Science Notes
Plants and their reproduction: Germination is the process by which a seed begins to grow
into a plant. It requires water to activate enzymes, oxygen for aerobic respiration to release
energy, and a suitable temperature to enable enzyme activity. The main stages of
germination involve the absorption of water, swelling of the seed, activation of enzymes,
breakdown of food stores, growth of the embryonic root and shoot, and emergence of the
seedling. Once the seedling grows leaves, it begins photosynthesis to produce its own food
using light, carbon dioxide, and water.
Breathing and respiration: Aerobic respiration is a chemical process that occurs in cells to
release energy from glucose using oxygen. The word equation is: Glucose + Oxygen →
Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP). The respiratory system includes the nose, trachea,
bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm. Inside the lungs are tiny air sacs called alveoli where gas
exchange occurs. Oxygen diffuses into the blood from the alveoli while carbon dioxide
diffuses out to be exhaled. The alveoli are adapted for this function by having thin walls, a
large surface area, and a rich blood supply. Breathing helps to move air in and out of the
lungs so that gas exchange can happen efficiently.
Unicellular organisms: These are organisms made up of only one cell. Examples include
bacteria and protoctists. Bacteria are simple, prokaryotic organisms that reproduce
asexually by binary fission. They can survive in various environments and play roles in
processes such as decomposition and fermentation. Some bacteria are pathogenic and can
cause diseases. Protoctists are eukaryotic and include organisms like amoeba and algae.
Some protoctists can cause diseases like malaria. They may move using cilia, flagella, or
pseudopodia and obtain nutrients in different ways such as photosynthesis or ingestion.
Metals and their uses: Metals are generally hard, shiny, malleable (can be hammered into
shapes), ductile (can be drawn into wires), and good conductors of heat and electricity.
Corrosion is a reaction of metals with substances in the environment, often leading to
damage; rusting is a common example involving iron reacting with water and oxygen. Some
metals like gold and aluminium resist corrosion. Metals react differently with substances
like water and acids depending on their reactivity. Alloys are mixtures of metals or metals
with other elements, designed to improve properties such as strength, durability, and
resistance to corrosion. For example, stainless steel is more resistant to rust than regular
steel.
Rocks: There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of molten magma or lava; examples
include granite and basalt. Sedimentary rocks form from layers of sediment compressed
over time; examples include sandstone and limestone. Metamorphic rocks are formed when
existing rocks are changed by heat and pressure; examples include marble (from limestone)
and slate (from shale). Weathering is the breaking down of rocks through physical
(temperature changes), chemical (reactions with water/air), or biological (plant roots)
processes. Erosion involves the movement of weathered material by wind, water, or ice,
shaping landscapes over time.
Light: Light travels in straight lines and can be reflected or refracted. Reflection occurs
when light bounces off a surface, with the angle of incidence equal to the angle of reflection.
Smooth, shiny surfaces like mirrors reflect light well. Refraction occurs when light passes
from one material into another and changes speed, causing it to bend. For example, light
bends when it moves from air into water. Lenses use refraction to focus light and form
images. Light enables us to see objects and is essential for vision. Diagrams can help
visualize how light behaves when it hits different surfaces.
Energy transfers: Energy can be transferred through conduction, convection, radiation, and
mechanical work. In conduction, heat transfers through direct contact, mostly in solids like
metals. Convection occurs in fluids (liquids and gases) when warmer areas rise and cooler
areas sink, creating currents. Radiation transfers energy through electromagnetic waves
and can happen even in a vacuum, like sunlight reaching Earth. Energy efficiency refers to
how much of the input energy is usefully transferred. The efficiency of a device is calculated
using the formula: Efficiency = (Useful energy output ÷ Total energy input) × 100%. Energy
is measured in kilojoules or kilowatt-hours (kWh). Reducing energy loss and using energy-
efficient devices helps conserve energy and reduce costs.
