THE RESEARCH
PROCESS
DMQ 6134: BUSINESS
RESEARCH SEMINAR
THE VALUE OF ACQUIRING
RESEARCH SKILLS
To gather more information before selecting
a course of action
To do a high-level research study
To understand research design
To evaluate and resolve a current
management dilemma
To establish a career as a research
specialist
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CHARACTERISTICS
OF A GOOD
RESEARCH
Following the standards of the scientific
method
Purpose clearly defined
Research process detailed
Research design thoroughly planned
Limitations frankly revealed
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CONT’D
High ethical standards applied
Findings presented unambiguously
Conclusions justified
Researcher’s experience reflected
Adequate analysis for
decision-maker’s needs
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DEFINITION OF BASIC
TERMS USED IN RESEARCH
Population: it refers to an entire group of individuals,
events or objects having a common observable
characteristic.
Sample: It is a smaller group obtained from the
accessible population.
Sampling: It is the process of selecting a number of
individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals selected represent the population.
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Variable: It is a measurable characteristic that assumes
different values among the subjects. They can be
dependent, independent, intervening, confounding
or antecedent variables.
Data: refers to all information a researcher gathers for
his or her study. Can be secondary data or primary
data.
Parameter: It is a characteristic that is measurable and
can assume different values in the population.
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Statistics: it is the science of organizing, describing
and analyzing data. Descriptive and inferential
statistics.
Objective: it refers to the specific aspects of the
phenomenon under study that the researcher
desires to bring out at the end of the research
study.
Literature review: It involves locating, reading and
evaluating reports of previous studies,
observations and opinions related to the planned
study.
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Hypothesis: It is a researcher’s anticipated explanation
or opinion regarding the result of the study.
Theory: It is a set of concepts or constructs and the
interrelations that are assumed to exist among
those concepts. It provides the basis for
establishing the hypothesis to be tested in the
study.
A construct is an image or idea specifically invented
for a given research and/or theory-building
purpose
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A concept is a bundle of meanings
or characteristics associated with
certain events, objects, conditions,
situations, and behaviors. Concepts
have been developed over time
through shared usage
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COMPONENTS OF
RESEARCH
❖Identification of the research area and topic.
❖Statement of the problem.
❖Literature review.
❖Methodology design
❖Sampling frame and sampling techniques.
❖Data collection tools, design and techniques.
❖Data analysis methods.
❖Report writing techniques.
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TYPES OF
RESEARCH
Research can be classified on the
basis of the following three criteria:
A. Purpose/Function of Research
B. Methods or Design of Research
C. Nature of Data
D. Type of Data
E. Method of analysis
F. Stage of Research
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(A.) CLASSIFICATION BY
PURPOSE/FUNCTION OF
RESEARCH
(I) PURE RESEARCH
This is research conducted for the development and
refinement of theory. The basic goal is to contribute to
general knowledge for purposes of knowledge sake. It's
also used to support or refute existing theories and to
establish evidence upon which new theory can be
developed.
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PURE RESEARCH
(CONT’D)
Basic research studies are designed to permit the
greatest possible generalizations of results. The results are
also used for a long period of time. Most research in the field
of pure sciences e.g. physics would be regarded as pure or
basis research.
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(ii.) Applied Research
• This is research conducted to test or
evaluate basic research in solving practical
management problems or to improve
current conditions.
• Applied research is designed to determine
specifically whether theory predicts
outcome in a designated set of
circumstances. Its also used to determine
whether modifications peculiar to a specific
situation must be introduced. It is…..
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…concerned with modification
improvements as well as creation of
new products, processes, designs et.
• Most research in today’s organization
including those in entrepreneurship and
management would be considered
applied research.
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(iii.) Action Research
This is research conducted for the
purpose of solving immediate problems in
a local situation or environment. The
purpose of action research is that
immediate results or findings are required
to undertake research on a particular type
of soil to form a basis for a particular
action. Involves the application of scientific
methods of investigation but
generalisation of other situations is limited.
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(iv.) Evaluation Research
It is the process of determining whether
the intended results were realized.
Evaluation research types include:
- Needs assessment
A need is a discrepancy between an
existing set of conditions and a desired
set of conditions. The results of needs
assessment study provide the foundation
for developing new programmes and for
making changes in existing ones.
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- Formative evaluation
Helps to collect data about a programme
while it is still being developed e.g. an
educational programme, a marketing
strategy etc.
- Summative evaluation
It is done after the programme has been
fully developed. It is conducted to evaluate
how worthwhile the final programme has
been especially compared to similar
programmes.
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(v.) Exploratory study
• This is initial research conducted to clarify
and define the nature of the problem.
• An exploratory research is necessary when
little or nothing is known about a
phenomenon and hence the need to explore,
in order to identify the key aspects or features
of the phenomenon.
• An exploratory study may be useful for
generating hypotheses for use in the
descriptive study.
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(vi.) Causal Research
It aims at determining causal factors can
be done when enough information is
available for testing cause and effect
relationships in a phenomenon. Unless
enough information is available, it may
be difficult to identify factors to be
controlled so as to determine the exact
effect of the uncontrolled factors.
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(B.) CLASSIFICATION
BY NATURE OF
DATA
(I.) QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
Includes designs and techniques and measures that
produce discrete numerical or quantifiable data.
Random sampling is done to ensure representative of
the data. Examples include correlation research,
experimental research designs and causal comparative
research.
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(II.) QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Includes designs techniques and measures that do not
produce discrete numerical data. More efforts that not
the data is in form of text rather than numbers and these
words are offer grouped into categories. There are 3
methods used to collect data.
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QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH (CONT’D)
❖ Direct observation
❖ Participant observation where data is collected by an
observer who is a regular participant.
❖ Interview method where there is face-to-face
interaction between the researcher and observes.
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ADVANTAGES OF
QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE METHODS
Since in many cases a researcher has several
objectives, some of these objectives are
better assessed using quantitative methods.
Both methods supplement each other i.e.
qualitative methods provide the in-depth
explanations while quantitative methods
provide the data needed to test hypotheses.
Since both methods have a bias, using both
types of research helps to avoid such bias in
that each method can be used to check the
other.
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DISADVANTAGES OF
QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE METHODS
It is expensive
Researchers may not have sufficient training in both methods to
be able to use them effectively.
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(C.) CLASSIFICATION
BY TYPE OF DATA
(I.) PRIMARY
RESEARCH
Relies on primary data – data generated first time for
purposes of the research at hand. Data is usually collected
through fieldwork experiments
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(II.) SECONDARY
RESEARCH
Relies on secondary data – Data that already exists in
records because they were collected for purposes other than
that of the research at hand.
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(D.) CLASSIFICATION
BY
METHOD/DESIGN
OF RESEARCH
(I.) SURVEY
RESEARCH
A survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a
population in order to determine the current status of that
population with respect to one or more variables. Survey
study is therefore a self-report study, which requires the
collection of quantifiable information from the sample. It is a
descriptive research.
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STEPS INVOLVED IN
SURVEY RESEARCH
Problem statement
Defining Objectives
Selecting a Sample
Preparing the instruments
Data analysis
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Purpose of survey research
• It seeks to obtain information that
describes existing phenomena by asking
individuals about their perceptions,
attitudes, behaviour or values.
• Can be used for explaining or exploring
the existing status of two or more
variables, at a given point in time.
• It is the most appropriate to measure
characteristics of large populations.
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LIMITATIONS OF
SURVEY RESEARCH
They are dependent on the cooperation of respondents.
Information unknown to the respondents cannot be tapped in
a survey e.g. amount saved per year
Requesting information which is considered secret and
personal, encourages incorrect answers.
Surveys cannot be aimed at obtaining forecasts of things to
come
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(ii.) Historical research
This is the study of a problem that requires
collecting information from the past. It
involves studying, understanding and
experiencing past events. Historical
research studies do not collect data by
administering instruments to individuals.
This type if research seeks data that is
already available.
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Purpose of Historical Research:
• Aims at arriving at conclusions concerning
causes, effects or trends of past
occurrences that may help explain present
events and anticipate future events.
• Attempts to interpret ideas or events that
had previously seemed unrelated.
• Synthesizes old data or merges old data
with new historical facts that the
researcher or other researchers have
discovered.
• To reinterpret past events that have been
studied.
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Steps in historical research
• Identifying and delineating the problem.
• Developing hypothesis or hypotheses that
one is interested in testing.
• Collecting and classifying resource
materials, determining facts by internal
and external criticism.
• Organizing facts into results
• Interpreting data in terms of stated
hypothesis or theory.
• Synthesizing and presenting the research
in an organized form.
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(iii.) Experimental Research
It involves manipulation of independent
variables to determine their effects on a
dependant variable. The purpose is to
isolate one facto as the one causing the
problem. It therefore established
cause-effect relationships among
variables.
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(iv.) Observational Research
These are observation studies where the
current status of a phenomenon is
determined not by asking but by
observing. It serves to collect objective
information. The information is objective
because the researcher observes behavior
rather than rely on a self report a basis of
source data.
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Steps in Observational Research
• Selection and definition of the problem.
• Sample selection.
• Definition of the observational information.
• Recording observational information
• Data analysis and interpretation.
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TYPES OF
OBSERVATIONAL
RESEARCH
- Non-participant observation
The observer is not directly involved in the
situation to be observed.
- Simulation observation.
The researcher creates the situation to be
observed and tells subjects to be observed what
activities they are to engage in. Disadvantage – the
setting is not natural and the behaviour exhibited
by the subjects may not be the behaviour that
would occur in a natural setting.
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- Naturalistic Observation
Behaviour is studied and recorded as it normally
occurs.
- Case studies
A case study is an in-depth investigation of an
individual, group, institution or phenomenon. It
aims to determine factors and relationships among
the factors that have resulted in the behaviour
under study.
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- Participant observation
The observer becomes part of or a participant in
the situation. May not be ethical
- Content analysis
It involves observation and detailed description of
objects, items or things that comprise the sample.
The purpose is to study existing documents such
as books, magazines in order to determine factors
that explain a specific phenomenon.
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STEPS IN CONTENT
ANALYSIS
Decide on the unit of analysis
Sample the content to be analyzed
Coding
Data analysis
Compiling results and interpretations.
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ADV & DIS-ADV OF
CONTENT ANALYSIS
Researchers are able to economize in terms of time
and money.
Errors that arise during the study are easier to detect
and correct.
The method has no effect on what is being studied.
Disadvantages
It is limited to recorded communication.
It is difficult to ascertain the validity of the data.
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(E.) CLASSIFICATION
BY METHODS OF
ANALYSIS
(i.) Descriptive research
It is the process of collecting data in
order to test hypotheses or to answer
questions concerning the current status
of the subjects in the study. It determines
and reports the way things are. It
attempts to describe such things as
possible behaviour, attitudes, values and
characteristics. Steps involved in
descriptive research:
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STEPS IN DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH..
Formulating the objectives of a study
Designing the methods of data collection
Selecting the sample
Data collection
Analyzing the results
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(II.)
CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE
RESEARCH
It is used to explore relationships between
variables. It determines reasons or causes for the
current status of the phenomenon under study.
The variables of interest cannot be manipulated
unlike in experimental research.
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STEPS IN
CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE
RESEARCH
Define the research question
Select a group that possesses the characteristics,
which the researcher wants to study.
Select a comparison group which does not display the
characteristics under study but which is similar to the
group in other respects.
Collect data on both the experimental and control
groups
Analyze the data
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ADVANTAGES OF
CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE STUDY
Allows a comparison of groups without
having to manipulate the independent
variables
It can be done solely to identify variables
worthy of experimental investigation
They are relatively cheap.
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DISADVANTAGES OF
CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE
STUDY
Interpretations are limited because the researcher does
not know whether a particular variable is a cause or
result of a behavior being studied.
There may be a third variable which could be affecting
the established relationship but which may not be
established in the study.
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(III.) CORRELATION
RESEARCH
It describes in quantitative terms the degree to
which variables are related. It explores
relationships between variables and also tries
to predict a subject’s score on one variable
given his or her score on another variable.
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STEPS IN
CORRELATIONAL
RESEARCH
Problem statement
Selection of subjects
Data collection
Data analysis
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Advantages of Correlational
method
• Permits one to analyze inter-relationships among
a large number of variables in a single study.
• Allows one to analyze how several variables
either singly or in combination might affect a
particular phenomenon being studied.
• The method provides information concerning the
degree of relationship between variables being
studied.
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Disadvantages of Correlational
Method
• Correlation between two variables does
not necessarily imply causation although
researchers often tend to interpret such a
relationship to mean causation.
• Since the correlation coefficient is an
index, any two variables will always show
a relationship even when commonsense
dictates that such variables are not
related.
• The correlation coefficient is very sensitive
to the size of the sample.
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