efficient use of resources; find out if it is necessary to
change the way are being done and to learn from what has happened in order to make plans for the
future. Furthermore, funding agencies to decide whether to support the program might do an
evaluation or not.

Evaluations are sometimes done as part of a research project as a way of testing new methods for
gathering information; or sometimes because people who raise funds for an organization need
something to put in their publicity material. Evaluation also may be done as a matter of policy at
some level of the organization without anyone being very clear about importance of doing it.
Evaluations done for some of these reasons are likely to be seen those most directly involved in the
work under scrutiny as being imposed from others. The people who are taking part in the activities
being evaluated are probably not fully informed in advance about what is evaluated and how.

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Sometimes, expensive and disruptive evaluations have been done by funding agencies when
decisions have already been made about whether or not to continue financial support. Evaluation
also can be used as excuses for get ride of certain staffs when there is a suspicion of serious
misconduct in the organization. But evaluation can be misused to cover up weaknesses in the
program by focusing only the positive aspects of the program. Generally, the reasons for doing
evaluations can be explained as follows:
1. To improve performance: this is formative evaluation that helps to shape the work while it
is still going on. This kind of evaluation can be used to identify problems that can affect
the expected performance of the program and things that are working well in the process.
It can be also useful to keep the program on the right truck in the direction of its objectives.
Furthermore, evaluation can improve the management performance of the program and its
related activities by increasing the effectiveness of the managers in using their funds and
other resources.
2. To make choice and decisions: This is summative evaluation, a summing up of a project to
make judgment of hoe effective it has been in achieving results by comparing different
ways of doing things. This in turn help people to make choices among the ways of doing
things and to decide on whether to continue to support or not in the cases of program
managers and funding agencies respectively.
3. To learn lessons: The prime purpose of evaluation may be learning so that the results can
be shared within the program managers, between organizations, funding agencies, etc.
4. Promote accountability- evaluation can help to promote the accountability of funding and
implementing agencies to men and women who are supported by the program.

But, evaluation cannot and should not be used for:

1. Evaluation is not decision-making but can provide information for decision makers.
2. Evaluation should not be used to protect managers from the need to face difficult decisions.
And
3. Evaluation should not be used for criticize the management of the given program.

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 Evaluation can be carried out during different stages of implementation of the program. That is:
a. During implementation of the program called on going evaluation
It is the analysis that can be made during the implementation phase of an activity on its
continuing relevance and effectiveness of present and likely future outputs and impacts of a
given program.
It can assist the manger by providing information about any needed adjustments of
objectives, implementation strategies or any other elements of the program. Some times it
may also be helpful to examine whether the assumptions made during the program
formulation process are still valid or whether adjustments are required to ensure that the
objectives will be achieved.
b. At the completion of the program-called terminal evaluation
It can be undertaken from 1-12 months after the completion of the implementation process
of the program. It may help the manager and/or the evaluator to assess the achievement of
the objectives of the program in terms of effective utilization of resources and its impacts on
the expected beneficiaries of a given program.
c. Ex-post Evaluation- is undertaken at full program implementation i.e. some years after the
completion of the program when full program benefits and impacts are expected to be
realized.
In this case, the evaluator may try to assess the positive or negative impact of the implemented
program on the situation of target group. This analysis may help the evaluators to:
1. assess the overall achievement of a given population due to the implementation of a given
program.
2. draw lessons for future planning that is future formulation, implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of programs.

Similarity and Differences between Monitoring and Evaluation

Generally speaking both monitoring and evaluation are similar in the following aspects:

1. Both are tools for analyzing data and producing information for decision-making.

2. Both have critical importance for realizing the objectives of development programs

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4. The effectiveness of both of them is highly influenced by the quality and quantity of available

information about the implementing/implemented program at a given period of time.

But, monitoring and evaluation are different one from the other in terms of their objectives,
reference periods, requirements for comparative analysis and primary users. These differences are
discussed in the following Table.

Criteria Monitoring Evaluation

Objectives Keeping track of progress in Assessment of the overall impact of the
program implementation program
Purpose For timely removal of Drawing lessons for future planning,
constraints and lags implementation and evaluation of
programs
Conducted by Program managers Outsiders who are not responsible for the
implementation of the program
Primary users Program managers and Program managers, planners, policy
supervisors at all levels of makers, beneficiaries and funding
implementation of the agencies
program
Reference During implementation of During implementation, at completion
period the program and some years after completion of the
implementation of the program

5.2. Indicators for Monitoring and Evaluation

What is the meaning of indicators?
Indicators are variables that help to measure changes in a given situation. They are tools for
monitoring and evaluating the effects of an activity & program. In other words, indicators are
designed to provide standards, which help to measure, assess or show the progress of activity
against stated objectives in relation to delivering inputs, producing outputs and achieving
objectives.

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 Therefore, in the process of monitoring and evaluation of any programs or project we can
have:
a. Input- indicators - are variables that reflect the amount and type of resources (inputs) used
in the implementation process of the program.
Examples: X kg/ha for fertilizer & seed used, Man day/ha (or labour) amount of money per
unit of output, cost of inputs/out puts etc.
b. Output-indicators - are variables that indicate the amount of output obtained from a given
amount of inputs.
Examples: X qtl of soya beans/ha - output/input of labor, seed, fertilizer, etc.

c. Impact- indicators - are variables that indicate the extent of changes that resulted from
using of the outcome of the program. Example, change in income level & its distribution.

Impact indicators are sometimes called indirect indicators that can be used where direct
measurement is not feasible. Thus, these indirect indicators can be drawn from the observable
situations.
Example1. Size of the landholding, type of houses or expenditures in the house can be used as a
proxy indicator of the level of in come of individuals,
2. Weight in relation to height can be used as indicator of the health condition of children,
3. The number of new practices to be used can also be used to indicate the level of adoption
of individuals.
However, the choice of indicators in the process of monitoring & evaluation of any program should
consider the following key concepts:
Validity - check weather they actually measure what they are supposed to measure or not
Relevance - they should be relevant to the program objectives
Sensitivity - they should be sensitive to changes in the situation being observed
Specificity - they should be specific to be measured
Cost effectiveness - the result that comes from comparison of indicators with that of
observed performance should be worth achieving in terms of time & money it costs to apply
them, and
Timely- it should be possible to collect the data reasonably & quickly to verify these
indicators.

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 5.3. Indicators for Monitoring and Evaluation of Extension Programs

In monitoring and evaluation of an extension program, the manager and/or the evaluator is expected
to assess the achievements of extension program in line with the stated objectives on the basis of
“before” and” after” or ”with’ and ’without’ program interventions.

“Before” and “after” comparison requires establishment of the baseline before the implementation
of the program and assessing the changes. While, “with” and “ without” comparisons require
selecting a control area or group comparable to the project area or group & making assessment for
change occurring due to the implementation of a given program.
The main objective of an extension program is to assist farmers in adopting the improved
agricultural practices (such as high yielding varieties, seed treatment, timely sowing, efficient
utilization of in puts, etc.). To measure the success of the extension program in achieving its
objectives the establishment of the possible indicators is considered as the most important activity
to be performed in the process of formulation of extension programs. The possible variables that
can be measured in the process of monitoring and evaluation of an extension program include:
i. Level or rate of adoption
ii. Attitudinal changes in a given area

A Program Evaluation Process

Evaluation practitioners have proposed a number of steps in the evaluation cycle. To make
program evaluation less intimidating and more manageable, the cycle can be segmented into 10
manageable steps. However, note that the specifics of each step may vary, depending on the nature,
scope and complexity of the program and the resources available for conducting the evaluation.
Figure _____ shows a 10-step cycle for program evaluation.

1. Creating a Climate for Evaluation

Extension managers and workers have a primary role to play in the evaluation of extension
programs. Each time we plan a program, we identify the program to be conducted, write objectives
we want to accomplish through the program, decide on a plan of action to meet the objectives, and

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develop an evaluation plan to determine if the objectives were accomplished. A meaningful plan
for evaluation outlines clearly the standards for evaluation or the criteria on which the program is
to be judged. It also provides guidelines for what information should be gathered about the
program, and why it needs to be done, how it will be done and by whom it should be gathered. It
is essential because, availability of resources are always limited. Planning will help to complete
the evaluation within the limitations. An evaluation plan will also give the relevant respondent to
be involved so that evaluation can address their quotations and concerns. Planning will guide to
identify which evidence would be considered ‘credible’ by such respondents. Further it will
facilitate in getting useful input from all related persons.

As program managers, we should be knowledgeable of the basic principles and processes of

evaluation so that we can empower our extension staff to perform many evaluative functions for
our extension programs. All extension staff, involved in the program evaluation, should be able
to plan and conduct their own evaluations. We need to guide others in the process and utilize
the results of these internal evaluations for program improvements.

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 Figure: Ten step cycle for program evaluation

Developing an evaluation plan: Planning an evaluation begins with identification of the program
to be evaluated. Once you accept the evaluation responsibility, you should meet with program
managers to get specific information about the program needing evaluation, including:
 goals and objectives;
 geographic boundaries of the program;
 clientele served;
 program funders; and
 program staff.

Broadly, there are three types of evaluative studies by program phase. Some evaluative studies are
appropriate for the planning phase. Others are suitable for monitoring of progress during the
implementation stage. Still others are used to document results and impacts towards the final years
of a project. The type of evaluation study utilized is selected on the basis of stage of program,
program requirements, and stakeholders’ interests.

If an organization is not accustomed to evaluating programs, there is a need to build awareness and
understanding of, and support for, evaluation. (1) program managers must be convinced that
evaluation helps to build successful extension programs. (2) management needs sufficient
motivation to commit the time and resources necessary to perform evaluations. (3) program staff
must establish and communicate a unified evaluation purpose.

Purpose of evaluation: The major purpose of evaluation is to assist in program decisions. Specific
objectives to be achieved through the evaluative process must be clearly and adequately identified.
The purpose of the evaluation will determine which data have to be collected for evaluating an
extension program. We can distinguish formative evaluation which gathers information for
development of an effective extension program, and summative evaluation which tries to measure
the end results of a program in order to decide whether or not it should be continued, expanded or
diminished.

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Reasons for evaluation: The seasons to conduct evaluation are to appraise the effectiveness of
program management procedures; to find gaps and help to modify and improve ongoing programs;
to judge the effectiveness of methods or devices used; and to obtain a clear information about the
people in the program operation area. But the evaluator should fix the priority and focus of the
evaluation accordingly.

2. Identifying the Program Phase and Evaluation Type

Find out the stage of the program or project to be evaluated. Is it at the planning stage? Is this an
ongoing program? Is the program at the concluding stage? This information is helpful in deciding
the type of evaluation.

After we determine the stage of the program to be evaluated, we should choose an appropriate
evaluation design based on answers to several questions. The survey is the most commonly used
evaluation design on conducting extension evaluations. In this design, sampling is done first, i.e.
list sampling, block or area sampling by stratified sampling, quota sampling, and purposive or
judgement sampling. Questionnaire, interviews and observation techniques are applied to collect
data. It gives information on people’s perceptions and opinions about program and the results of
program. It can also bring out facts on the status of participants prior to their participation in a
program.

The other designs like case study design, experimental design, matched set design and before and
after study design are rarely used in program evaluation. Case study results cannot be generalized
but they can supplement other evaluation designs to provide in-depth information about benefits
of a program to an individual, family, or community. The before and after study observations are
made before and after participation in an extension program. The other two designs are rarely used
because they are expensive and difficult to conduct.

3. Assess the Feasibility of Implementing an Evaluation Study

Assessing the feasibility of a program evaluation helps ensure that the program can be
meaningfully evaluated and that the evaluation will contribute to improving program design
and/or performance. Consider the following questions carefully and then decide whether this is

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an appropriate time to begin a program evaluation. If the answers to many of the following
questions are “No,” this may not be an appropriate time to implement an evaluation study:

 Is there an important decision to be made on the basis of the evaluation?

 Is there a commitment to use the evaluation findings?
 Is there a legal requirement to carry out an evaluation?
 Does the program have enough impact or importance to warrant formal evaluation?
o Is this a one-time program? Will this program continue?
o Is the cost of the program so low that an evaluation is unnecessary?
 Is it likely that the evaluation will provide valid and reliable information?
 Is it likely that the evaluation will meet acceptable standards of propriety?
o Will the evaluation violate professional principles?
o Is the evaluation threatened by conflicts of interest?
o Will the evaluation jeopardize the well-being of program participants?
 Is the program ready to be evaluated?
o If a summative evaluation is suggested, has the program been operating long
enough to provide clearly defined outcomes?
 Are there sufficient human and monetary resources available to carry out an evaluation?
 Is there enough time to complete the evaluation?

4. Identify and Consult Key Stakeholders

Evaluation stakeholders are people who have a stake or vested interest in the evaluation findings.
They can be program funders, staff, administration, clients or program participants. It is important
to clarify the purpose and procedures of an evaluation with key evaluation stakeholders before
beginning. This process can help determine the type of evaluation needed and point to additional
reasons for evaluation that may prove even more productive than those originally suggested.
Come to agreement with stakeholders about:
 which program will be evaluated, what it includes and excludes;
 the purpose of the evaluation;

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  the goals and objectives of the program (goals and objectives can be written as statements
indicating what the program will achieve and what criteria will be used to judge whether
the objectives have been met; for example, see the box below);
 the budget and time available for evaluation;
 the evaluator’s role; and
 who will receive the evaluation results.

Because objectives provide such a critical set of guidelines for evaluation, they should be stated
clearly and concisely. When program objectives are stated clearly, the indicators and criteria to
judge merit or worth are stated explicitly. Objectives should indicate questions and issues the
evaluation will address. They also indicate who will participate in the evaluation. If the questions
and issues being used are not clearly defined and the indicators and criteria that will be used to
judge merit or worth are not well thought out, the evaluation may lack focus, be irrelevant, omit
important areas of interest, or result in unsupported conclusions.

5. Identify Approaches to Data Collection

There are two basic types of data: quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative data tend to focus on
numerical data and qualitative data are expressed in words.

Quantitative methods measure a finite number of pre-specified outcomes and are appropriate for
judging effects, attributing cause, comparing or ranking, classifying and generalizing results.
Quantitative methods are:
 suitable for large-scale projects, especially those having a large number of participants;
 useful for judging cause and effect;
 accepted as credible; and
 applicable to or generalizable to a larger population.

Qualitative methods take many forms, including rich descriptions of people, places,
conversations, and behavior. The open-ended nature of qualitative methods allows the person being

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interviewed to answer questions from his or her own perspective. Qualitative methods yield good
evaluation data as long as they are unbiased and objective.
Qualitative methods are appropriate for:
 understanding the context in which a program takes place;
 Addressing complex problems and process issues;
 clarifying relationships between program objectives and implementation;
 identifying unintended consequences of a program;
 gathering descriptive information;
 understanding operations and effects of programs; and
 conducting in-depth analysis of program impacts.

6. Selecting Data Collection Techniques

Evaluation data can be gathered from primary or secondary sources. Primary sources include
original documents, the first reporting of facts, and the first grouping of the raw data. Secondary
sources are materials that bring together facts from multiple primary sources.

Evaluation data generally are gathered by interviewing respondents (e.g., participants, facilitators,
project managers, local residents, experts) by asking questions and collecting (orally or in writing)
their deliberate responses. Sometimes, evaluation information is gathered from a subject by
watching what happens in a specific context or situation (e.g., how participants do activities in the
field). Evaluation information also could be gathered from documents (e.g., training materials
developed by project staff, minutes of meetings, field reports, local newspaper articles).

There is no one best method! We have to consider the relative merits of each method. Selection of
the method should be influenced by the type of information desired, time availability, and cost.
Many methods could be used, but you should choose those that provide the most useful
information, those you and/or your staff have the skill to use, and those that are within your budget.
Last, but not least, consider whether the information collected will be viewed as credible and
accurate, and will be useful to your organization.

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7. Sampling for Program Evaluation

Evaluation of extension programs and projects usually involves first-hand collection of data from
people. The collection of data essentially involves decision about the population and a sampling
plan. First, we must understand the concepts of population and sample. Population is defined a
group of individual persons, objects or items having characteristics in common, such as recipients
of agricultural extension services, milk producers in a district, or farm radio listeners in a province.
It is the total group from which samples are taken for statistical measurement.

Rather than surveying every person in a given population, evaluators often survey a sample of the
population. Why use a sample rather than a complete count? It is cheaper in terms of time, money,
materials, and effort. The best sample is representative, or a model, of the population. A sample is
representative of the population if important characteristics (e.g., age, educational level, ethnicity,
income) are similarly distributed. Sampling involves selecting a smaller number of units from
among the relevant whole group (population) in such a manner that they can be used to make
estimates about the whole group.

Sampling methods usually are categorized in two types: random (probability) sampling and
purposeful (non-probability) sampling. Random or probability sampling is based on random
selection of units from the identified population. Random (also called probability) sampling
provides a statistical basis for claiming that a sample is representative of the target population.
Samples are based on random selection of units. Every member of the target population has a
known probability of being included in the sample. It eliminates subjectivity in choosing a sample.
It is a "fair" way of getting a sample.

Evaluators may have to choose purposeful (non-probability) samples if accurate listings of the
population are not available, resources to develop a sampling frame are limited, or obtaining co-
operation from potential respondents is difficult. A purposeful sample may be chosen to be sure to
include a wide variety of people based on a number of critical characteristics. Sometimes,
individuals are specifically chosen to represent a certain characteristic. More frequently, evaluators
choose non-probability samples because they can be conveniently assembled. A purposeful sample
does not rely on random selection of units.

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8. Collecting and Analyzing Evaluation Data

A sound evaluation design and sampling plan is necessary, but not sufficient, to ensure a quality
evaluation. Whether you are using quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods, collecting accurate
and complete information is critical for making accurate judgments.
Quality data collection requires trained persons:
 who are familiar with agricultural extension and rural advisory service;
 who are adequately trained in evaluation methodology and data analytical tools; and
 who are very familiar with local culture and values.

Program evaluators must carefully select the data collectors. Technical and interpersonal
communication skills are critical to successful data collection. Good data collectors are well
organized persons who are punctual, record data clearly and accurately, and follow directions
closely.

Training of data collectors is essential before actual data collection. If possible, evaluators should
identify and select data collectors at the time of finalizing data collection instruments and plans.
Pre-testing or pilot-testing of instruments offer an opportunity for hands-on training for data
collectors.
Quality data collection also requires:
 close supervision of the data collection process;
 frequent checking for completeness of information or data collected;
 timely adjustment of procedures or tools to fit changing conditions; and
 timely data entry into a computer database for safe-keeping and analysis.

In principle, evaluations are planned when the programs or projects are planned. These plans may
need to be revised and updated on a continual basis because, as the societal context and needs keep
changing, such as changes in technology, road and communication networks, and market supply
and demand conditions, so do extension programs. A successful extension program follows a
dynamic process because it continuously adjusts its objectives and strategies to meet the needs of

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its clientele. Therefore, program managers need to adjust the standards and criteria for monitoring
and evaluation while evaluating extension programs. In-service training and close supervision of
staff reinforces their evaluation competency and helps ensure quality data collection.
Factors to consider when collecting evaluation data include:
Availability: Check if information already exists by reviewing records, reports, and census
records.
Need for training or expert assistance: Determine if evaluation tools/techniques require
special skills on the part of data collectors and if they need to be trained in the evaluation
procedure.
Protocol needs: Make sure to acquire human subjects research approval, permission or
clearance to collect information from people or other sources.
Bias: Bias means to be prejudiced in opinion or judgment. Bias can enter the evaluation process
in a variety of ways. Minimize bias as much as possible by taking a random sample, using a
data collection guide, assuring anonymity and confidentiality of responses, and establishing
trust with respondents.

After collecting the data, it should be properly measured by using the devices like value scales,
attitude scales, opinion polls, knowledge and comprehension tests, interest checks, skill or
performance rating, etc. The data can be analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics.
Qualitative data analysis (narration, content Analysis etc.) can be applied for qualitative data.
Analysis of qualitative data is the process of bringing order to the data and organizing data into
patterns, categories, and basic descriptive units. It requires reading, comprehension, and
organizational skills. Interpreting qualitative data is the process of bringing meaning to the analysis,
explaining patterns, and looking for relationships and linkages among descriptive dimensions.
Based on interpretation, the evaluator makes judgments about the value, or worth, of a program.
Good data analysis relies on emphasis on those aspects that are related to the particular issues
addressed by the evaluation.

9. Communicate Evaluation Findings

The most challenging task for evaluators is to develop useful results from the data and share the
results with its users. Program administrators and managers have a responsibility to report

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evaluation findings to stakeholders and other audiences who may have an interest in the results.
Communication with stakeholders should occur throughout the evaluation process to help ensure
meaningful, acceptable, and useful results.
Good evaluations contribute to improvements in programs and policies. Evaluators who are
committed to having their work is used ensure that their findings reach intended users in a timely
manner.

Evaluation results and recommendations that are effectively communicated to stakeholders are
more likely to be used than when not shared. Developing a reporting plan with stakeholders can
help clarify how, when and to whom findings should be disseminated.

The findings of evaluation need to be presented either by talk or written form. Different kinds of
reporting procedures may be used like written reports, audio-visual reports, question–answer
reports, etc. In the report, the evaluator should clearly state the reasons behind any implications
and recommendations made.

Written evaluation reports usually follow a standard format containing the following key
elements:
 Title page
 Table of contents
 Executive summary
 Background (of the program, its setting, and other contextual factors)
 Purpose of the evaluation
 Methods and procedures used
 Results or findings
 Conclusions and recommendations
 References
 Appendices

10. Use of Evaluation Results

Conducting evaluation does not assure that results will be used for program improvement. Many
factors influence the use of evaluation results. An evaluation report can be one of the sources of
information. Decision makers also can get information about an extension program from advisors,
colleagues, farmer organizations, interest groups, or the media. Some decision makers may not

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implement recommendations because of ideological or political reasons. Often, implementing
recommendations requires more resources than are available.

It is important, early in the evaluation process, to solicit feedback from the primary report audiences
to make sure the evaluation report will meet their needs. Evaluation experts suggest the following
strategies to ensure use:
 Primary users of evaluation (stakeholders) are identified early in the process.
 Evaluation team stays in contact with primary users throughout the evaluation process.
 Potential barriers to use of evaluation results are identified and discussed with primary
users.
 Preliminary results are shared with primary users.
 Primary users are involved in helping generate recommendations.
 High priority evaluation questions are adequately addressed by the evaluation.

An evaluation should not be considered complete until the findings of the evaluation are applied:
 to make decisions about a program’s improvement and/or continuation; and/or
 to plan future programs.

Problems of Evaluation

Basically, the purpose of evaluation is to estimate the effectiveness or impact of a program usually
in terms of how well it has achieved its objective. Evaluation must be properly conducted.
However, many problems are faced at different stages of evaluation. Some of the important
problems as quoted by Annamalai et al. (1994) are:
a. Error of observation: Evaluations observe various phenomena and give opinion. Difference is
observed in the description of the phenomenon between two evaluators. Sometimes it is also
noticed that the same observer gives different opinions about the same program at different
occasions.
b. Error of measuring instrument: It is difficult to design a perfect instrument for evaluation.
There is chance of error in social sciences because no instrument can judge the human behavior
with absolute correctness. However, proper care will help in reducing error in data collection.

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c. Error of measurement: It is generally impossible to measure all of an individual’s behavior or
knowledge in a social environment. Therefore, an attempt is always made to measure a
representative or a typical sample of the behavior or knowledge. The information based on a sample
is likely to contain errors.
d. Error of quantification: In order to assess the achievements and to know the significance of
achievements, data have to be quantified. There are chances of error during the process of transfer
of data from qualitative form to quantitative form. Moreover, few absolutely constant units of
measurement are available in social research.
e. Error due to lack of control: Most of the time evaluation deals with human beings. The human
beings are constantly changing and difficult to control. A poultry scientist or a pharmacologist is
able to handle his material in any way he chooses, but it is difficult to do the same with the human
beings.
f. Error of true responses: Most of the information obtained are based on the expressed opinion
of respondents. They may not be giving the true responses. It is very difficult to check the
truthfulness of the information.
g. Error of operational difficulties: A researcher has to face many operational difficulties while
collecting data. Respondents of the baseline may drop out at the terminal stage. The selected
respondents may or may not be present at the time of researcher’s visit. The availability of
instruments of evaluation by their very nature is limited.

References

1. Casely, D.J. and Kumar, K. (1990): Project Monitoring and Evaluation in Agriculture. John
Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London.
2. FAO (1984): Agricultural Extension reference Manual. 2nd Edition. Swanson, E.B. (ed.). Food
and Agriculture Organization of the UN, Rome.
3. Van den Ban and Hawkins (1996): Agricultural Extension, 2nd Edition. Blackwell Science td.,
Australia
1. Murphy, M. and Sprey, L.H. (1982): Monitoring and Evaluation of Agricultural Change. The
Netherlands.
2. Murphy, J. and Merchant, J. T. (1989): Monitoring and Evaluation in Extension Agencies.
World Bank, Washington DC.

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3. UN(1984): Guiding Principles for the Design of Monitoring and Evaluation in Rural
Development Projects and Programs. USA.

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