Exp. No.

:
COMPUTATION OF PARAMETERS OF TRANSMISSION LINES
Date:

Aim:
To determine the positive sequence line parameters L and C per phase per kilometer of a three phase
single and double circuit transmission lines for different conductor arrangements.
Objectives:
i. To become familiar with different arrangements of conductors of a three phase single and double
circuit transmission lines and to compute the GMD and GMR for different arrangements.
ii. To compute the series inductance and shunt capacitance per phase, per km of a three phase single
and double circuit overhead transmission lines with solid and bundled conductors.

Software required:
MATLAB
Theory:

1 Inductance:
The general formula for computing inductance per phase in mH per km of a transmission is
given by
L = 0.2 ln (Dm/Ds)
Where,
Dm = Geometric Mean Distance (GMD)
Ds = Geometric Mean Radius (GMR)
The expression for GMR and GMD for different arrangement of conductors of the transmissionlines are
given in the following section
1.1 Single phase line:
A B
r

d
Inductance/conductor/m =
Where, Ds=0.7788r
Dm= d A

1.2 Three Phase - Symmetrical Spacing:

d3 d2

d1 B
C

GMD = D
 GMR = re-1/4 = r‟
r = radius of conductor

1.3 Three Phase - Asymmetrical Transposed:

GMD = Geometric mean of the three distances of the unsymmetrically placed conductors
√
GMR = re-1/4 = r‟
Where, r = radius of conductors

1.4 Composite Conductor Lines:

Lx = 0.2 ln GMD/GMRx
GMD= √( )( )
GMDx= √( )( )
-1/4
r‟ a = rae
The distance between elements are represented by D with respective subscripts and r‟ a , r‟ b and
r‟ n have been replaced by Daa, Dbb …… and D nn respectively for symmetry

1.5 Bundle Conductors:

EHV lines are constructed with bundle conductors. Bundle conductors improves power transfer capacity
and reduces corona loss, radio interference and surge impedance.
GMR for two subconductorDsb=√
GMR for three subconductorDsb = (Dsxd2)1/3
GMR for four subconductorDsb = 1.09 (Dsxd3)1/4

1.6 Three phase - Double circuit transposed:

The inductance per phase in milli henries per km is

L = 0.2 ln (GMD/GMRL) mH/km
Where,
GMRL is equivalent geometric mean radius and is given by
GMRL = (DSA DSB DSC)1/3

DSA DSB and DSC are GMR of each phase group and given by

DSA=√
DSB=√
DSC=√
GMD is the “equivalent GMD per phase” & is given by
GMD = [DAB DBC DCA]1/3
DAB, DBC, & DCA are GMD between each phase group A-B, B-C, C-A which are given by
DAB = [Da1b1 Da1b2 Da2b1 Da2b2]1/4
DBC = [Db1c1 Db1c2 Db2c1 Db2c2]1/4
 DCA = [Dc1a1 Dc2a1Dc2a1 Dc2a2]1/4
2 Capacitance:
A general formula for evaluating capacitance per phase in micro farad per km of a transmission line
is given by
C = 0.0556/In (GMD/GMR)f/Km
2.1 Three phase - symmetrical spacing (for diagram see inductance):
GMD = D
GMR = r in the case of solid conductor
Ds -in the case of stranded conductor to be obtained from manufacturer‟s data.

2.2 Three-phase – Asymmetrical - transposed (for diagram see Inductance):

GMD = [DAB DBC DCA]1/3
GMR = r, for solid conductor
GMR = Ds,for stranded conductor
rb-or bundled conductor
Where,
rb = [r*d]12 for 2 conductor bundle
rb = [r*d2]1/3 for 3 conductor bundle
rb = 1.09 [r*d3]1/4 for 4 conductor bundle
Where,
r = radius of each subconductor
d = bundle spacing

2.3 Three phase - Double circuit - transposed (for diagrams see inductance):
C = 0.0556 / ln (GMD/GMRc) f/Km
GMD is the same as for inductance as equation
GMRc is the equivalent GMR, which is given by
GMRc = [rArBrC ]1/3
Where,
rA, rB and rC are GMR of each phase group obtained as
rA = [rb Da1a2]1/2
rB = [rbDb1b2]1/2
rC = [rbDc1c2]1/2
where rb is the GMR of bundle conductor.

Problems:

1. A three-phase transposed line composed of one ACSR, 1,43,000 cmil, 47/7 Bobolink conductor per phase
with flat horizontal spacing of 11m between phases a and b and between phases b and c. The conductors
have a diameter of 3.625 cm and a GMR of 1.439 cm. The line is to be replaced by a three conductor
bundle of ACSR 477,000-cmil, 26/7 Hawk conductors having the same cross sectional area of aluminum
as the single conductor line. The conductors have a diameter of 2.1793 cm and a GMR of 0.8839 cm. The
 new line will also have a flat horizontal configurations, but it is to be operated at a higher voltage and
therefore the phase spacing is increased to 14m as measured from the centre of the bundles. The spacing
between the conductors in the bundle is 45 cm.
a) Determine the inductance and capacitance per phase per kilometer of the above two lines.
b) Verify the results using the available program.
2. A single circuit three phase transposed transmission line is composed of four ACSR 1,272,000 cmil
conductor per phase with flat horizontal spacing of 14 m between phases a and b and between phases b and
c. The bundle spacing is 45 cm. The conductor diameter is 3.16 cm.
a) Determine the inductance and capacitance per phase per kilometer of the line.
b) Verify the results using available program.
3. A 345 kV double circuit three phase transposed line is composed of two ACSR, 1,431,000 cmil, 45/7
bobolink conductors per phase with vertical conductor configuration as shown in Fig. 1.13. The conductors
have a diameter of 1.427 in and the bundle spacing is 18 in.
a) Find the inductance and capacitance per phase per kilometer of the line.
b) Verify the results using the available program.
c) If we change the relative phase position to acb-a‟b‟c‟, determine the inductance and capacitance per unit
length using available program.

Result:
Exp. No.:
MODELLING OF TRANSMISSION LINES
Date:

Aim

To understand modeling and performance of short, medium and long lines.

Objectives

i. To become familiar with per phase equivalent of a three phase short, medium and long transmission
lines and to evaluate the regulation and efficiency.

Software Required
MATLAB
Theory
Classification of Transmission Lines:
The classification of the transmission line is done by the manner in which the capacitance is taken into
account, the length of the transmission line and the voltage rating.
a) Short transmission line:
 If the length of the line is upto about 50kms and the line voltage is less than 20KV, then it is
considered as a short transmission line.
 The capacitance is totally neglected as the capacitance effect is small.

b) Medium transmission line:

 If the line is about 50-150km and the voltage level is moderately high ( 20kv and 100 kv) it is
considered as a medium line.
 The capacitance effect is taken into account as the length of the line is sufficiently high and the
voltage level is considerable. The capacitance of the line is divided and lumped in the form of
condensers shunted across the line at one or more points.
c) Long transmission line:
 If the length of the transmission line is more than 150km and the voltage rating is above 100kv then
it called as long transmission line.
 The line constants are considered such that they are uniformly distributed across the whole length of
the line.
Terms related to performance of transmission line:
a) Voltage regulation:
The difference in voltage at the receiving end of a transmission line between condition of no load and
full load is called as voltage regulation and is expressed as a percentage of the receiving end voltage.
At no load, .
At full load, Percentage voltage regulation =
Note: The voltage regulation of a transmission line should be as low as possible.
b) Transmission line efficiency:
The resistance causes power loss in the transmission line. Due to which the power received in the
receiving end will be less than the power transmitted at the sending end.
The ratio of the receiving end power to the sending end power of a transmission line is known as the
transmission efficiency of the line.
Percentage transmission efficiency = =
Where, - Receiving end voltage
– Receiving end current
- Receiving end power factor
- Sending end voltage
– Sending end current
– Sending end power factor

SHORT TRANSMISSION LINE:

In case of short transmission line the effect of capacitance is negligible and therefore the capacitance is
not considered. The performance of the line depends on the series impedance of the line. The resistance and
inductance are lumped.

 Equivalent circuit of short transmission line:

Is IR

R XL
L
Vs VR O
A
D

=√( ) ( )
Percentage voltage regulation =

Sending end power factor =

Power delivered =
Power loss in the line =
Sending end power= Power delivered + Power loss in the line
=
Percentage transmission efficiency =

 =
MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINES
 The length of the line is about 50 - 150km.
 The voltage rating is > 20kV.
 As the length of the line is increased the capacitive effect also gets increased. The capacitance is uniformly
distributed across the entire length of the line. The capacitance is considered.
 The capacitance is included as a concentrated or lumped parameter in order to obtain reasonable accuracy in
calculating the performance and also to make the calculation simple.
 The lumped capacitance is added in the form of capacitors shunted across the line at one or more points.
 The most commonly used methods for the solution of medium lines are known as localized capacitance
method. The different ntypes of localized capacitance methods are:
a. End condenser method
b. Nominal T method
c. Nominal π method
 The most preferred method is the nominal π method.
Nominal π method:
 The capacitance is divided into two and is placed such that one at the sending end and another at the
receiving end.
 The capacitance at the sending end has no effect on the line drop. But the charging current must be added
to line current inorder to obtain the total sending end current.
Equivalent Circuit:
Is IL IR

IR
C2
XL IC1
L
C/2 VR
2 2 O
Vs C/2
A
D

The voltage current relations are given by

Vs = (1+ ZY/2 ) VR + ZIR
Is = Y(1+ZY/4) VR + (1+ZY/2) IR
In terms of ABCD constants

0 1 0 1[ ]

Where,
A = (1+ZY/2 )
B=Z
C = Y(1+ ZY/4)
 D=(1+ZY/2 )
The receiving end quantities can be expressed in terms of sending end quantities as

[ ] 0 1[ ]

LONG TRANSMISSION LINES

 The transmission line parameters are uniformly distributed along the entire length of the line.
 In case of short and medium transmission lines the parameters are lumped and the results obtained have a
considerable accuracy.

 But in case of long transmission lines when the parameters are lumped it leads to serious errors. So in case
of long transmission lines the parameters are assumed to be distributed along the entire length of the line.
Rigorous method

 Consider a 3 phase long transmission line on a phase-neutral basis.

 The line is sectionalized into n number of segments.
th
1
 Each section have of the line constants of the entire line.
n
 Consider an small section of the line of length dx from the receiving end.
 Let Z be the series impedance
y be the shunt admittance
V is the voltage at the receiving end
V  dV is the voltage at the end of the section towards sending end
I  dI be the current entering the section dx
I be the current leaving the section
 z
VS  VR cosh YZ )  I R sinh YZ )
y

y
IS  VR sinh YZ )  I R cosh YZ )
z

Problems:
1. A 230 kV, 60 HZ three phase transmissions is 160 km long. The per phase resistance is 0.497 ohm/km and
shunt admittance is 3.3*10-6∟900 Siemens/km. It delivers 40MW at 220KV with 0.9 p.f lag. Use medium
line model. (i) Determine sending end voltage and current. (ii) compute voltage regulation and efficiency.
Verifythe results.
2. Three phase transmission line has per phase impedance of Z=0.03+j0.4 ohm/ km and shunt admittance of
Y=j4.0*10-6 Siemens / km. The line is 200km long and the sending end power is 407MW and 7.833
MVAR at 350KV. use medium п model. Determine voltage and current at receiving end compute voltage
regulation and efficiencyand verify the results.

Result:
Exp. No.:
FORMATION OF BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX
Date

Aim:

To understand the formation of network matrices, the bus admittance matrix Y of a power network.

Objectives:

To write a computer program to form bus admittance matrix Y, given the impedances ofthe elements of
a power network and their connectivity.

Software required:
MATLAB

Theory:

Two-Rule Method (Based on Node - Voltage Analysis)

Consider a three bus power system. The equivalent power network for system is shown which generator
is replaced by Norton equivalent the loads by equivalent admittance and lines by π equivalent circuits.

The admittances of the generator, loads and transmission lines are given in per unit to
system MVA base. The ground is taken as reference node.

Applying Kirchhoff‟s current law (KCL) to nodes 1, 2 and 3,

 YG1 V1 + Y12 (V1 –V2) + Y13 (V1-V3) = I1
YD2 V2 + Y12 (V2 –V1 ) + Y23 (V2 – V3) = - V2 Y‟23
YD3 V3 + Y30 V3 + Y23 (V3 – V2) + Y‟23 V3 + Y13 (V3 – V1) = 0
Rearranging these equations,
( YG1 + Y12 +Y13) V1 + (-Y12) V2 + (-Y13) V3 = I1
(-Y12) V1 +( YD2 + Y12 + Y23 + Y‟23) V2 +(-Y23 ) V3 =I2
(-Y13 ) V1 + (-Y23) V2 + (YD3 + Y30 + Y23 + Y‟23 + Y13) V3 =0
Re-writing in Matrix form

In general

Where,
is equal to the sum of the admittances of all elements connected to the ithnode
is equal to the negative of the sum of the admittances of all elements connected between the nodes i
and j
=0 if there is no line between the buses i and j
The current equation is

∑ i=1,2…..N

(i≠j) = / ( all V=0 except )

= Short circuit transfer admittance or mutual admittance between ithand jthbus
= / ( all V=0 except )= Short circuit driving point or self admittance at the ith bus.
Problem
Construct a Y bus matrix of 6 buses 7 line / transformer power system and verify using MATLAB.
Buses: 6, numbered serially from 1 to 6
Lines: 5, numbered serially from L1 to L5
Transformers: 2, numbered serially as T1 and T2
Shunt data: 2, numbered serially as S1 and S2
Base MVA: 100
Bus data – PQ Buses:
Demand Voltage Magnitude
Bus ID No
MW MVAR (p.u)
3 55.0 13.0 1.0
4 0.0 0.0 1.0
5 30.0 18.0 1.0
6 50.0 5.0 1.0

Transmission Line Data:

Line ID Send Bus Received Bus Resist Reactance Half Line Charging Rating
NO No No P.U P.U suceptance. P.U MVA
1 1 6 0.123 0.518 0.0 55
2 1 4 0.080 0.370 0.0 65
3 4 6 0.087 0.407 0.0 30
4 5 2 0.282 0.640 0.0 55
5 2 3 0.723 1.050 0.0 40

Transformer Data:

Transformer ID. Send Bus Received Bus Resist. Reactance Tap Rating
NO NO No P.U P.U Ratio MVA
1 6 5 0.0 0.300 1.000 30
2 4 3 0.0 0.133 1.000 55

Shunt Element Data:

Shunt ID No. Bus ID No Rated Capacity MVAR

1 4 2.0
2 6 2.5

Result:
Exp. No.: LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS – I :SOLUTION OF LOAD FLOW AND
Date RELATED PROBLEMS USING GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD

Aim
To solve the power flow problem using the Gauss-Seidel iterative algorithm.

Objectives
i. To determine the real power, reactive power, voltage and angle.
ii. To determine line flow and losses.
Software required
MATLAB
Theory
Solution for Load Flow problem using Gauss Seidal method:
 It is also known as the method of successive displacements.
 Consider N bus system bus 1 to M are machine or generator bus.
Bus M + 1 to N are load buses
 Flat voltage start
Phase angle, δ i0 = 0, for i=1,2,…..N (for all buses except slack)
Voltage, | Vi0| = 1.0 for i=M+1,….N (for all PV buses)
| Vi| = | Vi|spec for all PV buses and slack bus.
Bus 1 is a generator bus and take it as a reference bus or slack bus. Here the voltage is specified.
In load buses, assume initial value of voltage as 1∟00 and find the new value of voltages. We start our
calculation from bus2 onwards. In the generator buses, first check for generator limit and find the voltages.
Injected bus power is given by,
Si = Pi – jQi= Vi*Ii= Vi* ∑
Pi – jQi= Vi*YiiVi + Vi* ∑ (j≠1)

Vi*YiiVi = Pi – jQi - Vi* ∑ (j≠1)

–
Vi= [ ∑ ( )], i = 1,2,3,….N except slack bus

Let V1old, V2old, ………. VNold be the initial bus voltages. On substituting initial values in the above
equations, we can find V2new V3new, ………. VNnew . After calculating each voltages replace the old values by
new values.
Therefore equation becomes,
 –
Vinew= [ ∑ ∑ ]

For load bus,

This equation is applicable to find |V| and δ values,
For slack bus,
The voltage is specified, so it will not change in each iteration.
For PV or generator bus,
(i) Q value is not specified for PV bus. Adjusting the complex voltage Vi= ei+ jfi to correct the voltage
magnitude to the specified value |Vi| spec.
Vinew = |Vi| spec ∟δcal

Where δcalculated = tan-1 . /

(ii) Compute the reactive power generation using the Vinew as

Qical = - Im[ (∑ ∑ )]
QGi = Qical + QDi
If QGi(min) ≤ QGi≤ QGi(max), set Qi = QGi – QDi, then compute Vinew.
If QGi<QGi(min) , set QGi= QGi(min), then compute Vinew.
If QGi>QGi(max) , set QGi= QGi(max), then compute Vinew.
Acceleration Factor (α)
In Gauss Seidel method, the number of iterations required for convergence can be reduced in the
correction in bus voltage computed at each iteration is multiplied by a factor greater than unity, called as
acceleration factor to bring the voltage closer to the value to which it is converging. The range of1.3 to 1.7 is
found to be satisfactory for typical systems.
Vinew= Viold + α [Vinew- Viold]
Where Viold = voltage value obtained in the previous iteration
α = acceleration factor
Vinew = new value of voltage obtained in the current iteration
Line flows
Slack bus power, S1 = Pi - jQi = V*I = Vi*∑
Line flows
[ ]
Problem
1. Solve the Load Flow problem using Gauss Seidal method and verify using MATLAB.
Line Admittances Bus Data
Bus code Admittance Bus code P Q V
1-2 2-j8 1 - - 1.06∟0
1-3 1-j4 2 0.5 0.2 -
2-3 0.666-j2.664 3 0.4 0.3 -
2-4 1-j4 4 0.3 0.1 -
3-4 2-j8

Result:
Exp. No.: LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS – II :SOLUTION OF LOAD FLOW AND
Date RELATED PROBLEMS USING NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

Aim
To solve the power flow problem using Newton-Raphson methods.

Objectives:
i. To determine the real power, reactive power, voltage and angle.
ii. To determine line flow and losses.

Software required:
MATLAB

NEWTON-RAPHSON LOAD FLOW ALGORITHM:

 Let us assume all the buses are load bus except slack bus
 The unknown variables consists of |V2| , |V3|,………|Vn| and voltage angles δ2, δ3, ….. δN.
 Expanding using taylor‟s series around the initial guess and neglecting higher order terms, we obtain
F (X0+ΔX) = 0 = F (X0) + x0. ΔX

Pi ≈ Pi0 + 0 1 . Δδ20 + …… + 0 1 . ΔδN0 + 0 1 . |ΔV20| + ….0 1 . |ΔVN0|

δ δ
for i = 2,3, ….N
Qi = Qi0 + 0 1 . Δδ20 + …… + 0 1 . ΔδN0 + 0 1 . |ΔV20| + ….0 1 . |ΔVN0|
δ δ
for i = M+1, ….N
 Real power mismatch ΔPi ≈ Pi - Pi 0 0

Reactive power mismatch Δ Qi0 ≈ Qi - Qi0

 In matrix form,

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
δ δ

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
δ δ

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
δ δ

[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ δ δ ]
We can write [ Δu0 ] = [ J0 ]. [Δx0 ], where [ J0 ] is the jacobian matrix.

In the above equation, bus 1 is assumed to be the slack bus. The jacobian matrix gives the linearized
relationship between small changes in the voltage angle Δδ0i and voltage magnitude |ΔVi0| with a small change
in real and reactive power Δ Pi0 and Δ Qi0. We can write this equation as

Δ Δδ
[ ]=[ ][ ]
Δ Δ

 The diagonal and off diagonal elements of J1 are

=∑ sin (θij + δj – δi) (j≠1)

δ

= sin (θij + δj – δi) (j≠1)

δ

 The diagonal and off diagonal element of J2 are

= cos θii + ∑ cos (θij + δj – δi) (j≠1)

= | |cos (θij + δj – δi) (j≠1)

 The diagonal and off diagonal elements of J3 are
=∑ cos (θij + δj – δi) (j≠1)
δ

= cos (θij + δj – δi) (j≠1)

δ

 The diagonal and off diagonal element of J4 are

= sin θii - ∑ sin (θij + δj – δi) (j≠1)

= | |sin (θij + δj – δi) (j≠1)

 The terms Δ and Δ are the difference between the specified and calculated values known as the power
residues given by
Δ = (spec)–
Δ = (spec) - Qcal
 The new estimates for bus voltage are
δinew = δiold + Δδiold
Vinew = Viold + Δ|Viold|
 For PV buses or voltage controlled buses:
o The voltage magnitude are specified.
o Let M be the number of generator buses. M equations involving ΔQ and ΔV and the corresponding
columns of the Jacobian matrix are eliminated.
o There are (N-1) real power constrains and (N-1-M) reactive power constraints and the jacobian matrix
of the order (2N-2-M) * (2N – 2-M).
Problem
Solve the Load Flow problem using Newton Raphson method and verify using MATLAB.
Line admittances
Bus code Admittance
1-2 2-j8
1-3 1-j4
2-3 0.666-j2.664
2-4 1-j4
3-4 2-j8
Bus specification

Bus code P Q V Remarks

1 - - 1.06∟0 Slack
2 0.5 0.2 - PQ
3 0.4 0.3 - PQ
4 0.3 0.1 - PQ
Result:
Exp. No.:
FAULT ANALYSIS
Date:

Aim:
To become familiar with modelling and analysis of power systems under faulted condition and to compute the
fault level, post-fault voltages and currents for differenttypes of faults.

Objectives:
To carryout fault analysis for symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults in smallsystems using the
Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit in the sequence and phase domains atthe faulted bus but without the use of
software.

Software required:
MATLAB

THEORY:
Fault analysis is an important part of power system analysis. Short circuit studies are performed to
determine bus voltages and current flowing in the lines during various types of faults. Faults are classified as
follows:
(i) Symmetrical or balanced faults
(ii) Unsymmetrical or unbalanced faults
a) L-G (line to ground)
b) L-L (line to line)
c) L-L-G (double line to ground)
Symmetrical fault is the most severe fault and most amenable to calculate. The current flowing
immediately after the fault consists of an A.C component which eventually reaches steady state and a fast
decaying D.C component which decays to zero. For analysis, only the A.C component is considered.
Fault current |If| = Eth / Zth+ Zf
Where Zth= Thevenin‟s impedance
Zf= Fault impedance
Eth = Thevenin‟s voltage or prefault voltage
1. Single line to Ground fault (L-G Fault)
The single line to ground fault, the most common type, is caused by lightning or by conductors making
contact with grounded structures. Fig shows a three phase generator with neutral grounded through impedance
Zn.
Suppose a line to ground fault occurs on phase „a‟ connected to ground through impedance Zf.
Assuming the generator is initially on no load, the conductions at the fault bus „K‟ are expressed by the
following relations.
Va= ZfIa
Ib =Ic= 0
If = Ia
Symmetrical components of currents are

[ ] [ ][ ]

Substitute for Ib= Ic = 0, the symmetrical components of currents are

[ ] [ ][ ]

From this we find that,

=
=
= =
= = = =
From sequence networks of the generator, the symmetrical voltages are given by,

[ ] [ ] [ ][ ]

=- =-
= -
=- =-
The phase voltages are given by,
 [ ] [ ][ ]

= + +

From the condition = Zf Ia


+ + = Zf Ia
Substituting symmetrical components of voltages we get,

- + - - = Zf Ia

– [ + + - = Zf×3

[ + + + 3Zf ] =

The fault current is = Ia = =

2. Line to line (L-L) fault:

Consider a three phase generator with a fault through an impedance Zf between phases b and c as shown
in figure. Assume the generator is unloaded (no load), the condition at the fault bus K are expressed by the
following relations.

Ib = - Ic
Ia = 0 (unloaded generator)
Vb– Vc = ZfIb
 Vc = Vb– ZfIb

Substitute for Ib = - Ic,Ia = 0, the symmetrical components of currents are,

[ ] [ ][ ]

[ ] [ ][ ]

= [ 0 + Ib - Ib ] = 0
= [ a Ib – a2Ib ]
= [ a2Ib - a Ib]
= and = 0
From sequence networks of the generator, the symmetrical voltages are given by,

[ ] [ ] [ ][ ]

=- =- ×0=0
= -
=- =
The phase currents are given by

[ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ]

= 0, = - = (a2 – a)
 =a - a2 = (a – a2) = -

The voltages throughout the zero sequence network must be zero since there are no zero sequence
sources and because = 0, current is not being injected into that network due to the fault. Hence LL fault
calculation do not involve zero sequence network.

The phase voltages are given by,

[ ] [ ][ ]

=0
= +
2
=a +a
=a + a2
From the condition - = Zf Ib
Substituting and we get,

a2 +a -a - a2 = Zf Ib
(a2 - a) - (a2 – a) = ZfIb
(a2 - a) [ - ] = Zf Ib
Substituting the value of Ibwe get
(a2 - a) [ - ] = (a2 – a) Zf
- = Zf
Substituting , we get,
- - = Zf
–( ) = Zf
=( )
 =( )
=-
=0
Current in phase domain

[ ] [ ][ ] [ ( ) ]
( )
The fault current is =- ( )
= (-0.5 - j0.866 + 0.5 – j0.866)
= -j1.732
= -j√
Substituting we get,
√
= =( )
3. Double line to ground fault:
A three phase generator with a fault on phases b and c through an impedance Zf to ground is shown.
Assuming the generator is initially on no load, the conditions at the fault K are expressed by the following
relations.

Ia = 0
Ib+ Ic = If
Vb = Vc = ZfIf = Zf (Ib+ Ic)
The symmetrical components of voltages are,

[ ] [ ][ ]

Substituting Vb = Vc we get,

[ ] [ ][ ]
 = ( )= ( )

= ( )
= [ ( )- [1 + a + a2 = 0 ; a + a2 = -1]

, -

= ( )
= [ ( )- , -
=

The phase currents are given by, [ ] [ ][ ]

= -
= +
= a + a2
= + = + + a + a2
=2 (a + a2) (a + a2)
=2 (-1) (-1)
=2 ( )
From the condition, = =0
 ( )=-
Substituting in equation we get, + = 2 + =3
From the condition, = Zf ( + ) = 3 Zf
The phase voltages are given by,

[ ] [ ][ ]

= + +
2
= +a +a
2
= +a +a [ = ]
2
= + (a + a )
= - [ = 3Zf ]
- = 3Zf
= +a + a2
From the condition - = Zf Ib
The symmetrical voltages are given by,

[ ] [ ] [ ][ ]
 =-

= -

=-

Substituting , we get

 –[ - ] = 3Zf

=> – [ - ] =[ 3Zf -

–, -
=> =

 =
=> - =
=> =
- = +
 =-[ + ]=- -
, -
= +

= (1+ + )

= +

[ ( )+ ( )+ ]= , + -

[ ( )+ ( )] = , + -

, -
=, ( ) ( )-

, -
= ( )
( )

= ( )
 Problem:
I. Conduct fault analysis on 4 bus system. Using available software and obtain the fault MVA and each buses
and fault current for following fault:
a) Three phase ground fault.
b) Line to line fault.
c) Line to ground fault.
d) Double line to ground fault.

20KV 345kV 345kV 20KV

G1 T1 T1 G2
2 3
1 L1 4

L2
FAULT
G1,G2: 100
+ - 0
MVA, 20KV, X = X =Xd” = 20%; X = 4%; Xn = 5%
T1,T2: 100MVA, 20 KV/345 KV; X leak = 8%
L1,L2: X+ = X- =15%; X0 = 50% on a base of 100MVA

Result:
Exp. No.: TRANSIENT AND SMALL SIGNAL STABILITY ANALYSIS
Date: SINGLE-MACHINE INFINITE BUS SYSTEM

Aim:
To become familiar with various aspects of the transient and small signal stability
analysis of Single-Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) system.

Objectives:
i. To examine the transient stability of a SMIB and determine the critical clearing time of the system
through simulation by trial and error method and by direct method.
ii. To determine transient stability margin (MW) for different fault conditions.
Software required:
MATLAB
Theory:
Stability:

Stability problem is concerned with the behavior of power system when it is subjected to disturbance
and is classified into small signal stability problem if the disturbances are small and transient stability problem
when the disturbances are large.

Transient stability:

When a power system is under steady state, the load plus transmission loss equals to the generation in the
system. The generating units run a synchronous speed and system frequency, voltage, current and power flows
are steady. When a large disturbance such as three phase fault, loss of load, loss of generation etc., occurs the
power balance is upset and the generating units rotors experience either acceleration or deceleration. The
system may come back to a steady state condition maintaining synchronism or it may break into subsystems or
one or more machines may pull out of synchronism. In the former case the system is said to be stable and in the
later case it is said to be unstable.

Small signal stability:

When a power system is under steady state, normal operating condition, the system may be subjected to small
disturbances such as variation in load and generation, change in field voltage, change in mechanical toque etc.,
The nature of system response to small disturbance depends on the operating conditions, the transmission
system strength, types of controllers etc. Instability that may result from small disturbance may be of two
forms:
i. Steady increase in rotor angle due to lack of synchronising torque.
ii. Rotor oscillations of increasing magnitude due to lack of sufficient damping torque.
Modeling of Transmission Line :

H.T Line 1
L.T
Transforme
r Infinite Bus
G

E
t Line 2
P+jQ

Simplified equivalent circuit is given by,

Following expressions are valid for figures 1 and 2:

E1= Et + jX‟ d It
X = X‟ d +XE where XE = Xtr + parallel combination of X1 and X2
Pe =E1Eb/X sin =pmax sin
E1= voltage behind machine transient reactance
=rotor angle with respect to synchronously rotating reference phasor Eb<00E1leadsEb by 
Pe, Qe = complex electrical power output of generator in p.u

Assume Et as reference, i.e, Et = Et <0o, the computation of initial conditions consists of following steps:

I. Compute stator current: It = S* / Et*

(Pe - jQe) / Et = IR +j II
II. Compute voltage behind transient reactance:
E1= Et + jX1 d It = Et + j X1 d (IR + j II) = E1<
III. Compute voltage of the infinite bus:
EB = Et – j ( X3 + Xtr ) ( IR + j II ) = EB<
IV. Compute angular separation between E1and EB, =-
 V. Compute transformer HT side voltage, EHT = Et - jXtrIt
If infinite bus voltage is taken as reference,
EB = EB < 0o ;E1= E1<
Determination of Critical Clearing Time:

Critical clearing time is the maximum allowable time between the occurrence of a fault and clearing of
the fault for which the system will be stable. For a given load condition and specified fault, the critical clearing
time for a system is found out by trial and error method as explained. Start with a fault clearing time which is
stable. Increase the clearing time in steps till instability results. The trial value of clearing time just before
instability was detected is the critical clearing time. This will give you the coarse value of the critical clearing
time. By varying the clearing time around this point in small steps till you find the clearing time which is just
critical. The clearing time margin for a fault may be defined as,
Clearing time margin = critical clearing time – clearing time specified
Clearing time margin = tc (critical) - tclearing
where, tclearing is the specified clearing time.
Problems:
1. A 60 Hz synchronous generator having inertia constant 5 MJ/MVA and X1d =0.3p.u is connected to a
infinite bus through circuit shown. Reactance marked on common base value real power Pe is 0.8 p.u
reactive power is 0.074 p.u and bus voltage is V=1p.u. three phase fault occur at mid of line. When fault is
cleared calculate clearing angle and clearing time and current of system stability.

2. A power system comprising a thermal generating plant with four 555 MVA, 24KV 60HZunits supplied to
an infinite bus through a transformer and two transmission lines
 The data for the system in per unit on a base of 2220 MVA, 24 KV is given below:
An equivalent generator representing the four units, characterized by classical model.
Xd‟ = 0.3P.U ; H = 3.5 MW-S/MVA; Transformer: X = 0.15 P.U
Line 1: X = 0.5 P.U Line 2: X = 0.93 P.U
Plant operating condition: P=0.9 P.U; Power Factor: 0.9 Lagging; V= 1.0 P.U
It is proposed to examine the transient stability of the system for a three phase to ground fault at the end of
line 2 near H.T bus occurring at time t =0 sec. the fault is cleared. by simultaneous opening of the two
circuit breaker at both the ends of line 2.
a. Determine the critical clearing angle and time for the fault using “equal area criterion” and hence
comment on the stability of the system for this fault.
b. Simulate the above sequence of fault occurrence and clearing using the MATLAB software.

Result:
Exp. No.: LOAD – FREQUENCY DYNAMICS OF SINGLE- AREA AND TWO-
Date: AREA POWER SYSTEMS

Aim:

To become familiar with the modeling and analysis of load frequency and tie-line flow dynamics of a power
system with load frequency controller (LPF) under different control modes and to deign improved controllers to
obtain the best system response

Objectives:

i. To study the time response of area frequency deviation and transient power output change of regulating
generator following a small load change in a single area and two area power system with the regulating
generator under different operating conditions and different system parameters.
ii. To analyze the time response of area frequency deviations and net interchange deviation following a small
load change in one of the areas in an inter connected two area power system.

Software required:
MATLAB- Simulink
Theory:
Load frequency control
 Real power frequency control matches the system generation according to the change in load and maintains
the frequency within a tolerable limit of ±5%.
 When the load in a system changes, the speed of the entire turbine generator connected to the system
changes, which in turn changes the frequency of the system.


Where, N – speed of the alternator (rpm)
f – Frequency of the system in Hz.
P – Number of poles of the alternator
 From the above equation it is known that the frequency depends on the speed of the alternator.
 The speed of the alternator depends on the speed of the prime mover on which they are connected. The
speed of the prime mover depends on the speed governor which are mechanical speed sensing devices. The
mechanical speed sensor senses the speed and controls the opening and closing of the valves.
 So the load frequency control controls the control valve or gate opening of the prime mover according to
the change in frequency and meets the load variations.
 Control Area: An area in which all the generators speeds up and slow down together maintaining the
relative angles and thus maintaining the frequency is called as a control area.
Basics of Speed Governing Mechanism:
 The governor acts as the main control in case of the Load frequency control.
 The governor controls the position of the control valves or gates, thereby controlling the flow of high
pressure steam into the turbine.
 By controlling the flow of steam, the speed of the alternator is controlled.
 The speed governing mechanism of a steam based system comprises of a fly ball governor, speed changer,
Hydraulic amplifier and linking mechanism.
Fly ball Governor:
 Fly ball governor is a speed sensing device connected directly to the hydraulic amplifier.
 The hydraulic amplifier adjusts the control valve opening using a linkage mechanism.
 When the speed increases due to the increase in load, the speed governor gives the lower command.
 The fly ball moves outwards and the point B lowers resulting in increase in speed.
Speed Changer:
 It gives a steady state output setting for the turbine.
 By the downward movement of the speed changer, upper pilot valve opens and more steam is admitted into
the turbine under steady state.
 When the speed changer is moved upwards, the upper pilot valve gets closed and lesser steam is allowed
into the turbine.

Hydraulic Valve:
 It consists of a pilot valve and a main piston arrangement.
 It is used inorder to open and close the steam valve against the high pressure steam.
 The low pressure movement is converted into a high pressure pilot valve movement.
Linkage Mechanism:
 ABC and CDE are the rigid links pivoted at point B and D respectively.
 The linkage mechanism provides the movement to the control valves in accordance with the speed changer.
 It also provides feedback from the steam valve movement.

Operation of Speed governing mechanism:

 When the load increases, the speed of the turbine decreases.
 Now the speed changer fives a raise command.
 The fly ball moves outwards and the point B moves downwards and D moves upwards.
 Now the high pressure oil enters into the pilot valve and pushes the main piston downwards.
 Now the gate valve gets opened and more steam rushes into the turbine.
 The speed now increases and the frequency is maintained.
Modeling of Speed Governing Mechanism:
Modeling of Speed Governor
 The system is operating in a steady state at frequency f0 and delivers a power of PG0. The initial setting of
the steam valve is Xs0.
 Consider a small disturbance has occurred in the system.
 A raise command ΔPc is given to the speed changer. Now the point A moves downwards by ΔXA.
---- (1)
 Movement on C:
i. Due to the movement of A by ,
. / ---- (2)
ii. Now the flyball moves outwards due to the increase in frequency. The B now moves downwards by a
proportion of .
---- (3)
 Movement on D:
 The amount of opening of the valve is determined by the movement, .
 The valve gets opened due to the movement of the main piston which is due to the movement of D.
 The movement of D is due to and .
 . / . / ---- (4)
 Movement on E:
 The volume of oil entered into the cylinder is proportional to the line integral of .
∫( ) ---- (5)
 Taking laplace transform of equation (3), (4) and (5),
( ) ( ) ( ) ---- (6)
( ) ( ) ( ) ---- (7)
( ) ( ) ---- (8)
 Substituting (7) in (8)
( ) * ( ) ( )+
 ( )0 1= ( ) ---- (9)
 Substituting (6) in (9),
( )0 1= * ( ) ( )+
( ) ( )
 ( )0 1
  ( ) 2 3 2 ( ) ( )3
2 ( ) ( )3 ( ) ( )
 ( )
{ }

 Let , R is the speed reglation of the Governor in Hz/Mw.

is the Gain of the speed Governor

, is the time constant of the speed Governor in msec.

( ) 0 ( ) ( )1 --- (10)
 The output of the generating unit is varied by changing the load reference point which is integrated with the
speed governing mechanism. The adjustment of the load reference point is done by the speed changing
motor which leads to the ups and downs in the speed droop characteristics.
 The block diagram representing the above equation is given as,

(s)
+
-

Modeling of Turbine:
 The increase in the steam valve opening leads to the increase in the generation, . The increase is
generation is due to the incremental increase in the turbine power, .
 , When the incremental losses are neglected.
 In a two stage steam turbine, the dynamic response is influenced by two factors, namely,
i. Entrained steam in between the inlet steam valve and first stage of the turbine.
ii. The storage action in the re-heater which makes the output of the low pressure turbine stage to lag
behind the high pressure stage.
 The turbine transfer characteristics are influenced by two time constants. But for simplicity it is assumed to
have a single equivalent time constant ( ).
 The turbine model is given as,

Where, is the Time constant of the turbine.

is the Gain constant of the turbine.
Modeling of Generator load model
 The increment in power input to the generator load system is Where is the increase in load
 The increment in power input to the system is accounted in two ways:
i. By increasing the kinetic energy in the rotor at a rate of
 At a scheduled frequency f0 the kinetic energy is given by,
kw-sec or kilojoules
Where, is the kW rating of the turbo-generator
H is the inertia constant.
 The kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the speed (frequency).

=> --- (11)

So the kinetic energy at a frequency of ( ) is,
( ) --- (12)
 Dividing (12) by (11),
( )
[ ] [ ]

[ ]

0 1 (Approximately)

 Now, the rate of change in kinetic energy, = --- (13)

ii. As the frequency gets changed the motor load changes being sensitive to speed, the rate of change of
load with respect to frequency can be regarded as constant for a small change in frequency.
 Rate of change of load with respect to frequency,
Where, B is the damping factor which can be determined empirically.
 The power balance equation is given as,
--- (14)
 Dividing the equation by the equation becomes as,

( ) ( ) ( )

 Taking Laplace transform,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )[ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
 ( ) =
0 1

 ( ) ( ) ( )[ ] --- (15)

Where, power gain,

 Power system constant,
 The block diagram of the above equation is given as,
(s)

(s)
-
+

Model of a load frequency control of an isolated Single area power system:

 By combining the block diagrams of the governor, turbine, generator and load the complete block
diagram of load frequency control of an isolated single area power system with feedback is obtained.
(s)

(s) -
+
+
-

Two Area System Modeling:

 The power system can be divided into a number of loadfrequqncy control areas interconnected by means of
tie lines.
 Consider two areas connected by a tie-line.

Control Area 1 Tie- Line Control Area 2

 Objective of Two area LFC:

i. To regulate the frequency of each area
ii. To regulate the tie-line power as per the inter area contracts.
 Proportional plus integral controller is considers so to obtain a zero steady state error in the tie-line power
flow.
 In case of an isolated single area system the incremental power is accounted for the rate of change of stored
kinetic energy and increase in load caused by increase in frequency. In two area system a tie-line transmits
the power in and out of the area so the tie-line power transfer has to be considered in the incremental power.
 Power transferred out of area 1, ( ) ( )
 For an incremental change in and , the incremental change in tie-line power is given as:

( )( )

( ) ( )( ) ( )

 Synchronizing power co-efficient or electric stiffness, ( )

It is defined as the differential power increase obtained per differential power angle increase.
 We know that


 = ∫
 Now, ( ) (∫ )
Taking laplace transform, ( ) ( ( ) ( )) --- (1)
 Similarly, ( ) (∫ )
 Taking laplace transform, ( ) ( ( ) ( )) --- (2)
 ( )
 The incremental power balance equation for area 1 can be written as,

Taking Laplace transform,

 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )0 1
( ) ( ) ( )
 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ----(3)
Problems:
1. Consider a single – area power system with unequal areas. A 2-GW Control area
Rated capacity of the area 2000 MW
Normal operating load 1000 MW
Nominal frequency 50 HZ
Inertia constant of the area 5.0 s
Speed regulation of all regulating generators 4%
Governor time constant 0.08 s
Turbine time constant 0.3 s
Damping constant 1.0%
Develop a SIMULINK model for single area system with and without controller if a disturbance of 20
MW load increase in area. Check the time responses of ∆f(t).
2. Consider a two – area power system with unequal areas. A 2-GW control area (1) is interconnected with a
10 – GW area (2).
AREA 1 AREA 2
Rated capacity of the area 2000 MW 10000 MW
Normal operating load 1000 MW 5000 MW
Nominal frequency 50 HZ 50 HZ
Inertia constant of the area 5.0 s 5.0 s
Speed regulation of all regulating
4% 4%
generators
Governor time constant 0.08 s 0.08 s
Turbine time constant 0.3 s 0.3 s
Damping constant 1.0% 1.0%
Simulate the above two area system using the simulink mode for a increase in load of 20 MW in area1.
Result:
 Exp. No.:
ECONOMIC DISPATCH IN POWER SYSTEMS
Date:

Aim:

i. To understand the basics of the problem of economic dispatch(ED) of optimally adjusting the generation
schedules of thermal generating units to meet the system load which are required for unit commitment and
economic operation of power systems.
ii. To understand the development of coordination equations (the mathematical model for ED) without and
with losses and operating constraints and solution of these equations using direct and iterative methods.

Objectives:

To write a program for solving Ed problem without and with transmission losses for a given load
condition.

Software required:
MATLAB

Theory:

Co-ordination equation without loss or neglecting losses:

The economic dispatch problem can be stated as ∑

Where C is the total fuel cost,
n is the number of generating units
The economic dispatch problem is subjected to the constraints,

( ) ∑

Where is the total demand

is the power generated by the ith generating unit.
The objective cost function can be written as a Lagrangian function as

∑ ( ∑ )

For minimization function,

The above equation is the co-ordination equation.

Analytical solution of :

 The cost function of the generating unit is

 Differentiating the above equation,



The power balance equation is,

 ∑ . /

 ∑ ∑

 ∑ ∑

 ∑ ∑
∑

∑

On substituting the value in the optimal generation can be obtained.

The solution is obtained by the gradient method, which is an iterative process.

 Let ( )
( )
 ( ) . / (By taylor‟s series)
( )

.
( )
/ .
( )
/ ∑

Note: 0 ∑ ∑ 1

Where, ∑

 at the k+1th iteration is

In the iterative process the condition is .

Solution by iterative method without losses:

The solution of the economic dispatch problem without loss can be obtained by the following procedure:
 ∑
i. Compute the value of
∑

ii. Compute using the value of as

iii. Check whether the is within the limit, i.e. .
If the value of is within the limit the obtained values of is the solution,
Else go to the next step.
iv. If is not within the limit, then
If , then
If , then
v. Now ∑
vi. Compute
vii. Determine using .
viii. Check whether the condition for optimality is satisfied.
( )
, for
( )
,for
( )
,for
If the condition is satisfied stop the process.
Else, eliminate the generating schedule not satisfying the optimality condition and include it in the
remaining units and modify as and go to step vii.

Flowchart:

Start

∑
Compute
∑

Compute

If
 No

Yes

Compute Compute Compute

Determine Determine Determine

ififif
( ) ( ) ( )

Yesyesyes

Stop

Problems:

1. The unit data for 3 plants of a power system having a system demand of 850MW is given below
C1=0.00128P12+6.48P1+459
C2=0.00194P22+7.85P2+310
C3=0.00482P32+7.97P3+78
Where P1,P2, P3 are in MW. The generator limits are given as follows
150<P1<600
100<P2<400
50<P3<200
 systemloads in a power system varies from 250 MW to 1250 MW. Three thermal units are operating at
all times and meeting the system load. Assume that the transmission loss is negligible.
a. Determine generating schedule of each unit, for different load level from 250 to 1250 MW In steps
of 100 MW.
b. Write a MATLAB program for above problem.
2. The input output curve characteristics of three units are
F1 = 225+8.4 PG1+0.0025 PG12
F2 = 729+6.3 PG2+0.0081 PG22
F3 = 400+7.5 PG3+0.0025 PG32
Where P1, P2, P3 are in MW. The generator limits are given as follows
45<P1<350
45<P2<350
47.5<P3<450
Total load is 450 MW, find optimum generation schedule and Write a MATLAB program for above
problem. Use the participation factor method to calculate the dispatch for a load is reduced to 495 MW.

Result:
Exp. No.:
Transient Stability Analysis of Multi machine Power Systems
Date:

AIM:

(i) To become familiar with modeling aspects of synchronous machines and network for
transient stability analysis of multi-machine power systems.
(ii) To become familiar with the state-of-the-art algorithm for simplified transient stability
simulation involving only classical machine models for synchronous machines.
(iii) To understand system behavior when subjected to large disturbances in the presence of
synchronous machine controllers.
(iv) To become proficient in the usage of the software to tackle real life problems encountered in
the areas of power system planning and operation.

OBJECTIVES

(i) To assess the transient stability of a multi machine power system when subjected to a common
disturbance sequence: fault application on a transmission line followed by fault removal
and line opening.

(ii) To determine the critical clearing time for the above sequence.

(iii) To observe system response and understand its behavior during a full load rejection at a
substation with and without controllers.

(iv) To observe system response and understand its behavior during loss of a major generating
station.

(v) To understand machine and system behavior during loss of excitation.

(vi) To study the effect of load relief provided by under frequency load shedding scheme.
global Pm f H E Y th ngg
f=60;
%zdd=gendata(:,2)+j*gendata(:,3);
ngr=gendata(:,1);

%H=gendata(:,4);
ngg=length(gendata(:,1));
%%
for k=1:ngg
zdd(ngr(k))=gendata(k, 2)+j*gendata(k,3);
%H(ngr(k))=gendata(k, 4);
H(k)=gendata(k,4); % new
end
%%
for k=1:ngg
I=conj(S(ngr(k)))/conj(V(ngr(k)));
%Ep(ngr(k)) = V(ngr(k))+zdd(ngr(k))*I;
%Pm(ngr(k))=real(S(ngr(k)));
Ep(k) = V(ngr(k))+zdd(ngr(k))*I; % new
Pm(k)=real(S(ngr(k))); % new

end
E=abs(Ep); d0=angle(Ep);
for k=1:ngg
nl(nbr+k) = nbus+k;

nr(nbr+k) = gendata(k, 1);

%R(nbr+k) = gendata(k, 2);

%X(nbr+k) = gendata(k, 3);

R(nbr+k) = real(zdd(ngr(k)));
X(nbr+k) = imag(zdd(ngr(k)));

Bc(nbr+k) = 0;
a(nbr+k) = 1.0;
yload(nbus+k)=0;
end
nbr1=nbr; nbus1=nbus;
nbrt=nbr+ngg;
nbust=nbus+ngg;
linedata=[nl, nr, R, X, -j*Bc, a];
[Ybus, Ybf]=ybusbf(linedata, yload, nbus1,nbust);
fprintf('\nPrefault reduced bus admittance matrix \n')
Ybf
Y=abs(Ybf); th=angle(Ybf);
Pm=zeros(1, ngg);
disp([' G(i) E''(i) d0(i) Pm(i)'])
for ii = 1:ngg
for jj = 1:ngg
Pm(ii) = Pm(ii) + E(ii)*E(jj)*Y(ii, jj)*cos(th(ii, jj)-d0(ii)+d0(jj));

end,
fprintf(' %g', ngr(ii)), fprintf(' %8.4f',E(ii)), fprintf(' %8.4f',
180/pi*d0(ii))
fprintf(' %8.4f \n',Pm(ii))
end
respfl='y';
while respfl =='y' | respfl=='Y' nf=input('Enter
faulted bus No. -> '); fprintf('\nFaulted reduced
bus admittance matrix\n')

Ydf=ybusdf(Ybus, nbus1, nbust, nf)

%Fault cleared
[Yaf]=ybusaf(linedata, yload, nbus1,nbust, nbrt);
fprintf('\nPostfault reduced bus admittance matrix\n')
Yaf
resptc='y';
while resptc =='y' | resptc=='Y'
tc=input('Enter clearing time of fault in sec. tc = ');
tf=input('Enter final simulation time in sec. tf = ');
clear t x del
t0 = 0;
w0=zeros(1, length(d0));
x0 = [d0, w0];
tol=0.0001;
Y=abs(Ydf); th=angle(Ydf);
%[t1, xf] =ode23('dfpek', t0, tc, x0, tol); % Solution during fault (use with
MATLAB 4)
tspan=[t0, tc];
[t1, xf] =ode23('dfpek', tspan, x0); % Solution during fault (use with MATLAB 5)
x0c =xf(length(xf), :);
Y=abs(Yaf); th=angle(Yaf);
%[t2,xc] =ode23('afpek', tc, tf, x0c, tol); % Postfault solution (use with MATLAB
4)
tspan = [tc, tf]; % use with MATLAB 5
[t2,xc] =ode23('afpek', tspan, x0c); % Postfault solution (use with MATLAB
5)
t =[t1; t2]; x = [xf; xc];
fprintf('\nFault is cleared at %4.3f Sec. \n', tc)
for k=1:nbus
if kb(k)==1
ms=k; else, end
end
fprintf('\nPhase angle difference of each machine \n')
fprintf('with respect to the slack in degree.\n')
fprintf(' t - sec')
kk=0;
for k=1:ngg
if k~=ms
kk=kk+1;
del(:,kk)=180/pi*(x(:,k)-x(:,ms));
fprintf(' d(%g,',ngr(k)), fprintf('%g)', ngr(ms))
else, end
end
fprintf(' \n')
disp([t, del])
h=figure; figure(h)
plot(t, del)
title(['Phase angle difference (fault cleared at ', num2str(tc),'s)'])
xlabel('t, sec'), ylabel('Delta, degree'), grid
resp=0;
while strcmp(resp, 'n')~=1 & strcmp(resp, 'N')~=1 & strcmp(resp, 'y')~=1 &
 strcmp(resp, 'Y')~=1
resp=input('Another clearing time of fault? Enter ''y'' or ''n'' within quotes
-> ');

if strcmp(resp, 'n')~=1 & strcmp(resp, 'N')~=1 & strcmp(resp, 'y')~=1 &

strcmp(resp, 'Y')~=1

fprintf('\n Incorrect reply, try again \n\n'), end

end
resptc=resp;
end

resp2=0;
while strcmp(resp2, 'n')~=1 & strcmp(resp2, 'N')~=1 & strcmp(resp2, 'y')~=1 &
strcmp(resp2, 'Y')~=1
resp2=input('Another fault location: Enter ''y'' or ''n'' within quotes -> ');
if strcmp(resp2, 'n')~=1 & strcmp(resp2, 'N')~=1 & strcmp(resp2, 'y')~=1 &
strcmp(resp2, 'Y')~=1
fprintf('\n Incorrect reply, try again \n\n'), end
respf1=resp2;
end
if respf1=='n' | respf1=='N', return, else, end
end
OUTPUT:
Power Flow Solution by Newton-Raphson Method
Maximum Power Mismatch = 1.80187e-007
No. of Iterations = 4

Bus Voltage Angle ------Load------ ---Generation--- Injected

No. Mag. Degree MW Mvar MW Mvar Mvar

1 1.060 0.000 0.000 0.000 105.287 107.335 0.000

2 1.040 1.470 0.000 0.000 150.000 99.771 0.000

3 1.030 0.800 0.000 0.000 100.000 35.670 0.000

4 1.008 -1.401 100.000 70.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

5 1.016 -1.499 90.000 30.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

6 0.941 -5.607 160.000 110.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Total 350.000 210.000 355.287 242.776 0.000

Prefault reduced bus admittance matrix

 Ybf =

0.3517 - 2.8875i 0.2542 + 1.1491i 0.1925 + 0.9856i

0.2542 + 1.1491i 0.5435 - 2.8639i 0.1847 + 0.6904i
0.1925 + 0.9856i 0.1847 + 0.6904i 0.2617 - 2.2835i

G(i) E'(i) d0(i) Pm(i)

1 1.2781 8.9421 1.0529
2 1.2035 11.8260 1.5000
3 1.1427 13.0644 1.0000
Enter faulted bus No. -> 6

Faulted reduced bus admittance matrix

Ydf =

0.1913 - 3.5849i 0.0605 + 0.3644i 0.0523 + 0.4821i

0.0605 + 0.3644i 0.3105 - 3.7467i 0.0173 + 0.1243i

0.0523 + 0.4821i 0.0173 + 0.1243i 0.1427 - 2.6463i Fault

is cleared by opening a line. The bus to bus nos. of the line to

be removed must be entered within brackets, e.g. [5, 7] Enter

the bus to bus Nos. of line to be removed -> [5,6] Postfault

reduced bus admittance matrix

Yaf =

0.3392 - 2.8879i 0.2622 + 1.1127i 0.1637 + 1.0251i

0.2622 + 1.1127i 0.6020 - 2.7813i 0.1267 + 0.5401i

0.1637 + 1.0251i 0.1267 + 0.5401i 0.2859 - 2.0544i

Enter clearing time of fault in sec. tc = 0.4

Enter final simulation time in sec. tf = 1.5

Fault is cleared at 0.400 Sec.

Phase angle difference of each machine

with respect to the slack in degree.

t - sec d(2,1) d(3,1)

0 2.8839 4.1224

0.0000 2.8839 4.1224

0.0000 2.8839 4.1224

0.0001 2.8839 4.1224

0.0003 2.8840 4.1224

0.0015 2.8862 4.1235

 RESULT:

Thus the multi-machine transient stability analysis is simulated on a given power system network
Exp. No.: ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS IN POWER
Date: SYSTEMS

AIM:
(i) To study and understand the electromagnetic transient phenomena in power systems caused due to
switching and fault by PSCAD software.
ii) To become proficient in the usage of PSCAD software to address problems in the areas of
overvoltage protection and mitigation and insulation coordination of EHV systems.

OBJECTIVES:
a) To study the transients due to energization of a single-phase and three-phase load from a non- ideal
source with line represented by π model.
b)To study the transients due to energization of a single-phase and three-phase load from a non-
ideal source and line represented by distributed parameters.
Solution Method for Electromagnetic Transients Analysis

Intentional and inadvertent switching operations in EHV systems initiate over voltages, which might
attain dangerous values resulting in destruction of apparatus. Accurate computation of these over
voltages is essential for proper sizing, coordination of insulation of various equipments and
specification of protective devices. Meaningful design of EHV systems is dependent on modeling
philosophy built into a computer program. The models of equipment‟s must be detailed enough to
reproduce actual conditions successfully – an important aspect where a general purpose digital
computer program scores over transient network analyzers. The program employs a direct integration
time-domain technique evolved by Dommel. The essence of this method is discretization of differential
equations associated with network elements using trapezoidal rule of integration and solution of the
resulting difference equations for the unknown voltages. Any network which consists of
 U20EE606- Power System Simulation Laboratory Manual

interconnections of resistances, inductances, capacitances, single and multiphase π

circuits, distributed parameter lines, and certain other elements can be solved. To keep
the explanations simple, however single phase network elements will be used rather
than the more complex multiphase network elements.

PROBLEM
Prepare the data for the network given in the given figure and run PSCAD software
Obtain the plots of source voltage, load bus voltage and load current following the
energization of a single-phase load. Comment on the results. Double the source inductance
and obtain the plots of the variables mentioned earlier. Comment on the effect of doubling the
source inductance. Energization of a single phase 0.95 pf load from a non ideal source and a
more realistic line representation (lumped R,L,C ) using PSCAD software.

RESULT:
Thus the electromagnetic transient phenomena in power systems caused due to
switching and fault by using PSCAD software are anal yzed and results were obtained.

53 | D S E C ( A ) , D E P A R T M E N T O F E E E