Class 9th

CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER - 01
MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDINGS

“Anything that occupies space, has mass and offer resistance is called matter.”

Physical Nature of Matter

• Matter is made up of particles. All matter constitute of very small particles. These small particles are called
atoms.
• These particles of matter are too small so they cannot be seen by naked eyes or simple microscope.

Characteristics of the matter:

1. Particles of matter have spaces between them
• This characteristic is one of the concepts behind the solubility of a substance in other substances. For
example, on dissolving sugar in water, there is no rise in the water level because the particles of sugar
get into the interparticle spaces between the water particles.
2. The particles are continuously moving.
• Particles of matter show continuous random movements due to the kinetic energy they possess.
• A rise in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the particles, making them move more
vigorously.

3. Particles of matter attract each other

In every substance, there is an interparticle force of attraction acting between the particles. To break a
substance, we need to overcome this force. The strength of the force differs from one substance to another.

DIFFUSION
When the particles of matter intermix on their own with each other, the phenomenon is called diffusion. For
example, spreading of ink in water.
• During diffusion, the particles occupy the interparticle spaces.
• The rate of diffusion increases with an increase in temperature due to increase in the kinetic energy of the
particles.

The matter is categorized into three categories: Solid, Liquid, and Gas.

PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

There are also two physical state of matter plasma and Bose-Einstein. The main difference between plasma and
Bose-Einstein condensate is that the plasma state contains a gas of ions and free electrons, whereas Bose-Einstein
condensate contains a gas of bosons at low densities, which is cooled to a low temperature close to absolute zero.

SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES

Fixed Shape No Fixed Shape No Fixed Shape
Fixed Volume Fixed Volume No Fixed Volume
High density Moderate Density Low Density

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 Not capable of filling their
Capable of filling their container Capable of filling their container
container
Cannot be compressed Cannot be compressed Can be compressed easily
Cannot Flow Can flow Can flow easily
Particles are not as closely packed
Particles are closely packed Particles are loosely packed
as solids
The force of attraction between The force of attraction between They have a very weak force of
particles is strong particles is not as strong as solids attraction between particles
Kinetic energy is very low Kinetic energy is more than solids Maximum Kinetic Energy

Interconversion of states of matter

Melting Point
The melting point of a solid is defined as the temperature at which solid melts to become liquid at the
atmospheric pressure.
• At the melting point, these two phases, i.e., solid and liquid, are in equilibrium, i.e., at this point, both
solid state and liquid state exist simultaneously.

Boiling Point
The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to
the atmospheric pressure.

Conversion of Temperature
• The temperature conversion formula from Celsius to Kelvin is:
K = C + 273.15
• The temperature conversion formula from Kelvin to Celsius is:
C = K − 273.15
• The temperature conversion formula from Fahrenheit to Celsius is:
C = (F − 32) × 5/9
• The Temperature Conversion Formula from Celsius to Fahrenheit is:
F = C(9/5) + 32
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Latent Heat of Fusion
It is the amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure at its
melting point.

Latent Heat of Vaporisation

It is the amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a liquid into gas at atmospheric pressure at its
boiling point.

SOME IMPORTANT PHENOMENON

1. Diffusion
When the particles of matter intermix on their own with each other, the phenomenon is called diffusion.
For example, spreading of ink in water.

2. Evaporation
The phenomenon by which molecules in liquid state undergo a spontaneous transition to the gaseous
phase at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation.
• For example, the gradual drying of damp clothes is caused by the evaporation of water to water
vapour.

Factors Affecting Evaporation

• Temperature: The rate of evaporation increases with an increase in temperature.
• Surface area: The rate of evaporation increases with an increase in surface area.
• Humidity: The rate of evaporation decreases with an increase in humidity.
• Wind speed: The rate of evaporation increases with an increase in wind speed.

Cooling Due to Evaporation

During evaporation, the particles of a liquid absorb energy from the surroundings to overcome the inter-particle
forces of attraction and undergo phase change. The absorption of heat from the surrounding makes the
surroundings cool.
For example, sweating cools down our body.

Applications:
• To keep water cool, it is kept in earthenware containers. Similar to the pores in cotton fabric, the pores in
the earthen pot’s surface area allow for more evaporation.
• To keep our bodies cool, we sweat a lot. Evaporation is what transpiration ultimately is. Our body’s water
evaporates, using energy in the process and lowering our body temperature as a result.
• We dress in cotton during the summer. Since cotton is a powerful water absorbent, it allows more
perspiration to come into touch with the air, promoting more evaporation. We have a cooling effect when
wearing cotton clothing because of this.

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 Class 9th

CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER - 02
IS MATTER AROUND US PURE

Matter

Pure substance Impure substance (Mixture)

Elements Compounds Homogeneous Heterogeneous

cannot be broke have fixed uniform non-uniform
into simpler composition can composition composition
substances be broken down
into elements
E.g. copper, E.g. water, sugar, E.g. sugar + HO,
2 E.g. sand + sugar,
oxygen, hydrogen salt, etc. water + alcohol. water + oil,.

Elements
It is a pure substance which cannot be split into two or more simpler substances.

Metals Metalloids Non-metals

malleable, shows some non-malleable,
ductile, good properties of metals non-ductile
conductors of heat and some of non-metals bad conductors of heat
E.g., copper, gold, E.g., silicon, boron, E.g., sulphur, oxygen
iron arsenic

Compounds
The compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements combined chemically in a definite ratio.

Characteristics:
• The properties of compound differ from those of its constituents.
• Compound has fixed melting point and boiling point.
• Constituent elements can be separated by chemical process.

Mixtures
It is made up of two or more elements or compounds mixed in any ratio/proportion.

Properties:
• The properties of constituent substances are retained.
• No new compound is formed.
• Elements can be separated by simple physical processes.
• It does not have a fixed melting and boiling point.

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A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
Properties
• Its particles are too tiny and have a diameter of less than 1 nm.
• The particles are not visible to the naked eyes.
• Particles do not scatter a beam of light passing through them and hence do not show the Tyndall effect.
• The solute particles never settle down on keeping undisturbed.
• The components of a solution cannot be separated using filtration.

TYPES OF SOLUTION

Aqueous solution Non-aqueous solution True solution

A solution in which A solution in which Solute particles completely
water is a solvent. water is not a solvent. dissolve in solvent and are not
E.g., salt + water E.g., sulphur + carbon visible. E.g., sugar + water
disulphide.
Solution can be dilute or concentrated Saturated solution
(Depending on the A solution in which no more
amount of solute solute can dissolve at given
dissolving in solvent). temperature
Unsaturated solution
A solution in which more
solute can dissolve at a
given temperature.
Alloys:
Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals or a metal and a non-metal and cannot be separated into their components
by physical methods. But still, an alloy is considered as a mixture because it shows the properties of its constituents
and can have variable composition. For example, brass is a mixture of approximately 30% zinc and 70% copper.
The concentration of a solution is the amount (mass or volume) of solute present in a given amount (mass or
volume) of solution.
(i) Mass by mass percentage of a solution
Mass of solute
= 100
Mass of solution
(ii) Mass by volume percentage of a solution
Mass of solute
= 100
Volume of solution
(iii) Volume by volume percentage of a solution
Volume of solute
= 100
Volume of solution

Solubility and its factors affecting:

The amount of the solute present in the saturated solution at a given temperature is called its solubility.
• Temperature – Solubility of solid in liquid generally increases with temperature but for gases it decreases.
• Pressure – For the majority of solid and liquid solutes, pressure does not affect solubility. The solubility of gas is
directly proportional to the pressure of this gas.

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Suspension and Its Properties
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but remain suspended
throughout the bulk of the medium. Example: Chalk or wheat in water etc.
• The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left undisturbed.
• They can be separated from the mixture by filtration.
• A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
• The size of solute particles in a suspension is quite large. It is larger than 100 mm in diameter.
• The particles of a suspension can be seen easily.
• The particles of a suspension do not pass through a filter paper. So a suspension can be separated by filtration.

Colloidal solution and its properties

Colloid solution is heterogeneous mixture in which the size of particles lies between the true solutions and
suspensions.

Dispersed Phase
The solute-like component of the dispersed particles in a colloid form the dispersed phase.

Dispersion Medium
The component in which the dispersed phase is suspended is known as the dispersing medium.
• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture.
• The size of particles of a colloid is too small to be individually seen by naked eyes.
• Colloids are big enough to scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path visible.
• They do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a colloid is quite stable.
• They cannot be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration. But, a special technique of separation known
as centrifugation (perform activity 2.5), can be used to separate the colloidal particles.

Tyndall effect is the scattering of light by particles in a colloid or else particles in a very fine suspension.
Separation of Components of a Mixture
• Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their constituents by simple physical methods.
• Methods include handpicking, sieving, and filtration.

Separation of a Mixture of Two Immiscible Liquids

• The separation of a mixture of two immiscible liquids is done by using a separating funnel.
• Applications: To separate a mixture of oil and water in the extraction of iron from its ore.
Immiscible liquids break out into layers according to their densities, which is the basic idea behind the separation
of immiscible liquids using a separating funnel.

Centrifugation:
The principle is that the denser particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter particles stay at the top when spun
rapidly.
• The mixture is rotated rapidly so that the heavier particles in the mixtures settle down to the bottom.

Evaporation:
Process of evaporation is used to obtain coloured components from blue/black ink. The process of evaporation is
used to separate a substance which is dissolved in water.
• It is based on the fact that liquid vaporises easily than the solid.
• Helps in separating volatile substances from non-volatile substances.
• Used in diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.

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Separating two immiscible liquids
• The separation of separating two immiscible liquid is carried out by the use of funnel.
• The basic principle involve is the difference between the densities of two liquids form two separate layers.

Chromatography
• Used to separate those solutes which dissolve in the same solvent.
• Used for separation of colours.
• The colours which are more soluble in water rises faster and get colours get separated into layers.
• Ammonium chloride, camphor, naphthalene and anthracene are some examples which can sublime.

Distillation
• Used for separation of components of a mixture containing two miscible liquids that boil without decomposition
and have sufficient difference in their boiling points.
• Mixture of acetone and water is separated by this method.

Fractional distillation
• Fractional distillation is used to separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids for which the difference in
boiling points is less than 25 K.
• Air is a homogeneous mixture and can be separated into its components by fractional distillation.
• The air is compressed by increasing the pressure and is then cooled by decreasing the temperature to get liquid air.
• The liquid air is warm-up slowly in a fractional distillation column, where gases get separated at different heights
depending upon their boiling points.

Crystallization
• Used to remove impurities from solid and purify it.
• It separates a pure solid from mixture in the form of crystals.
• It is better method than evaporation because:
(i) Solids decompose or some, like sugar, may get charred on heating to dryness.
(ii)Some impurities may remain dissolved in the solution even after filtration. On evaporation these contaminate
the solid.

Physical and Chemical changes

• The process which brings about changes in physical properties and no new substances are formed are physical
changes. The common physical changes are changes in colour, hardness, rigidity, fluidity, density, melting point,
boiling point etc.
• The process in which new substances are formed and chemical properties of substances get changed are chemical
changes. Some chemical properties are odour, inflammability etc.

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 CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER - 03
ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Laws of Chemical Combination:
1. Law of conservation of mass (Antoine Lavoisier)
The law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor be destroyed in a chemical reaction.
The law of conservation of mass means that in a chemical reaction, the total mass of products is equal to the total
mass of reactants. There is no change in the mass during a chemical reaction.
Suppose a chemical reaction takes place between substances A and B and if the products formed are C and D as:

If ‘a’ g of A and ‘b’ g of B react to produce ‘c’ g if C and ‘d’ g of D. Then according to law of conservation of
mass, we have
a + b = c + d.

2. Law of constant proportions (Joseph L. Proust.)

“In a chemical substance, the elements are always present in definite proportions by their mass”. The chemical
composition of pure substance is not dependent on the source from which it is obtained.

3. Dalton’s atomic theory

● All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms, which participate in chemical reactions.
● Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
● Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties.
● Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.
● Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.
● The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.

4. Atom: Atoms are defined as “the basic building blocks of matter”.

Atomic radius is measured in nanometre.
1nm = 10-9m

5. Dalton’s atomic symbols:

Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbols for elements in a very specific sense.

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6. Berzelius’s atomic symbols:
Berzelius uses first one or two letters of the element’s name in English. The first letter of a symbol is always written
as a capital letter (uppercase) and the second letter as a small letter (lowercase).
For example: (i) hydrogen, H (ii) aluminium, Al and not AL (iii) cobalt, Co and not CO.

7. Atomic mass unit (amu): One atomic mass unit is the mass equal to exactly one-twelfth (1/12th) of the mass of
one atom of carbon-12.

8. Molecules: A molecule can be defined as the smallest particle of an element or a compound that is capable of an
independent existence and shows all the properties of that substance. For example diatomic molecule, O2 and
triatomic molecule,O3. Atoms of different elements join together in definite proportions to form molecules of
compounds.

9. Molecular mass: The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule
of the substance.
For example:
The molecular mass of H2O
= 2 × 1u + 1 × 16u
= 18 u

10. Atomicity: The number of atoms constituting a molecule is known as its atomicity.
Phosphorus (P4) – Tetra-atomic
Sulphur (S8) – Polyatomic

11. Ion: An ion can be a negatively or positively charged particle. A negatively charged ion is called an ‘anion’ and the
positively charged ion is called a ‘cation’.
For example: Na+ is a cation and Cl– is an anion

12. Polyatomic ion: A group of atoms carrying a charge is known as a polyatomic ion.

13. Chemical formula: The chemical formula of a compound is a symbolic representation of its composition.

14. Valency: The combining power (or capacity) of an element is known as its valency. Some elements show more than
one valency.

(a) Formula of hydrogen sulphide

Formula: H2S
(b) Formula for calcium oxide:

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 Here, the valencies of the two elements are the same. You may arrive at the formula Ca2O2. But we simplify
the formula as CaO.
Valency Name of ion Symbol Non-metallic Symbol Polyatomic Symbol
element ions
+ +
1. Sodium Na Hydrogen H Ammonium

Potassium K+ Hydride H– Hydroxide OH–

Silver Ag+ Chloride Cl– Nitrate

Copper (I)* Cu+ Bromide Br–

Iodide I– Hydrogen
carbonate
2. Magnesium Mg2+ Oxide O2– Carbonate

Calcium Ca2+ Sulphide S2– Sulphite

Zinc Zn2+ Sulphate

Iron (II)* Fe2+

Copper (II)* Cu2+
3. Aluminium Al3+ Nitride N3– Phosphate

Iron (III)* Fe3+

15. Formula unit mass

The formula unit mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound.
For example, sodium chloride has a formula unit NaCl. Its formula unit mass can be calculated as:
23u + 35.5u = 58.5u

16. Mole concept

Mole is the Latin word meaning heap or pile. The SI unit of the amount of a substance is mole.
One mole contains exactly 6.02214076 × 1023 elementary entities. The number, 6.022 × 1023 is known as
Avogadro’s constant (NA).

1. The number of moles

2. The number of moles

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The number of particles in each of the following:
(i) 46 g of sodium
(ii) 8 g O2 of oxygen

(i) The number of atoms

Na atoms.

(ii) The number of molecules

Atomic mass of oxygen = 16g

∴ Molar mass of O2 molecules
= 16 × 2 = 32 g

⇒ N = 1.5055 × 1023
1.51×1023 molecules of O2

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 CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER - 04
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
1. Atom
An atom is the smallest particle of matter. The existence of different kinds of matter is due to different atoms
constituting them. Many scientists contributed in revealing the presence of charged particles in an atom.

2. Structure of atom
Dalton’s atomic theory suggested that the atom was indivisible and indestructible. But the discovery of two
fundamental particles (electrons and protons) inside the atom, led to the failure of this aspect of Dalton’s atomic
theory.

3. Sub-Atomic Particles
∙ Electron: Electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson in cathode ray experiment, Electron contains negative charge,
it is represented by symbol e–.
∙ Proton: Proton was discovered in anode ray experiment. Anode rays are also called positive rays or canal rays.
Proton was discovered by E. Goldstein. It is represented by symbol p.
∙ Neutron: Neutron was discovered by James Chadwick. It is a neutral particle. It is represented by symbol n.

4. Models of atom
4.1 Thomson’s model of atom:
According to Thomoson’s model, electrons are embedded in the positively charged mass distributed uniformly
throughout the atomic sphere. The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So atom as a whole is
electrically neutral.

4.2 Rutherford’s Model of atom:

∙ According to this model all the positively charged particles are present in a small space in the center of the atom.
This small space is called nucleus. Nearly all the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
∙ The electrons revolve around the nucleus just as the planets revolve around the sun.
∙ Electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the nucleus in orbits with a very high speed to overcome the
electrostatic force of attraction due to positively charged particles (protons) present in the nucleus.

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 Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model:
∙ It is possible to have infinite number of orbits. It could not be explained by this model.
● This model could not explain the stability of the atoms. The moving electron must continuously lose energy and
fall into the nucleus. Actually, it is not the case.

4.3 Bohr’s model of atom:

∙ Only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons are allowed inside the atom.

∙ While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy. These orbits are called energy levels. Orbits
or shells are represented by K, L, M, N or the numbers, n = 1, 2, 3, 4…. .

Bohr’s Model
5. Neutrons
In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another subatomic particle which had no charge and a mass nearly equal to that of
a proton. It was eventually named as neutron. Neutrons are present in the nucleus of all atoms, except hydrogen.

6. Distribution of electrons in different orbits:

∙ Maximum number of electrons present in a orbit or shell is given by 2n2 (n = shell number)

∙ The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the outermost orbit is 8.

∙ Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell unless the inner shells are completely filled.

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7. Valency: The combining power (or capacity) of an element is known as its valency. The outermost shell or orbit of
our atom is known as the valence shell. The electrons present in outermost shell of an atom are knows as valence
electrons.

8. Atomic number (Z):

It is the number of protons present in an atom, which determines its atomic number. It is denoted by ‘Z’
9. Mass number (A):
It is equal to the sum of protons and neutrons.

10. Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with same atomic number but a different mass number, are called isotopes. Isotopes

have same chemical properties but different physical properties. For example:

10. Applications of isotopes:

∙ An isotope of Uranium used as fuel.

∙ An isotope of Cobalt is used in the treatment of cancer

∙ An isotope of Iodine is used in the treatment of goiter.

11. Isobars
Atoms of different elements with same mass number but different atomic numbers are called isobars. For example:

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