MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDINGS

Matter:
Matter is the material that makes up everything in the world, like
the things around us. It's what takes up space, has weight, and
pushes back when we touch it.
Matter is made up of tiny particles which are very small.

States of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas

Characteristics of Particles:
1.Continuous Motion: Particles of matter are continuously moving i.e.,
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they possess kinetic energy. As the temperature rises, particles moves
faster because kinetic energy of the particles increases.
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Gases> Liquids> Solids

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2.Particles of matter exhibit spaces between them:

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When we dissolve salt in water, the particles of salt get into the spaces
between particles of water. Which depicts that there is enough space in
between the particles.
Gases> Liquids> Solids

3.Attraction between particles: Particles of matter exert attractive

forces on each other. For instance, this is why a stream of water stays
together when we attempt to break it with our fingers.
Solids> Liquids> Gases
 SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES

Particles are very closely Particles are loosely Particles are very loosely
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packed packed packed

Have definite shape and Don’t have definite shape Neither have definite
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volume but definite volume shape nor volume

Inter particle forces are Inter particle forces are Inter particle forces are
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large. intermediate. negligible.

Particle motion is
Particle motion is very Particle motion is very
4 restricted to vibratory
slow. rapid and also random.
motion.

Have high density and can’t Density is lower then Density is least and can
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be diffused solids and can diffuse
10 easily diffused
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a, b and c show the magnified

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schematic pictures of the three

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states of matter. The motion of the

particles can be seen and compared
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in the three states of matter.

Change of State of Matter:

Water can exist in three states of matter i.e., solid - ice, liquid -
water, gas - water vapour.
On heating ice melts into water and then converts into water vapours.

Change in the physical state of matter can be done in two ways :

(A) By Changing the Temperature:
(i) Melting Point: The temperature at which a solid melts to form liquid
at atmospheric pressure is called its melting point. Melting point of ice is
273.16 K (0°C). During melting the temperature of ice does not rise even
though heat is being supplied continuously because of latent heat of fusion.
This latent heat of fusion is used up to overcome the forces of attraction
between ice particles. At 0° C energy of water particles is much more than the
energy of particles of ice at 0°C.
Latent Heat of Fusion: The amount of heat required to change 1kg solid
to its liquid state (at its melting point) at atmospheric pressure.
(ii) Boiling Point: The temperature at which a liquid boils to form vapours at
atmospheric pressure is called its boiling point. Boiling point of water is 373 K
(100°C +273 = 373 K).
Latent Heat of Vapourization: The amount of heat required to change 1
kg liquid to its gaseous state (at its boiling point) at atmospheric pressure.
During boiling the temperature of water does not rise even though heat is
being supplied continuously as this heat of vapourization is used up to
overcome the forces of attraction between water particles.

At 100°C, energy of water vapours is much more than the energy of water at
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100°C. So, we can change one state of matter to another state by changing
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temperature.
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At 25°C. Water is liquid.

At 0°C, Water is solid (ice).
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At 100°C, water is gaseous state (steam).

(iii) Sublimation : The change of solid directly into vapours on heating and of
vapours into solid on cooling without passing through the intervening liquid
state is called sublimation.

Example: When camphor or ammonium chloride

is heated in a China dish covered by a inverted
funnel (with cotton plug in its upper open end),
the vapours of ammonium chloride are
converted into solid ammonium chloride on
coming in contact with the cold inner walls of
the funnel.

Sublimation of Ammonium Chloride

(B) Effect of Change of Pressure:
If we compress a gas in a cylinder, the distance between the particles of gas
is reduced and finally gas is liquefied on lowering temperature.

By applying pressure, particles of matter can be brought close together.

By applying high pressure, the particles of a gas can be brought close

together:
Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) is changed into carbon dioxide gas directly
without changing into liquid when pressure is reduced to one atmospheric
pressure.
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Thus, states of matter i.e., solid, liquid and gas are determined by
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temperature & pressure.

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Interconversion of Three States of Matter

Evaporation: A surface phenomenon in which liquid changes into vapours at

any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation. Particles on the
surface of a liquid have higher kinetic energy than others, so they break the
forces of attraction between the particles & escape from the surface of
liquid in the form of vapours.
Factors affecting evaporation:
(a) Exposed surface area: On increasing surface area of liquid, rate of
evaporation increase.
(b) Increase in temperature: Increases kinetic energy of particles hence
rate of evaporation increases.
(c) Humidity: When the humidity of air (degree of dampness of air) is low,
evaporation rate is increased. More humidity, less evaporation.
(d) Wind: When wind speed increases, rate of evaporation also increases.

Evaporation always causes cooling: The cooling caused by evaporation is

based on the fact that when a liquid evaporates, it takes latent heat of
vaporization from surroundings which on losing heat get cooled.
Example: When we put acetone on our hand, it gets vapourized by taking heat
from our hand and our hand feels cool.

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 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

Matter

Pure Substances Impure Substances

Substance :
A substance is a kind of matter that cannot be separated into other
kind of matter by any physical process.

Pure Substance :
A pure substance is a form of matter that has a definite
composition and distinct properties. They are made of only one
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entity.
e.g. Milk, water, diamond, etc.
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Mixture :
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Mixtures are combinations of different substances, either elements

or compounds, which retain their individual properties.
e.g. Crude Oil, Seawater, etc.

Types of mixtures :-

Homogeneous mixture : A mixture which has a uniform composition

throughout is called a homogeneous mixture or solution.
Examples: sugar in water, salt in water.

Heterogeneous mixture : A mixture which contains physically distinct

parts and has a non-uniform composition is called a heterogeneous
mixture.
Examples: Mixture of salt and iron filings, sand and sugar.
Solution : A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
substances. e.g. Soda water, Lemonade, etc.
Components of a Solution:
Solute: The substance that is dissolved in the solvent. It is
present in a lesser amount.
Solvent: The substance in which the solute is dissolved. It is
present in a greater amount.

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Concentration of Solution :
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Mass by mass percentage

Mass by volume percentage

Volume by volume percentage of a solution

 SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES

Size of solute particles

Size of solute particles is bigger than true but Size of particles biggest.
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smallest. < 10 -9m smaller than suspension. > 10 m
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In between 10 to 10 m.
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Solute particles can’t be Solute particles can’t be Can be seen with

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seen with naked eye. seen with naked eye. eye.

Seems homogeneous but

3 Homogeneous mixture. Heterogeneous mixture.
actually heterogeneous.

Particles can’t be separated Particles can’t be Can be separated by

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by filtration . separated by filtration . filtration.

5 Transparent Translucent
10 Opaque

Stable solutions - i.e. solute Unstable solution-solute

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6 particles do not settle on Stable solutions particles settle upon

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keeping. keeping.
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May or may not show

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7 Do not show tyndall effect. Show tyndall effect. tyndall effect.

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Colloid particles pass Suspension particles do

Solutions diffuse rapidly
through filter paper but not pass through filter
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not through parchment paper as well as
as parchment paper.
paper. parchhment paper.

9 e.g. Sugar in water. e.g. Milk, blood. e.g. Sand/mud in water.

Common examples of colloids :

Dispersed Phase : The solute-like component of the dispersed
particles in a colloid form the dispersed phase.
Dispersion Medium : The component in which the dispersed phase is
suspended is known as the dispersing medium.
Aerosol : A colloidal solution with dispersed phase solid/liquid and
dispersing medium gas is called Aerosol. e.g. clouds.
Foam : A colloidal solution with dispersed phase gas and dispersing
medium solid/liquid is called Foam. e.g.Shaving cream.

Methods of Separation of Mixtures :

Evaporation :
The process of conversion of water into water vapour is known as evaporation.
Examples: Clothes drying in the sun, Tea and other hot liquids are cooled down,
Dry Floors, Ice cubes melting.
It can be used to separate the volatile component (solvent) from its non-
volatile solute.

Centrifugation :
Centrifugation uses centrifugal force for the separation of two liquids in a
mixture.
Here, a denser component of the mixture migrates away from the axis,
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and a lighter component migrates towards the axis.
Applications
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Used for blood and urine tests in diagnostic facilities.

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Used to separate butter from cream in dairies and at home.

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Utilised washing machines to extract water from drenched clothing.

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By Separating Funnel :
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Two immiscible liquids (which do not dissolve in each other) can be easily
separated by putting in a separating funnel.
Example : Water from oil can be separated by first opening the stop cock
till water is removed in one beaker, then afterwards oil can be collected in
a separate beaker.
Applications:
Separation of oil from water
Extraction of iron from its ore. Lighter slag is removed from above the
molten iron.

Sublimation :
Sublimation is the transition of a substance
from solid phase to gaseous phase without
changing into liquid phase.
Example: Naphthalene balls undergo sublimation.
Sublimation of Ammonium Chloride
Chromotography :
Chromatography is used to separate the different components in a liquid
mixture.
Coloured components of a mixture can be separated by using an Adsorbent
on which they are absorbed at different rates.
It is based on the different properties of compounds in two phases:
stationary and mobile phase.

Applications :
The technique of chromatography is extensively employed in the
pharmaceutical industry in order to analyze and identify the presence of
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any trace amounts of chemicals and elements in a given sample.
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In the food industry, the technique of chromatography plays a vital role in

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the determination of the shelf life of food substances by helping in the

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analysis of the point at which food spoils.

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In the field of molecular biology, the study of proteomics and

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metabolomics often involves the use of various hyphenated

chromatographic techniques.
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Distillation :
Distillation is a method for separating the component substances from a
liquid mixture by selective evaporation and condensation.
Used in: Production of gasoline, distilled water, xylene, alcohol, paraffin,
kerosene etc.
Fraction distillation :
It is the separation of a mixture into its component parts or fractions by
their melting points.

This is the process of separation of chemical compounds by their boiling point

The mixture is heated to a temperature at which one or more fractions will
vapourize.

Crystallisation :
To remove impurities from a mixture by first dissolving in a suitable
solvent and then crystallising out one component.
Crystallisation is better than evaporation because during Evaporation.
Some solids decompose or some, like sugar, may get charred on heating to
dryness. Some impurities may remain dissolved in the solution even after
filtration which on evaporation contaminates the solid.
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Physical Vs Chemical change

Difference between Mixture and Compound:

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 Atoms and molecules

Laws of Chemical combination

Law of Conservation of Mass - Mass can neither be created nor be
destroyed.
Law of Constant properties - In an chemical substance. the
elements are always present in definite proportions by mass.

Dalton‘s atomic theory

Atomos are:
Tiny particle
Indivisible
Identical mass and chemical properties
Different mass and chemical properties
Combine in the same ratio
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What is atom?
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The smallest particle of an element.

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Each atom shows all the properties of the element.

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Atomic radius is measured in nanometers.

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1/10 = 1 nm
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1m = 10 nm

IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) approves

names of elements, symbols, and units.
For example - Hydrogen(H), Aluminum(Al), Sodium(Na), etc.

Some elements have symbols according to the first letter of the name
and a letter appearing later in the name. E.g., Chlorine (Cl), Zinc(Zn), etc.

Other symbols have been taken from the names of elements in Latin,
German or Greek. E.g., Symbol of Iron is Fe from it Latin name Ferrum
and symbol of potassium is K from Kalium.
Atomic mass
Mass of an atom equals to 1/12 of mass of C-12 atom.

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How do Atoms exist?
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Atoms form of most elements is not able to exist independently.

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Atoms form molecules and ions.

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What is a molecule?
Group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together, that
is tightly held together by attractive forces.
E.g., A molecule of oxygen consists of two atoms of oxygen and hence it
is known as a diatomic molecule, O2 .
The number of atoms constituting a molecule is known as its atomicity.
Helium is monoatomic, Ozone(O3 )is triatomic, Phosphorus (P4 ) is
tetratomic.

Molecules of compounds
Atoms of different elements join together in definite proportions to
form molecules of compounds.
 Combining
Compound Ratio by mass
elements

Water (H2O) Hydrogen, Oxygen 1:8

Ammonia (NH3) Nitrogen, Oxygen 14:3

Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon, Oxygen 3:8

What is an ion?
Compounds composed of metals and non-metals contain charged species.
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The charged species are of two types:
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Anion - Negatively charged ion

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Cation - Positively charged ion

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Chemical formulae
Symbolic representation of the composition of a compound.

Characteristics of chemical formulae:

The valencies or charges on ion must balance.
When a compound is formed of metal and non-metal, symbol of
metals comes first. E.g., CaO, NaCl, CuO.
When polyatomic ions are used, the ions are enclosed in brackets
before writing to show that ratio. E.g., Ca(OH) 2, (NH 4) 2SO 4

Examples:

H 2S 1 or H2S (Hydrogensulphide)
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C2O4 or CO2 (Carbon dioxide)

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Chemical formulae

For ions:

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Molecular mass
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The sum of atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of that

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substance. E.g., Molecular mass of H2O = 2 x Atomic mass of Hydrogen

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+ 1 x Atomic mass of Oxygen.

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Formal unit mass

The sum of the atomic mass of ions and atoms present in formula for a
compound.
In NaCl, N = 23 amu, Cl = 35.5 amu
So, Formal unit mass = 1 x 23 + 1 x 35.5 = 59.5 u

Molar mass
The molar mass of a substance is the mass of 1 mole of that
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substance. It is equal to the 6.022 x 10 atoms of that
element/substance.

E.g., Atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 and its molar mass is 1 g/mol

Mole concept
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A group of 6.022 x 10 particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) of a
substance is called a mole of that substance.

Important formulae

i. Number of moles (n) = Given mass/Molar mass = m/M

ii. Number of moles (n) = Given number of particles/Avogadro’s

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number = N/No
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iii. Percentage of any atom in given compound =

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(Mass of element x 100)/Mass of compound

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 Structure of Atom

Atoms and molecules are the fundamental building block of matter.

Discovery of electrons (Cathode ray - JJ Thomson)

J. J. Thomson, in 1897, discovered negatively charged particles emitted
by the cathode towards the anode in a cathode ray experiment. These are
negatively charged.
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Charge on electron =
Mass of electron =
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Discovery of Protons (Anode rays - E. Goldstein)

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Ernest Goldstein, in 1886, discovered that with a different condition in

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the same chamber, anode emitted positively charged particles known as

Canal rays or later named as Protons.
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Charge on electron =
Mass of electron =

Discovery of Neutrons ( J. Chadwick)

J. Chadwick bombarded lighter elements like lithium, boron, etc. with
alpha particles and observed emission of new particles having zero charge
but having mass equal to that of proton.
These particles are called ‘Neutron’ i.e. neutral particle of the atom.

Neutrons are absent in Protium isotope of hydrogen Atom.

Thomson Model of an atom (Watermelon model)
Thomson predicted the presence of electrons inside positive sphere
(made up of protons), just same as seeds of watermelon are embedded in
red edible part of watermelon.

Rutherford‘s atomic model

In his famous “Alpha ray scattering Experiment”, Rutherford bombarded
alpha rays upon thin gold foil.
Observations:
Most Alpha particles passed through gold foil undeflected.
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Some of the alpha(α) particles are deflected by foil by small angles.
One out of every 12000 particles appeared to rebound.
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Conclusions:
Most of the space inside is empty because alpha particles passed
through the gold foil.
Very few particles deflected indicating positive charge occupies very
little space in an atom.
As a very small fraction of particles were reflected by an angle of
180 degrees, it indicates positive charges were concentrated in small
volume within the atoms.
Rutherford’s nuclear model of an atom
There is a positively charged center in an atom called the nucleus and
the nucleus resides almost all the mass of an atom.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined orbits.
The size of the nucleus is very small compared to that of atoms.

Drawbacks of the Rutherford model

Orbital Revolution will not be stable as particles in a circular orbit would
undergo acceleration and during this particles may radiate energy leading
to loss of energy and finally they fall into the nucleus of the atom.

Bohr’s model of the atom

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It says that:
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Only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons are

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allowed inside the atom.

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While revolving in discrete orbits, the electrons do not radiate

energy.
Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom only when an electron
moves from one orbit to another.

Electron distribution in different orbits:

Electrons are distributed into different orbits as suggested by Bohr &
Bury.

Rules for writing the number of electrons in different energy levels:

The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the
formula 2n .
2

Here ‘n’ is the orbit number or energy level.

The maximum number of electrons that can be present in the
outermost orbit is 8.
 Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell unless the inner
shells are filled with electrons.

Valency
Total electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known
as the valence electrons and we also know that the total number of
electrons can not be more than 8.
Valency gives the combining capacity of an atom so if the outermost
shell has 8 electrons the combining capacity or valency is zero.

Combining capacity
The tendency of an atom to react with another atom of the same or
different element to form a molecule.
It is to attend a filled outermost shell i.e., 8 electrons, and achieve a
stable octet.
The number of electrons gained, lost, or shared from the outermost
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shell gives directly the combining capacity of that element.
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When the number of electrons is less in the outermost shell, then the
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valency is written as 1,2,3,4.

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If the number of electrons is close to 8 i.e., 5,6,7,8, then the valency

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is determined in the opposite direction (like valency is 1 for 7

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electrons and 0 for 8 electrons).

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Atomic number(Z)
The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number.
For Hydrogen, Z = 1
Carbon, Z = 6

Atomic mass(M)
The sum of protons and neutrons in an atom is called the mass number.

Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Three atomic species protium, deuterium, and tritium have the same
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atomic number as 1 but their mass number are 1,2,3 respectively.
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Isobars
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Different elements have the same atomic mass but different atomic
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numbers.
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Like Calcium with Z = 20 and Argon with Z = 18 have the same mass
number 40
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 FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE: CELL
Cell:
It is known as the structural and fundamental unit of life because it
is the basic building unit of an organism and is capable to perform
basic functions of all living organisms.
Cytology is the scientific study dedicated to understanding the
structure and composition of cells.
In 1665, Robert Hooke first observed cells in a thin slice of cork,
marking the beginning of our understanding of cellular existence.
A. V. Leeuwenhoek, in 1674, made the groundbreaking discovery of
the first free-living cell.
Protoplasm, the essential substance within cells, comprises water,
ions, salts, organic molecules, cell organelles, and a nucleus, existing
in sol-gel states. 10
Discovery of Living Cell Anton Van Leeuwenhock (1674)
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Discovery of Nucleus Robert Brown (1831)

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Discovery of Protoplasm J. E. Purkinje (1839)

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Cell Theory:
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The cell theory was given by Schleiden and Schwann, in 1838 which
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states that:
1. All living things are made up of cells.
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living
organisms.
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells through the process of cell
division.

onion peel cell

Types of Cells and Organisms

On basis of number of cells:

On the basis of number of cells, organisms are divided into two
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On the basis of type of organizational cells:

1. Prokaryotic Cells
2. Eukaryotic Cells
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Cell Shape
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Cells exhibit diverse shapes and sizes, influenced by their specific

functions and locations within an organism. While some cells are typically
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spherical, such as in a general context, others take on distinct forms like

elongated nerve cells, branched pigmented cells, discoidal red blood cells,
or spindle-shaped muscle cells. The variability in cell shape is a reflection
of their specialized roles and adaptations in different tissues.

Different shapes of cells: 1. Circular

2. Filamentous or spiral
3. Branched
4. Disc
 Different shapes of cells

Sizes of Cells:
Cells range significantly in size. The smallest, like bacteria and certain
blood cells, are mere micrometers. Conversely, nerve cells can be over a
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meter long, showcasing extremes in cellular dimensions within the
intricate tapestry of life.
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1. Smallest Cells:
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Bacteria: About 0.2 to 2 micrometers in diameter.

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Mycoplasma: One of the smallest bacteria, around 0.2

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micrometers.
2. Largest Cells:
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Bird Egg Cells: Ostrich egg cells can be around 170 millimeters in
diameter.
Nerve Cells: Nerve cells, or neurons, can extend over a meter in
length.

Components of Cell
Cells are complex structures with various components that work together
to maintain life. The three basic components of cells are:
1. Plasma membrane
2. Nucleus
3. Cytoplasm
Plasma Membrane
1. The plasma membrane, also known as the cell membrane or plasma
lemma, is selectively permeable, regulating the entry and exit of
substances in and out of the cell.
2. Serving as the cell's outer boundary, it separates the cytoplasm from
the external environment and is a key feature in both plant and animal
cells.
3. In animals, it forms the outermost covering, while in plants, it lies
beneath the cell wall.
4. According to the fluid mosaic model proposed by Singer and Nicholson,
the plasma membrane is a dynamic structure comprising proteins and
lipids arranged in a bilayer, with proteins interspersed between the lipid
layers.
5. This lipid-protein composition grants flexibility to the membrane,
allowing it to be folded, broken, and reunited, contributing to its
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adaptability in various cellular activities.
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Functions of Plasma Membrane

1. The plasma membrane regulates the passage of substances, allowing
some to enter or exit the cell while restricting others, thus maintaining
internal balance.
2. Proteins embedded in the membrane facilitate communication between
cells by receiving and transmitting signals.
3. The membrane provides structural integrity to the cell, defining its
shape and acting as a protective barrier against the external
environment.
Transportation of molecules across plasma membrane in cell
The transportation of molecules across the plasma membrane is crucial
for the proper functioning of cells. This can be done in following ways:

Diffusion: Molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an

area of lower concentration. This process doesn't require energy.
Osmosis: This is a specific type of diffusion involving water
molecules. The solvent moves across the semipermeable membrane to
equalize concentration on both sides.

Endosmosis: Endosmosis refers to the movement of water into a cell or a

cell compartment.
Exosmosis: Exosmosis, on the other hand, describes the movement of
water out of a cell or a cell compartment.
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Types of solutions on the basis of concentration
1. Isotonic Solution:
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Description: An isotonic solution has the same concentration of

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solutes as the cell's cytoplasm.

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Effect on Cell: In an isotonic solution, there is no net movement

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of water. Cells maintain their shape and size because the water
moves in and out at an equal rate. Animal cells, for example, are
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often best suited to isotonic environments.

2. Hypotonic Solution:
Description: A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of
solutes than the cell's cytoplasm.
Effect on Cell: Water moves into the cell, causing it to swell. In
plant cells, this can lead to turgor pressure, making cell rigid. In
animal cells, excessive swelling can lead to cell lysis, or bursting.
3. Hypertonic Solution:
Description: A hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of
solutes than the cell's cytoplasm.
Effect on Cell: Water moves out of the cell, causing it to shrink.
In plant cells, this can lead to plasmolysis, where the cell
membrane pulls away from the cell wall. In animal cells, excessive
shrinking can lead to cell crenation.
Cell Wall
1. The outermost protective layer of plant cells and fungal cells is known
as the cell wall, distinguishing them from animal cells which lack this
structure.
2. The cell wall is a sturdy, rigid, and thick layer that is porous and non-
living. In plant cells, it consists mainly of cellulose and hemicelluloses,
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while in fungi, it is primarily composed of chitin.
3. The connection between the cell walls of two adjacent cells is
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facilitated by a layer called the middle lamellae. Additionally, microscopic

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channels known as plasmodesmata allow the transport of substances

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between these connected cells.

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Functions of Cell Wall

1. The primary role of the cell wall is to provide structural support and
rigidity to the cell. It helps maintain the shape of the cell and prevents it
from collapsing.
2. The porous nature of the cell wall allows for the controlled movement
of water, ions, and other molecules.
3. It enables plants to stand upright and withstand various external
pressures, such as wind and gravity.
Nucleus
The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that serves as the control
center of eukaryotic cells, containing genetic material in the form of
DNA.
It is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope,
which has nuclear pores that allow the exchange of materials between
the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
The genetic material within the nucleus consists of chromosomes,
which carry the instructions for cellular processes and inheritance.
The nucleolus, located within the nucleus, is responsible for the
synthesis of ribosomal RNA and the assembly of ribosomes.
The nucleus regulates cellular activities by controlling gene
expression, determining which genes are transcribed into RNA for
protein synthesis.
During cell division, the nucleus undergoes a process called mitosis,
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ensuring that each daughter cell receives a complete and identical set
of genetic information.
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The organization and function of the nucleus play a crucial role in the
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overall growth, development, and maintenance of the cell and, by

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extension, the entire organism.

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Functions of Nucleus
1. It control all the metabolic activities of the cell and regulate the cell
cycle.
2. It help in transmission of hereditary characters from parent to their
offsprings.
Cytoplasm
1. Cytoplasm is the gel-like substance that fills the entire cell and
surrounds its organelles, creating a semi-fluid environment.
2. It serves as the medium for various cellular activities, including
metabolic reactions, protein synthesis, and transportation of molecules
within the cell.

It can be divided into two parts:

1. Cytosol: Aqueous soluble part contain various fibrous proteins forming
cytoskeleton. It contain about 90% water, 7% Protein 2% carbohydrates
& 1% etc.
2. Cell organelles: Living part of the cells having definite shape,
structure and function bounded by plasma membrane. There are single
membrane bound, double membrane bound and non membrane bound Cell
organelles. 10
Endoplasmic Reticulum
&

Network of membranes throughout the cell

9

Acts as an intracellular highway

B

Facilitates transport of proteins and lipids within the cell

U
PH

It is of two types:
EX

Functions of ER
1.The rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is involved in the synthesis of
proteins. Ribosomes on its surface aid in the production of proteins that
may be secreted from the cell or incorporated into cell membranes.
2. The ER acts as an intracellular highway, facilitating the transport of
proteins and lipids to different parts of the cell, ensuring their proper
delivery to specific cellular locations.
3. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is responsible for lipid
synthesis, contributing to the production of lipids and steroids.
Additionally, it plays a role in detoxifying drugs and poisons in the cell.

Golgi Apparatus

10
The Golgi apparatus is made up of a network of membrane-enclosed
&

vesicles, arranged in stacks known as cisternae. These stacks run parallel

9

to each other and include large, spherical vesicles. The structure was
B

first identified by Camillo Golgi. Notably, it is not present in prokaryotic

U
PH

cells, mammalian red blood cells (RBCs), and sieve cells.

EX

Functions of Golgi Apparatus

1. Golgi packages and modifies proteins for transport within or outside
the cell.
2. It attaches carbohydrates to proteins, influencing their function and
recognition.
3. Golgi directs proteins to specific cell locations, packaging them into
vesicles.
4. It contributes to the creation of lysosomes, aiding in cellular waste
breakdown.
5. Golgi processes lipids, preparing them for various cellular roles.

Mitochondria
1. Mitochondria, often referred to as the 'Power House of the Cell' or
the 'Storage Battery,' exhibit a double-membrane structure. The outer
membrane contains specific proteins, and the inner membrane is
intricately folded, forming chambers known as Cristae.
2. Notably, mitochondria possess their own DNA and ribosomes. These
rod-shaped structures are present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic
cells except mammalian red blood cells and are absent in prokaryotes.
3. The first observation of mitochondria was made by Kolliker in insect
cells in the year 1880.

10
&
9

Functions of mitochondria
B

1. Mitochondria generate energy (ATP) through cellular respiration,

U
PH

converting nutrients into a form usable by the cell.

2. They play a key role in various metabolic processes, including the
EX

breakdown of fatty acids and amino acids.

3. Mitochondria participate in signaling pathways that regulate cell
growth, differentiation, and death.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are cellular structures essential for protein synthesis.
Composed of RNA and proteins, they are found in the cytoplasm or
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes read messenger RNA
(mRNA) and assemble amino acids into polypeptide chains, creating
proteins vital for cell structure and function. They play a fundamental
role in the translation of genetic information from DNA to functional
proteins in all living cells.

Functions of ribosomes
1. Ribosomes translate genetic instructions from mRNA to build proteins
essential for cell structure and function.
2.They play a vital role in ongoing protein production, contributing to cell
growth, repair, and overall maintenance.

Plastids
1. Plastids are membrane-bound organelles found in plant cells,
10
responsible for crucial processes like photosynthesis. Chloroplasts, a type
of plastid, contain chlorophyll, the pigment essential for capturing light
&

energy and converting it into chemical energy.

9

2. Plastids act as storage centers for various substances, including

B

starch, lipids, and pigments. Chromoplasts, another type of plastid, store

U
PH

pigments that give fruits and flowers their vibrant colors.

EX

Types of plastids on the type of pigment present in them:

1. Chloroplast: Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll pigments, which are
essential for photosynthesis. They are primarily found in the cells of
green plant tissues. Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and converts it into
chemical energy.

2. Chromoplast: They contain various pigments such as carotenoids (e.g.,

carotenes and xanthophylls) that give fruits and flowers their
characteristic colors. They are involved in the synthesis and storage of
pigments other than chlorophyll.

3. Leucoplast: Leucoplasts are colorless and do not contain pigments like

chlorophyll or carotenoids. They are involved in the storage of starch,
lipids, or proteins.
Chloroplast
Chloroplast have two main parts:
1. Grana: Grana are stacks of thylakoid discs within chloroplasts, where
the chlorophyll pigments are located. Their function is to facilitate the
light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis by capturing and processing
light energy to generate chemical energy in the form of ATP.
2. Stroma: The stroma is the gel-like matrix within chloroplasts where
the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis takes place. Its function is to
facilitate the synthesis of glucose by providing a location for the
enzymes and molecules involved in the conversion of carbon dioxide into
carbohydrates.

10
&
9
B
U
PH

Vacuoles
EX

1. Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles found in the cells of plants,

fungi, and some protists.
2. They serve various functions, including storage of nutrients, waste
products, and pigments. Vacuoles also play a role in maintaining turgor
pressure, which contributes to the rigidity of plant cells.
3. Vacuoles store essential nutrients such as sugars, ions, and amino
acids.
4. In animal cells vacuums are absent or smaller in size. In plant cells a
single large vacuum is found which occupies about 90% of the volume of
cell.

Functions of vacuoles
1. They aid in the breakdown and storage of cellular waste, contributing
to detoxification and overall cell health.
2. They store nutrients like sugars and ions, serving as reservoirs for
essential cellular components.

Lysosome 10
1. Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles containing digestive
enzymes, typically spherical in shape.
&

2. They play a crucial role in cellular digestion, breaking down unwanted

9

materials such as damaged organelles, foreign substances, and cellular

B
U

waste.
PH

3. Lysosomes are involved in autophagy, a process where they digest and

recycle cellular components, helping to maintain cell health and remove
EX

dysfunctional structures.

Functions of Lysosome
(a) Their main function is phagy (digestion). Means they breakdown worn
(b) They are kind of waste disposal system of the cell.
(c) They help in digesting foreign materials like invading viruses and
bacteria in the cell.

Why it is called suicidal bag?

Lysosomes are often referred to as "suicidal bags" because of their role
in programmed cell death (apoptosis). During apoptosis, lysosomes release
digestive enzymes that break down cellular components, contributing to
the controlled self-destruction of the cell. This process is crucial for
eliminating damaged or unnecessary cells in a regulated manner.

Difference between Animal cell and Plant Cell

10
&
9
B
U
PH
EX

Cell Division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more
daughter cells. It is a fundamental mechanism for growth, development,
and the replacement of damaged or old cells in living organisms. Cell
division is crucial for maintaining the continuity of life and ensuring the
proper functioning of tissues and organs.

Two main types of cell divisions are:

1. Mitosis:
(a) Mitosis is the type of cell division responsible for the growth and
maintenance of somatic (body) cells.
(b) It results in the production of two genetically identical daughter
cells, each having the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
(c) Mitosis is essential for tissue repair, growth, and the replacement of
damaged or worn-out cells.
10
2. Meiosis:
(a) Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division involved in the formation
&

of gametes (sex cells - sperm and egg).

9

(b) It produces four non-identical daughter cells, each with half the
B
U

number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

PH

(c) Meiosis is crucial for sexual reproduction, introducing genetic

diversity by shuffling genetic material during the formation of gametes.
EX

Mitosis Meiosis
 TISSUES
TISSUES:
Tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure and work
together to achieve a specific function in multicellular organisms.
Tissues represent clusters of specialized cells organized in a way
that maximizes efficiency in performing a particular function.
Examples of tissues include blood, phloem, and muscle.

PLANT TISSUES ANIMAL TISSUES

1. In animal tissue, the cells do not comprise a

1. In plant tissue, the cells have a cell wall.
cell wall.

2. Some tissues are dead, while some are

2. In animals, all the tissues are living.
living. 10
3. As plants do not move so the tissues in 3. The tissues in animals need more energy
&

plants require less energy and maintenance. and maintenance due to extensive movement.
9
B

4. Growth is confined to the tips of roots and

U

4. Growth is uniform all over the body.

stems.
PH
EX

5. Tissues organization is Simple. 5. Tissues organization is Complex.

6. Less Maintenance Energy required. 6. More Maintenance Energy required.

PLANT TISSUE- Meristematic & Permanent Tissues

Meristematic Tissue (growth tissue)
These are simple living tissues consisting of thin-walled, compactly
arranged immature cells capable of division and the formation of new
cells. The main features of meristematic tissues include:.
Main features of Meristematic tissues are :
Thin primary cell wall (cellulosic).
Absence of intercellular spaces (compact tissue).
Generally, vacuoles are absent, while dense cytoplasm and prominent
nuclei are present.
Classification on the Basis of Origin
(A) Primary Meristem (Promeristem)
Derived directly from the meristems of the embryo.
Consists of cells derived from primary meristem.
Contributes to the primary growth of plants.
(B) Secondary Meristem
These cells are derived from primary permanent tissue.
They usually contribute to the diameter growth of plants.
Classification on the Basis of Location

(i) Apical Meristem

Present at the growing tips of stems and roots.
Cell division in this tissue leads to the elongation of stems and roots,
contributing to the primary growth of the plant.

(ii) Intercalary Meristem 10

Present behind the apex and aids in longitudinal growth.
This is the part of apical meristem left behind during the growth period.
&

Found at the base of the leaf and internode region, leading to an increase
9

in the length of the leaf (Primary), e.g., in grass stem, bamboo stem, mint
B

stem, etc.
U
PH

(iii) Lateral Meristem (Cambium)

EX

Also called secondary meristem.

Occurs along the side of the longitudinal axis of the plant.
Gives rise to vascular tissues.
Causes growth in the girth of the stem and root, responsible for
secondary growth by increasing the girth.

Permanent Tissue
Formed from meristematic cells that have lost their capability to divide.
The division and differentiation of the cells of meristematic tissues give
rise to permanent tissues.

PERMANENT TISSUES

Simple Permanent Tissues Complex Permanent Tissues

Simple Permanent Tissues: consists of only one type of cells.
Types of Simple Permanent Tissues:
A. Parenchyma:
Found a few layers beneath the epidermis.
Comprised of relatively unspecialized living cells with thin walls.
Loosely arranged, allowing large intercellular spaces.
Functions include food storage; chlorophyll presence leads to
chlorenchyma.
In aquatic plants, parenchyma forms aerenchyma with large air
cavities for floating.
B. Collenchyma:
Provides flexibility in plants, preventing breakage in bending parts
like tendrils.
Found below the epidermis in leaf stalks.
Living cells, elongated and irregularly thickened at corners.
Minimal intercellular space. 10
C. Sclerenchyma:
Imparts hardness and stiffness to plants.
&

Cells are dead, long, and narrow with thickened walls due to lignin.
9
B

Common in stems, around vascular bundles, veins of leaves, and hard

U

coverings of seeds.
PH

Strengthens plant parts.

EX

Various types of simple tissues: (a) Parenchyma (b) Collenchyma (c) Sclerenchyma (i) transverse section, (ii) longitudinal section.

Complex Permanent Tissues: made up of more then one type of cells.

[The vascular bundle is known as conducting vessel of a plant. The vascular bundle
consists of the xylem and phloem].
Types of Complex Permanent Tissues:
 Characteristic Xylem Phloem

Conducts organic solutes or

Conduction Conducts water and minerals
food materials

Mostly unidirectional (roots to May be bidirectional (leaves to

Direction of Flow
apical) storage organs or vice versa)

Conducting Channels Tracheids and vessels Sieve tubes

Three of four elements are Three of four elements are

dead (tracheids, vessels, living (sieve tubes, companion
Cell Vitality
fibers); only xylem cells, phloem parenchyma);
parenchyma is living phloem fibers are dead

Provides mechanical strength Performs no mechanical

Additional Function
10
to the plant function for the plant
&

Protective Tissues:
9

In plants, there are important layers that keep them safe. One is the outer
B

skin called the epidermis, which protects against things like bad weather and
U
PH

water loss. Inside, there's another layer called cork that helps with the plant's
shape. Both of these layers work together to make sure the plant stays strong
EX

and safe in its environment.

Epidermis:
The outermost shield for plant organs is the epidermis, typically formed by a
single layer of cells that are elongated and flattened, lacking intercellular
spaces. These living cells, resembling parenchyma cells internally, bear small
pores called stomata in leaves. In plants adapting to arid conditions, the
epidermis may be thicker, emphasizing the crucial role in shielding against
water loss.
Functions of Epidermis:
The primary role of the epidermis is to safeguard the plant from injuries and
infections. Additionally, the cuticle on the epidermis serves to minimize water
loss by preventing excessive evaporation and desiccation. The presence of
stomata within the epidermis facilitates gaseous exchange during both
respiration and photosynthesis, while also playing a key role in the process of
transpiration.
Cork/Phellem :
Cork cells are lifeless cells found at the outer edges of roots and stems as
they mature and expand. These cells lack spaces between them. Moreover, they
contain a substance called suberin in their walls, making them impermeable to
gases and water.

Functions of Cork
The primary role of cork in the plant body is to offer protection by shielding
plants from external injuries and infections. Additionally, it plays a crucial role
in preventing desiccation. Due to its resistance to catching fire, cork is utilized
for insulation, acting as a shock absorber and finding applications in products
like linoleum. Furthermore, cork is employed in crafting sports equipment such
as shuttlecocks, table tennis paddles, and cricket balls.

Animal Tissue:
-Animal tissue are of 4 types:
a. Muscular tissue 10
b. Nervous tissue
C. Connective tissue
&

d. Epithelial tissue
9
B

a. Muscular tissue
U
PH

Muscles are made up of long cells called muscle fibers. These cells help us
move by getting shorter and longer. Inside them, special proteins help
EX

make this happen by contracting and relaxing, causing our movements.

- Muscular tissue are of 3 types:
Smooth:
Smooth muscle cells are shaped like spindles and each has a single nucleus.
They're found in organs where movement happens automatically, like the
muscles in the stomach.
Cardiac
Heart muscles are shaped like branches and are found in the heart. They
have many nuclei and stripes. These muscles keep beating in a rhythmic
pattern throughout our life.
Straited (Skeletal)
Muscles with stripes, called striated muscles, have long, unbranched fibers.
They have many nuclei and stripes on the fibers. These muscles are found in
parts of our body where we can move voluntarily, like our hands, legs, neck,
and back.
b.Nervous Tissue:
Nervous tissue is like the body's messaging system, forming the nervous
system and made of special cells called neurons. A neuron has a body
(cyton) with a nucleus and hair-like parts called dendrites. It also has a
long part called an axon. Neurons are connected to form nerves. They're
found in the brain and spinal nerves, helping us respond to things, sending
messages from body parts, and carrying orders from the brain. Together
with muscles, they control body movements in animals.
c.Connective Tissue:
Connective tissues consist of cells embedded in a matrix, which is a
chemical substance present in solid, liquid, or jelly-like form.
- Muscular tissue are of 3 types:
Bones:
Bone cells are surrounded by a matrix made of calcium and phosphate
compounds. Bones create the framework of the body, supporting muscles
10
and enabling movement. Despite being hard and inflexible, bones contain
&

blood vessels.
9
B
U
PH
EX

Cartilages:
Soft tissues in the ear, nose, trachea, larynx, and between bone joints are
known as cartilage. Cartilage helps to make bone joints smooth. It
consists of cells spread out in a solid matrix of proteins and sugars but
doesn't have blood vessels.
Tendons:
Tendons, composed predominantly of white fibers, serve as crucial
connectors linking bones to muscles in the body's intricate framework,
facilitating the coordinated movement and support essential for various
physical activities.
Ligament:
Ligaments, comprised of both white and yellow fibers, play a vital role in
connecting bone to bone. Notably more flexible than tendons, ligaments
contribute to the overall flexibility and stability of joints within the body.
 Areolar:
Comprising cells and fibers within a matrix, areolar tissue is situated
between the skin and underlying muscles, surrounding blood vessels, nerves,
and bone marrow. This tissue is robust enough to bind various types of
tissues and maintain structure, yet soft enough to allow flexibility.
Adipose:
Adipose tissue stores fat beneath the skin and around internal organs.
Excessive amounts lead to obesity. It not only provides cushioning to internal
organs but also shapes body parts like limbs and breasts. Additionally,
adipose acts as an insulator, offering protection from the cold.
Blood:
Blood is a fluid consisting of blood cells, platelets, and plasma (a liquid
matrix). It circulates throughout the body, transporting various materials
such as gases, digested food, and waste substances.
- Blood Plasma contains two types of blood cells:
10
a. Red Blood cells (RBC)
b. White Blood Cells (WBC).
&
9

Lymph & Liquid:

B

Lymph, a whitish fluid derived from the blood, includes blood plasma,
U

white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets, but lacks red blood cells. It
PH

serves as a transport system for food materials, waste, and gases that
EX

cannot be carried by the blood.

Epithelial Tissue (Epithelium):
Epithelium, like the skin, covers and shields our entire body. It is also
present as the inner lining of the mouth, linings of blood vessels, and
covering various organs and cavities within the body. Cells in epithelial tissue
are closely packed, with no significant intercellular spaces.
Functions:
a. It serves as a protective layer for the organs it covers.
b. It maintains the separation of different organs.
c. Epithelium forms a selectively permeable layer over the body.
d. It enables the passage of certain substances while preventing others.
e. In certain cases, it functions by secreting and acting as glands.
Types of Epithelial Tissue :
1. Squamous:
Epithelial tissue is characterized by thin, flat, disc-like cells with polygonal
or irregular shapes, accompanied by round and flat nuclei. These cells form
linings in various parts of the body, such as the nose, pericardial cavity, and
blood vessels. An essential function of epithelium is to protect underlying
body parts from mechanical injuries and prevent the entry of harmful germs.
Additionally, this tissue facilitates the diffusion of gases, contributing to
vital physiological processes within the body.
2.Cuboidal:
Cuboidal tissue is characterized by cube-like cells that have almost equal
height and width. This tissue type is commonly found in various bodily
structures such as kidney tubules and salivary glands. One of its key
functions is to provide mechanical support to organs, contributing to their
structural integrity. Additionally, cuboidal cells play a vital role in absorption
and excretion processes within the body, showcasing their significance in
10
physiological functions.
&

3.Columnar:
9

Columnar tissue is characterized by tall, cylindrical cells with finger-like

B

projections at their free ends. This type of tissue is prevalent in the

U

inner surfaces of organs such as the stomach and intestine. The unique
PH

structure of columnar cells contributes to their functional roles, which

EX

include aiding in the absorption of nutrients, secretion of gastric juices,

and providing mechanical support to these vital organs. The distinctive
features of columnar tissue highlight its importance in the physiological
processes essential for maintaining the body's health and functionality.
4.Glandular Epithelium :
Glandular epithelium tissues form multicellular glands, producing various
chemicals. These glands play crucial roles in secretion processes throughout
the body, contributing to essential functions such as digestion, hormone
release, and maintaining overall physiological balance.
 MOTION
Motion - An object is said to be in motion when its position changes
with time.

Motion can be of different types depending upon the type of path by

which the object is going through :
Circulatory motion/Circular motion - In a circular path.
Linear motion - In a straight line path.
Oscillatory/Vibratory motion - To and fro path with respect to origin.

Distance :
10
The actual path or length travelled by a object during its journey
&

from its initial position to its final position is called the distance.
9

Distance is a scalar quantity which requires only magnitude but no

B

direction to explain it.

U
PH

Displacement :
EX

The shortest path travelled by a object during its journey from its
initial position to its final position
is called the displacement.
Displacement is a vector quantity
requiring both magnitude and direction
for its explanation.
Displacement can be zero.
Uniform motion : When a body travels equal distance in equal interval of time,
then the motion is said to be uniform motion.

Non-uniform motion : In this type of motion, the body will travel unequal
distances in equal intervals of time.

(i) Scalar Quantity : It is the physical quantity having own magnitude but no
direction. Example : distance, speed.
(ii) Vector Quantity : It is the physical quantity that requires both
10
magnitude but direction. Example : displacement, velocity.
&

Speed : The measurement of distance travelled by a body per unit time is

9

called speed. Its SI unit is metre (m).

B
U
PH
EX

Average Speed : Average speed is stated as the distance covered by the

object within a period of time.

Velocity : The rate of change of displacement is velocity. It is a vector

quantity. Here the direction of motion is specified.
Velocity of an object is measured in meter per second in SI unit.
Acceleration
The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration.
It is a vector quantity.
In non-uniform motion, velocity varies with time, i.e., the change in
velocity is not zero.
It is denoted by “a”.

If the velocity of an object changes from an initial value u to the final

value v in time t the acceleration a is :

10
&

This kind of motion is known as accelerated motion.

9

The acceleration is taken to be positive if it is in the direction of

B

velocity and negative when it is opposite to the direction of velocity.

U
PH

Negative acceleration is also called De-acceleration or Retardation.

The SI unit of acceleration is ms -2 .
EX

Uniform acceleration : An object is said to have a uniform acceleration

if it travels along a straight path and its velocity changes (increases or
decreases) by equal amounts in equal time intervals.
e.g. the motion of a freely falling body.

Non-uniform acceleration : An object is said to have a non-uniform

acceleration if it’s velocity changes (increases or decreases) by unequal
amounts in unequal time intervals.
e.g. if a car travelling along a straight road increases its speed by unequal
amounts in equal intervals of time, then the car is said to be moving with
non-uniform acceleration.
Graphical Representation of Motion :

Distance-Time Graph : It represents a change in position of the object

with respect to time.
Linear variation = uniform motion and non-linear variations imply non-
uniform motion
The slope gives us speed.

10
&
9

Velocity-Time Graph : Velocity-Time graphs show the change in velocity

B

with respect to time.

U

Slope gives acceleration

PH

The area under the curve gives displacement

EX

Line parallel to x-axis implies constant velocity-

Equations of Motion by Graphical Method :

Here, u = initial velocity

v = final velocity
a = uniform acceleration
s = distance travelled
t = time taken

10
&
9
B
U
PH
EX
 Force and Laws of Motion
Force:
A force is an effort that changes the state of an object at rest or
at motion. It can change an object’s direction and velocity. Force can
also change the shape of an object.

Example - opening and closing the door, pushing the table, plucking the
string of a guitar, pulling ropes while playing tug of war, etc.

Effects of force:
Force moves stationary objects.
Force stops objects from moving
Force changes the shape of a body
Force changes the direction of motion 10
Types of Forces:
&

1.Balanced Force: Particles of matter are continuously moving i.e., they

9

possess kinetic energy. As the temperature rises, particles moves

B

faster because kinetic energy of the particles increases.

U
PH

2.Unbalanced Force: Unbalanced forces acting on an object change its

EX

speed and/or direction of motion. It moves in the direction of the force

with the highest magnitude.

Laws of Motion :
Galileo Galilei : Galileo first of all said that object move with a constant
speed when no forces act on them. This means if an object is moving on
a frictionless path and no other force is acting upon it, the object would
be moving forever. That is, there is no unbalanced force working on the
object.
But practically it is not possible for any object. Because to attain the
condition of zero, unbalanced force is impossible. Force of friction, force of
air and many other forces are always acting upon an object.

Newton’s first Laws of Motion :

A body continues to be in the state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless acted upon by an external unbalanced force. The First Law is also called
the Law of Inertia.

Inertia and Mass :

Basically, all objects have a tendency to resist the change in the state of
motion or rest. This tendency is called inertia. All bodies do not have the same
inertia. Inertia depends on the mass of a body. The mass of an object is the
measure of its inertia.
More the mass → more the inertia and vice versa.
10
Inertia of Rest : An object stays at rest, and it remains at rest until an
external force affects it. Example: When a car accelerates, passengers may
&

feel as though their bodies are moving backwards. In reality, inertia is making
9

their bodies stay in place as the car moves forward.

B

Inertia of Motion : An object will continue to be in motion until a force acts on

U

it. Example: A hockey puck will continue to slide across the ice until acted upon
PH

by an outside force.
EX

Some more examples:

One's body movement to the side when a car makes a sharp turn.
Tightening of seat belts in a car when it stops quickly.
A ball rolling down a hill will continue to roll unless friction or another
force stops it.
If pulled quickly, a tablecloth can be removed from underneath of dishes.
The dishes have the tendency to remain still as long as the friction from
the movement of the tablecloth is not too great.
Shaking a bottle of ketchup. When bringing the bottom down, the suddenly
stopping it, inertia is what causes the ketchup to come out of the bottle.
Second law of Motion : It states that the rate of change of momentum of a
body is directly proportional to the applied force and takes place in the
direction in which the force acts.

Momentum (p)
Impacts produced by objects depend on their mass and velocity. The
momentum of an object is defined as the product of its mass and velocity.

An example of momentum is a baseball flying through the air and a bullet

fired from a gun.
A moving bullet has a large momentum since it has an extremely large
velocity though it carries very small mass.
A bowling ball with large mass moving very slowly with a low velocity can
have the same momentum as the base ball with the small mass which is
thrown fast and has a high velocity. 10
Momentum and Mass and Velocity:
&

Since momentum is the product of mass and velocity (p = m x v) of an

9

object. This means momentum is directly proportional to mass and velocity.

B

Momentum increases with increase of either mass or velocity of an object.

U

This means if a lighter and a higher object is moving with same velocity,
PH

then heavier object will have more momentum than the lighter one.
EX

If a small object is moving with great velocity, it has tremendous

momentum. And because of momentum, it can harm an object more
severely. For example, a small bullet having a little mass even kills a person
when it is fired from a gun.
Usually, road accidents prove more fatal because of high speed than in
slower speed. This happens because vehicles running with high speed have
greater momentum compared to a vehicle running with slower speed.

Mathematical formulation of second law of Motion :

Third Law of Motion :

Two forces acting from opposite directions are called Action and Reaction
10
forces.
For example : a ball when hits the ground (action) bounces back with a
&

certain force (reaction).

9
B
U

“When one body exerts a force on the other body, the first body experiences
PH

a force which is equal in magnitude in the opposite direction of the force

which is exerted”.
EX

Example :
The flight of the bird is an example of an action-reaction pair. The wings of
the bird push the air downwards. The air pushes the air upwards.
A swimmer pushes against the water, while the water pushes back on the
swimmer.
Lift is created by helicopters by pushing the air down, thereby creating an
upward reaction force.
Rock climbers pull their vertical rope downwards to push themselves
upwards.
Conservation and Momentum :

If the external force on a system is zero, the momentum of the system

remains constant i.e. in an isolated system, the total momentum remain
conserved.
Initial momentum = Final momentum

Suppose there are two objects A and B both objects collide with each other:

10
&
9
B
U
PH
EX
 Gravitation
Gravitation
It is the force of attraction between any two bodies. All the objects in
the universe attract each other with a certain amount of force, but in
most cases, the force is too weak to be observed due to the very large
distance of separation. Besides, gravity’s range is infinite but the effect
becomes weaker as objects move away.
Examples:
The force that causes the ball to come down is known as gravity
Gravity keeps the planets in orbit around the sun.
Gravity is the force that causes a rock to roll downhill.

10
&
9
B
U
PH

Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation

EX

Newton’s Law of gravitation states that every object in the universe

attracts every other object by a force that is directly proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
Relation between Newton’s third law of motion and Newton’s law of
gravitation:

According to Newton’s third law of motion, “Every object exerts equal and
opposite force on other object but in opposite direction.”

” According to Newton’s law of gravitation, “Every mass in the universe

attracts the every other mass.”

In case of freely falling stone and earth, stone is attracted towards earth
means earth attracts the stone but according to Newton’s third law of motion,
the stone should also attract the earth and really it is true that stone also
attracts the earth with the same force F = m × a but due to very less mass of
the stone, the acceleration (a) in its velocity is 9.8 m/s2 and acceleration (a)
of earth towards stone is 1.65 × 10-24 m/s2 which is negligible and we cannot
feel it. 10
Importance of universal law of Gravitation:
&

The force that binds us to the earth.

9

The motion of moon around the earth.

B

The motion of earth around the sun.

U

The tides due to moon in the sea.

PH
EX

Free Fall:
When an object is thrown upward, it reaches certain height, then it starts
falling down towards earth. It is because the earth‘s gravitational force
exerts on it.
This fall under the influence of earth is called ‘free fall of an object‘.
During this free fall direction do not change but velocity continuously
changes which is called acceleration due to gravity.
Its unit is same as acceleration m/s.
When an object is under free fall, acceleration due to gravity is constant
at g = 9.8ms-2.
Value of g does not depend on mass i.e. any object big or small experiences
the same acceleration due to gravity under free fall. All three equations of
motion are valid for freely falling objects as it is under uniform motion.
The sign of convention → towards earth g is positive/ away from earth g is
negative.
Gravitational Acceleration:

24 2 6 2
G = 6.673 x 10 Nm /kg , M = 6 x 10 kg, R = (6.37 x 10 ) m
-11 2 2 2

10
Then,
&
9
B
U
PH
EX

Relationship and difference between ‘G’ and ‘g’ :

G = Gravitational constant
g = Acceleration due to gravity

Difference between G and g :

Equation of motion when an object is falling freely towards earth or
thrown vertically upwards :

There are three equations of motion.

For free-falling bodies when falling with uniform accelerated motion,
these equations of motion under uniform acceleration can be applied to the
motion of freely falling bodies.
For a falling object, the acceleration due to gravity is ‘g’, so ‘a’ is replaced
with ‘g’ while the distance ‘s’ of the freely falling bodies is replaced by the
height ‘h’ of the freely falling bodies.

(a) The first equation of motion,

becomes

v = final velocity 10
u = initial velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
&

t = time taken by the body

9
B

(b) The second equation of motion,

U
PH

becomes
EX

ℎ = distance travelled by the body

t = time taken
u = initial velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity

(c)the third equation of motion,

becomes

v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
ℎ = distance travelled by the body
Mass:
It can be defined as the measure of the amount of matter in a body.
The SI unit of mass is Kilogram (kg).
The mass of a body does not change at any time.

Weight:
It is the measure of the force of gravity acting on a body.
The formula for weight is given by:

As weight is a force its SI unit is also the same as that of force, SI

unit of weight is Newton (N).
It depends on mass and the acceleration due to gravity, the mass may
not change but the acceleration due to gravity does change from
place to place.
10
The weight of an object on the Moon is 1/6 times the weight on
&

Earth.
9

Difference between Mass and Weight:

B
U
PH
EX
 Thrust and Pressure

Thrust: Force acting on an object perpendicular to the surface is called

thrust. The effect of thrust depends on the area of contact.

Pressure: Pressure is defined as the force per unit area. If a force F is

applied on a surface of area A, then the pressure P is defined as:

Unit of Pressure : N/m 2 or Pascal (Pa).

Buoyancy: The buoyant force is the upward force exerted on an object

wholly or partly immersed in a fluid. This upward force is also called
Upthrust. Due to the buoyant force, a body submerged partially or fully in a
fluid appears to lose its weight, i.e. appears to be lighter.
10
The following factors affect buoyant force:
&

the density of the fluid

9

the volume of the fluid displaced

B

the local acceleration due to gravity

U
PH

Density: The mass per unit volume is called density of an object. If M is the
EX

mass and V is the volume, then density (d) is:

Archimedes‘ Principle: “The upward buoyant force that is exerted on a

body immersed in a fluid, whether partially or fully submerged, is equal
to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the upward
direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid”.

Applications of Archimedes’ principle:

Submarine
Hot-air balloon
Hydrometer
Relative density:
The ratio of the density of a substance to that of the density of water
is called relative density.

It has no unit.

10
&
9
B
U
PH
EX
 Work and energy

Work
For doing work, energy is required.
In animals, energy is supplied by the food they eat.
In machines, energy is supplied by fuel.

Reading, writing, drawing, thinking, and analyzing are all energy-

consuming, but scientifically, no work is done in all these tasks.

Example- A man is completely exhausted in trying to push a wall, but

work done is zero as the wall is stationary.
A man standing still with a heavy suitcase may be tired soon but he
does not work in this situation as he is stationary.
10
&
9
B
U
PH

Work is said to be done when:

EX

i. a moving object comes to rest

ii. an object at rest starts moving
iii. the velocity of an object changes
iv. the shape of an object changes

Scientific conception of work is done when force is applied on a body

and when that force produces motion under its influence.

Condition of work done Moving

i. Force should be applied on the body.
ii. Body should ne displaced.
Work is done when:
A cyclist is pedaling the cycle.
A man is lifting a load in an upward or downward direction

Work is not done when:

A coolie carrying some load on his head stands stationary.
A man is applying force on a big rock.

Work is done by a fixed force

Work done in the moving of a body is equal to the product of force and
displacement of the body in the direction of force.
Work = Force x Displacement
W=FxS
Work is a scalar quantity.

10
The unit of Work is Newton metre or Joule.
When a force of 1 Newton moves a body through a distance of 1
&

metre in its direction, then the work done is known as 1 Joule.

9
B
U

1 Joule = 1 newton x 1 metre

PH

1 J = 1 Nm
EX

Whenever work is done against gravity, the amount of work done is equal
to the product of the weight of the body and the vertical distance
through which the body is lifted.

W = Weight of the body x vertical distance

W = m x g x h
where m = mass of the body
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height through which the body is lifted

The amount of work done depends on the following factors:

i. Magnitude of force: Greater the displacement, the greater the
amount of work, and vice-versa
ii. Displacement: The greater the displacement, the greater the amount
of work and vice-versa.
Negative, Positive, and Zero work
i. Work done is positive when a force acts in the direction of motion of
the body. E.g., A child pulls a toy car with string horizontally on the
ground.
ii. Work done is negative when a force acts opposite to the direction
of the body. E.g., When a moving football slows due to friction acting in
a direction opposite to the motion of the football.
iii. Work done is zero when a force acts at right angles to the
direction of motion. E.g., The moon moves around the earth in a circular
path, here the force of gravitation acts on the moon at right angles to
the direction of the moon, so work done is zero.

Energy
The capacity to do work is known as energy.

The sun is the biggest source of energy.

10
Most of the energy sources are derived from the Sun.
Some energy is received from the nucleus of atoms, the interior of
&

the earth, and the tides.

9
B
U

The amount of energy possessed by a body is equal to the amount of

PH

work it can do.

The working body loses energy, body on which work is done gains
EX

energy.

Forms of energy
Mechanical energy - The energy possessed by a body on account of its
motion or position.
Kinetic energy - The energy of a body due to its motion is called
kinetic energy. Examples-
A moving cricket ball
Running water
A moving bullet
Flowing wind
A moving car
A running athlete
A rolling stone
Flying craft
Kinetic energy formula derivation

10
Potential energy - The energy of the body due to its position or change
in shape is known as potential energy.
&
9

Examples:
B
U

i. Water kept in damn: It can rotate the turbine to generate

PH

electricity due to its position above the ground.

ii. Wound-up spring of a toy car: It possesses potential energy which
EX

is released during the unwinding of spring. So the toy car moves.

iii. Bent string of low: Potential energy due to change of its shape
(deformation) released in the form of kinetic energy while shootigmg an
arrow.

Factors affecting Potential energy

i. Mass: P.E.∝ m
ii. Height above the ground: P.E. ∝ h
iii. Change in shaping: The Greater the stretching, twisting, or bending,
the more the potential energy.

The potential energy of an object at a height

If a body of mass ‘m’ is raised to a height ‘h’ above the surface of the
earth, the gravitational pull of the earth (mxg) acts in downward
direction.
To lift the body, we have to work against the force of gravity.
Thus, Work done (W) = Force x displacement
W=mxgxh
This work is stored in the body as gravitational potential energy.
Ep = m x g x h

Transformation of Energy
The change of one form of energy to another form of energy is known as
the transformation of energy. 10
Example:
A stone at a certain height has entire energy. But when it starts
&

moving downward, the potential energy of the stone decreases as

9

height decreases but its kinetic energy goes on increasing as the

B
U

velocity of the stone goes on increasing. At the time the stone

PH

reaches the ground, potential energy becomes zero and kinetic

energy is maximum. Thus, its entire potential energy is transformed
EX

into kinetic energy.

At a hydroelectric powerhouse, the potential energy of water is
transformed into kinetic energy and then into electrical energy.
At thermal powerhouses, the chemical energy of coal is changed into
heat energy, which is further converted into kinetic energy and
electrical energy.
Plants use solar energy to make chemical energy in food by the
process of photosynthesis.

Laws of Conservation of Energy

Whenever energy changes from one form to another form, the total
amount of energy remains constant.
“Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed”.
Although some energy may be wasted during conversion, but the total
energy of the system remains the same.
Conservation of energy during free fall of a body
A ball of mass ‘m’ at a height ‘h’ has potential energy = mgh
As the ball falls downwards, height ‘h’ decreases, so the potential energy
also decreases.
Kinetic energy at ‘h’ is zero but it increases during the falling of the ball.
The sum of the potential energy & kinetic energy of the ball remains the
same at every point during its fall.

10
&
9
B
U
PH
EX

Rate of doing Work - Power

“Power is defined as the rate of energy consumption”.

where, P = Power, W = Work done, T = Time taken

Unit of Power
SI unit of Power is Watt (W) = 1 J/s
Average Power = Total work done
Total time taken

Power of Electrical gadget

The power of an electrical appliance tells us the rate at which
electrical energy is consumed by it. Here, when work is done, an equal
amount of energy is consumed.
Bigger unit of Power: Kilowatt or KW.

Commercial unit of energy: Joule is a very small unit of energy and it

is inconvenient to use it where a large quantity of energy is involved.

For commercial purposes, a bigger unit of energy is Kilowatt hour

(KWh).

1KWh: 1 KWh is the amount of energy consumed when an electric

10
appliance having a power rating of 1 Kilowatt is used for 1 hour.
&
9
B
U
PH
EX
 SOUND
Sound:
A sound is a form of energy which produces
a sensation of hearing in our ears.
It is produced due to vibrations of
different objects.
It travels in the form of waves.

Production of Sound:
Sound is produced by the vibrations of objects.
Vibrations create compressions and rarefactions in the surrounding
air, leading to the formation of a sound wave.
The energy required to make an object vibrate and produce sound is
provided by some outside source (like our hand, wind etc.).
10
Examples:-
&

Sound of our voice is produced by the vibration of two vocal cords in

9

our throat.
B

Sound of a drum or tabla is produced by vibration of its membrane

U

when struck.
PH
EX

Sound can be produced by following methods:

By vibrating string (sitar)
By vibrating air (flute)
By vibrating membrane (tabla, drum)
By vibrating plates (bicycle bell)
By friction
By scratching or scrubbing the objects etc.
Propagation of Sound
The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is
called a medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas. Air is the most
common medium for sound propagation.
A wave is a disturbance that moves through a medium when the
particles of the medium set neighbouring particles into motion.
Sound waves are characterised by the motion of particles in the
medium and are called mechanical waves.

When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and compresses

the air in front of it creating a region of high pressure. This region
is called a compression (C).This compression starts to move away
from the vibrating object.
When the vibrating object moves backwards, it creates a region of
low pressure called rarefaction (R).
10
&
9
B
U
PH
EX

Sound needs medium for propagation:

It needs material medium for propagation like air, water, steel, etc.
It cannot travel in vacuum.

Experiment to show that sound needs a medium:

An electric bell is suspended in airtight
bell jar connected with vacuum pump.
This shows that presence of medium is
necessary for propagation of sound waves.
Sound waves as longitudinal Waves:
The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called
a medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas. Air is the most common
medium for sound propagation.
When longitudinal waves travel through any given medium, they also
include compressions and rarefactions.

Transverse Waves: A transverse wave is produced when the particles of

the medium oscillate in a direction which is perpendicular to the direction
of the propagation of the wave. The particles in a transverse wave
oscillate in an up and down motion.
For Example, light waves are transverse in nature.

10
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9
B
U
PH
EX

Characteristics of Sound Waves:

Wavelength (λ): The distance between two consecutive compressions or

refractions is called Wavelength.
SI unit: metre (m)

Frequency (f): The number of oscillations per unit time is called the
Frequency of a Wave (Number of compressions + the number of
refractions per unit time)
SI unit: Hertz (Hz)

Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of the particle of the medium

from their original undisturbed position is called amplitude of the wave.
SI unit: metre (m).
Time period (T): The time taken between two consecutive compressions
or refractions to cross a fixed point is called Time Period of the Wave.
In other words, the time taken for one complete oscillation through a
medium is called a Time Period.
SI unit: second (s)

Relationship between Frequency and Time period: f = 1/T

10
&
9

Pitch: Pitch of a sound depends upon:

B

1. the frequency of the sound

U

2. size of the object producing the sound

PH

3. type of the object producing the sound

EX

Timbre: The timbre or quality of sound is a characteristic with which

we can differentiate between different sounds even if they have same
pitch and amplitude.

Loudness: It depends on the amplitude of the sound wave.

Two sounds with same intensity can vary in loudness only because we can
detect one sound easier than the other.
Velocity: The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called
velocity of the wave.
SI unit: metre per second (m/s).

This is the wave equation.

Speed of Sound in Various Mediums:

Sound cannot travel at the same speed in different mediums. The
speed of sound in a medium is affected by three things:
10
The density of the medium. For instance, speed of sound is the
&

maximum through solids.

9

The temperature of the medium. As the temperature increases, the

B

sound propagates easily.

U

Humidity in the air also affects the travel of sound. As the humidity
PH

increases, so does the propagation of sound.

EX

Sonic Boom:
When an object travels in the air with a speed greater than that of
the sound, it produces a sound with high energy.
These objects exert a large amount of pressure on the air which
causes the production of shock waves in the air. These shock waves
produce extremely large and loud sound waves which are called Sonic
booms.

Some aircrafts, bullets, rockets etc. have ‘supersonic speed’.

This energy is loud enough that it can break glasses or damage the
buildings. The sound produced is similar to the sound of an explosion
or thunderclap.
Reflection of Sound
Like light, sound also bounces back when it falls on a hard surface. It is
called reflection of sound. The laws of reflection of light are also
applicable to reflection of sound.
i. The incident sound wave, the reflected sound wave and normal at the
point of incidence lie in the same plane.
ii. Angle of reflection of sound is always equal to the angle of incidence
of sound.

10
Echo
&

The repetition of sound caused by the reflection of sound waves is

9

called an echo e.g. Clapping or shouting near a tall building or mountain.

B
U

To hear a distinct echo sound, the time interval between the original
PH

and reflected sound must be at least 0.1s, as sound persists in our

EX

brain for about 0.1s.

The minimum distance for obstruction or reflective surface to hear
an echo should be 17.2 m.
Rolling of thunder is due to multiple reflection of sound of thunder
from a number of reflecting surfaces such as clouds and the earth.

Reverberation
The persistence of sound in a big hall due to repeated or multiple
reflections of sound from the walls, ceiling and floor of the hall is
called reverberation.
If its too long, sound becomes blurred, distorted and confusing.

To reduce reverberation in big halls, heavy curtains are put on doors

and windows, carpets are put on the floor and seats are made of
sound absorbing material.
Application of reflection of sound
i. Megaphone, loudspeakers, bulb horns, etc. are designed to send sound
in a particular direction without spreading all around. All these have
funnel tube which reflects sound waves repeatedly towards audience.
ii. Stethoscope - It is a medical instrument used for listening the sounds
produced in human body mainly in heart and lungs. The sound of
heartbeats reaches the doctor’s ears by the multiple reflection of the
sound waves.
iii. Sound board - In big halls, a curved board(cause multiple reflections)
is placed behind the speakers so that his speech can be heard easily by
audiences.
iv. The ceiling of concert halls are made curved, so that the sound after
reflection from ceiling reaches all the parts of the hall.

Range of hearing
i. Range of hearing in human is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
10
Children younger than 5 years and dogs can hear upto 25 KHz.
&

ii. The sounds of frequencies lower than 20 Hz are known as ‘infrasonic

9

sounds’.
B

A vibrating simple pendulum produces infrasonic sounds.

U

Rhinoceroses communicate with each other using frequencies as low

PH

as 5 Hz.
EX

Elephants and Whales produce infrasonic sounds.

Earthquake produce infrasonic waves which some animals can hear
and get disturbed.
iii. The sounds of frequencies higher the 20 KHz are known as
‘ultrasonic’ waves.
Dogs, dolphins, bats, and rats can hear ultrasonic sounds.
Bats and rats can produce ultrasonic sounds.

Hearing Aid
It is battery operated electronic device used by persons who are hard
of hearing. Microphone convert sound into electrical signals, the those
are amplified by amplifier. Amplified signals are send to the speaker of
hearing aid. The speaker converts the amplified signal to sound and
sends to ear for clear hearing.
Application of ultrasound
i. It is used to detect cracks in metal blocks in industries without
damaging them.
ii. It is used in industries to clean ‘hard to reach’ parts of objects such
as spiral tubes, odd shaped machines.
iii. It is used to investing the internal organs of human body such as
liver, gall bladder, kidneys, uterus and heart.
iv. Echocardiography: These waves are used to reflect the action of
heart and its images are formed.
v. Ultrasonography: The technique of obtaining pictures of internal
organs of the body by using echoes of ultrasound waves.
vi. Ultrasound is used to split tiny stones in kidneys into fine grains,
which then get flushed out with time.

Sonar (Sound navigation and ranging)

SONAR is a device which is used to find distance, direction and speed
10
of underwater objects.
&

How does it work?

9

SONAR consists of a transmitter and a receptor or detector that is

B

installed at the bottom of a ship.

U

The transmitter produces and transmits ultrasonic waves.

PH

These waves travel through water and after striking the objects on
EX

the bottom of sea, are reflected back and received by detector.

These reflected waves are converted into electric signals by
detector.
The sonar device measures the time taken by ultrasound waves to
travel from ship to bottom of sea and back to ship.

Uses of SONAR
The sonar is used to find the depth of sea, to locate underwater hills,
valleys, submarines, icebergs and sunken ships etc.
Structure of Human Ear:
The ear consists of three parts : outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.
The ears are the sense organs which help us in hearing sound.

Pinna - The outer part of the ear that gathers sound from the
environment.
Auditory Canal - Sound collected from the surroundings passes through
the Auditory Canal.
Eardrum or Tympanic Membrane - It is located at the end of the
auditory canal.
The Middle Ear - It consists of three bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup).
These bones amplify the vibrations produced by the eardrum. These
vibrations are then passed onto the inner ear by the middle ear.
The lower part of middle ear has a narrow ‘Eustachian tube’.
Cochlea - It is located in the inner ear. It converts the vibrations into
electrical signals which are then carried to the brain by the auditory
10
nerve.
&

Working of Human Ear:

9

When compression of sound wave strike

B

the ear drum, the pressure on the

U

outside of ear drum increases and pushes

PH

the ear drum inwards.

EX

While during refraction ear drum moves

outwards. Thus, ear drum starts vibrating
back and forth.
These vibrations are increased by three bones and middle ear transmits
these amplified pressure variations received from sound waves to inner
ear.
In the inner ear the pressure variations are turned into electric signals
by the cochlea.
These electric signals are sent to the brain via auditory nerve and the
brain interprets them as sound.

Sound wave >> Pinna >> Ear canal >> Vibrate ear drum >> Hammer
>> Anvil >> Oval window >> Cochlea >> Auditory nerve >> Brain
(which interprets these electrical impulses as sound and we get the
sense of hearing).
 Improvement in Food resources
All living organisms need food to survive.
Food supplies proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and
minerals, which we require for body development, growth and
health.
The need for food is increasing with the rapidly increasing
population of India.
We need sustainable agricultural practices and animal husbandry
as it is important to increase food production without degrading
the environment.
Crop season
Different crops require different climate conditions temperatures and
photoperiods for their growth and completion of their life cycle.
10
The crops grown in the rainy season (the kharif season, from
&

June to October) are called kharif crops.

9

Example: Paddy, soybean, pigeon pea, maize, cotton, green

B

gram and black gram are kharif crops.

U
PH

The crops which are grown in winter season (the rabi season,
EX

from November to April) are called rabi crops.

Practice of farming involve 3 stages

Choosing the seeds to be planted
Different nutrition techniques
Protection of the growing and harvested crops from loss
A. Crop variety improvement
It can be done by the following factors:
Good and healthy seeds.
Hybridization (the process of crossing between two or more
genetically dissimilar plants to produce a new variety with good
properties of both crops)

Factors for which variety improvement is done:

Higher yield: To increase the productivity of the crop per acre.
Improved quality: The quality of crops varies from crop to crop.
Biotic and abiotic resistance: Biotic factors are diseases, insects,
and nematodes while abiotic factors are drought, salinity,
waterlogging, heat, cold, and frost which affect crop productivity.
Varieties resistant to these factors (stresses) can be improved to
increase crop production.
Wider adaptability: It allows the crops to be grown under different
10
climatic conditions in different areas
&

Desirable agronomic characteristics: Crops that contain desired

9

agronomic traits (height, branching, leafs), set high production.

B

Change in maturity duration: Shorter the duration of the crop from

U

sowing to harvesting, the more economical is the variety.

PH
EX

B. Crop production improvement

It involves different practices carried out by farmers to achieve higher
standards of crop production.
These practices are:
1. Nutrient management
Like other organisms, plants also require some elements called nutrients
for their growth.
Manure
It is a source of organic matter.
It supplies small quantities of nutrients to the soil.
It is prepared by the decomposition of animal excreta and plant
waste.
Various forms of manures:
a. Compost: Farm waste material such as livestock excreta (cow dung
etc.), vegetable waste, animal refuse, domestic waste, sewage waste,
straw, eradicated weeds, etc.
b. Vermicompost: The compost that is made by the decomposition of
plant and animal waste with the help of earthworms worms is called
vermicompost.
c. Green manure: Before sowing the crop seeds, some plants like sun
hemp or guar are grown and then mulched by plowing them into the soil.
These green plants thus turn into green manure which helps in enriching
the soil in nitrogen and phosphorus.
10
&

Fertilizers
9

Fertilizers are commercially produced plant nutrients. Fertilizers supply

B

nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. They are used to ensure good

U

vegetative growth (leaves, branches, and flowers), giving rise to healthy

PH

plants.
EX

2. Irrigation
Ensuring that the crop gets water at the right stages during their
growing season, can increase the expected yield of a crop.
Water for irrigation is used from different sources that are Wells,
canals, rivers and tanks.
Wells
There are two types of wells namely dug wells and tube wells.
Dug wells collect water from water-bearing strata whereas tube wells
can trap water from the deeper strata.

Canals

Canals receive water from one or more reservoirs or rivers.

River lift system

Water is directly taken from rivers through pumps. This system is useful
for irrigation in areas close to rivers.

Tanks
These are small storage reservoirs.
10
Rainwater harvesting
&

It is an accumulation of water in tanks for later use. This also prevents

9

soil erosion.
B
U

3. Cropping patterns
PH

It includes different ways of growing crops to get the maximum benefit.

These different ways include the following:
EX

Mixed cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same

piece of land, for example, wheat + gram, wheat + mustard, or groundnut
+ sunflower. This reduces disease risk and gives some insurance against
the failure of one of the crops.

Inter-cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same

field in a definite pattern. A few rows of one crop alternate with a few
rows of a second crop, for example, soybean + maize.
The crops are selected such that their nutrient requirements are
different.
This ensures maximum utilization of the nutrients supplied and also
prevents pests and diseases from spreading to all the plants
belonging to one crop in a field.
Mixed cropping: Growing of different crops on a piece of land in a pre-
planned succession is known as crop rotation.
Depending upon the duration, crop rotation is done for different crop
combinations.
The availability of moisture and irrigation facilities decide the choice
of the crop to be cultivated after one harvest.
If crop rotation is done properly then two or three crops can be
grown in a year with a good harvest.

C. Crop protection improvement

Field crops are infected by many weeds, insects, pests, and diseases.

a. Pest control during growth: If weeds and pests are not controlled at
the appropriate time, then they can damage the crop so much that most
of the crop is lost.
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Weeds: Unwanted plants in the cultivated field. They take up
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nutrients and reduce the growth of the crop.

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Insects: Insects can harm plants by cutting the root, stem, and, leaf.
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They also suck cell sap from various parts of the plant.
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Pathogens: Organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses diseases in

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plants in plants are called pathogens.

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b. Storage of grains: For getting seasonal food throughout the year,

they are stored in safe storage. However, during the storage of grains,
they can be destroyed and wasted by various means.
Biotic problem: Due to living organisms like insects, birds, mites,
bacteria, and fungi.
Abiotic problem: Due to non-living factors such as moisture,
inappropriate temperature, etc.

Organic farming
A farming system with minimal or no use of chemicals as fertilizers,
herbicides, pesticides, etc., and with a maximum input of organic
manures, recycled farm wastes, use of bio-agents such as neem leaves or
turmeric specifically in grain storage as bio-pesticides with healthy
cropping systems
Animal husbandry
It is the scientific management of domestic animals efficiently to obtain
food and other useful products from them.

Cattle farming: The purpose of cattle farming is:

For getting milk

Ploughing fields
Bull cart for transportation

Types of cattle:
Cow (Bos indicus)
Buffalo (Bubalus)
Milch animals: Milk-producing animals(female)
Draught animals: Animals that do not produce milk and are used for
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Lactation periods - The period of milk production between the birth of a
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young one and the next pregnancy is called the lactation period.
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The lactation period can be increased by Cross-breeding.

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Care of cattle:
a. Cleanliness
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Roofed shelter with good ventilation for protection from rain, heat,
and cold.
Regular brushing of the skin of cattle.
Sloping floor for shelter to avoid water-logging.

b. Food
Roughage mainly containing fiber.
Concentrates containing proteins.
Food containing micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) for enhanced
milk production.

Diseases: They can cause death and reduce milk production.

Parasites are small organisms living inside or outside the body of
another organism.
They derive food from body of host.
 External parasites on the skin of cattle cause skin diseases.
Internal parasites like worms cause stomach and intestine problems
and flukes cause liver problems.

Poultry farming
It is done for eggs and meat. They both provide protein to our diet.
Broilers: Birds grown for obtaining meat. They can be used after 6-8
weeks from their birth.
Layers: Birds grown for obtaining eggs. They can be used after 20 weeks
when sexual maturity has been attempted to lay eggs.

Most of the broilers and layers are cross-breed.

Reasons for cross-breeding:
More and better quality chicks.
Low maintenance.
Breeding is done to produce dwarf broilers (meat-giving birds).
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Feeding costs are the biggest expense in poultry farms and as dwarf
boilers need less food it can reduce cost by 30%.
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Management practices in Poultry farms:

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Maintenance of temperature and hygienic conditions in housing and

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poultry feed.
Prevention and control of diseases and pests.
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Proper diet
Proving adequate space for birds.

Fish production
Fish production is a great source of protein in our diet.
Fishes can be obtained in two ways:
1. Finfish/True fish production: Production and management of
cartilaginous and bony fishes such as pomphret, tuna, cod, catla,
prawns, rohu, etc.
2. Shelf fish production: Production of shellfish such as prawns, and
mollusks.

Depending on the mode of obtaining fish, fishing is of two types:

1. Capture fishing: Naturally living fishes in various water bodies are
captured.
 2. Culture fishing: Fishes of the desired variety are cultivated in
confined areas with utmost care to get maximum yield. This is also called
aquaculture. It can be done in oceans, rivers, lakes, ponds, etc.
When it is done in oceans, it is called mariculture.

Marine fishing
It includes fish production in ponds, rivers, and reservoirs.
Popular marine fishes include Pomphret, Tuna, Sardines, and Bombay
duck.
Some costly fish are found in the sea like mullets, seaweed, mussels,
and oysters.
Using satellites regions of high fish populations in the sea can be
found.

Inland fishing
It includes fish production in freshwater (ponds, lakes, rivers) and
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brackish water (e.g., estuaries)
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Composite fish culture

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5-6 varieties in a single fishpond.

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They are selected so that they do not compete for food.

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They should have different food requirements.

For example:
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Catla: feeds in the upper part of the water.

Rohu: feeds in the middle part of the water.
Mrigals: Feeds at bottom.

Advantages: more yield

Problems: Many fish lay eggs during monsoons only, due to which number
of fishes will not grow fast. So hormonal stimulation is used. Using this
fish can be made to reproduce at any time.

Bee-keeping
Practice keeping, caring, and management of honeybees on a large
scale for obtaining honey and wax.
Many farmers use bee-keeping for additional small income.
Also there are big farms called apiaries/bee farms.
 Some common Indian varieties of bees include apis carana indica
(Indian bee), dorsata (rock bee), and floral (little bee).
One Italian variety mellifera is also used in India for commercial 
large-scale production because of its following advantages:
a. High honey collection capacity.
b. They sting less.
c. They reproduce fast.
d. They stay in a beehive for long.

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