Circulatory System Circulation
The circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system, is a complex network of The circulatory system has two main types of circulation:
organs, vessels, and fluids. It plays a crucial role in transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones,
and waste products throughout the body. It consists of three main components: the heart, 1. Pulmonary Circulation:
blood vessels, and blood.
o Pulmonary circulation is the flow of blood between the heart and the
lungs.
1. Heart o It helps exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs:
• The heart is a muscular organ located in the chest. It acts as a pump, propelling ▪ Deoxygenated blood from the heart is sent to the lungs.
blood throughout the circulatory system.
▪ In the lungs, carbon dioxide is removed, and oxygen is
• Structure: added.
o Divided into four chambers:Left and right atria (upper chambers).Left ▪ Oxygenated blood then returns to the heart.
and right ventricles (lower chambers).
2. Systemic Circulation:
• Function: o Systemic circulation is the flow of blood between the heart and the rest
of the body.
o Deoxygenated blood:
o It delivers oxygenated blood to tissues and organs.
▪ Returns to the right atrium from the body.
o It also collects deoxygenated blood, bringing it back to the heart.
▪ Is pumped into the right ventricle, then sent to the lungs for
oxygenation.
o Oxygenated blood: Cardiac Cycle
▪ Returns to the left atrium from the lungs. The cardiac cycle is the process that occurs during one heartbeat.
▪ Is pumped into the left ventricle, then sent to the rest of the Key Points:
body.
1. Definition:
It includes all the events from the start of one heartbeat to the start of the next.
2. Blood Vessels
o Two main phases:
• Blood vessels are pathways through which blood flows. They are classified into
three types:
▪ Diastole: The heart relaxes and fills with blood.
o Arteries:
▪ Systole: The heart contracts and pumps blood out.
Step-by-Step Process:
▪ Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
1. Blood enters the heart:
▪ The aorta is the largest artery, branching into smaller
arteries. • Deoxygenated blood from the body flows into the right atrium through:
o Veins: o Superior vena cava: Brings blood from the upper body.
▪ Carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. o Inferior vena cava: Brings blood from the lower body.
▪ The largest veins are: 2. Blood flows to the right ventricle:
▪ Superior vena cava: Returns blood from the • Blood moves from the right atrium to the right ventricle through the tricuspid
upper body. valve.
▪ Inferior vena cava: Returns blood from the lower • The tricuspid valve ensures blood flows in one direction, preventing backflow.
body.
3. Blood goes to the lungs:
o Capillaries:
• When the right ventricle contracts, blood is pumped to the lungs through the
▪ Tiny blood vessels connecting arteries and veins. pulmonary artery.
▪ Facilitate the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste
• The pulmonary artery is guarded by semilunar valves and is the only artery that
products between blood and body cells.
carries deoxygenated blood.
4. Blood gets oxygen in the lungs:
3. Blood
• In the lungs, blood releases carbon dioxide and absorbs oxygen.
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue composed of:
5. Blood returns to the heart:
o Red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes:Responsible for oxygen
transport. • Oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins (the only veins
that carry oxygenated blood).
o White blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes:Play a role in the immune
system. • Blood enters the left atrium.
o Platelets Aid in blood clotting. 6. Blood moves to the left ventricle:
o Plasma:The liquid component of blood. • Blood flows from the left atrium to the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve.
▪ Carries nutrients, hormones, and waste products. • The left ventricle has the thickest walls since it pumps blood to the entire body.
7. Blood is pumped to the body:
• When the left ventricle contracts, blood is pumped out through the aorta.
• The aorta distributes oxygen-rich blood to all parts of the body.
Structure of the Heart:
• The heart has four chambers:
1. Right atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from the body.
2. Right ventricle: Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
3. Left atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.
4. Left ventricle: Pumps oxygenated blood to the body.
• The upper chambers (atria) are thin-walled and receive blood.
• The lower chambers (ventricles) are thick-walled and pump blood out.
1. Single-Chamber Pacemaker:
Functions of the Circulatory System
o Sends signals to either one atrium or one ventricle.
1. Transport: Carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout
the body. 2. Dual-Chamber Pacemaker:
2. Regulation: Maintains body temperature and pH balance. o Coordinates signals to both the atrium and ventricle for a more natural
heartbeat.
3. Defense: Supports the immune system and protects against infections.
3. Biventricular Pacemaker:
4. Blood Clotting: Prevents excessive bleeding during injury.
o Stimulates both ventricles simultaneously.
Comparison: Human Heart vs. Artificial Heart o Used for patients with heart failure (cardiac resynchronization therapy).
Procedure and Maintenance:
Feature Human Heart Artificial Heart
Function
Pumps blood naturally through muscle
Mechanically circulates blood. • Pacemakers are implanted under the skin near the collarbone.
contractions.
Lifespan Functions for a lifetime (with proper care). Limited by device durability. • Leads (thin wires) are inserted into the heart through veins.
Lifesaving for severe heart
Advantages Self-sustaining, no external power needed.
failure. • The device’s battery lasts 5 to 15 years. When the battery depletes, the pacemaker
Prone to diseases like heart failure or valve Infection risks, power is replaced.
Challenges
defects. dependency.
Benefits:
Medical Temporary or permanent
Natural organ, essential for life.
Role replacement.
• Restores a normal heartbeat.
Artificial Heart
An artificial heart is a mechanical device used to replace or support the function of a • Improves quality of life for those with heart rhythm disorders.
damaged human heart. It is designed for people with severe heart conditions who cannot
survive without intervention. • Modern devices are small, lightweight, and efficient.
Types of Artificial Hearts:
1. Total Artificial Heart (TAH): Stents
A stent is a tiny, mesh-like tube inserted into an artery to keep it open and allow proper blood
o Replaces both the left and right ventricles (the lower pumping
flow.
chambers of the heart).
Why Are Stents Used?
o Used as:
▪ A temporary solution while waiting for a heart transplant
• To treat narrowed or blocked blood vessels, usually due to fatty deposits (plaque).
(bridge to transplant).
• Commonly used in conditions like coronary artery disease and peripheral arterial
▪ A long-term solution for patients who are not eligible for disease.
transplantation.
Types of Stents:
o Example: SynCardia Total Artificial Heart. 1. Bare-Metal Stents (BMS):
2. Ventricular Assist Device (VAD):
o Provide structural support to keep the artery open.
o A mechanical pump that helps one or both ventricles pump blood 2. Drug-Eluting Stents (DES):
efficiently.
o Coated with medication to prevent the artery from narrowing again
o Does not replace the whole heart. (restenosis).
o Used as: 3. Bioresorbable Stents:
▪ A bridge to transplant. o Gradually dissolve over time, leaving behind a healed artery.
▪ Therapy for those not eligible for transplants (destination How Stents Are Placed:
therapy).
1. A catheter (thin tube) with a balloon and stent is inserted into the blocked artery.
▪ A temporary measure for patients with reversible heart
conditions (bridge to recovery). 2. The balloon inflates, pushing the plaque against the artery wall.
Advantages and Challenges: 3. The stent expands and remains in place to keep the artery open.
4. The balloon is removed, leaving the stent in place.
• Advantages:
Benefits and Risks:
o Extends life for patients with end-stage heart failure.
o Allows patients to remain mobile while awaiting treatment. • Benefits:
o Improves blood flow, reducing symptoms like chest pain or leg pain.
• Challenges:
o Prevents complications like heart attack or stroke.
o Risk of infection and blood clots.
o Devices require a reliable power source. • Risks:
o Limited lifespan compared to a natural heart.
o Possible blood clots (stent thrombosis).
Ongoing research aims to make artificial hearts safer, smaller, and more durable. o Re-narrowing of the artery (restenosis).
Dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) is often prescribed to prevent blood clots after stent
placement.
Pacemakers
A pacemaker is a small, electronic device implanted in the body to regulate an irregular or
slow heartbeat. Comparison: Human Heart vs. Artificial Heart
How a Pacemaker Works: Aspect Human Heart Artificial Heart
• Monitors the heart's natural electrical signals. Primary Pumps blood naturally through muscle
Mechanically circulates blood.
Function contractions.
• Sends electrical impulses to the heart when it detects a problem (like a pause or
irregular rhythm). Functions throughout life with proper Limited lifespan due to wear and
Lifespan
care. tear.
When Are Pacemakers Used?
Requires an external power
Pacemakers are recommended for: Energy Source Does not need external power.
source or battery.
1. Bradycardia: A slow heart rate.
Works autonomously without Lifesaving option for severe heart
Advantages
2. AV Block: When electrical signals from the upper chambers of the heart fail to intervention. failure.
reach the lower chambers.
Can suffer from diseases like heart failure Risk of infection, clots, and
3. Arrhythmias: Irregular heart rhythms. Challenges
or valve issues. mechanical failure.
Types of Pacemakers:
ervous System o The stable electrical charge across a neuron’s membrane when not
transmitting a signal.
The nervous system is the body’s control and communication network, coordinating its actions
and maintaining homeostasis. It comprises specialized cells, tissues, and organs and is divided o Typically about -70 millivolts (mV).
into two main parts:
2. Mechanism:
o Maintained by the unequal distribution of ions across the cell
1. Central Nervous System (CNS): membrane.
The CNS is the command center, consisting of: o The inside of the neuron is more negative compared to the outside.
• Brain: 3. Key Ions:
o Controls thoughts, emotions, movements, and various bodily functions. o Potassium (K⁺): Moves out of the cell, maintaining the negative charge.
o Different regions handle specific functions, such as the cerebrum for o Sodium (Na⁺): Less permeable at rest but crucial during action
cognition, cerebellum for coordination, and brainstem for vital functions potential.
like breathing.
• Spinal Cord:
Action Potential
o A bundle of nerve fibers that relays messages between the brain and
1. Definition:
the body.
o A rapid electrical change across the membrane that transmits signals
o Responsible for reflex actions, which are automatic responses to stimuli.
along the neuron.
2. Steps of Action Potential:
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
o Depolarization:
The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body and is divided into:
▪ When a strong stimulus opens voltage-gated sodium
• Somatic Nervous System: channels, sodium ions (Na⁺) enter the cell.
o Controls voluntary movements, such as walking or writing. ▪ The inside of the neuron becomes more positive, reversing
the membrane potential to +30 mV.
o Transmits sensory information from the body to the CNS.
o Propagation:
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):
▪ The depolarization wave travels along the axon, transmitting
o Regulates involuntary activities like heartbeat, digestion, and breathing. the signal.
o Divisions of ANS: o Repolarization:
▪ Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares the body for stress ▪ Potassium channels open, allowing potassium ions (K⁺) to
("fight or flight") by increasing heart rate and redirecting exit, restoring the negative charge inside.
blood to muscles.
o Hyperpolarization:
▪ Parasympathetic Nervous System: Promotes relaxation
("rest and digest") by slowing heart rate and enhancing ▪ The membrane becomes slightly more negative than the
digestion. resting potential before stabilizing.
3. Importance:
3. Neurons o Enables communication between neurons, muscles, and glands.
Neurons are the functional units of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical o Ensures rapid responses in processes like reflexes and muscle
signals. contractions.
• Structure:
o Cell Body: Contains the nucleus and organelles.
o Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
o Axon: Transmits signals to other neurons or target tissues.
4. Neurotransmitters
These are chemical messengers that help neurons communicate.
• Examples:
o Dopamine: Involved in mood and reward.
o Serotonin: Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.
o Acetylcholine: Important for muscle control and memory.
5. Functions of the Nervous System
1. Sensory Input: Detects changes in the environment via sensory receptors.
2. Integration: Processes sensory information and decides responses.
3. Motor Output: Sends signals to muscles or glands to act.
4. Homeostasis: Maintains internal stability by regulating body processes.
5. Higher Cognitive Functions: Responsible for memory, learning, emotions, and
problem-solving.
The nervous system enables the body to adapt to changes, ensuring survival and balance.
Action Potential and Resting Potential
These electrical signals are crucial for nerve and muscle cell communication.
Resting Potential
1. Definition:
