UNIT 7

Topics
Adaptive evolution

Adaptive evolution refers to the process by which organisms adapt and evolve over time in
response to changes in their environment.

Adaptive evolution occurs through mechanisms such as natural selection, mutation, and
genetic drift.
It allows populations to become better suited to their environment, improving their chances of
survival and reproduction.
Adaptive evolution can lead to the formation of new species as populations diverge from
each other.
It plays a critical role in shaping the diversity of life on Earth.

Balancing selection

Balancing selection refers to a evolutionary process that maintains genetic variation within a
population by favoring multiple alleles instead of a single, dominant allele.

Balancing selection can include mechanisms such as heterozygote advantage and frequency-
dependent selection.
Examples of balancing selection include sickle cell anemia and the MHC complex in
vertebrates.
This type of selection helps to maintain genetic diversity and adaptability within populations.
Balancing selection can occur in both stable and changing environments.

Biological species concept

The Biological species concept defines a species as a group of organisms capable of

interbreeding among each other, but not with individuals from other groups.

Reproductive isolation is key for defining species.

Emphasizes gene flow within a population.
May not apply to asexually reproducing organisms.
Challenges arise with hybridization between closely related species.

Coevolution

Coevolution refers to the reciprocal evolutionary change that occurs between two or more
species as a result of their close ecological interactions.

Coevolution can involve various types of interactions, such as predator-prey relationships,

mutualistic symbiosis, or even competitive interactions.
Antagonistic coevolution occurs when two species are engaged in an ongoing arms race,
resulting in adaptations to outcompete or avoid each other.
Mutualistic coevolution involves the evolution of species that depend on each other for
mutual benefits, such as pollinators and flowering plants.
Coevolution can lead to the development of complex and specialized adaptations that
enhance the survival and reproductive success of the interacting species.

Convergent evolution

Convergent evolution refers to the process where different species develop similar traits or
characteristics despite not being closely related.

Convergent evolution is driven by similar environmental pressures and leads to analogous

structures.
Examples of convergent evolution include the wings of bats and birds, which evolved
independently for flight.
Convergent evolution can result in the convergence of morphological, physiological, and
behavioral traits.
Convergent evolution is often seen in unrelated species living in similar habitats.

Descent with modification

'Descent with modification' refers to the idea that species evolve over time, as new traits are
inherited from their ancestors.

The concept was proposed by Charles Darwin in his theory of evolution.

It explains how diversity arises in the natural world.
Evolution occurs through the accumulation of small genetic changes over generations.
Species that share a common ancestor have similar traits due to descent with modification.

Divergent evolution

Divergent evolution refers to the process where organisms that share a common ancestor evolve
into different species due to different environmental pressures.

Organisms develop distinct traits and adapt to different habitats.

Divergent evolution results in speciation, forming new species.
This type of evolution can occur over long periods of time.
Divergent evolution can be seen in species with similar anatomical structures but different
functions.
Gene flow

Gene flow is a fundamental concept in evolutionary genetics referring to the transfer of genetic
variation from one population to another.

It can occur through various mechanisms, including migration or dispersal.

Gene flow helps maintain genetic diversity within a species.
It can counteract the effects of natural selection and genetic drift.
Barriers to gene flow can lead to speciation, creating new species.

Genetic drift

Genetic drift refers to the change in the frequency of an existing gene variant in a population due
to random sampling of organisms.

Genetic drift often occurs in small populations.

Genetic drift can lead to genetic variation reduction.
Genetic drift can cause gene variants to disappear completely.
It's one of the basic mechanisms of evolution, alongside mutation, migration, and natural
selection.

Gradualism

Gradualism is the concept in evolutionary theory where new species evolve from existing ones
through gradual and continuous processes over extended time.

This theory opposes the idea of sudden evolutionary leaps.

It suggests constant, slow changes resulting in speciation.
Charles Darwin popularized it in 'On the Origin of Species'.
It's often contrasted with punctuated equilibrium ideation.

Limits of evolution

Limits of evolution refer to constraints on species' adaptations, which can be due to genetic,
environmental, or developmental factors that inhibit evolutionary change.

Evolution is constrained by available genetic variation and mutations, which can limit
potential adaptations.
Environmental changes can outpace a species' ability to adapt, leading to extinction.
Developmental pathways may restrict the forms that organisms can evolve, limiting diversity.
Trade-offs in adapting to one environment may hinder performance in others, constraining
evolutionary options.
Microevolution

Microevolution refers to small-scale genetic changes within a population over a relatively short
period of time.

Microevolution is driven by processes such as mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and
gene flow.
It leads to changes in the allele frequencies within a population.
Microevolution can result in the development of new traits or the loss of existing traits.
It is the basis for the concept of adaptation and the diversity of life forms on Earth.

Natural selection

Natural selection refers to the process by which certain species survive and reproduce more
successfully due to advantageous traits.

It's often described as 'survival of the fittest'.

Based on the theories of Charles Darwin.
Genetic mutations play a critical role.
Environmental factors heavily influence natural selection.

Neutral variation

Neutral variation refers to genetic variation that does not confer a selective advantage or
disadvantage in the population.

Neutral variation can accumulate in a population without undergoing natural selection.

It can be caused by genetic drift, mutation, or migration.
Neutral mutations are typically found in non-coding regions of the genome.
Studying neutral variation can provide insights into population dynamics and evolutionary
processes.

Parallel evolution

Parallel evolution refers to the independent evolution of similar traits in different species due to
similar environmental pressures.

Parallel evolution occurs when different species develop similar traits.

It is driven by similar environmental pressures or selective agents.
Parallel evolution can result in convergent evolution.
An example of parallel evolution is the development of wings in birds and bats.

Phylogeny
Phylogeny refers to the evolutionary history and relationships among species or group of
organisms, determined through genetic and morphological data comparisons.

In phylogenetic trees, branch points represent common ancestors.

Phylogenetics can explain patterns of benign or harmful traits among species.
Homology, vital for phylogeny, involves structures derived from a common ancestor.
Phylogenetic analysis uses computational algorithms and statistical methods.

Postzygotic barriers

Postzygotic barriers occur after fertilization and prevent hybrid zygotes from developing or
reproducing successfully.

Types include hybrid inviability and hybrid sterility.

Hybrid inviability leads to miscarriages or stillbirths.
Hybrid sterility results in hybrids that are unable to produce viable gametes.
Postzygotic barriers contribute to reproductive isolation and play a role in speciation.

Prezygotic barriers

Prezygotic barriers are mechanisms that prevent mating or fertilization between different
species, such as differences in behavior, anatomy, or environment.

Examples include differences in courtship rituals or mating calls.

Mechanical incompatibility prevents physical mating between species.
Habitat isolation occurs when species breed in different areas or niches.
Temporal isolation involves species mating at different times, preventing genetic exchange.

Punctuated equilibrium

"Punctuated equilibrium" is a theory asserting that evolutionary development is marked by

isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little or no change.

- This theory contrasts with gradualism, proposing that evolution happens gradually over
time.
- Proposed by paleontologists Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould in 1972.
- Predominantly examined using fossil record data.
- It offers an explanation for gaps and patterns observed in the fossil record.

Reproductive isolation

Reproductive isolation refers to a set of mechanisms that prevent species from interbreeding,
ensuring the maintenance of distinct species.
 Prezygotic and postzygotic barriers contribute to reproductive isolation.
It can occur in allopatric, sympatric, parapatric, and peripatric speciation.
Mechanisms may include temporal, behavioral, or mechanical isolation.
It plays a fundamental role in evolution, contributing to biodiversity.

Sexual selection

Sexual selection is an evolutionary process, where certain traits increase an individual's

likelihood of attracting mates and reproducing.

It's a subset of natural selection.

It can result in sexual dimorphism.
Intersexual selection and intrasexual selection are its two main types.
Darwin coined the term to explain attributes not beneficial for survival.

Speciation

Speciation refers to the evolutionary process where populations evolve to become distinct
species due to genetic, environmental, and behavioral factors.

It typically occurs when populations are geographically isolated.

Allopatric and sympatric are the two main types of speciation.
Allopatric speciation occurs when a physical barrier separates populations.
Sympatric speciation occurs without geographical isolation, often through polyploidy or
habitat differentiation.

Sympatric speciation

Sympatric speciation refers to the process where new species evolve from a single ancestral
species while inhabiting the same geographic region.

It contrasts with allopatric speciation, involving physical separation.

This can occur if genetic mutations create differences within a population.
Common in plants due to polyploidy.
Reproductive isolation is critical to prevent interbreeding.

Taxonomy

Taxonomy is the science of classifying and naming organisms based on shared characteristics,
leading to hierarchical categorization for systematic organization.

Taxonomy categorizes organisms into hierarchical groups such as domain, kingdom, phylum,
class, order, family, genus, and species.
 Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, is known as the 'father of taxonomy' for establishing the
modern system of classification.
The two main tasks of taxonomy are classification, which groups organisms based on
similarities, and nomenclature, which assigns names to these groups.
Taxonomy helps in revealing evolutionary relationships among organisms and aids in the
identification and description of new species.

Theory of Evolution

The Theory of Evolution proposes that species change over time through natural selection,
genetic drift, and mutations, leading to the diversity of life on Earth.

Charles Darwin is credited with formulating the theory based on observations during his
voyage on the HMS Beagle.
Evolution is supported by various lines of evidence, including fossil records, comparative
anatomy, molecular genetics, and embryology.
Natural selection is a key mechanism driving evolution, where individuals with advantageous
traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.
Evolution does not have a predetermined goal, and it is a gradual process that can lead to the
formation of new species.

Key Terms
Adaptive radiation

Adaptive radiation refers to the evolutionary process where a single ancestral species diversifies
into a multitude of species, each suited for different ecological niches.

Adaptive radiation occurs when a species colonizes new habitats with different resources
and environments.
It leads to the emergence of distinct species, each specialized for a specific niche.
Adaptive radiation is driven by natural selection and can occur over a short period of time.
It is a key mechanism for the rapid expansion of biodiversity on Earth.

Analogy

An analogy is a comparison between two different things to highlight their similarities in order to
explain a concept or idea.

Analogies are commonly used in science to clarify complex biological processes by

comparing them to more familiar concepts.
Analogies can help students understand abstract or challenging topics by linking them to
something more relatable.
An effective analogy should be relevant, easy to understand, and provide a clear connection
between the familiar and unfamiliar concepts.
 Analogies should not be taken too far, as they are meant to enhance understanding, not serve
as perfect representations.

Binomial nomenclature

Binomial nomenclature is a standardized system for naming species in which each species is
assigned a unique scientific name consisting of two parts: the genus name and the species
name.

Binomial nomenclature was first introduced by Carl Linnaeus in the 18th century.
The genus name always starts with a capital letter, while the species name is written in
lowercase.
The scientific names are written in italics when typed or underlined when handwritten.
The use of binomial nomenclature helps to avoid confusion and allows scientists worldwide
to communicate effectively about specific species.

Bottleneck effect

The bottleneck effect is a reduction in genetic variation caused by a drastic decrease in

population size due to a random event.

The bottleneck effect increases the chances of harmful genetic mutations becoming more
prevalent in a population.
The reduced genetic variation resulting from the bottleneck effect can decrease a
population's ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions.
The bottleneck effect can lead to an increased risk of inbreeding and genetic disorders in the
population.
Populations that have experienced the bottleneck effect are more susceptible to disease
outbreaks and other catastrophic events.

Diploidy

Diploidy refers to the condition of having two sets of chromosomes, one inherited from each
parent, and is characteristic of most somatic cells in organisms.

During sexual reproduction, gametes unite to form a diploid zygote, combining genetic
material from both parents.
Diploidy allows for genetic diversity through the process of recombination during meiosis.
Cells with more than two sets of chromosomes are referred to as polyploid.
Mutations and errors during cell division can lead to aneuploidy, where cells have an
abnormal number of chromosomes.

Directional selection

Directional selection is a type of natural selection in which individuals with one extreme
phenotype are favored, leading to a shift in the population towards that phenotype.

Directional selection occurs when the environment changes and selects for a specific trait.
This type of selection can lead to the evolution of new species over time.
Directional selection can result in the loss of genetic diversity within a population.
Examples of directional selection include the evolution of longer necks in giraffes and darker
coloration in peppered moths.

Diversifying selection

Diversifying selection refers to a type of natural selection that causes the extreme or unusual
variants of a trait to be favored.

Also known as disruptive selection.

Leads to increased genetic diversity within a population.
Can result in the formation of new species.
Often occurs in environments with diverse niches.

Founder effect

The 'Founder effect' refers to a reduction in genetic variation due to a small number of individuals
establishing a new population.

Founder effect can cause high frequency of certain inherited diseases in isolated
populations.
It's a special case of genetic drift originating from a small population size.
This effect plays a significant role in the genetic differences seen in different human
populations.
It can produce random changes in populations' allele frequencies affecting genetic diversity.

Frequency-dependent selection

Frequency-dependent selection occurs when the fitness of a phenotype depends on its

frequency in a population, leading to oscillations of advantageous traits over time.

This process can drive the maintenance of genetic diversity within a population.
It can result in cyclical patterns of dominance and recessiveness.
It can lead to the formation of stable polymorphisms.
Frequency-dependent selection is a key factor in the coevolution of interacting species.

Gene pool

A 'gene pool' refers to the total variety of genetic information within an interbreeding population,
species or a group of species.
 Variety in gene pools promote genetic diversity which is vital for adaptation and evolution.
Changes in a gene pool could result from gene flow, mutation, genetic drift, or natural
selection.
Dwindling gene pool could result in inbreeding, causing potential loss of genetic diversity.
Through the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, one can estimate frequencies of specific alleles in a
gene pool.

Genetic variation

Genetic variation refers to the diversity in gene frequencies, and impacts an individual's
phenotype and ability to adapt to its environment.

It arises through mechanisms like mutation, gene flow, and sexual reproduction.
Genetic variation is essential for natural selection.
A population with little variation may be at risk during environmental changes.
Genetic variation can be studied through genome sequencing.

Heterozygous advantage

Heterozygous advantage occurs when an individual with two different alleles for a gene has a
higher fitness compared to individuals with the same alleles.

Heterozygotes may have increased resistance to certain diseases due to the presence of
different alleles.
Heterozygosity can lead to greater variability in the population, helping to adapt to changing
environments.
It can maintain genetic diversity within a population, reducing the risk of extinction in
fluctuating conditions.
Heterozygous advantage is a driving force in natural selection, favoring individuals with
diverse genetic combinations.

Homology

Homology refers to the existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures, or genes, in
different taxa.

It's a fundamental concept in comparative and evolutionary study.

Features can be morphological or genetic.
Homologous traits are usually similar in form or function.
Homologous gene sequences provide evolutionary clues.

Polyploidy

"Polyploidy" refers to cells or organisms that contain more than two paired (homologous) sets of
chromosomes, a key element in genetic variation and evolution.

It occurs due to nondisjunction during meiosis.

Polyploidy is common in plants, contributing to their diversity.
It's involved in instant speciation or sympatric speciation.
Polyploidy can cause reduced fertility or fitness in animals.

Population

A population refers to a group of individuals all belonging to one species that live in a defined
geographic area.

Populations exhibit various characteristics like growth rate, density and dispersion.
A population's size is dynamic, changing due to birth, death, migration.
Population genetics studies genetic variations within populations.
Populations resilience plays critical part in ecosystem sustainability.

Relative Fitness

Relative fitness is a measure of an individual's reproductive success in relation to others in a

population, reflecting its ability to survive, reproduce, and pass on its genes.

It accounts for an organism's ability to successfully reproduce and contribute genes to the
next generation.
It is influenced by factors such as survival rate, mate selection, and competition for
resources.
The concept helps understand evolutionary processes and the natural selection of traits in
populations.
Higher relative fitness indicates an organism's genetic traits are better suited for its
environment.

Species

"Species" is a fundamental classification of living organisms, signifying a group that can

interbreed to produce fertile offspring.

It's the lowest and most precise level of the Linnaean taxonomy system.
Members share similar physical characteristics and genetic traits.
Examples include Homo sapiens (humans) or Panthera leo (lions).
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new species arise.

Stabilizing selection

Stabilizing selection is an evolutionary process favoring intermediate phenotypes over extremes,

maintaining genetic diversity.

Results in reduced genetic variation.

Common in stable, unchanging environments.
Can lead to inclinations towards average characteristics.
A factor in maintaining balanced polymorphism.