Mechanical properties of Metals: Chapter 6
Strong, hard, ductile, stiff, Tough, brittle
►Careful experiments are performed in the lab under conditions matching
those in the real world ( under service )
►Factors to be considered include:
1. nature of the applied load ( stress i.e force / area )
2. duration of load ( constant or fluctuating in time )
3. environmental conditions (temperature, corrosive )
►Since mechanical properties are of great concern to:
Producers, Consumers, Government agencies, Research organization
Professional bodies are involved in defining / measuring
mechanical properties such as:
American Society for Testing and Materials ( ASTM )
Metals, alloys and their processing:
Forging ( cold working ), Casting
Bending copper wire
Welding, Machining, Grinding, drilling
Non-uniform cooling, Non-uniform Heating
Phase change ( such as in Tin )
Rolling, extrusion
Forming Operations
Processing induces changes
such as:
►Stress is induced,
►Deformation takes place
►Grain size, shape, orientation change
►Phase may change( β-Tin to α-Tin on cooling )
►Energy is stored in the material
►Dislocation density increases
Tin allotropic transformation from one crystal from
to another undergoing 27 % volume change
( society demands )
Strong; hard; stiff; ductile; brittle; tough
Strengthening: Through grain size refinement
Solid-Solution strengthening
Strain Hardening
A rotating axle under tension, Wing of an Aeroplane,
pressurized tank, Fish under water, beam in structures,
bridges
Pressurized tank
Fish under water
Different types of stress ( tension, compression & shear )
Dotted lines represent pre-stressed shape
Strain = (l – lo ) / lo
Tensile stress Compressive Stress
Dimensionless
Stress, σ = Pascal= N /m2
Shear stress Torsional stress
( a form of shear )
• Typical tensile
specimen
Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test
machine
extensometer specimen
gauge
length
Engineering stress and Engineering strain
( in Tension only )
→Engineering stress σ = F / A0 in N / m2 = Pa, usually MPa
→Engineering strain ε = ( li – l0 ) / l0 = Δl / l0 (length/length )
dimensionless
σ ( stress ) = E . ε ( strain )
Results are plotted on next slide
Elastic deformation Elastic deformation: gray cast iron
( is reversible, linear ) & some plastics( is reversible & nonlinear )
Hooke’s Law, Young’s Modulus; E ranges between 45 to 407 GPa
Bonding between metal atoms are stretched
Think of bonds between metal atoms
Stiffer bonds will resist deformation
Attraction
Repulsion
Adapted from Fig. 7.7,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
strength and hardness are measures of resistance to this kind of
deformation (at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)
• Simple tension test:
Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
ep engineering strain, e
plastic strain
Yield Strength(35 – 1400 Mpa)
sy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has occurred.
tensile stress, s
sy
sy
Resistance of material to plastic deformation
is due to yield strength
engineering strain, e
e p = 0.002
Yield strength ( resistance to ? ) & Elastic – Plastic transition during
Deformation ( most materials show elastic deformation of 5 /1000 )
Yield strength 35 to 1400 MPa
Plastic
Elastic
How yield strength for materials with non-linear graph is determined ?
Stress – Strain Tests
1. Compressive stress:
not very common, for brittle materials, stress is taken to be
negative, strain is already negative
→ compressive is much larger than tensile
2. Shear stress ( couple )
F / A0 where F is force or load applied to upper and lower faces
distance h apart, each of which has an area A0
Shear strain = a / h = tan θ
3.Torsion is special form of shear (torque) applied to shaft or axles in rotation
Geometric considerations of Stress - Strain on inclined planes
F/A=σ
Shear force = F cos (90- θ) = F sinθ
A / Shear Area = cosθ
Shear Area = A / cosθ
Tensile
component Shear stress = Fsinθ ÷ A / cosθ
θ = F sin θ ÷ (A/Cos θ) = σ sin θ . Cos θ
׳
A
Poisson Ratio
How different materials deform under loading
Longitudinal
/axial
Lateral
If you apply load in one direction, the material will deform in not only
that direction but other directions as well
Poisson Ratio is the parameter that tells us how the material will
deform in the lateral directions.
Poisson ratio: = Lateral / Axial strain
Isotropic materials and in elastic region only
Poisson Ratio = Lateral / Axial strain
Shear
Elastic
Modulus
.
modulus
Example problem 6.2
Page: 179
Steel cylinder
Diameter d0 = 10 mm
Tensile load applied
Deformation induced:
∆d = 2.5x10-3 mm
Determine load F
required
E = 97x103 MPa
We need values of E = 97x103 MPa and
Both can be taken from tables
Plotting engineering stress and engineering strain
Fracture point F
Yield strength
(35-1400Mpa)
σ = F / A0
Vs
σt = F / Ai
31
Anelasticity and Viscoelasticity
Can elastic strain be dependent on time:Yes
This is what is called Anelasticity or viscoelasticity
Anelasticity: insignificant for metals; very significant for
polymers ( termed as viscoelastic behavior of polymers )
Questions related to deformation ( Elastic & Plastic ? )
►Plastic deformation in crystalline (slip) & in amorphous (viscous)
►What happens to bonds during plastic deformation
►Role of dislocation in plastic deformation
►Most materials deform elastically to the extent of
5 parts in 1000 only
Anelastic and Viscoelastic behavior
Elastic Strain and its dependence on time
Strain as a function of time: f(t)
Anelasticity: Insignificant for metals
Viscoelasticity: Very significant for polymers
Ductility: It is a measure of deformation at fracture
Where area means cross sectional area
Influence of temperature on Stress – strain behavior
Example – Iron ( ductility increases as T increases. Why )
True stress True strain
UTS
Engineering Stress
σ = F / A0
Necking
σT = F / Af
Toughness
The capacity of a material to absorb
energy per unit volume without fracture (J/m3)
Engineering
tensile
stress, s
Engineering tensile strain, e
Units of Toughness (obtained from area under the curve)
Ductile, Brittle, Tough materials
Strength increases along ordinate, ductility increases along abscissa,
and the product of Ordinate and abscissa i.e the area under the curve,
shows toughness ( capacity to absorb energy before fracture )
Resilience
The capacity of a material to absorb energy when
deformed elastically and
This energy must be recovered upon unloading
Modulus of
resilience
How can you define Ur
after checking its
dimensions ?
Elastic strain recovery after plastic deformation
Strain hardening
OR
Cold working
Mechanical properties of
engineering Importance
Modulus of elasticity
Yield Strength at 0.2 percent
offset
Ultimate tensile strength
Fracture strength
Ductility:
Percent elongation at fracture
Percent reduction in area at
fracture
