UNIT - IV QUANTUM PHYSICS

INTRODUCTION
The failures of classical theory or macroscopic theory lead to the new concept
quantum theory or microscopic theory. This revolutionary thought was first introduced by
Max Planck to explain the energy distribution of a black body radiation.
Some of the microscopic concepts doesn’t explained by classical theory are
• Stability of atom
• Black body radiation
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect, etc.,
Black body radiation
A perfect black body is the one which absorbs and emits the radiations in all possible
wavelength regions. The radiations emitted by a black body is called as black body radiation
and it possess light radiation corresponds to all the possible wavelengths.
Experiment to explain black body radiation:
In practice there is no perfect black body available. Lamp black is considered near to
black body so assume a hollow copper sphere coated with lamp black on the inner surface.

A fine hole is made for radiations to enter into the sphere and emit out of it. Now
when radiations fall on the copper sphere we could observe radiation reflected from the
surface of the sphere but the radiation enter into the pin hole undergo multiple reflections and
get absorbed. So no radiations reflected from the pin hole.
This is a proof that black body is perfect absorber of radiations corresponds to all
wavelength. On the other hand when the hollow copper sphere is heated using a temperature
bath of fixed temperature, the radiations emitted from the pin hole alone which shows the
black body coated inside hollow copper sphere emits the radiations. This is the proof for
black body is perfect emitter of radiations corresponds to all possible wavelengths.
Black body energy spectrum:
The energy spectrum of black body at various temperatures is explained using the graph as
follows:

1
• The energy distribution is not uniform for any given temperature.
• The intensity of radiation (E) increases with respect to the increase in wavelength and
at a particular wavelength it becomes maximum (λm) and after this it starts decreasing
with respect to the increase in wavelength.
• When the temperature is increased, the maximum (λm) decreases.
• For all the wavelengths an increase in temperature causes increase in energy.
• The total energy emitted at any particular temperature can be calculated from the area
under that particular curve.

Laws for explaining the energy distribution

1. Stefan’s – Boltzmann law
According to this law the radiant energy (E) of a body is directly proportional to the
fourth power of the temperature (T) of the body.
E = σT 4
2. Wein’s Displacement law
This law states that the product of the wavelength (λm) corresponding to maximum
energy and absolute wavelength (T) is a constant. This law holds good only for shorter
wavelength and not for longer wavelengths.
λ mT = constant
3. Rayleigh – Jean’s law
According to this law, the energy distribution is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature and is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.
This law holds good only for longer wavelength and not for shorter wavelength.
It is governed by the equation

8πK BT
Eλ =
λ4

2
Planck’s law of radiation
The energy density of heat radiation emitted from a black body at temperature ‘T’ in
the wavelength range from λ to λ+dλ is given by,
E𝜆dλ = [ dλ
h = Planck’s constant; c = speed of light
γ = frequency of radiation kB = Boltzmann constant
T = Block body temperature

 Black Body consists of radiations and large number of tiny oscillators, they are known
as atomic oscillators (or) Planck’s oscillators.
 Frequency of emitted radiation is same as that of the frequency of its vibration.
 Oscillator can absorb (or) emit energy in multiples of small units called quantum. This
quanta of radiation is called photon.
 Electrons radiate energy in discrete manner and not continuous.
 Energy of photon (E) is directly proportional to the frequency of radiation (γ).
E = hγ
En = nh = nE
Derivation
Consider a black body with a large no. of atomic oscillators. Average energy Ē per
oscillator is given by
𝐸
Ē= (1)
𝑁
Where E is the total energy due to all the oscillators and N is the no. of oscillators
Number of atomic oscillators in ground state = N0
According to Maxwell’s energy distribution law, the no. of oscillators with energy E n is given
by,
Nn = N0e-En / KBT (2)
Where T = absolute temperature of the black body
kB = Boltzmann’s constant
Total no of oscillators N = N0+N1+N2+………..+Nn
N0, N1, N2,…. are the no. of oscillators with energies E0, E1, E2 …
From eqn (2)

N=N0e0+N0e-E1/KBT+ N0e-E2/KBT+………+ N0e-En/KBT (3)

N0 = N0e-E0 / KBT
N1 = N0e-E1 / KBT

3
N2 = N0e-E2 / KBT
.
.
Nn = N0e-En / KBT
and the corresponding energy values En = nhγ; n = 0, 1, 2, ….
E0 = 0 x hγ = 0
E1 = 1 x hγ = hγ
E2 = 2 x hγ = 2hγ
..
En = n x hγ = nhγ
Substituting these values in eqn (3)
N=N0e0+N0e- hγ /KBT+ N0e- 2hγ /KBT+………+ N0e-nhγ/KBT
N=N0 [1+e-E/KBT+ e-2E/KBT+………+ e-nE/KBT]
Put x = e- hγ /KBT
N = N0 [1+x+x2+ .. . . . .+xn] (4)
therefore, The binomial (or) summation series
1
1+x+x2+x3+………. =
1−𝑥
𝑁0
The above equation (4) can be written as 𝑁 = (5)
(1−𝑥)
Total energy of the black body due to all the oscillators is given by
E = E0N0+E1N1+E2N2+…….. (6)
Substituting for E0, E1, E2, …. and N0, N1, N2 …… in eqn (6)
E = 0x N0+hγ. N0e- hγ /KBT+ 2hγ. N0e- 2hγ /KBT+ …….
E = hγ. N0e- hγ /KBT+ 2hγ. N0e- 2hγ /KBT+ …….
Put x = e- hγ /KBT, then we get
E = hγ. N0 x + 2hγ. N0 x2 + 3hγ. N0 x3 + ……
E = hγ. N0 x (1 +2x+3x2+…….)
Using binomial series
1
1+2x+3x2+4x3+………. = 2 (1−𝑥)
hγ.𝑁0 x
E= (7)
(1−𝑥)2
Substitute eqn (5) & (7) in eqn (1)
hγ.𝑁0 x
(1−𝑥)2 hγ.𝑁0 x (1−𝑥)
Ē= 𝑁0 =
(1−𝑥)2 𝑁0
(1−𝑥)
ℎ𝛾𝑥
Ē=
(1−𝑥)
ℎ𝛾𝑥
Ē= 1
𝑥( −1)
𝑥
ℎ𝛾
Ē= 1
( −1)
𝑥
w.k.t x = e- hγ /KBT,

4
 ℎ𝛾 ℎ𝛾
Ē= 1 = ℎ𝛾 (8)
( ℎ𝛾 −1)
−𝑘 𝑇 (𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇−1)
𝑒 𝐵
Number of oscillators per unit volume in the wavelength range λ and λ+dλ is given by,
8𝜋𝑑𝜆
(9)
𝜆4
The energy density of radiation between wavelengths λ and λ+dλ is given by,
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ( ) × (𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝜆 & 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆

8𝜋𝑑𝜆 ℎ𝛾
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ℎ𝛾
𝜆4
(𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇−1)
𝑐
8𝜋𝑑𝜆 ℎ( )
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ℎ𝛾
𝜆
𝜆4
(𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇−1)
8𝜋𝑑𝜆 ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ℎ𝛾
𝜆5
(𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇−1)
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
∴ 𝐸𝜆 = ℎ𝛾 (10)
𝜆5
(𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 −1)
Wien’s displacement law (shorter wavelength)
It holds good only at shorter wavelength,
When λ is small, γ is very large.
ℎ𝛾
ℎ𝛾
≫ 1,𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 is large when compared to 1. Thus 1 is neglected,
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
ℎ𝛾 ℎ𝛾
∴ 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 1 = 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Eqn (10) becomes
8𝜋ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝜆 = ℎ𝛾 (11)
𝜆5 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Rayleigh – jeans law (longer wavelength)
It holds good only at longer wavelength,
When λ is large, γ is very small.
ℎ𝛾
ℎ𝛾 ℎ𝛾
≪ 1, 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 = 1+
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Eqn (10) becomes
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
∴ 𝐸𝜆 = ℎ𝛾
𝜆5 (1+ −1)
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
8𝜋ℎ𝑐
∴ 𝐸𝜆 = ℎ𝛾
𝜆5 ( )
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
8𝜋𝑐
𝐸𝜆 = 𝛾
𝜆5 ( )
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

(∵ 𝑐⁄ 𝛾 = 𝜆)
8𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝜆 = (12)
𝜆4

5
Compton Effect
When a beam of X-rays is scattered by a target of low atomic number, the scattered
radiation consists of two components:
1. One having the same wavelength as the incident beam
2. Another having a higher wavelength.
The change in wavelength is called Compton shift and this phenomenon is called Compton effect.
Derivation for Compton shift
X-rays are considered to be made up of photons. When these photons strike the target, it
transfers part of its energy to an electron at rest. The electron gains kinetic energy and recoils with
a velocity v. The energy of the scattered photon changes from ℎ𝜈 to ℎ𝜈 ′ . The scattered photon
makes an angle θ with its incident direction,
while the electron moves at an angle  with the
direction of the incident photon. Conservation of
energy and momentum are applied for these
collisions.
Total energy before collision
Energy of incident photon = ℎ𝜈
Energy of electron at rest = moc2
Total energy before collision = ℎ𝜈 + moc2
Total energy after collision
Energy of scattered photon = ℎ𝜈 ′
Energy of scattered electron = mc2
Total energy after collision = h 'mc 2
Applying the law of conservation of energy
Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision
ℎ𝜈 + moc2 = h 'mc2
(1)
mc2 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈′) + moc2
Total momentum along X-axis
Before collision
h
Momentum of photon along X-axis =
c
Momentum of electron along X-axis = 0
h
Total momentum along X-axis =
c
After collision
h '
Momentum of photon along X-axis = cos 
c
Momentum of electron along X-axis = mv cos 

6
 h '
Total momentum along X-axis after collision = cos   mv cos 
c
Applying the law of conservation of momentum
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
h h '
 cos   mv cos  (2)
c c
h h '
 cos   mv cos 
c c
h
(   ' cos )  mvcos
c
h(  ' cos  )  mvccos 
mvccos   h(  ' cos ) (3)
Total momentum along Y-axis
Before collision
Momentum of photon along Y-axis = 0
Momentum of electron along Y-axis = 0
Total momentum along Y-axis =0
After collision
h '
Momentum of photon along Y-axis = sin 
c
Momentum of electron along Y-axis =  mv sin 
Total momentum along Y-axis = h ' sin   mv sin 
c
Applying the law of conservation of momentum
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
h '
0 sin   mv sin 
c
h '
mv sin   sin  (4)
c
mvcsin   h ' sin  (5)
Squaring eqn (3) & eqn (5) and then adding
(mvc cos )2  (mvcsin )2  h2 ( ' cos ) ( h' sin )
2 2
(6)
m v c cos   m v c sin  = h (  2 ' cos  ' cos  )  h  ' sin 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

m2v 2c 2 = h2[ 2  2 ' cos  '2 cos 2   '2 sin 2  ]

m2v 2c 2 = h2[ 2  2 ' cos  '2 (sin 2   cos 2  ]
m2v 2c 2 = h2 ( 2  2 ' cos   '2 ) (7)
Squaring eqn (1) on both sides, we get

7
 (mc2 ) 2  (h(  ' )  m 0c 2) 2 (8)
m2c 4  h2 ( 2  2 ' '2 )  2h(  ' )m0c 2  m0 c 4
2
(9)
Subtracting eqn (7) from eqn (9), we get
m2c 4  m2v 2c 2  h2 ( 2  2 ' '2 )  2h(  ' )m0c 2  m0 c 4  h2 ( 2  2 ' cos   '2 )
2

m2c 2 (c 2  v 2 )  h2 2  2h2 'h2 '2 2h(  ' )m0c 2  m0 c 4  h 2 2  2h 2 ' cos  h 2 '2
2

m2c 2 (c 2  v 2 )  2h2 '2h(  ' )m0c 2  2h2 ' cos   m0 c 4

2

m 2 c 2 (c 2  v 2 )  2h 2 ' (1  cos  )  2h(  ' )m0 c 2  m0 c 4

2
(10)
From the theory of relativity, the variation of mass with velocity is given by
m0 (11)
m
 v 
2
1  2 
 c 
Squaring the eqn (11) on both sides, we have
2 2
m0
2 m0 m0 c 2
m 
2
= 2 =
v2 c  v2 c 2  v 2
1 2
c c2
m 2 (c 2  v 2 )  m0 c 2
2

Multiplying c2 on the both sides, we have

m2c 2 (c 2  v 2 )  m0 c 4
2
(12)
Substituting eqn (12) in eqn (10), we get
m0 c 4  2h2 ' (1  cos  )  2h(  ' )m0c 2  m0 c 4
2 2

2h(  ' )m0c 2  2h 2 ' (1  cos )

  ' h
 (1  cos  )
 ' m0c 2
 ' h
  (1  cos  )
 '  ' m0c 2
1 1 h
  (1  cos  ) (13)
 '  m0c 2
Multiplying c on both sides of eqn (13), we have
c c hc
  (1  cos  )
 '  m0c 2
c c h
  (1  cos  )
 '  m0c
h
 '  (1  cos  )
m0c

8
Therefore, the change in wavelength is given by
h
d  (1  cos )
m0 c
Hence Compton shift is independent of wavelength of incident radiation & nature
of scattering substance and depends only on scattering angle (θ).

Case – 1: When θ = 0, then d  0

h
Case – 2: When θ = 90⁰, then d  = 0.0243Å
m0c
2h
Case – 3 When θ = 180⁰, then d  = 0.0486Å
m0c
Experimental verification of Compton Effect:
A beam of monochromatic x-rays of wavelength λ is made to incident on a scattering
substance. The scattered x- rays are received by Bragg spectrometer. The intensity of scattered
x-rays is measured for various scattering angles. The graph is plotted (intensity vs
wavelength) as shown in fig. It is found that the curves have two peaks, one corresponding to
unmodified radiation and other corresponding to modified radiation. The difference between
two peaks on the wavelength axis gives the Compton shift.

9
Matter Waves
Light radiation possess wave nature and particle nature, likewise all material particle
possess dual nature. This wave nature associated with a material particle is called matter
waves.
Louis de-Broglie’s Hypothesis
Louis de-Broglie proposed that like light radiation matter or material particle also
possesses dual characteristics. i.e., particle nature and wave nature. Since nature loves
symmetry, the wavelength associated with a material particle moving with a velocity ‘v’ is
given by,
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
Properties of Matter Waves
1. If the mass of the particle is smaller, then the wavelength associated with that
particle is longer.
2. If the velocity of the particle is small, then the wavelength associated with that
particle is longer.
3. If v = 0, the λ = ∞, i.e., the wave becomes indeterminate and if v = ∞, then λ = 0.
This indicates that de-Broglie waves are generated by the motion of particles.
4. These waves don’t depend on the charge of the particles. This shows that these
waves are not electromagnetic waves.
5. The velocity of de-Broglie’s waves is not constant since it depends on the velocity
of the material particle.
Derivation of de-Broglie waves
from planck's theory,
Energy of the photon is
E = h (1)
from Einstein's mass energy relation,
Energy of the photon is
E = mc2 (2)
Equating eqn (1) and (2)
h = mc2
ℎ𝑐
= 𝑚𝑐 2 (3)
𝜆
ℎ𝑐
𝜆=
𝑚𝑐 2
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= 𝜆=
𝑚𝑐 𝑚𝑣

The wavelength of the particle having mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘v’ is given by
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝

10
De-Broglie’s wavelength in terms of energy
1
w. k. t the Kinetic Energy E = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

Multiplying ‘m’ on both sides we get,

2mE =𝑚2 𝑣 2
Taking square root on both sides we get,

√2mE = √𝑚2 𝑣 2
√2mE = mv
ℎ
w.k.t 𝜆 =
𝑚𝑣

substituting for mv, we get

ℎ
𝜆=
√2mE
De-Broglie’s wavelength associated with electrons
Workdone on the electron = eV
1
K. E (E) = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
eV = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

2eV = 𝑚𝑣 2
Multiplying ‘m’ on both sides we get,
2meV =𝑚2 𝑣 2

√2meV = √𝑚2 𝑣 2
√2meV = mv
ℎ
w.k.t 𝜆 =
𝑚𝑣

substituting for mv, we get

ℎ
𝜆=
√2meV
Substituting h, m, e, values, we get

12.25
𝜆= 𝐴̇
√V

11
Time independent Schrödinger equation
Consider a system of stationary waves associated with a particle. Let x, y, z be the coordinate
of the particle and ψ be the wave displacement for de- Broglie’s waves at any time t. The classical
differential eqn. of a wave motion is given by
+ + =
ψ ψ ψ ψ
(1)

∇ ψ=
ψ
(2)
where ∇ is a Laplacian’s operator. The solution of eqn. (2) is
ψ(x, y, z, t) = ψ (x, y, z) −
ψ= ψ − (3)
where ψ (x, y, z) is a function of x, y, z only and it gives the amplitude at the point considered.
Differentiating the eqn. (3) with respect to t, we get
∂ψ
= −iωψ "#$

= −ω ψ
ψ
(4)
Therefore,
%
∇ ψ+ ψ =0 (5)
We know, = 2( )*+
$ ,-
= (6)
*
Substitute (6) in (5),
,.
∇ ψ+ ψ =0 (7)
*
0
Using / =
1
,1 -
∇ ψ+ ψ =0 (8)
0
If E is the total energy, V is the potential energy and 23 is the kinetic energy then,
1
4 = 23 + 6
2
Rearranging the above equation and multiplying by m on both sides we get
2 3 = 22(4 − 3) (9)
Substituting eqn. 9 in 8, we get
1
∇ ψ+ (4 − 6)ψ = 0 (10)
ħ
This is called Schrodinger time independent wave equation.

Time dependent Schrodinger wave equation

Schrödinger time dependent wave equation is derived from time independent wave equation
is given by

12
ψ (x, y, z, t) = ψ (x, y, z) "#$
(1)
Differentiating eqn. (1),
= −iωψ "#$
ψ
(2)
We know = 2(8
∂ψ
= −i2(8ψ "#$
Also, 4 = ℎ8
:
= −i ψ
ψ
(3)
ħ
Multiplying i on both sides,
Eψ = −iħ
ψ
(4)
Schrodinger time independent wave equation is given by
1
∇ ψ+ (4 − 6)ψ = 0 (5)
ħ
On substituting the value of Eψ in eqn. (5)
22 ∂ψ
∇ ψ+ <ħ − 6ψ= = 0
ħ
∂ψ
(− ħ ∇ + 6 )ψ = ħ
>ψ = 4 ψ
where, H is Hamiltonian operator and E is energy operator.

G.P. Thomson experiment

G.P. T homson in the year 1928 executed
experiments with electron beam to prove the wave nature
of particles. The experimental arrangement consists of a
discharge tube in which the electrons are produced from
the cathode. The electron beam is excited with potential
upto 500 volts. The electron rays are passed through a slit
to obtain a fine beam of electrons.

Then the confined electron beam is allowed to fall

upon a very thin metallic film of gold. The whole apparatus
is exhausted to high vacuum so that electrons may not lose
their energy in collision with the molecules of the gas. The
electron beam from the gold film is recorded by the
photographic plate. After developing the plate, a
symmetrical pattern consisting of concentric rings is obtained. The diffraction can only be
produced by waves and not by the particles. Hence, Thomson concluded that electrons behave like
waves.

13
 Physical significance of wavefunction ()

1. It is a variable quantity which describes the de-Broglie wave.

2. It connects the particle & wave nature of matter statistically.
3. The wave function is a complex quantity & cannot be measured.
4. The wave function associated with a moving particle is related to the probability of finding
the particle at any point at a particular instant of time.
5. The probability of finding a particle at any instant is
𝑃 = ∭ Ψ ∗ Ψ𝑑𝜏 [𝑑𝜏 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧]
If P=1, particle is present
P=0, particle is absent.

Particle in one-dimensional box

Consider a particle of mass “m” moving between two infinitely high potential walls at 𝑥 =
0 and 𝑥 = 𝑎. The particle moves freely inside the box, without any constraint.
Hence V= 0.The potential can be represented as

𝑉 = 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎

V = 0, for 0 ≥ x ≥ a
This potential is called a square well potential. From
Schroedinger wave equation for one dimension,
𝑑2 2𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉) = 0 (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ħ2
V=0 inside the box. ∴ Equation (1) reduces to
𝑑2 2𝑚
+ 𝐸 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ħ2
2𝑚𝐸
Assuming 𝑘 2 = ℏ2
𝜕2 
+ 𝑘2 = 0 (2)
𝜕𝑥 2
The general solution of equation (2) is given by

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 (𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥 (3)
where A and B are constants. They can be obtained by applying the
boundary conditions.
Boundary condition (i) = 𝟎 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟎
Applying the condition to eqn.(3)
0 = 𝐴 sin 0 + 𝐵 cos 0
0 = 0 + 𝐵 [since sin 0 = 0& cos 0 =1]
𝑩=𝟎
Boundary condition (ii) = 𝟎 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝒂
Applying the condition to equation (3)
0 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑎 + 0
𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0
This is possible only if either A = 0 or sin 𝑘𝑎 =0
A cannot be 0 as already one of the constants B = 0. If A is also zero, then wave equation becomes
zero which is not correct. Hence A should not be zero. Therefore,
sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0
Also,sin 𝑛𝜋 = 0
𝑛𝜋
Therefore, 𝑘 = (4)
𝑎
𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝑘= (5)
𝑎2
We know that,
8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸
𝑘= (6)
ℎ2
From eqn. (5) and (6),
𝑛2 ℎ 2
𝐸𝑛 = (7)
8𝑚𝑎2
Substituting eqn. (4) in (3)
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝐴 sin ( 𝑎
) (8)
Normalization of wave function
The constant A is determined by normalization of wave function as follows.
Probability density P is given by𝑃 = ∭ Ψ ∗ Ψ𝑑𝜏
𝑛𝜋𝑥
 ∗  = 𝐴2 sin2 ( 𝑎
) (9)
It is certain that the particle is somewhere inside the box. Thus the probability of finding
the particle inside the box of length a is given by
𝑎
∫0  ∗  . 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑎 𝑛𝜋𝑥
∫0 𝐴2 sin2 ( 𝑎
) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎
𝐴2 ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2

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 𝐴2 𝑎 2
= 1; Therefore, 𝐴 = √𝑎
2

Using A in ,
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑛 (𝑥) = √𝑎 sin 𝑎
This expression is known as normalized eigen function.

Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)

A STM is an instrument used for imaging surfaces at atomic level
Principle – Quantum Tunneling
The principle used in STM is the tunneling of electron between the sharp metallic tip of
the probe and the surface of a sample.
Construction
It has the following components
 Piezoelectric tube with the tip and electrodes capable of moving in x, y, z directions.
 Fine needle tip for scanning the sample surface.
Working
The tip is mechanically connected to the scanner, an xyz positioning device. The sharp
metal needle is brought close to the surface to be imaged. The distance is of the order of few
angstroms.
A bias voltage is applied between the sample and the tip. When the needle is positive
potential with respect to the surface, electrons can tunnel through the gap and set up a small
‘tunneling current’ in the needle. This feeble current is amplified and measured.
With the help of the tunneling current, the feedback electrons keep the distance between
tip and sample constant. The sensitivity of the STM is so large that electronic corrugation of
surface atoms and the electron distribution around then can be detected.
Applications
 Used to produce integrated circuits &
material science studies
 Used in biomedical devices & research labs
Advantages
 Very accurate information can be obtained.
 Magnification is upto nanoscale.
Disadvantages
 Cost is high & more complexity.
 Even a very small vibrations will
disturb the measurement setup.
 Single dust particle may damage the
tip when it is in vacuum.

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