Module 3

Electric Propulsion Systems

Introduction to electric components used in hybrid and

electric vehicles (2 hrs)
DC Drives: Review of Separately excited DC Motor control
– Speed and torque equations - Independent control of
orthogonal flux and torque - Closed loop control of speed
and torque (block diagram only) (2 hrs)
PMSM Drives: PMSM motor basics – Independent control
of orthogonal flux and torque (concept only)- Field
Oriented Control (FOC) – Sensored and sensorless control
(block diagram only) (3 hrs)
Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and
Fuel Cell Vehicles
 Part 1
• Introduction to electric components used in
hybrid and electric vehicles (2 hrs)
 3 components
• Main components
Motor, Speed Controller, Dc/Dc Converter
• Safety, components
Circuit Breaker, Ignition Key, Main Contactor,
Fusible Link, Pot Box, Meters

• Aux components
Charger, Terminal ,Relay ,Cable, Connector, Noalox
,Heat Shrink Tube, Taper Lock Hub
 1.E.V MAIN COMPONENTS
• MOTORS
• The motor is the main component of an EV. It
is very important to select proper type of
motor with suitable rating.
Ac/dc motors
• Series Wound Brushed DC Motors
• Series wound brushed DC motors (the field winding and
armature are connected in series) are the best for the road-
going EVs today, as they have a high torque, are cheap
compared to other types, have wide availability, and
require simple controllers as compared to other types.
• AC Motors
• AC motors operate at high rpm that have to be stepped
down, are expensive, and require a complex speed control
mechanism.
• Brushless DC Motors
• Brushless DC motors require expensive controllers, but
need very little maintenance.
• Permanent Magnet Motors
• Permanent magnet motors are very efficient,
but only in a very narrow rpm band, and
quickly lose their efficiency in the varying
speeds of normal driving.
• Shunt Wound DC Motors
• Shunt and compound motors are more
expensive to build and have poorer
acceleration than series motors.
 1.2 SPEED CONTROLLER
• The speed controller is crucial to the efficiency
and smooth operation of the electric car.
• Speed controllers are rated according to the
voltage and amperage ranges.
• Pulse width modulation (PWM) DC motor
controllers work by “pulsing” the current
delivered to the motor.
• Just like a piston water pump, the individual
pulses are smoothed to produce a
continuous flow.
 1.3 DC/DC CONVERTER
• An electric car normally uses a 12 V auxiliary
battery to power all of the original 12 V
accessories: lights, horn, and so on.
• However, unlike a gas car, there is no
alternator to keep this battery charged.
• One option is to use deep-cycle 12 V
batteries, as heavy duty as possible.
• This is not adequate if night driving is intended.
• As the battery drains in use,the headlights will
grow dimmer and the turn signals flash more
slowly.
• It can also affect the running of the car if some of
the drive system components do not get the
signal theyrequire from the auxiliary battery
• Another option is to tap 12 V from two of the
main pack batteries, but it causes the pack to
discharge unevenly, affecting performance
andbattery life.
• The better option may be a DC/DC converter. This
taps the full battery pack voltage and cuts it down
to a regulated 13.5 V output, similar to an
alternator.
• It is not recommended to eliminate the auxiliary
battery entirely, for safety reasons.
• If the DC/DC converter fails at night, or the
battery pack falls below the low voltage shut-
offof the converter, the auxiliary battery will have
enough charge to bring the car home.
2.MAIN SAFETY COMPONENTS IN AN
EV
• 2.1CIRCUIT BREAKERS
• A circuit breaker provides a fail-safe manual
interruption of the battery power in event ofa
drive system malfunction. It also provides a
convenient way to shut off battery power during
routine servicing of the system. It must be
installed in a location where it can be operated by
the driver. It allows the driver to manually isolate
the power train components from the battery
pack in an emergency or while working on the
car, even if the ignition switch fails.
• In addition, the circuit breaker will trip
automatically in case of a malfunction creating a
high current surge, and can be easily reset when
the malfunction is corrected.
• AC and DC breakers have different characteristics,
because it is more difficult to break direct current
than to break alternating current and it must also
be designed to withstand the rigors of an
automotive environment.
 2.2 IGNITION KEY MAIN CONTACTOR

• Contactors are used to switch high currents remotely by means of a

low-level control voltage. In EVs high voltages, inductive loads, and
extremely high current loads are encountered.
• To switch a current under these conditions requires specifically
designed equipments. Contactors have continuous duty coils, silver-
cadmium-oxide contacts to prevent welding, and magnetic
blowouts, which extinguish electrical arcing.
• A diode protects other components from current spikes when the
field is collapsed. There are many types of contactors such as main
contactors, single/double pole contactors, and reversing contactors.
The main contactor is an easy way to manually isolate the power
train components from the battery pack in an emergency, during
charging, or while working on the car.
 2.3FUSIBLE LINK

• A fusible link should be inserted in the traction

battery circuit in each pack in the vehicle.
• It will break the circuit in case of a short circuit
 2.4POTBOX

• The potbox is the interface between the throttle

pedal and the speed controller. It sends a
• variable resistance signal to the controller to
specify the amount of electricity to be released
• to the motor. It interfaces directly with any
vehicle’s existing throttle control cable or
• linkage. It comes with many safety features, such
as deadman switches for emergency
• disconnect and high pedal lockout to prevent
unintentional acceleration.
 2.5 INSTRUMENTATION
• Gauges
• Gauges allow monitoring of an EV’s performance. The
primary requirements of gauges are reliability, accuracy,
and readability. Many display formats do not live up to
these criteria. Panel meters are not designed to be used in
vehicles. They cannot function reliably
• for extended periods in the conditions of vibration, jostling,
dust, and heat that are normalin a car. Light emitting diode
(LED) gauges are difficult to read in the sunshine.
• In addition, digital gauges are harder to interpret at a
glance than needle gauges. Any gauge that is not backlit
will be useless at night. The following are the types of
gauges normally used in an electric car.
 Ammeter

• The ammeter gives a continuous reading of current

usage. When an EV is coasting or sitting still, it will read
zero. During full acceleration, it will peg at the top of
the scale,then gradually fall off as the motor achieves
its optimum rpm level. In reality, the ammeter
• is a mill voltmeter. This makes it possible to wire the
gauge with lightweight wire instead
• of 2/0 cable. The shunt is calibrated to put out a
specific voltage in mill volts for a specific
• amperage input. It is usually mounted near the
controller.
 State-of-Charge Gauge

• This gauge measures the voltage in the battery

pack and reads in percentages from full to
• empty. Under acceleration, it will draw down
to a lower voltage, so it should be read when
• foot is off the throttle. This gauge is more
accurate than a segmented bar scale display
or
• a sampling meter, which may tend to read too
low.
 High-Voltage Meter

• This gauge measures battery pack voltage and

displays it in volts, to give a running
performance display.
• Low-Voltage Meter
• This gauge allows monitoring the charge level
of auxiliary battery. It is normally required for
cars with DC/DC converters.
 3 AUXILIARIES IN AN EV
• Chargers
• A good charger is crucial to EV performance. Early crude chargers simply
slugged voltage into the batteries until the charger was turned off. This
caused the batteries to gas heavily toward the end of the charge, and it
shortened battery life. Later chargers used timers to taper the charge
down and shut off. These are better, but still did not fully synchronize with
the needs of the batteries. Modern chargers can sense the level of charge
in the battery pack, and taper the charging current accordingly.
• The final, low-current part of the charge cycle serves to equalize the
charge in all the batteries. There are differences between 220 V and 110 V
input chargers. A 220 V will charge the pack faster, but it is bulkier and
heavier, not really suitable for on-board mounting. A110 V charger will
charge more slowly, but it is small and light enough to be mounted
onboard so the driver can take advantage of opportunity charging
anywhere there is 110 V power.
• Relays

• When installing high-voltage heaters, air conditioners, power

steering pumps, and so onin an EV, the appropriate relay is required
to switch these devices on and off with a 12 VDC control voltage.
Since these loads are highly inductive, a relay with magnetic
blowoutsand adequate spacing is required to interrupt the current
without creating the contacts weldfrom the arcs.
• There are many types of relays such as switching relay and charger
interlockrelay. A double-pole, double-throw relay is used to disable
the vehicle during charging,so that it can’t be driven away while still
plugged in. When activated by AC input, thisrelay breaks the circuit
between the ignition key and the potbox microswitch. It is normally
• available with 12 V DC or 120 V AC pull-down coils.
• Terminal Blocks
• Terminal blocks are often used when there are
multiple connections feeding to a common
• power source or ground. There are two types:
Small gauge is suitable for low current
• 16 ga. wiring; large gauge is a single stud
suitable for connection to 2/0 cable by a lug.
• Fuse Block
• A fuse block serves the same purpose as a
terminal block, with the added feature of
fusing each connection.
 Cables

• It is important that the proper cable and lugs are employed when
interwiring high-currentcircuits such as batteries, motors, and
controllers. It is also important that lugs are crimped properly onto
cable ends to ensure a good mechanical bond. If a lug is soldered on
and becomes loose, the heat generated under high currents can
cause solder melt. Using animproper cable size can melt the battery
terminals and wires or cause fire or even explosion. The high-
current connections in an EV need to be made with 2/0 cable.
• However, not all2/0 cable is created equal. Some of it will have
dozens of strands of copper, each about as thick as a mechanical
pencil lead. This is suitable for stationary wiring in a building, but
hard to work with in a vehicle, because it is too stiff. The cables
used in EVs have several thousand copper strands the thickness of
hairs. Both types of cable have the same amount of copper in them,
but the fine strand version is very flexible for bending into tight
places. It also has a durable insulation protecting it.
 Cable Grommets

• As cables or wires are passed through a hole

in sheet metal, a grommet should be used
• to protect the wires. These grommets fit
closely around the cables, eliminating
movement and providing a weatherproof
opening.
 Connectors

• There are some places in an EV where a secure connection

is needed and which can alsobe easily separated. One such
example is the wiring to an on-board charger.
• Hardwiring the charger into the car is awkward and makes
it difficult to remove for repairs or modifications.
• The solution is the connector. This is a heavy-duty plastic
case that snaps two connections together securely and
separates easily. The case is indexed so that it cannot be
• snapped together with mismatched polarity. These
connectors are an industry standard.
 Belleville Washers

• Proper battery connections are essential. Loose

connections may lead to heat generateddamage,
melted terminals, or fire.
• However, since lead is so soft, it is difficult to
maintaina snug connection without simply
deforming the lead. Split ring washers exert too
muchpressure for this application, and the
pressure is unevenly distributed. Belleville
washersare precision constant-pressure devices.
They have a slightly concave shape, which flattens
• when tightened into place. With proper use
 Heat Shrink Tube

• All connections between cables and lugs should

be weatherproofed and insulated. Sometimes
• it is also useful to insulate other, smaller
connections and terminals as well. The
• tubing, slipped over the connection, can be
quickly shrunk to a tight fit with a heat gunor
hand-held propane torch. It is available in sizes
1/4″, 1/2″, and 3/4″ diameters, which
• indicate the finished diameter after shrinking.
 Flexguard

• Wires gathered into proper looms not only look better, they
are also better protected from
• snagging or abrasion. This enhances the vehicle’s reliability.
Flexguard provides an easyto-
• use loom sheath. It is a corrugated flexible tube with a slit
down the length. Wires can
• be slipped into it, and individual wires can be routed out
again at any point along the
• length. It is easy to add or remove wires at any time, or to
work on wiring at any point
• on the loom. It can be tie-wrapped to the chassis at
intervals. Flexguard caps snap around
• the ends to finish the loom.
 Noalox

• Corrosion is the enemy of an EV. Noalox

anticorrosion compound protects connections.
• If a lug is half-filled with Noalox before being
crimped to the cable, then the connection
• is covered with heat shrink tube, the connection
will remain corrosion-free for years.
• Noalox is also handy to coat on battery terminals
before bolting on lugs
 HEAT SINK GREASE

• Controllers heat sink through their bases and

are intended to be mounted on a flat piece
• of aluminum for this purpose. A layer of heat
sink grease between the controller and the
• plate is essential for good contact and thermal
transfer
 ADAPTORS

• The adaptor plate mounts the electric motor to

the original manual transmission and clutch.
• The electro-automotive adaptors are precision
machined. The adaptor comes in four
• parts. The transmission profile plate is machined
from aluminum and mimics the original
• engine-mounting surface. The motor spacer ring
is also aluminum. It mounts to the profile
• plate, and recreates the original spacing between
the flywheel and transmission
 TAPER LOCK HUB

• The crucial hub is machined from steel. It is a taper lock

fit, the industrial standard for
• high-rpm, high-torque applications. The hub mounts to
the flywheel. Its inner surface is tapered and cone-
shaped. This slides over a matching tapered bushing
around the motorshaft.
• The bushing has a split in it, and is a slightly larger
diameter than the inside of thehub. As the bushing is
drawn into the hub by six bolts, it is compressed
around the motorshaft, squeezing closed the split.
Once in place, it can be removed only with a
properpulling tool.
 VACUUM POWER BRAKE SYSTEM

• On most small cars, the brakes are designed with a

large safety margin and will easily
• handle the extra weight added by the conversion.
However, disc brakes need a power
• assist, even in conventional cars. The power assist
relies on vacuum from the engine
• manifold. This vacuum source is lost in the conversion,
and needs to be replaced. This
• can be accomplished with a vacuum pump, reservoir,
and switch connected to the car’s
• original power brake unit
 Part 2
• DC Drives: Review of DC Motor
Differing from the industrial motor and
traction motor
• Differing from the industrial applications of
motors, the motors used inEVs and HEVs usually
require frequent starts and stops, high rates of
acceleration/deceleration, high torque and low-
speed hill climbing, low torque and high-speed
cruising, and a very wide speed range of
operation.
• The motor drives for EVs and HEVs can be
classified into two main groups, namely the
commutator motors and commutatorless motors
as illustrated inFigure 6.2.
classification
 Adv&disadv
• Commutator motors mainly are the traditional DC motors,
which include series excited, shunt excited, compound
excited, separately excited, and permanent magnet (PM)
excited motors.
• DC motors need commutators and brushes to feed current
into the armature, thus making them less reliable and
unsuitable for maintenance-free operation and high speed.
• In addition, winding excited DC motors have low specific
power density. Nevertheless, because of their mature
technology and simple control, DC motor drives have been
prominent in electric propulsion systems
 Commutator-less motor
• Technological developments have recently
pushed commutator less electric motors into a
new era.
• Advantages include higher efficiency, higher
power density, lower operating cost.
• They are also more reliable and maintenance
free compared to Commutator DC motors.
• Thus, commutator less electric motors have
now become more attractive.
 Commutator less motor control
• Induction motors are widely accepted as a commutator
less motor type forEV and HEV propulsion.
• This is because of their low cost, high reliability, and
maintenance-free operation.
• However, conventional control of induction motors
such as variable-voltage variable-frequency (VVVF)
cannot provide the desired performance.
• With the advent of the power electronics and micro
computer era, the principle of field-oriented control
(FOC) or vector control of induction motors has been
accepted to overcome their control complexity due to
their nonlinearity.
Construction of brush less and brush
motor
 BLDC vs PMSM
• In BLDC machine, the stator winding is concen
trated. Hence the stator waveform will be trap
ezoidal. Whereas in PMSM the stator winding i
s distributed winding. Hence the stator wavefo
rm is sinusoidal
BLDC
 1.PM synchronous motors(b.l)
• By replacing the field winding of conventional synchronous
motors with PMs- PM synchronous motors can eliminate
conventional brushes, slip rings, and field copper losses.
• Actually, these PM synchronous motors are also called PM
brushless AC motors, or sinusoidal-fed PM brushless
motors, because of their sinusoidal AC current and
brushless configuration.
• Since these motors are essentially synchronous motors, they
can run from a sinusoidal or pulsed waveform modulation
supply (PWM supply) without electronic commutation.
• When PMs are mounted on the rotor surface, they behave as
non salient synchronous motors because the permeability of
PMs is similar to that of air
 PM brushless DC motors &advantages
• By virtually inverting the stator and rotor of PM DC motors (commutator),PM
brushless DC motors are generated. It should be noted that the term “DC” may be
misleading, since it does not refer to a DC current motor.
• Actually, these motors are fed by rectangular AC current, and are hence also
known as rectangular-fed PM brushless motors.
• The most obvious advantage of these motors is the removal of brushes. Another
advantage is the ability to produce a large torque because of the rectangular
interaction between current and flux.
• Moreover, the brushless configuration allows more crosss ectional area for the
armature windings.
• Since the conduction of heat through the frame is improved, an increase in electric
loading causes higher power density.
• Different from PM synchronous motors, these PM brushlessDC motors generally
operate with shaft position sensors.
• Recently, sensorlesscontrol technologies have been developed in the Power
Electronics andMotor Drive Laboratory at Texas A&M University
 DC Drives: Review of Separately
excited DC Motor control – Speed and
torque equations - Independent
control of orthogonal flux and torque -
Closed loop control of speed and
torque (block diagram only)
Review of Separately excited DC Motor
control
• Stator refers to the static part of motor, which consists of
the field windings. And the rotor is the moving armature
which contains armature windings or coils.
• Separately excited dc motor has field coils similar to that of
shunt wound dc motor. The name suggests the construction
of this type of motor. Usually, in other DC motors, the field
coil and the armature coil both are energized from a single
source. The field of them does not need any separate
excitation.
• But, in separately excited DC motor, separate supply
Provided for excitation of both field coil and armature coil.
Figure below shows the separately excited dc motor.
 Equations Of Voltage, current and
power for DC motors
• In a separately excited motor, armature and field
windings are excited form two different dc supply
voltages. In this motor,
• Armature current Ia = Line current = IL = I
• Back emf developed , Eb = V – I. Ra
where V is the supply voltage and Ra is the
armature resistance.
• Power drawn from main supply , P = VI
• Mechanical power developed ,
Pm = Power input to armature – power loss in armature
 Operating characteristics of
Separately excited dc motor
• Both in shunt wound dc motor and separately
excited dc motor field is supplied from
constant voltage so that the field current is
constant.
• Therefore these two motors have similar
speed -armature current and torque –
armature current characteristics.
• In this type of motor flux is assumed to be
constant.
 • Speed – armature current (N – Ia)
characteristics:
• We know that speed of dc motor is
proportional to back emf / flux i.e Eb / φ .
• When load is increased back emf Eb and φ
flux decrease due to armature resistance drop
and armature reaction respectively .
• However back emf decreases more than φ so
that the speed of the motor slightly decreases
with load
 Torque – armature current ( τ – Ia)
characteristics :
• Here torque is proportional to the flux and
armature current .
• Neglecting armature reaction, flux φ is constant
and torque is proportional to the armature
current Ia .
• τ – Ia characteristics is a straight lien passing
through the origin. From the curve we can see
that huge current is needed to start heavy loads.
So this type of motor do not starts on heavy
loads.
 Speed control of separately excited
DC motor
•
Speed of this type of dc shunt motor is controlled by the following methods:
I. Field control methods: Weakening of field causes increase in speed of the motor
while strengthening the field causes decreases the speed. Speed adjustment of
this type of motor is achieved from the following methods:
II. Field rheostat control: – Here a variable resistance is connected in series with
the field coil. Thus the speed is controlled by means of flux variation.

•
III. Armature control methods: Speed adjustment of separately excited DC motor
by armature control may be obtained by any one of the following methods :
i. Armature resistance control: – Here, the speed is controlled by varying the
source voltage to armature. Generally, a variable resistance is provided with the
armature to vary the armature resistance.
ii. Armature terminal voltage control involving variation of variation of voltage in
armature circuit.
Idea characteristic of EV drive
 . INDEPENDENT CONTROL OF ORTHOGONAL FLUX
AND TORQUE
COMBINED ARMATURE VOLTAGE AND FIELD CONTROL

• The independence of armature voltage and field

provides more flexible control of the speed and
torque than other types of DC motors.
• In EV and HEVapplications, the most desirable
speed–torque characteristic is to have a constant
torque below a certain speed (base speed), with
the torque dropping parabolically with the
increase of speed (constant power) in the range
abovethe base speed, as shown in Figure 6.7.
• In the range of lower than base speed, the armature current and
field are set at their rated values, producing the rated torque.
• From equations (3), it is clear that the armature voltage must be
increased proportionally with the increase of the speed.
• At thebase speed, the armature voltage reaches its rated value
(equal to the source voltage) and cannot be increased further.
• In order to further increase thespeed, the field must be weakened
with the increase of the speed, and then the back EMF E and
armature current must be maintained constant.
• The torque produced drops parabolically with the increase in the
speed and the output power remains constant, as shown in Figure
3.5.
 speed and torque equations of a
separately excited DC motor
• The speed and torque equations of a separately excited DC motor
can be derived from the basic equations governing the operation of
a DC motor. Let's denote the following parameters:
• V: Supply voltage to the motor (volts)
• Ia: Armature current (amperes)
• Ra: Armature resistance (ohms)
• E: Back electromotive force (EMF) generated in the armature (volts)
• N: Motor speed (revolutions per minute, RPM)
• τ: Torque developed by the motor (Newton-meters or Nm)
• K: Motor constant (also known as the torque constant or the back
EMF constant)
 • The basic equations for a DC motor are:
• Armature Voltage Equation: V=Ia⋅Ra+E
• Back EMF Equation: E=Ke⋅ω where �ω is the
angular speed in radians per second.
• Torque Equation: τ=Kt⋅Ia This equa on relates
the torque to the armature current.
• Motor Speed Equation: ω=602πN/60
• This equation relates the angular speed to the
motor speed.
Ke is the electrical constant or the back electromo ve force constant It is
a measure of how much back electromotive force (EMF) is generated per unit angular spe
Kt is the torque constant or the electromechanical constant.
It represents the relationship between the torque (�τ) produced by the motor
and the armature current (��Ia).
• Now, let's combine these equations to derive the speed and torque
equations.
• Speed Equation:
• Substitute the back EMF equation into the armature voltage
equation: V=Ia⋅Ra+K⋅ω
• Now, solve for ω=V−Ia⋅Ra/k
• Torque Equation:
• Substitute the back EMF equation into the torque equation: τ=K⋅Ia
• This equation shows that the torque developed by the motor is
directly proportional to the armature current.
• These equations give you the relationships between the motor
speed, torque, armature current, and other parameters in a
separately excited DC motor.
 Summary Independent control of
orthogonal flux and torque
• The independent control of orthogonal flux
and torque in a DC motor refers to the ability
to control the magnetic field (flux) and the
torque produced by the motor independently.
This control is achieved by utilizing two
separate control loops, one for regulating the
field flux and the other for controlling the
torque
• Orthogonal Flux and Torque:
– In a DC motor, the magnetic field (flux) and the torque are orthogonal to each
other, meaning they are at right angles. The torque is produced by the
interaction between the magnetic field and the current in the armature
winding.
• Control Loops:
– Flux Control Loop: This loop is responsible for controlling the field flux. By
adjusting the field current or voltage, the strength of the magnetic field can be
controlled. This is typically achieved using a field control circuit that adjusts
the excitation current or voltage applied to the motor's field winding.
– Torque Control Loop: This loop is responsible for controlling the torque
produced by the motor. It involves regulating the armature current, which
influences the interaction between the magnetic field and the armature
winding, thereby controlling the torque output. This is achieved through an
armature control circuit that adjusts the armature current.
• Independent Control:
• The key idea is to control the field flux and torque
independently to achieve the desired motor
performance. This independence is crucial for
applications where precise control of both speed and
torque is necessary.
• By manipulating the field flux independently of the
torque, or vice versa, the motor controller can achieve
flexibility in motor operation. For example, in some
applications, it might be desirable to maintain a
constant torque while varying the speed, or vice versa.
Closed loop control of speed and
torque (block diagram only
 Closed Loop Speed Control of DC
Motor:
• The Closed Loop Speed Control of separately
excited DC Motor schemes are provided with
inner current control loop in order to limit the
current within a safe limit and also to
accelerate and decelerate the drive at the
maximum permissible current and torque
during transient operations.
 PI

PI

Outer Speed loop

 75
PI Reduce firing angle

1400 +15
Rated speed 1500
Rated ia=80 amp
60 Rated va 190v
1200 Rated eb ref 180

3 120

PI
117
180
180
+63
Error +ve firing angle is 0
Outer Speed loop
 85
PI Reduce firing angle to 0

1700 +25
Rated speed 1500
Rated ia=80 amp
60 Rated va 190v
1200 Rated eb ref 180

3 190

PI
187
173
180
-7
Error -ve firing angle is increase
Outer Speed loop
• The drive employs inner current control loop and
outer speed loop.
• Such a drive will operate at a constant field
current and variable armature voltage below the
base speed, and at a constant armature voltage
and variable field current above the base speed.
• Both armature and field, are therefore, fed from
fully-controlled rectifiers.
• inner current control with current limiter, the
acceleration will take place at the maximum
permissible current and torque.
• In semiconductor converter fed drives PI
(proportional and integral) controller is often
used because it filters out noise which can
otherwise become a problem.
• PI controller also gives good steady-state
accuracy.
 Field control loop
• In the field control loop, the back emf E is compared
with a reference voltage E* which is chosen to be
between 0.85 to 0.95 of the rated armature voltage.
• The firing angle of field rectifier αf is maintained at
zero, applying rated voltage to the field. This ensures
rated field current for motor operation below base
speed (ωmb).
• When speed reference is increased from ω*m1 to
ω*m2 (ω*m2 <ωm1) due to large speed error, the current
limiter saturates and sets the current reference at the
maximum permissible value.
 above base speed
• if the reference speed is set for a speed above base speed, the
current reference is set at the maximum permissible value. The
firing angle of the armature rectifier αa is reduced to initially (0
degree)increase Va.
• The motor accelerates, E increases, ef decreases, reducing the field
current. Thus the motor speed continues to increase and field
current continues to decrease until the motor speed becomes equal
to the reference speed. Since, the speed error will now be small,
Va will return to a value close to original value.
• Thus, the speed control above base speed is obtained by field
control with the armature voltage maintained near the rated value.
In the field control region (above base speed), the drive responds
very slowly due to large value of the field time constant
 below base speed
• For speeds below base speed, the field
controller saturates due to large value of error
ef. The firing angle of field rectifier αf is
maintained at zero, applying rated voltage to
the field.
• This ensures rated field current for motor
operation below base speed (ωmb).
 reference
• https://www.eeeguide.com/closed-loop-
speed-control-of-dc-
motor/#:~:text=The%20Closed%20Loop%20Sp
eed%20Control,and%20torque%20during%20t
ransient%20operations.
3rd part
PMSM Drives: PMSM motor basics
What is a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor?
• The permanent magnet synchronous motors are one of
the types of AC synchronous motors, where the field is
excited by permanent magnets that generate
sinusoidal back EMF.
• It contains a rotor and stator same as that of
an induction motor, but a permanent magnet is used as
a rotor to create a magnetic field. Hence there is no
need to wound field winding on the rotor.
• It is also known as a 3-phase brushless permanent sine
wave motor. The permanent magnet synchronous
motor diagram is shown below
• Instead of using winding for the rotor, permanent magnets are
mounted to create a rotating magnetic field.
• As there is no supply of DC source, these types of motors are
very simple and less cost. It contains a stator with 3 windings
installed on it and a rotor with a permanent magnet mounted
to create field poles. The 3-phase input ac supply is given to
the stator to start working
 Working Principle
• . The permanent magnet synchronous motor working
principle is similar to the synchronous motor. It
depends on the rotating magnetic field that generates
electromotive force at synchronous speed. When the
stator winding is energized by giving the 3-phase
supply, a rotating magnetic field is created in between
the air gaps.
• This produces the torque when the rotor field poles
hold the rotating magnetic field at synchronous speed
and the rotor rotates continuously. As these motors are
not self-starting motors, it is necessary to provide a
variable frequency power supply.
 EMF and Torque Equation

• In a synchronous machine, the average EMF

induced per phase is called dynamic induces
EMF in a synchronous motor, the flux cut by
each conductor per revolution is Pϕ Weber
Then the time taken to complete one
revolution is 60/N sec
• The average EMF induced per conductor can
be calculated by using
( PϕN / 60 ) x Zph = ( PϕN / 60 ) x 2Tph
• Where Tph = Zph / 2
Therefore, the average EMF per phase is,
• = 4 x ϕ x Tph x PN/120 = 4ϕfTph
• Where Tph = no. Of turns connected in series per phase
• ϕ = flux/pole in weber
• P= no. Of poles
• F= frequency in Hz
• Zph= no. Of conductors connected in series per phase. = Zph/3
• The EMF equation depends on the coils and the conductors on the
stator. For this motor, distribution factor Kd and pitch factor Kp is
also considered.
• Hence, E = 4 x ϕ x f x Tph xKd x Kp
• The torque equation of a permanent magnet
synchronous motor is given as,
• T = (3 x Eph x Iph x sinβ) / ωm
 Construction

• The permanent magnet synchronous motor

construction is similar to the basic synchronous motor, but
the only difference is with the rotor. The rotor doesn’t have
any field winding, but the permanent magnets are used to
create field poles. The permanent magnets used in
the PMSM are made up of samarium-cobalt and medium,
iron, and boron because of their higher permeability.
• The most widely used permanent magnet is neodymium-
boron-iron because of its effective cost and ease of
availability.
• In this type, the permanent magnets are mounted on the
rotor. Based on the mounting of the permanent magnet on
the rotor, the construction of a permanent magnet
synchronous motor is divided into two types.
 Working of Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor
• The working of the permanent magnet
synchronous motor is very simple, fast, and
effective when compared to conventional motors.
The working of PMSM depends on the rotating
magnetic field of the stator and the constant
magnetic field of the rotor. The permanent
magnets are used as the rotor to create constant
magnetic flux, operates and locks at synchronous
speed. These types of motors are similar to
brushless DC motors.
• When the 3-phase AC supply is given to the
stator, it creates a rotating magnetic field and
the constant magnetic field is induced due to
the permanent magnet of the rotor. This rotor
operates in synchronism with the synchronous
speed. The whole working of the PMSM
depends on the air gap between the stator
and rotor with no load.
• If the air gap is large, then the wind age losses
of the motor will be reduced. The field poles
created by the permanent magnet are salient.
The permanent magnet synchronous motors
are not self-starting motors. So, it is necessary
to control the variable frequency of the stator
electronically.
• Advantages
• The advantages of permanent magnet
synchronous motor include,
• provides higher efficiency at high speeds
• available in small sizes at different packages
• maintenance and installation is very easy than an
induction motor
• capable of maintaining full torque at low speeds.
• high efficiency and reliability
• gives smooth torque and dynamic performance
Why sync motor not self start
Independent control of orthogonal flux
and torque (concept only
• The goal of the FOC (also called vector control) on
synchronous and asynchronous machine is to be
able to separately control the torque
producing(q) and magnetizing flux
components(d).
• The control technique goal is to (in a sense),
imitate the DC motor’s (separately excited)
operation.
• FOC control will allow us to decouple the torque
(q)and the magnetizing flux components(d) of
stator current
 The Main Philosophy Behind the FOC
• In order to understand the spirit of the FOC technique, start with an
overview of the separately excited direct current (DC) motor. Torque is
defined as the cross product of armature current and stator flux.
• Electrical study of the DC motor shows that the armature current and the
stator flux can be independently tuned. The strength of the field excitation
(the magnitude of the field excitation current) sets the value of the stator
flux.
• If the flux is held constant, then the current through the rotor windings
determines how much torque is produced. The commutator on the rotor
plays an interesting part in the torque production. The commutator is in
contact with the brushes, and the mechanical construction is designed to
switch into the circuit the windings that are mechanically aligned to
produce the maximum torque.
• This arrangement then means that the torque production of the machine
is fairly near optimal all the time. The key point here is that the windings
are managed to keep the flux produced by the rotor windings orthogonal
to the stator field/current.
 Field Oriented Control (FOC)
concept
• Introduction In order to achieve better dynamic
performance, a more complex control scheme
needs to be applied to control the PM motor.
With the mathematical processing power offered
by the microcontrollers, advanced control
strategies can be implemented, which use
mathematical transformations to control AC
machines like DC machines, providing
independent control of flux and torque producing
currents. Such de-coupled torque and
magnetization control is commonly called FOC.
• With decoupled control of the magnetization(d),
the torque producing component (q)of the stator
flux can now be thought of as independent
torque control.
• To decouple the torque and flux, it is necessary
to engage several mathematical transforms, and
this is where the microcontrollers add the most
value.
• The processing capability provided by the
microcontrollers enables these mathematical
transformations to be carried out very quickly
• According to the electromagnetic laws, the torque produced in the
synchronous machine is equal to vector cross product of the two existing
magnetic fields:
• Tem-= Bstator xB rotor
• This expression shows that the torque is maximum if stator and rotor
magnetic fields are orthogonal meaning if we are to maintain the load at
90 degrees.
• If we are able to ensure this condition all the time, if we are able to orient
the flux correctly, we reduce the torque ripple and we ensure a better
dynamic response
• Stator windings generate a rotating magnetic
field. Since the permanent magnet rotor has its
own magnetic field, it will try to align with the
stator’s magnetic field.
• The electronics will generate a rotating magnetic
field in the stator that is always ahead of the
rotor, thus keeping the rotor spinning. The angle
between rotor and stator magnetic fields plays an
important role on the torque generation of the
motor
• As the motor spins, there is an angle between rotor
magnetic field and stator magnetic field. If these two
magnetic fields are not ninety degrees from each other,
there will be an offset angle between Back EMF and
Current.
• With this phase offset the torque production at a given
input power will not be the maximum. This can be seen
in the torque Vs angle plot, where torque generation is
proportional to sine of theta.
• If the control logic does not adjust commutation angle
to be ninety degrees, torque production will not be the
maximum
• e However, the constraint is to know the rotor
position: this can be achieved with a position
sensor such as incremental encoder.
• For low-cost application where the rotor is
not accessible, different rotor position
observer strategies are applied to get rid of
position sensor.
• In brief, the goal is to maintain the rotor and stator flux
in quadrature:
• the goal is to align the stator flux with the q axis of the
rotor flux, i.e. orthogonal to the rotor flux.
• To do this the stator current component in quadrature
with the rotor flux is controlled to generate the
commanded torque, and the direct component is set to
zero.
• The direct component of the stator current can be used
in some cases for field weakening, which has the effect
of opposing the rotor flux, and reducing the back-emf,
which allows for operation at higher speeds.
• If we have a way to detect the rotor magnetic
field angle(theta), we can generate a rotating
magnetic field that meets the ninety degrees.
With this commutation angle of ninety
degrees, torque production is maximized
• Field Oriented Control (FOC) O 3-phase
voltage to control the 3-phase currents
vectors O 3-phase time variant into a 2-axis
time invariant O Allows controlling 3-Phase
Motors with conventional techniques as in a
DC motor
• The FOC algorithm generates a 3-phase voltage as a
vector to control the 3-phase stator current.
• By transforming the physical current into rotational
vector using transforms, the torque and flux
components become time-invariant—allowing control
with conventional techniques such as Proportional &
Integral (PI) controllers, as with a DC motor.
• In brushed DC motors, by construction, the stator flux
and rotor flux are kept at 90 degrees to each other,
thus generating maximum possible torque from the
motor.
• Using the FOC technique, the motor currents are
transformed to 2-axis vectors, as seen in a DC
motor.
• The process starts out by measuring the three
phase motor currents.
• In practice, since the instantaneous sum of the
three current values will be zero, by measuring
only two of the three currents, the value of the
third can be determined.
• Further, there is a reduction in the hardware cost
because only two current sensors are required
 detail
• Dc motor if(d) and ia (q)
• Ac motor d (flux)and q(torque)
Is is stator current

Field angle theta(based on rotor speed)

 2 steps involved to find dq
• This current space vector represents the three
phase sinusoidal system.
• It needs to be transformed into a two time
invariant coordinate system. This transformation
can be divided into two steps:
• (a, b, c) → (α, β) (the Clarke transforma on),
which gives outputs of two coordinate time
variant system.
• (a, β) → (d, q) (the Park transforma on), which
gives outputs of two coordinate time invariant
system.
A system is called time invariant if its output , input characteristics dos not change with time.
• The control system of the drive, calculates the
corresponding current component references
from the flux and torque references ,given by
the drive's speed control.
• Typically proportional-integral (PI)
controllersare used to keep the measured
current components at their reference values.
The Basic Scheme for the FOC
• Two motor phase currents are measured. These
measurements feed the Clarke transformation module.
• The outputs of this projection are designated isα and
isβ. These two components of the current along with
rotor flux position are the inputs of the Park
transformation that transform them to currents (isd
and isq) in d,q rotating reference frame.
• The isd andisq components are compared to the
references isdref (the flux reference) and isqref (the
torque reference).
• The torque command isqref can be the connected to the
output of the speed regulator. The outputs of the current
regulators are Vsdref and Vsqref; they are applied to the
inverse Park transformation.
• Using the position of rotor flux, this projection generates
Vsαref and Vsβref, which are the components of the stator
vector voltage in the stationary orthogonal reference frame.
These are the inputs of the Space Vector PWM. The outputs
of this block are the signals that drive the inverter
Figure 1 shows a block diagram of the sensorless drive system of PMSM
including the SMCO. The control structure is based on the Field Oriented
Control (FOC) [11]. The goal of FOC is to decouple the torque and flux
producing components of the stator currents allowing the PM motor to be
controlled in such the same way as a separately excited DC machine. In the
specific case of a permanent magnet synchronous motor without salient
poles, most of the natural magnetic flux is on the d axis. In order to optimize
the torque production for a given stator current value, the appropriate
strategy is to set reference direct current isdref to zero. The action of the
current regulators is then to shift the stator current vector onto the q axis.
In the sensorless drive system, Park and inverse Park tansformation
calculations are based on the rotor position estimation θ by the sliding mode
observer. Also, the rotor speed estimation N is obtained by differentiating θ
. In addition, conventional modules for vector control such as speed and
current PI regulators, Clark and Park transformation, space vector PWM
generation module, and a three-phase power inverter are included as well as
the controlled PMSM.
• The Sliding Mode Observer block computes
the electrical position and mechanical speed
of a Surface Mount PMSM by using the
voltage and current values along the α- and β-
axes of the stationary αβ reference frame
 questions
• Explain the various electric components used in hybrid and electric
vehicles (10)
• Explain the construction and working principle of of Separately
excited DC Motor control(10)
• Write the Speed and torque equations –
• What is Independent control of orthogonal flux and torque
• Explain the Closed loop control of speed and torque (block diagram
only) (10 marks)
• Explain the construction and working principle PMSM motor
• What is Independent control of orthogonal flux and torque
(concept only)-
• Explain the (concept of Field Oriented Control (FOC) –
• Explain the working principle of Sensored pmsm
• Explain the of sensorless control of pmsm(block diagram only) (10)