Science Notes
Climate Change
8.1 Weather & Climate
Atmosphere: a layer of gases that surround the Earth. Without it our days would be too hot and our
nights too cold
Weather: the condition of the atmosphere in a specific place at a specific time. It describes factors
such as wind, temperature, and moisture
Climate: refers to the condition of the atmosphere over a large area, averaged over many years
Describing the Weather
● Weather is studied by meteorologists
● They analyse temperature, type and amount of precipitation, wind speed, relative humidity,
atmospheric pressure, presence of fog mist or cloud cover
Predicting the Weather
● Weather data is collected using aircraft, weather balloons, satellites, weather stations
What Causes the Weather?
● The interactions between water and air on Earth and energy from the Sun
○ Energy from the Sun heats Earth’s atmosphere, creating winds and other air
movements
○ Water in oceans, lakes, and rivers evaporates, cools, and condenses which forms
clouds and precipitation
○ Ocean water moves in currents from the poles to the equator and back again
● All these movements combined create weather
What is Climate?
● Climate is the usual pattern of weather in a region over a long period of time (30+ years)
● Climate gives a range of temperatures that you can expect at different times of the year, as
well as types and amount of precipitation
● Climate also determines the types of plants and animals that live in the area
8.2 Classifying Climate
Climate Zones and Ecoregions
● Climate zones are areas that are identified as having similar temperatures, precipitation
rates/types, and plant types
○ Ex. the Arctic and Antarctic are in the polar zone
● Ecoregions are new climate zones developed to reflect the ecology of the region
○ They were first developed due to concerns over survival of ecosystems
○ They are based on landforms, soil, plants, animals, as well as climate
Describing Climates — 3 major climate zones
Tropical Zone
● Warm temperature which does not vary much throughout the year
Temperate Zones (north & south)
● Temperatures vary greatly throughout the year, many regions have warm and cold seasons
Polar Zone (north polar zone and south polar zone)
● Cold temperatures, covered in ice for most or all of the year
Climate zones are caused by unequal warming of Earth’s surface.
Climate Zones
Ecoregions (867 around the world)
Factors Affecting Climate
Factor Affecting Climate Description
Distance from the equator Climate is warmer toward the equator and colder towards the
(latitude) poles
Presence of large bodies of Large bodies of water may moderate local climate so it is
water warmer in winter and cooler in summer
Presence of ocean currents Cold ocean currents make local climate cooler and dryer, and
warm ocean currents make climate warmer and wetter
Presence of air currents Air currents that pass over water before reaching land may
(prevailing winds) cause increased precipitation. Cold, dry air currents from the
poles will make local climate cooler and dryer
Land formations Land formation such as mountains can create rain Shadows
where one side of the mountain receives most of the
precipitation and the other side very little
Height above sea level Air temperature is cooler at higher altitudes
(altitude)
8.3 The Sun Powers Earth’s Climate System
Climate System
● Earth has a global climate system which includes air, land, liquid water, ice and living things
● The sun powers the climate system
● The interactions between all of these components and the Sun produce climate zones
The Balance of Energy on Earth
● Almost all energy on Earth comes from the Sun
● The sun emits different types of radiation, including:
○ ultraviolet radiation (invisible, short wave, high energy)
○ visible light
○ infrared radiation (invisible, long wave, low energy)
Earth Absorbs Energy From the Sun
When radiation contacts a particle of matter, one of 3 things happens:
● radiation is absorbed by the particle so the particle gains energy
● radiation may be transmitted through the particle
● radiation may be reflected off the particle
Where does the Energy go?
● When the Sun's radiation enters Earth's atmosphere, 30% of that energy is reflected back
into space by clouds, particles in the air, and the surface of the Earth itself
● The remaining 70% is absorbed by the Earth's surface, clouds, and certain gases in the
atmosphere
● As energy is absorbed, the Earth’s surface gains thermal energy and its temperature rises.
Earth's surface then emits mostly low-energy infrared radiation back out
Latitude and Climate Zones
● Climate is colder the further away you are from the equator
● This distance from the equator is called the latitude
● Near the equator, the Sun shines directly overhead, so the Sun’s energy is concentrated in a
small area and feels very strong
● Closer to the North and South poles, the Sun is not directly overhead, so the Sun’s energy is
spread over a larger area, and therefore feels weaker
● Therefore climate is warmer at lower latitudes and colder at higher latitudes
8.4 Components of Earth’s Climate System
4 main components
The Atmosphere
● Made of layers of gases wrapped around the Earth
● Air is 78% N, 21% O2, and 1% made of traces of Ar, CO2, He, H, and O3
● The atmosphere reflects, absorbs, and transmits some of the Sun’s energy
● Once the energy reaches the surface of the Earth, the atmosphere traps most of it, creating a
warming of the Earth’s surface
The Case for Ozone
● Since the Sun is potentially dangerous, ozone in the atmosphere prevents most of the
harmful rays of the Sun from reaching us
● In the stratosphere, ozone absorbs UV radiation from the Sun
● A recent concern is the thinning of the ozone layer over Antarctica and the Arctic
● This is caused by human made compounds called CFC’s (chlorofluorocarbons)
CFC’s and Ozone
● CFC’s were originally used in spray (aerosol) cans, refrigerators, and air conditioners
● CFC’s travelled up to the stratosphere where the chlorine in the CFC’s reacted with ozone
molecules
● The chlorine acts as a catalyst, which means it can be reused in the breakdown of ozone
● This lead to the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987
Ozone in the Troposphere
● In the troposphere, UV radiation reacts with exhaust from cars to produce ozone
● Unfortunately, the ozone is toxic in the troposphere
● It causes photochemical smog: harmful to human health, damages buildings, affects plants
and animals
The Hydrosphere
● Includes liquid water, water vapour, and ice
● Water in all these forms can reflect, absorb, and transmit energy from the Sun
Water and Climate
● Water absorbs and stores more thermal energy than land
● Areas near lakes/oceans are cooler in the summer and warmer in the fall as stored thermal
energy is released
● Regions downwind of a body of water have more snow in the winter because air passing over
the water can absorb water vapour, which changes over to snow over the colder land masses
● This is known as “lake effect snow”
Ice and the Climate System
● Surfaces covered in ice and snow reflect more of the Sun’s radiation
● This is called the “albedo effect”
Ice and Snow Reflect Heat
● The light colour of ice and snow allow them to reflect solar radiation
● The amount of energy that is reflected by a surface is known as albedo
● Light-coloured surfaces reflect energy, and dark surfaces absorb energy
● Because of their large differences in albedo, the distribution of water, ice, and land on Earth’s
surface greatly affects the average global temperature
The Lithosphere
● The Earth’s crust or land mass
● Includes all solid rock, soil, and minerals
● The land absorbs radiation from the Sun
Living Things
● Living things have an effect on climate through their life processes
● Photosynthesis and cellular respiration alter the amounts of COs and O2 in the atmosphere
● Some animals produce methane gas as a biological by-product
8.8 Energy Transfer within the Climate System: Air and Ocean Circulation
Continental Drift
● According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth’s continents have moved over the surface of
the globe for hundreds of millions of years (pangaea)
● This drift has influenced climate in many ways
● Ocean currents and wind patterns change, which affect heat transfer
Winds and Energy
Wind: the movement of air from an area of high pressure to an area of lower pressure. The air moves
as wind transfers thermal energy around the world from warm areas to cooler areas
The movement of air affects: ocean currents & precipitation patterns
Wind is caused by an uneven heating of Earth’s surface.
Wind moves energy from warm → cool areas
Air moves from high pressure → low pressure
Air moves from warm → cool areas
Winds disperse energy through the atmosphere
Winds and Ocean Currents
● When winds blow, energy is transferred to the surface of the ocean and causes the water to
move in surface ocean currents.
● Since ocean absorbs energy from the Sun, the movement of water transfers heat around the
Earth’s surface
Heat sink: a reservoir, like the atmosphere and hydrosphere, that absorbs and stores thermal energy
Convection current: a circular current in air and other fluids caused by rising of warm fluid as cold
fluid sinks
Thermohaline circulation: the continuous flow of water around the world’s oceans driven by
differences in water temperatures and salinity
8.6 The Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that keeps Earth’s temperatures within a certain range.
Without it Earth would be colder and most of the solar energy reaching Earth would radiate out back
into space.
● The greenhouse effect is the natural warming caused when gases in Earth’s atmosphere
absorb thermal energy that is radiated by the Sun and Earth
● The atmosphere contains greenhouse gases and solar radiation passes through them. Solar
radiation warms the surface of the Earth and heat rises from the surf
● Some heat is able to pass back through the gases and some cannot. The heat that is trapped
adds to overall global temperatures
Greenhouse Gases
There are 5 main GHG’s: water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, atmospheric ozone, nitrous oxide
Carbon Dioxide
● The atmosphere naturally contains 0.0385% CO2, however human activities are drastically
increasing the amount of CO2 present
● Natural sources include volcanic eruptions, burning of organic matter, and cellular respiration
of plants and animals
● Living things are important in the removal of C)2 as well — it is stored in tree and other plant
material
● These are called “carbon sinks”
Water Vapour
● ⅔ of the Earth’s natural GH effect is caused by water vapour
● Temperature and water vapour are related via a feedback loop
● This is a process where the result acts to influence the original process (positive feedback)
● The cause creates an effect that affects the original cause
Methane
● CH4 is important in the GH effect because it can absorb more thermal energy than a
molecule of carbon dioxide
● It is produced through plant decomposition and animal digestion
Ozone
● O3 in the troposphere is a result of exhaust from cars
● It is considered toxic and contributes to the GH effect
Nitrous Oxide
● N2O is produced through both natural (reaction of bacteria in soil and water) and human
sources (burning of fossil fuels)
How Do GHG’s Work?
● Molecules that have 3 or more atoms, and those that have more than one type of atom, have
a greater ability to react and therefore absorb different types of energy
● In the case of the GH effect, infrared radiation reaches these molecules which trap the
infrared energy and re-radiate it back out in every direction
9.4 Greenhouse Gases: Changing the Climate
● Greenhouse gases have always been a part of our atmosphere, but over the past 200 years
the levels of these gases has dramatically increased
● Production of additional greenhouse gases is a result of the combustion of fossil fuels in
energy production, transportation, and industry
● Scientists have studied the intake and output of greenhouse gases and have concluded that
the increase is likely due to human activities
Anthropogenic Sources of GHG
● Anthropogenic: human-produced
● The main anthropogenic GHG’s are: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s)
Carbon Dioxide
● CO2 is the most significant GHG
● Burning fossil fuels produces CO2
● Forests are important in the elimination of CO2 form the atmosphere
● Trees take in CO2 from the air to use in photosynthesis
● Trees take in carbon from the atmosphere and store it in a new form (glucose)
● This is why trees are carbon sinks
● Emissions of CO2 are a result of many things, but 10% is directly related to deforestation
● This prevents forests from absorbing more carbon and releases some of the stored carbon
back into the atmosphere as CO2
Methane
● Agricultural activities such as rice farming and cattle ranching product methane
● Produced from the decay of organic materials in landfills and sewage treatment plants
● Coal mining and natural gas extraction releases methane gas that was trapped underground
in fossil fuel deposits
Nitrous Oxide and CFC’s
● About ⅔ of nitrous oxide emissions comes from the management of livestock feed and waste
● The rest comes from nitrogen fertilisers, industrial processes, and fossil fuel use
● CFC’s are commonly used as refrigeration agents
● They leak out of refrigerators and air conditioners or are released by industrial processes
GHG’s and Global Temperature
● Scientists compared past climate data with current data to see how much of an effect
anthropogenic GHG’s were having on global temperatures
● Scientists studied ice cores to collect data up to 800,000 years old
● To this date, scientists are not able to prove that increases in CO2 concentrations cause
global temperatures to rise or vice versa
● There is a correlation between the two
The Anthropogenic GH Effect
● We studied earlier how the Earth absorbs radiation from the Sun (converts it to thermal
energy) and radiates low energy infrared radiation back into space
● This IR radiation is being absorbed by the atmosphere instead due to the high concentrations
of GHG’s in the atmosphere
● 30% of the GH effect is caused by CO2
● 20% & 10% is caused by CH4 & N20
● The main problem is that humans are enhancing the natural greenhouse effect
Global Temperatures and CO2
● CO2 levels cause an increase in global temperatures
● Increases in temperature also cause increases in CO2 levels
● Rising temperatures over the past 400,000 years increased the release of CO2 stored in plants
and oceans (carbon sinks)
● Since CO2 is a GHG that traps thermal energy inside the atmosphere, the rising temperatures
cause the CO2 levels to increase, therefore causing the temperature to increase even further
8.9 Long-Term Climate Cycles
● For the last 800,000 years, Earth’s climate has cycled between freezing ice ages and warmer
interglacial periods
● These climate cycles keep happening because the Earth’s orbit around the Sun keeps
changing
Milankovitch Cycles
Three main changes with Earth’s orbit: eccentricity, tilt, (precision of tilt) wobble
Earth’s Orbit (Revolution)
Eccentricity
Earth’s orbit fluctuates due to the gravitational attraction of other planets in the solar system. Its
path around the Sun changes very slowly from elliptical to circular. This affects the intensity of the
seasons. It does not explain all of the recent changes that have been observed and measured.
elliptical orbit A — planet receives more solar radiation when near the Sun than
it does when it is farthest from the Sun
circular orbit B — amount of solar radiation varies less throughout the year
Earth’s Tilt and Climate
● The Earth’s tilt changes slightly over time. The greater the tilt the greater the differences in
temperature between Summer and Winter
● Earth is not a perfect sphere. It wobbles slightly has it rotates on its axis
● The wobble affects the intensity of solar energy that is received by the northern and
southern hemispheres at different times of the year
● This causes the changes in temperature between the seasons
Short-Term Variations in Climate
● Short term causes: volcanic eruptions, small changes in the Sun’s radiations, changes in the
circulation of air and ocean currents
● Volcanic eruptions:
○ Spew rocks, dust, and gases into the atmosphere
○ These particles of SO2 reflect the Sun’s energy back out to space
○ This shades the Earth’s surface, temporarily cooling down the climate
● Air and ocean currents:
○ Changes to ocean circulation may cause changes in climate
○ This is thought to be due to the freshwater glaciers melting from the last ice age (this
water is less dense, and stays at the surface, not allowing warmer currents to cycle in)
○ This is sometimes seen naturally (every 3–7 years) in the El Nino phenomenon
El Nino
During El Nino years, winds blowing west weaken and may even
reverse. When this happens, warm waters in the western Pacific
move eastward, preventing cold water from upwelling. This change
can alter global weather patterns and trigger changes in
precipitation and temperature across much of North America.
Effects of El Nino
8.10 Feedback Loops and Climate
Feedback loops: a cause creates an effect that impacts the original cause
In a positive feedback loop: the effect increases the original cause
In a negative feedback loop: the effect decreases the original cause
Albedo: a measure of how much of the Sun’s radiation is reflected by a surface. Ice and snow have
high albedos because they reflect more radiation than grass or tree
Albedo effect: the positive feedback loop in which an increase in the Earth’s temperature causes ice
to melt, so more radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s surface, leading to further increase in
temperature
8.11 Studying Clues to Past Climates
Observing and Recording
● Scientists have recorded temperature, rainfall, and other climate data over the last 200 years
● Before this time, data was kept in the form of journals, paintings, farm records, and oral
histories
● Today, proxy records are used to store natural information that tells us what climate was like
in the past
● These records are in the form of fossils, tree rings, layers of ice (ice cores), and coral reefs
Ice Cores
● In areas like Greenland and Antarctica, there are air bubbles that have been trapped there for
thousands of centuries.
● Scientists drill deep into the ice and extract long cylinders of ice called ice cores. The bottom
of the ice may be up to 800 000 years old.
● Ice cores provide our longest record of conditions in the atmosphere. Thin slices of the ice
cores can be tested to determine the various gases and their amounts in the air when that air
bubble was formed.
● Other information that can be obtained: greenhouse gases concentration, temperature, levels
of precipitation, volcanic eruptions, changes in climate
Tree Rings
● Trees create one growth ring per year
● Thickest in years with a good growing conditions (warm, wet)
● Thinnest in years with poor growing conditions (cold, dry)
● Clues from the past climate can also be taken from coral reefs, rocks, ocean sediment, caves
9.1 Evidence of a Changing Climate
● Scientists have evidence that our Earth’s climate is changing again
● The difference this time is that the change is a direct result of human activities
● There are many factors that are studied, including: temperature, glaciers, ice sheets & sea ice,
sea level, weather, precipitation patterns & seasons
Rising Temperature
● Studying past temperature records he;ps scientists to predict what kind of temperature
trends are normal
Effect on Canada
● In Canada, average national temperatures have increased by 1°C in the last 55 years
● Over the western and northern parts of the country, average temperatures have risen even
more
Melting Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Sea Ice
● The average size of glaciers around the world has decreased as the global temperature has
risen
● Ice sheets over Greenland and Antarctica are also disappearing at a rapid rate
● Nearly half the world’s population is dependent on glacier melt waters as their main water
source; this could lead to water shortages
● Even sea ice is affected — an area of sea ice equivalent to Ontario and Quebec disappeared
from the Arctic Ocean in September 2007
● It is estimated that the Arctic could be ice free during the summer time in only a few years
Rising Sea Level
● When glaciers and ice sheets on land melt, water runs into the ocean, causing the sea level to
rise
Thermal Expansion — Sea Level Rise
● Water expands when it warms up — this is known as thermal expansion
● It is believed that this is the cause for much of the sea level rise in the past 120 years
Changes in Severe Weather
● Heat waves have become more common
● Hurricanes have intensified due to the warmer ocean temperatures
Changes in Precipitation Patterns
● In the northern hemisphere, we are getting more of our precipitation as rain instead of snow
● Total precipitation in increasing in northern Canada but decreasing in southern Africa and
Asia, as well as the Mediterranean
Changing Seasons
● Amount of snow on the ground is decreasing
● Very cold days and frosty nights are coming later in the year and ending earlier in the spring,
leading to longer growing seasons
Changing Ecosystems
● Trees, shrubs are flowering earlier
● Animals are breeding earlier
● Animal and plant communities are migrating towards the poles and high altitudes as the
regions around them warm up
● This leads to undesirable insects and plants in these new regions
● Ex. Mountain pine beetle in BC, where in the past it was too cold for the beetle to survive
9.5 Canadian Emissions of Greenhouse Gases
● On average, individual Canadians emit more GHG’s than most people in the world
● Alberta produces most, Ontario 2nd
● GHG’s mainly caused by:
○ gasoline burning in car/truck engines
○ coal-based power plants
○ manufacturing and other industrial processes
○ natural gas heating systems in homes (methane is the main component of natural
gas)
Source Examples Quantity per year based
on data from 2006
producing and using generating electricity and heat, fossil fuel 324
energy industries, mining, lighting and hearing
buildings, manufacturing
transportation exhaust from cars, trucks, airplanes, trains 190
fugitive emissions gases released during fossil fuel extraction and 67
processing
agriculture production of nitrogen fertilisers, farm 62
machinery exhausts
industrial processes mineral and metal production, chemical 54
industry
waste management sewage treatment, landfills 21
land use and forestry forests, crops, grassland, wetlands, settlements 20
Canadian Forests: Source or Sink?
● Canada has about 400 million hectares of forest, which is one of our most valuable resources
● Forests can sometimes be a source of carbon due to things like:
○ Insect damage: kills trees, speeding up decomposition and increasing CO2 emissions
○ Wildfires: releases CO2 gas
○ Deforestation: GHG’s like CO2 and CH4 are released when trees are cut down
7.8 Acid Precipitation
Acid precipitation: a term used to describe any precipitation (rain, snow, fog) that has become acidic
from reacting with compounds in the atmosphere
● Primary pollutants are sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
● They combine with water to become acidic
Reactions of Sulfur Dioxide
Sources of SO2 include
● Burning of coal for electricity generation
● Mining and refining of metals
● Combustion of fossil fuels
Reactions of Nitrogen Oxides
Main source of NOx (nitrogen oxides) is fossil fuels
Some More Environmental Impacts:
● Aquatic Ecosystems
○ pH decreases, causing young, fragile organisms to die first
○ This impacts all organisms higher on the food chain
● Soils
○ Acidic groundwater washes away essential nutrients like calcium, magnesium, and
potassium
● Forests
○ Acidic soils weaken the trees, making them more vulnerable to diseases, strong winds,
or extreme cold
Economic Impacts of Acid Rain
● Poor growing conditions result in billions of dollars in lost wood
● Reduction in fish stocks causing losses to the fishing industry
● Acid rain damages steel structures, limestone buildings, and stone monuments
