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 Grammatical Analysis of Discourse

Grammatical analysis of discourse refers to the study of how grammar (rules of sentence structure) functions across
longer stretches of language — not just in single sentences but in whole conversations, speeches, essays, or texts. It
helps us understand how sentences are linked together to form meaningful communication.

Grammatical analysis of discourse is not just about individual sentences, but about how those sentences work
together to build meaning. It involves studying grammar features like cohesion, sentence structure, and verb tenses
across whole texts. Understanding this helps us communicate more clearly and effectively.

 Discourse: Cohesion

Cohesion refers to the way different parts of a text are connected together using grammatical and lexical
(vocabulary-based) devices. It is what makes sentences and ideas in a text stick together so that the whole
message is clear and flows smoothly.

Cohesion helps readers or listeners follow the meaning from one sentence to the next, making communication easier
to understand.

Types of Cohesion

Cohesion can be divided into two main types:

1. Grammatical Cohesion
2. Lexical Cohesion

1. Grammatical Cohesion

This involves using grammar rules to link sentences and ideas together.

a. Reference

Using pronouns or other words to refer to something or someone already mentioned.

 Types of Reference:
o Anaphoric (refers back):
Ali bought a book. He liked it.
("He" refers to Ali.)
o Cataphoric (refers forward):
When he entered the room, John looked tired.
("He" refers to John.)
o Exophoric (refers outside the text):
Look at that!
("That" refers to something in the real world, not in the text.)

b. Substitution

Replacing a word or phrase with another word to avoid repetition.

 Example:
I wanted a pen, but they didn’t have one.
("One" replaces "pen.")
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c. Ellipsis

Leaving out a word or part of a sentence when it is already understood from the context.

 Example:
He likes tea. She [likes] coffee.
("Likes" is omitted but understood.)

d. Conjunction

Using connecting words to link ideas between sentences.

 Examples:
o Additive: and, also, moreover
She is kind, and she is hardworking.
o Adversative: but, however, yet
He is rich, but he is not happy.
o Causal: so, because, therefore
He was late, so he missed the train.
o Temporal: then, next, after
She finished her work, then she left.

2. Lexical Cohesion

This involves using words and vocabulary choices to create a connection across the text.

a. Repetition

Repeating the same word to emphasize or maintain the topic.

 Example:
The boy was tired. The boy sat down.

b. Synonyms or Near Synonyms

Using similar words to avoid repetition and keep the meaning connected.

 Example:
The student was bright. The pupil always scored well.

c. Antonyms

Using opposites to show contrast but keep the topic in focus.

 Example:
He is rich, but she is poor.

d. Collocation

Using words that commonly go together in English.

 Example:
She made a decision. Then she took action.
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("Made" and "decision" often go together, as do "took" and "action.")

 Cohesive Devices

🧩 Types of Cohesive Devices

Cohesive devices can be grouped into five main categories:

1. Reference

Definition: Using words that point to other words, usually earlier (anaphoric) or later (cataphoric) in the text.

Common reference words:

 Pronouns: he, she, it, they, this, that

 Demonstratives: this, these, those, such

Example:

Emma loves painting. She spends hours with her brushes.

Here, "she" refers back to "Emma" — creating a link between the two sentences.

2. Substitution

Definition: Replacing a word or group of words with another word to avoid repetition.

Common substitutes:

 one, ones, do, so

Example:

I need a pen. Do you have one?

"One" substitutes for "a pen" — keeping the text concise and connected.

3. Ellipsis

Definition: Omitting words that are understood from the context to avoid redundancy.

Example:

She can play the guitar, and he can [play the guitar] too.

The repeated phrase "play the guitar" is left out in the second clause, but the meaning remains clear.

4. Conjunctions (Linking Words)

Definition: Words that link clauses, sentences, or paragraphs by showing logical relationships.
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Types of Conjunctions:
Function Examples

Addition and, also, moreover, furthermore

Contrast but, however, although, on the other hand

Cause/Effect because, so, therefore, thus

Time/Sequence then, after, before, next, finally

Example:

The exam was difficult; however, most students passed.

The conjunction “however” signals a contrast.

5. Lexical Cohesion

Definition: Using words that are related in meaning to maintain unity throughout a text.

Types:

 Repetition: Reusing the same word

The teacher arrived. The teacher greeted the class.

 Synonyms: Using different words with similar meanings

The doctor was helpful. The physician answered every question.

 Collocations: Words that often occur together

Make a decision, fast food, strong coffee

 General words: Using words like thing, person, stuff to refer to something specific

I read an interesting article. That thing changed my view.

 Coherence=?
 What Are Theme and Rheme

Theme and Rheme are two important concepts in systemic functional grammar, especially in the study of
discourse and sentence structure.

 Theme is what the sentence is about — the starting point of the message.
 Rheme is the part of the sentence that tells us something new about the theme — the rest of the message.

These two parts help us understand how information is organized in communication.

🧩 Why Are Theme and Rheme Important?

Understanding Theme and Rheme helps with:

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 Writing clear and focused sentences

 Organizing information in a logical way
 Creating cohesion and coherence in discourse
 Emphasizing what is known (theme) and what is new (rheme)

This is especially useful in academic writing, news reporting, and formal communication.

🧠 Basic Structure of a Sentence (Using Theme–Rheme)

Theme + Rheme

[Theme] → What we are talking about

[Rheme] → What we say about it

✅ Example 1:

The school reopened yesterday.

 Theme: The school → This is the known topic.

 Rheme: reopened yesterday → This is new information about the school.

✅ Example 2:

Yesterday, the school reopened.

 Theme: Yesterday → This sets the time focus.

 Rheme: the school reopened → New information about what happened yesterday.

💡 Note: The theme is not always the grammatical subject. It is the part that comes first and sets the context.

🧱 Types of Themes

1. Topical Theme

The main topic of the clause (usually the subject).

The doctor arrived late.

Theme = The doctor

2. Textual Theme

Words that connect ideas, such as conjunctions or linking phrases.

However, the doctor arrived late.

Theme = However (textual) + the doctor (topical)

3. Interpersonal Theme

Words that express the speaker’s opinion or interaction.

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Frankly, I don’t agree.

Theme = Frankly (interpersonal) + I (topical)

A theme can have one or more of these parts in sequence:

But honestly, the teacher was right.

Theme = But (textual), honestly (interpersonal), the teacher (topical)

📚 Function of Rheme

The Rheme carries the new information — what the reader or listener is expected to learn or focus on.

It provides:

 Details
 Results
 Descriptions
 Explanations

🧾 Example:

My brother (theme) | won the science competition (rheme).

Here, "won the science competition" is what is new and important in the sentence.

🧠 Theme–Rheme in Paragraphs and Discourse

In longer texts, writers often use a Theme–Rheme progression to build ideas clearly.

🌱 Example Paragraph:

Many people enjoy coffee. (Theme: Many people | Rheme: enjoy coffee)
This beverage is popular worldwide. (Theme: This beverage | Rheme: is popular worldwide)
It is often consumed in the morning. (Theme: It | Rheme: is often consumed in the morning)

Each sentence connects the new idea (rheme) from the previous sentence and turns it into the next theme. This is
called a thematic progression, which creates flow and coherence.

 Thematic Progression

Thematic progression refers to how the Theme and Rheme of one sentence connect to the next sentence in a
text. It shows the flow of ideas from sentence to sentence and helps create coherence in writing.

There are three main types of thematic progression:

1. Constant Theme Pattern

➤ What it means:

The Theme stays the same in all sentences, but the Rheme changes.
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✦ Example:

 Sentence 1: Climate change is a serious problem.

(Theme = Climate change, Rheme = is a serious problem)
 Sentence 2: Climate change affects weather patterns.
(Same Theme = Climate change, New Rheme = affects weather patterns)
 Sentence 3: Climate change causes sea levels to rise.
(Same Theme, different Rheme)

✅ This pattern is good for emphasizing a single topic.

2. Linear Theme Pattern (Zig-Zag Progression)

➤ What it means:

The Rheme of one sentence becomes the Theme of the next sentence.

✦ Example:

 Sentence 1: Education improves knowledge.

(Theme = Education, Rheme = improves knowledge)
 Sentence 2: Knowledge helps people make better decisions.
(Theme = Knowledge, Rheme = helps people...)
 Sentence 3: Better decisions lead to success.

✅ This pattern shows a chain of connected ideas.

3. Split Theme Pattern

➤ What it means:

The first sentence has a Theme that is later divided into parts, and each part becomes a new Theme in the
following sentences.

✦ Example:

 Sentence 1: The benefits of exercise are many.

(Theme = The benefits of exercise)
 Sentence 2: Physical fitness is improved through regular workouts.
(Theme = Physical fitness)
 Sentence 3: Mental health also improves with exercise.
(Theme = Mental health)

✅ This pattern helps explain different parts of a main idea.

 Speech Act Theory

Speech Act Theory is a theory of language that explains how we do things with words, not just say things. It was
first introduced by J.L. Austin and later developed by John Searle.

Speech Act Theory shows that language is not just about grammar or vocabulary — it is about doing things with
words. When we speak, we often perform actions like requesting, promising, or apologizing. Understanding speech
acts helps us communicate clearly and effectively in different situations.

Types of Speech Acts (According to J.L. Austin):

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Austin said every speech act has three levels:

1. Locutionary Act

 The actual words spoken.

 The literal meaning of the sentence.

Example:
"It is cold in here."
👉 Just saying the sentence with words.

2. Illocutionary Act

 The intended meaning or purpose behind the words.

 What the speaker wants to do by saying it.

Example:
"It is cold in here."
👉 This could mean: “Please close the window.” (a request)

3. Perlocutionary Act

 The effect the sentence has on the listener.

 What happens because of what was said.

Example:
"It is cold in here."
👉 The listener closes the window. (an action taken)

 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts

(Part of Speech Act Theory)

🔷 1. Direct Speech Acts

✅ Definition:

A direct speech act is when the form of the sentence clearly matches its function.
In simple words, what the speaker says is exactly what they mean.

✅ Form = Function

 Form = the structure of the sentence (question, statement, command)

 Function = what the speaker wants to do (ask, inform, order, etc.)

✅ Examples:
Sentence Form Function

"Close the door." Command Giving a command

"What is your name?" Question Asking a question

"I apologize for being late." Statement Expressing regret

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🟢 These are direct because the structure and meaning are the same.

🔷 2. Indirect Speech Acts

✅ Definition:

An indirect speech act is when the form of the sentence does not directly show its function.
In simple words, the speaker says one thing, but means something else politely or indirectly.

✅ Form ≠ Function

✅ Examples:
Sentence Form Actual Function

"Can you pass the salt?" Question Request

"It’s a bit noisy here." Statement Suggesting to be quiet

"Do you know what time it is?" Question Asking for the time

These are indirect because the speaker’s real intention is hidden inside a polite or softer sentence.

 Cooperative Principles

The Cooperative Principle is a theory in linguistics and pragmatics proposed by the philosopher H.P. Grice in 1975.
It explains how people cooperate in conversation to communicate effectively.

Grice believed that for communication to be successful, speakers and listeners generally follow certain rules or
principles that help them understand each other.

Definition (Grice):
“Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose
or direction of the talk exchange.”

Four Maxims of the Cooperative Principle:

Grice explained that effective communication follows four rules, called Grice’s Maxims:

🔹 1. Maxim of Quantity – Say enough, but not too much.

 Give the right amount of information.

 Don’t say more or less than needed.

🟢 Example (Following the Maxim):

A: Where do you live?
B: I live in Karak.

✅ B gives just the right answer — clear and not too much.

🔴 Example (Breaking the Maxim):

A: Where do you live?
B: I live in Karak, near the main road, next to a shop, behind the park, in a three-room house…

❌ Too much information — may confuse or bore the listener.

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🔹 2. Maxim of Quality – Be truthful.

 Do not lie.
 Only say what you believe is true.

🟢 Example (Following the Maxim):

A: Is the exam tomorrow?
B: Yes, it is scheduled for 10 AM.

✅ B gives true and helpful information.

🔴 Example (Breaking the Maxim):

A: Is the exam tomorrow?
B: No, it’s been cancelled (when it's not cancelled).

❌ Giving false information damages trust.

🔹 3. Maxim of Relation (Relevance) – Be relevant.

 Stick to the topic.

 Don’t say things that are off-topic.

🟢 Example (Following the Maxim):

A: Do you like modern drama?
B: Yes, especially "A Doll’s House" by Ibsen.

✅ The reply is directly connected to the question.

🔴 Example (Breaking the Maxim):

A: Do you like modern drama?
B: I had biryani for lunch.

❌ Off-topic response — confusing or unhelpful.

🔹 4. Maxim of Manner – Be clear and orderly.

 Avoid confusing or unclear language.

 Be brief and well-organized.

🟢 Example (Following the Maxim):

A: How did the seminar go?
B: It started late, but the speeches were informative and clear.

✅ Clear, simple, and to the point.

🔴 Example (Breaking the Maxim):

A: How did the seminar go?
B: Well, like, you know… it was… um… sort of, maybe okay… I guess.

❌ Confusing and hard to follow.

 What Is Conversational Implicature?

Conversational implicature is a concept in pragmatics introduced by philosopher H.P. Grice. It refers to the implied
meaning that a speaker communicates, even though it is not directly stated in words.
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In simple terms:

Conversational implicature happens when a listener understands something more than what is said, based on
context, shared knowledge, and the Cooperative Principle.

The listener “reads between the lines” and understands the speaker’s real message.

 Types Of Implicature

1. Generalized Conversational Implicature

Definition:
An implicature that is normally understood without needing special context. It arises from general language usage
and common assumptions.

🧾 Example:
A: Did your friends eat the cake?
B: Some of them did.

➡️Implicature: Not all of them ate the cake.

The use of “some” typically implies “not all,” though it is not explicitly stated.

2. Particularized Conversational Implicature

Definition:
An implicature that depends heavily on context. The listener must interpret the hidden meaning based on the
situation.

🧾 Example:
A: Can you go to the party tonight?
B: I have an early flight in the morning.

➡️Implicature: B is indirectly saying “No.”

The refusal is not directly said but understood from context.

3. Scalar Implicature

Definition:
Arises when a speaker uses a term from an ordered scale (like: some < many < most < all), suggesting that a
stronger term is not true.

🧾 Example:
A: Did all the students pass?
B: Some of them passed.

➡️Implicature: Not all students passed.

“Some” is weaker than “all,” so the listener infers a limit.

4. Conventional Implicature
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Definition:
An implicature that is attached to specific words or structures, such as but, even, or yet. It is independent of
context and always implied by the expression.

Example:
A: She is poor but honest.

➡️Implicature: Being honest is unexpected or in contrast with being poor.

The word “but” introduces a contrast automatically.

5. Relevance Implicature

Definition:
Derived from the Maxim of Relevance (Grice). The speaker implies something relevant without stating it directly.

🧾 Example:
A: Is Jack good at math?
B: He tutors high school students every weekend.

➡️Implicature: Yes, Jack is good at math.

B doesn't say "yes" directly, but the answer is relevant and informative.

6. Manner Implicature

Definition:
Based on the Maxim of Manner: be clear, brief, and orderly. When someone avoids directness or clarity, the listener
infers extra meaning.

🧾 Example:
A: How did he die?
B: Well, he was involved in an “incident.”

➡️Implicature: B is hiding or softening the real cause of death, perhaps something unpleasant.

B’s vagueness suggests something sensitive or negative.

7. Irony / Sarcasm Implicature

Definition:
When someone says the opposite of what they mean to mock, criticize, or joke, the true meaning is implied — not
stated.

🧾 Example:
A: Was the movie good?
B: Oh yes, it was absolutely thrilling — I didn’t yawn once.

➡️Implicature: The movie was boring.

B is sarcastic. The listener must interpret tone and context.

8. Presuppositional Implicature
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Definition:
This is when a sentence assumes or implies background information as already known or accepted — even if not
directly stated.

🧾 Example:
A: John stopped smoking.

➡️Implicature / Presupposition: John used to smoke.

The verb “stopped” presupposes a past habit.

 What Is Politeness Theory?

Politeness Theory is a concept in pragmatics (the study of language in context) that explains how people manage
social relationships through language — especially when they are at risk of threatening someone's self-image or
dignity.

It was introduced by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson in 1987, building on Erving Goffman’s idea of face.

Who Developed It?

 The theory was developed by Penelope Brown and Stephen C. Levinson in 1987.
 It is based on Erving Goffman’s idea of “face”

“Face” refers to a person’s public self-image — how they want to be seen by others.

There are two main types of face:

1. Positive Face:
The desire to be liked, appreciated, included, or valued.
2. Negative Face:
The desire to be independent, free from imposition, and to have personal space and autonomy.

Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs)

Whenever we speak, we might perform a Face-Threatening Act — an action that could damage someone’s positive
or negative face.

Examples of FTAs:

 Giving criticism (threatens positive face)

 Asking a favor (threatens negative face)
 Giving orders
 Saying “no” to a request

🎯 Politeness Strategies

To reduce the effect of face-threatening acts, speakers use politeness strategies. Brown and Levinson outlined five
main strategies:

1. Bald On-Record

Definition:
Direct and clear with no politeness. Used when the message is urgent or the speaker has power.
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🧾 Example:
“Close the window.”

➡️Used in emergencies or between close friends.

2. Positive Politeness

Definition:
Tries to make the listener feel valued and liked. Shows friendliness and solidarity.

🧾 Example:
“You’re really good at organizing. Could you help me with this project?”

➡️Appeals to positive face by showing appreciation.

3. Negative Politeness

Definition:
Respects the listener’s desire for freedom and non-interference. Often uses indirectness or hedging.

🧾 Example:
“Sorry to bother you, but would you mind closing the window?”

➡️Polite request that softens the imposition.

4. Off-Record (Indirect Strategy)

Definition:
Speaker hints or speaks indirectly to avoid making a direct request or statement.

🧾 Example:
“It’s getting a bit cold in here…”

➡️Implies a request to close the window, but doesn’t say it directly.

5. Don’t Do the FTA

Definition:
Avoid saying anything that might threaten face. The speaker chooses to remain silent or changes the topic.

🧾 Example:
You want to correct someone but decide to say nothing to avoid embarrassment.

 Discourse and Ideology

What is Discourse?

Discourse refers to language in use, especially connected speech or writing that goes beyond single sentences.
It includes conversations, news articles, speeches, advertisements, textbooks, and any form of structured
communication.

Discourse is not only about what is said, but also about how it is said, who is saying it, in what context, and for
what purpose.
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🧠 What is Ideology?

Ideology is a set of beliefs, values, and ideas that shape how people understand the world, behave, and interact
with others. It influences opinions about politics, gender, religion, economics, culture, and more.

An ideology can be:

 Dominant (widely accepted in society)

 Resistant (challenging dominant beliefs)

Examples:

 Capitalism, feminism, environmentalism, nationalism, patriarchy.

🧩 How Are Discourse and Ideology Connected?

Discourse is a powerful tool for expressing, spreading, and maintaining ideologies. Through language, people
create, support, question, or resist particular belief systems.

In other words:

Discourse shapes ideology, and ideology shapes discourse.

📌 Key Concepts

1. Language as Social Practice

Language is not neutral; it reflects and constructs social reality. Every time we speak or write, we are influenced by
— and contribute to — particular ideological views.

2. Power and Control

Powerful groups (e.g., media, politicians, institutions) often use discourse to maintain their dominance by
promoting certain ideologies as “normal,” “natural,” or “common sense.”

3. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

This is a method of studying how language reflects and enforces power and ideology. CDA examines how texts
subtly promote particular worldviews.

📝 Examples

✅ Example 1: News Media

Headline: “Illegal Immigrants Flood the Border”

 Discourse: The use of “flood” presents immigrants as a threat.

 Ideology: Promotes anti-immigration, national security ideology.
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✅ Example 2: Gender in Advertising

Ad Text: “A real man doesn’t cry.”

 Discourse: Associates masculinity with emotional toughness.

 Ideology: Reinforces traditional gender roles.

✅ Example 3: Education Policy

Statement: “Private schools promote excellence through competition.”

 Discourse: Positive framing of privatization.

 Ideology: Supports capitalist and neoliberal values.

 A Detailed History of Discourse Analysis (DA) and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) —

🔹 1. Origins of Discourse Analysis (DA)

Discourse Analysis (DA) started because earlier linguistics only focused on individual sentences and ignored how
people actually use language in real-life communication. DA goes beyond just grammar and studies how language is
used in full texts, conversations, or social situations.

🔸 Structuralism and Early Linguistics

 Ferdinand de Saussure (1916):

He separated language into two parts:
o Langue = the overall language system we all share (grammar, rules)
o Parole = how individuals use language in real-life situations (actual speech)
His ideas helped scholars focus not just on grammar, but on real communication.
 Zellig Harris (1952):
He used the term “discourse analysis” for the first time.
He looked at how sentences are connected together to form meaning in a larger context (like in a
paragraph or conversation), not just one sentence at a time.

🔸 Pragmatics and Speech Act Theory

J.L. Austin (1962) and John Searle (1969):

They showed that language is not just about giving information, but also about doing things. For
example, when someone says “I promise,” they are not just saying words—they are performing an action.

 H.P. Grice (1975):

He introduced the idea of the Cooperative Principle — how people usually follow certain rules in
conversation to be understood. He also explained how people often imply things (called “implicature”)
instead of saying them directly.

🔸 Sociolinguistics and Ethnography

 Dell Hymes (1962):

He developed the ethnography of communication, which means studying how language is used in
different social groups, cultures, and situations.
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 William Labov (1972):

He studied how people tell stories in everyday speech, especially in urban settings. He showed that
casual speech has structure and rules, just like written texts.

🔹 2. Development of DA in the Late 20th Century

During this time, Discourse Analysis grew and included ideas from sociology (study of society), anthropology (study
of cultures), and psychology (study of the mind).

🔸 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)

 Michael Halliday (1978):

He said that language is a social tool and its use depends on the context. He introduced three important
functions of language:
1. Ideational – expressing ideas and information
2. Interpersonal – building relationships
3. Textual – organizing messages in texts

These became key concepts in modern DA.

🔸 Conversation Analysis (CA)

 Harvey Sacks, Emanuel Schegloff, and Gail Jefferson (1970s):

They studied how real conversations are organized, like how people take turns while talking, how they
respond to each other, and how they fix mistakes during conversations.

🔸 Critical Influences

 Michel Foucault (1972):

He introduced the idea that language is linked with power and knowledge. He said that the way we talk
about things (discourse) shapes how we understand the world and who holds power in society.

🔹 3. Emergence of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

In the 1980s and 1990s, CDA became a separate field. It added a political focus to Discourse Analysis by studying
how language is used to control people and spread ideologies (sets of beliefs).

🔸 Marxist Theory

 Antonio Gramsci (1971):

He explained the concept of hegemony, which means ruling people through culture and consent, not
just force. This idea became central to CDA’s interest in ideology.

🔸 Frankfurt School Critical Theory

 Jürgen Habermas (1984):

He studied how language can help people in society communicate fairly and democratically. He believed
that true communication should be free from power and manipulation.

🔸 Foundational CDA Scholars

1. Norman Fairclough (1989):

o He introduced a three-part framework for analyzing texts:
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1. Text (the words and grammar used)

2. Discursive practice (how the text is produced and interpreted)
3. Social practice (the broader social and political context)
o He also focused on intertextuality, meaning how texts borrow ideas or words from other texts.
2. Teun van Dijk (1998):
o He looked at how ideology is spread through language, especially in politics and media.
o He also created a socio-cognitive approach, which connects how people use language with how
they think and understand society.
3. Ruth Wodak (1996):
o She developed the discourse-historical approach, which includes the historical background of
the discourse.
o She studied topics like racism, anti-Semitism, and nationalism in Europe.

🔹 4. Key Theoretical Foundations of CDA

 Power and Ideology:

CDA explores how powerful groups (like governments or media) use language to control public opinion,
enforce rules, or create divisions (e.g., calling a group “terrorists” vs. “freedom fighters”).
 Interdiscursivity:
This means mixing different types of language. For example, a politician may use scientific language
and religious terms to support their argument.
 Multimodality:
CDA doesn’t only study words. It also looks at images, body language, symbols, and digital media. For
example, analyzing a political ad includes both text and images.

🔹 5. Methodologies in DA and CDA

 Textual Analysis:
Looking closely at the language used in texts to find signs of power or bias. For example, analyzing how
passive voice hides responsibility (e.g., “Mistakes were made”).
 Corpus Linguistics:
Using large collections of texts (called corpora) and software to find patterns in language. This helps find
consistent ways that language is used in media or politics.
 Ethnographic Approaches:
Observing how people actually use language in real settings, like in offices, hospitals, or classrooms.

🔹 6. Contemporary Developments

 Digital Discourse Analysis:

Studying language on the internet, such as in social media, blogs, or YouTube comments.
Example: David Crystal explored how online language changes communication.
 Decolonial CDA:
This branch criticizes how CDA often focuses too much on European ideas, and instead explores how
language works in non-Western or colonized societies.
 Eco-CDA:
A new area that studies how language influences how people think about the environment.
Example: Arran Stibbe studies how words shape attitudes toward nature and climate change.

🔹 7. Criticisms and Debates

 Over-Politicization:
Some critics (like Henry Widdowson) say that CDA is too political and focuses more on ideology than on
actual language analysis.
 Lack of Neutrality:
CDA openly supports social justice, which makes it different from traditional linguistics that tries to be
neutral.
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 Methodological Vagueness:
Some scholars argue that CDA is not always clear about how it chooses texts or methods, and may only
look for what it wants to find.

📚 Key References (Simplified)

 Early DA Thinkers:
o Zellig Harris (1952): Introduced Discourse Analysis
o Halliday (1978): Language as part of society
o Foucault (1972): Language and power
 CDA Founders:
o Fairclough (1989): Language and Power
o van Dijk (1998): Ideology and discourse
o Wodak (1996): Historical context in discourse
 Modern CDA Topics:
o Kress & van Leeuwen (1996): Visual communication
o Baker (2006): Computer-based analysis
o Stibbe (2015): Environmental language (Eco-CDA)
 Critiques:
o Widdowson (2004): Critic of CDA’s political focus

(EXTRA INFO)

A Brief History of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

 What is CDA?

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an approach to studying language that focuses on how power, dominance,
and inequality are expressed and reproduced through discourse (spoken or written communication).

CDA examines how language is used in social and political contexts to shape ideology, identity, and power
relations.

Brief History of CDA

CDA developed in the late 20th century, especially in the 1980s and 1990s, though its roots go further back.

1. Early Influences

 Pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and discourse analysis laid the foundation for CDA.
 Scholars became interested not only in how language works structurally but also in how it functions socially
and politically.

2. 1980s – Rise of Critical Linguistics

 CDA began as Critical Linguistics (CL) at the University of East Anglia in the UK.
 Pioneers: Roger Fowler, Gunther Kress, Bob Hodge, and Tony Trew.
 They studied how ideology and power are embedded in texts like news articles and political speeches.
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3. 1990s – Formation of CDA as a Field

 Scholars like Norman Fairclough, Teun A. van Dijk, Ruth Wodak, and Paul Chilton formalized CDA as a
distinct academic discipline.
 These scholars combined linguistic analysis with social theory to show how discourse maintains social
injustice and power imbalances.

4. Today

 CDA is widely used across disciplines (linguistics, sociology, education, media studies).
 It focuses on real-life language use in contexts such as:
o Political speeches
o Media discourse
o Institutional talk (law, education, healthcare)
o Everyday conversation

Michel Foucault and CDA

🔍 Who Was Michel Foucault?

Michel Foucault (1926–1984) was a French philosopher and social theorist. He did not create CDA, but his ideas
had a deep influence on its development.

Foucault’s work focused on the relationship between knowledge, discourse, and power.

🧩 Foucault's Key Ideas Relevant to CDA

1. Discourse as Power/Knowledge

Foucault argued that discourse is not just language, but a system that shapes how we understand truth,
knowledge, and reality.

“Discourse is both a tool and a form of power.”

 For example, medical or legal discourse tells us what is considered normal or abnormal, legal or illegal.

2. Power is Everywhere

Foucault said power is not just top-down (e.g., from government), but exists in everyday interactions and
institutions. It works through language, rules, and norms.

Power is productive, not just repressive — it shapes identities, knowledge, and practices.

3. Discursive Formations

He introduced the idea of discursive formations — systems of ideas, meanings, and language that define what can
be said and thought in a given context.

Example:
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 In the past, people with mental illness were seen as "mad" or "possessed" — this was a discursive
formation.
 Modern psychology introduced new language and categories (e.g., “disorder,” “treatment”) that reshaped
this discourse.

🔄 Foucault’s Influence on CDA

CDA scholars, especially Norman Fairclough, adapted Foucault’s ideas to study how:

 Institutions use language to exercise control (e.g., schools, media, government)

 Certain ideologies become dominant
 Language contributes to social inequality

Foucault helped CDA become more theoretically grounded in understanding:

 How language controls people’s behavior and beliefs

 How "truths" are constructed through discourse
 How resistance to dominant discourse is also possible

 Language and Society

Language and society refers to the study of how language functions in social contexts. It explores the
relationship between language use and social factors such as culture, class, gender, age, ethnicity, and identity.

📌 Key Points

1. Language Reflects Society

Language expresses beliefs, customs, and values. Different social groups often speak differently (e.g.,
slang, accents, dialects).
2. Language Shapes Society
How we talk can influence how we think about race, gender, power, etc. For example, gender-neutral
language promotes equality.
3. Variation
o Sociolinguistics studies variation in language across different regions and social groups.
o Language varies depending on context (formal/informal), status of speakers, and purpose.
4. Social Identity
Language helps people construct and express their identities (e.g., “code-switching” between languages
in different settings).

 Teun A. van Dijk and CDA

Who is Teun A. van Dijk?

Teun A. van Dijk is a Dutch linguist and a key figure in the development of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). His
work focuses on how language and discourse reproduce social power, racism, and ideology.

Key Contributions

1. Discourse and Power

Van Dijk studied how powerful groups control discourse in areas like politics, media, and education.
2. Discourse Structures
He examined how texts are organized to promote certain ideas, especially in news media. For example:
o Headlines
o Sources quoted
o Word choice (e.g., “freedom fighter” vs. “terrorist”)
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3. Ideology and Racism

He explored how racist ideologies are subtly communicated in language, often through:
o Implicit meanings
o Stereotypes
o Focus on “us vs. them”
4. Cognitive Approach
He also focused on how people understand and remember discourse, linking language with mental
models and belief systems.

Example:A newspaper might write:

“Migrants flood the city”

That word "flood" sounds negative and dangerous, even though the sentence just means people are arriving. This
shows how word choices can create fear or bias.

 Language and Power

Language and power is about how people use words to control, influence, or resist others. It can be seen in
politics, workplaces, media, schools, and everyday life.

Language and power are closely connected. People in powerful positions often use language to maintain authority,
give commands, set rules, and shape public beliefs. On the other hand, people with less power may not have the
same freedom to express themselves or be heard.

How Language Shows Power

1. In Politics:
Politicians use persuasive language to gain support. They may use positive words for their ideas and
negative words for opponents (e.g., “freedom” vs. “threat”).
2. In the Media:
Journalists may choose words that support a certain group or idea. This can affect how the public
understands events.
3. In Institutions:
Teachers, doctors, or judges use language that shows authority. They decide what is “correct” or “normal.”
4. In Conversation:
People with more power may interrupt more, speak longer, or control the topic.

📋 Example

Boss: “I expect this report by noon.”

Employee: “Yes, of course.”

 This short exchange shows a power difference — one person gives orders; the other agrees.

___________END____________
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‫دنیا کی سب سے بڑی خوشی‪ ،‬خود پر یقین رکھنا ہے۔‬