Chapter 9: Earth
9.1 The System and Structure of the Earth
The Earth System
1. The Earth system consists of four main spheres:
a) Atmosphere The layer of air surrounding the Earth
b) Hydrosphere The Earth's surface covered by water, such as oceans and rivers
c) Geosphere The solid parts of the Earth, such as rocks and soil
d) Biosphere The parts of the Earth inhabited by living things
2. These four main spheres interact with each other to make the Earth the only home for all living
things.
Atmospheric Stratification
1. The atmosphere is a layer of gas that covers the
Earth's surface due to the Earth’s gravitational force.
2. The atmosphere is divided into five layers or strata:
a) Troposphere
b) Stratosphere
c) Mesosphere
d) Thermosphere
e) Exosphere
The Characteristics and Roles of the Atmospheric Strata
Atmospheric strata Characteristics and roles
The layer of air closest to the Earth's surface, it is
the densest and has the highest pressure.
The troposphere contains 80% of the atmospheric
Troposphere gases.
(0 – 13 km from the Earth's surface) Weather changes such as clouds, rain, snow, wind,
and lightning occur in this layer.
The troposphere holds 99% of the water vapour in
the atmosphere.
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Water vapour is essential in regulating air
temperature as it absorbs solar energy from the
Earth's surface.
Since the air in the stratosphere is very thin, heat
from the Earth's surface or the Sun cannot increase
the temperature of the air in this layer.
Stratosphere The bottom layer of the stratosphere has stable
(13 – 50 km from the Earth's temperatures and serves as a pathway for
surface) commercial airplane flights.
At the top part of the stratosphere, there is an ozone
layer that protects the Earth from harmful
ultraviolet rays.
Mesosphere The coldest layer of the atmosphere.
(50 – 80 km from the Earth's Most meteors burn up and decompose to become a
surface) shiny gas when entering this layer.
Thermosphere
A cloud-free layer without water vapor.
(80 – 480 km from the Earth's
The aurora phenomenon is visible in this layer.
surface)
The outermost layer of the Earth’s atmosphere that
Exosphere
connects with outer space.
(more than 480 km from the Earth's
Satellites orbit in this layer, enabling long-distance
surface)
communication.
Ocean Stratification
1. The ocean covers approximately 71% of the Earth's surface area.
2. Biodiversity in the ocean is the highest among ecosystems.
3. The ocean can be divided into three main zones based on depth:
a) Surface zone
b) Twilight zone
c) Dark zone
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Three Ocean Zones Stratification
Ocean Zone Characteristics
The water in this zone is shallow, suitable for plant
Surface Zone habitats.
(from the ocean surface to a Light penetrates this zone sufficiently to allow
depth of 200 m) photosynthesis in aquatic plants.
This zone is also known as the euphotic or sunlight zone.
Only a small amount of light penetrates this zone,
insufficient for photosynthesis.
This zone, also called the dusk or dysphotic zone,
Twilight Zone
supports no aquatic plant life.
(from 201 m to 1500 m depth)
It is a suitable habitat for certain marine animals.
Fish in this zone typically have larger eyes to enhance
their field of vision.
No light penetrates this zone.
Dark Zone
Also known as the aphotic zone.
(from 1500 m to 4000 m
Many animals living here have bodies that glow in the
depth)
dark.
Distribution of Water on Earth
1. The hydrosphere represents the total water content on Earth, which can exist in different states:
a) Solid, like snow.
b) Liquid, such as surface water, underground water and in the air like rainwater.
c) Gas, such as water vapour that has been evaporated in the clouds, rainwater, pond water,
river water and sea water.
2. The hydrosphere is essential for:
a) Maintaining the water content on Earth.
b) Maintaining weather conditions.
c) Providing habitat for aquatic life.
d) Supplying seafood resources to humans.
e) Generating electricity through hydroelectric power.
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The Earth’s Layers
1. Based on physical properties, the Earth can be divided into three main layers:
a) Crush
b) Mantle
c) Core
Layer Crust Mantle Core
Percentage of the 0.3% 68.4% 31.3%
Earth’s mass
Percentage of the 1% 83% 16%
Earth’s volume
2. Based on chemical properties, the Earth's structure consists of three main layers: the lithosphere,
asthenosphere, and mesosphere.
Layer Lithosphere Asthenosphere Mesosphere
Thickness Consists of the crust Consists of the Consists of the
and upper part of the middle part of the bottom part of the
mantle mantle mantle
Type of rock Cooler, strong and Semi-liquid Solid
hard
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9.2 Composition of the Earth
Types of Rock and Their Characteristics
Type of rock Characteristics
Igneous
When magma erupts onto the Earth's surface, the cooling and
solidification of magma occurs and form igneous rock.
Igneous rocks are crystalline, very hard and shiny.
Sedimentary
Fragments of rocks, sand, mud or marine shells are deposited
in layers, usually at the bottom of oceans or lakes. These
layers undergo compaction and cementation to form
sedimentary rock.
Metamorphic
Metamorphic rocks originate from igneous and sedimentary
rocks.
When igneous or sedimentary rocks are exposed to high
pressure and temperature in the Earth's crust, their physical
properties and chemical composition change, forming a new
type of rock known as metamorphic rock.
Metamorphic rocks are harder and more stable compared to
igneous or sedimentary rocks.
The Process of Rock Formation
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9.3 Main Processes of the Earth
1. The Earth's main processes can be divided into two: exogenic processes and endogenic processes.
Main Processes of the Earth
Exogenic processes Endogenic processes
Weathering Mantle convection process
Erosion Magma activity
Mass depletion and land depletion Process of movement of the Earth’s
Transportation and deposition crust (plate tectonics)
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a) Exogenic Processes
Exogenic processes are a series of Earth processes that occur on the Earth's surface and are
driven by energy from the Sun.
Exogenic process Characteristics
Weathering The process of fragmentation and decomposition of
rocks occurring on the Earth's crust surface to a depth of
two meters.
Erosion The process of erosion or depletion of the upper layer
of the Earth's surface by moving agents such as moving
water, waves, and wind.
Mass depletion/ Land The movement of weathered, unstable soil down a slope
depletion/ Land due to gravity.
movement
Transport The transfer of eroded rock materials.
Besides functioning as erosion agents, moving water,
waves and wind also act as transportation agents.
Transportation agents carry these materials over a
certain distance.
Sedimentation Sedimentation occurs when eroded rock materials
transported by wind and river water are deposited in
lake or ocean beds.
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b) Endogenic Processes
Endogenic processes are the main Earth processes that originate from within the Earth and
have the ability to form and alter the Earth's surface.
Endogenic processes are driven by heat in the mantle and core of the Earth.
Endogenic processes consist of mantle convection, magma activity and movement of the
Earth’s crust (plate tectonics).
Mantle Convection Rocks in the mantle near the core are in a liquid or semi-
Process liquid state.
These rocks will expand, become less dense, float, and
move toward the crust.
The closer the rocks are to the crust, the cooler they
become. As these rocks cool, they become denser, sink, and
move back toward the core.
Magma Activity Magma is liquid rock at high pressure in the mantle that
pushes the Earth's crust, causing it to crack.
When magma flows from the mantle to the Earth's surface
through the cracks, it solidifies to create various landforms.
Movement of the According to the Plate Tectonics Theory, the Earth's crust
Earth’s crust (plate has broken into many pieces of different sizes known as
tectonics). tectonic plates.
The movement of the Earth's crust or tectonic plates occurs
through divergence, convergence or transformation.
The movement of tectonic plates creates various landforms
such as faults in the oceans and mountain ranges. It also
lead to the occurrence of earthquakes.
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9.4 Geohazard Phenomena
1. Geohazards occur as a result of endogenic processes that take place within the Earth.
Earthquake Earthquakes are vibrations of the Earth's crust caused by the
sudden release of energy from within the Earth.
These vibrations occur when tectonic plates shift.
Volcanism Volcanoes and earthquakes are typically interconnected
phenomena because they happen in the same tectonic plate.
Landslide Landslides are caused by:
a) The force of gravity.
b) Water flow, groundwater, heavy rainfall, and waves.
c) Earth vibrations caused by earthquakes.
d) Vibrations caused by machines.
Tsunami Tsunamis are massive wave events that occur as a result of
earthquakes on the ocean floor, volcanic activity on the ocean
floor, and meteor impacts in the sea.
Global warming Global warming is a geohazard related to the increase in the
Earth's surface temperature caused by the warming of the
atmosphere containing excess carbon dioxide.
Acid rain Acid rain is a global disaster related to rainwater with high
acidity levels.
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9.5 Age of the Earth
The Geological Time Scale
1. The geological time scale is divided into several main periods known as eras. Each era is
further divided into several periods of time, which are then further subdivided into epochs.
Fossils
1. Fossils are the remnants or traces of living organisms such as humans, animals, plants, and
other types of life that have been preserved since ancient times.
2. Knowledge about fossils can also aid in the study of rocks in the following ways:
a) Estimating the age of rocks
b) Determining rock correlation
c) Identifying agents of rock deposition
d) Estimating the duration of existence of a particular species of living organisms
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9.6 Earth Resources and Applied Geology
1. Surface Water
Surface water is the water that flows on the surface of the ground into rivers, lakes, ponds, and
seas.
Risks of surface water:
a) Excess surface water can cause flooding and overflow, which can harm living organisms
and lead to property destruction.
b) Insufficient surface water can result in drought.
2. Groundwater
Groundwater is the water that seeps into the Earth beneath the surface.
Risks of groundwater:
a) Groundwater pollution occurs when toxic substances seep into the soil and contaminate
the groundwater.
3. Aquifers
An aquifer is a formation or location of rock that can hold groundwater.
Aquifers are divided into two types:
a) Unconfined aquifers can store large amounts of groundwater but do not allow the stored
groundwater to flow freely.
b) Confined aquifers act as channels for groundwater to flow through towards a rivers or a
spring as its main flow.
Risks of aquifers:
a) Freshwater in aquifers near the sea is at risk of being contaminated by seawater that seeps
into the aquifer, resulting in saline water.
4. Economic Minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solid elements or compounds found in the Earth.
Economic minerals are categorized into three groups:
a) Metallic minerals: gold, copper, iron, tin, and aluminum
b) Non-metallic minerals: coal and petroleum
c) Rare earth minerals: scandium, yttrium, and lanthanum
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Petroleum and Coal
Petroleum and coal are non-metallic minerals used as fuels.
Petroleum is formed from the remains of marine organisms that were deposited on the
ocean floor millions of years ago.
Coal is formed from plants in swampy areas that were deposited millions of years ago.
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