Department of CHEMISTRY

Unit-I

Environment and Bio-diversity

Introduction
The word environment is derived from the French word ―Environ- meaning ―Surroundings. Each
and everything around us is called as Environment.

 Environment:

`It is the sum of all the living and non- living things around us influencing one another

 Environmental Science:

It is the study of the Environment, its biotic and abiotic components and

their interrelationship.

 Environmental Engineering:

It is the application of engineering principles to the protection and

enhancement of the quality of the environment and to the enhancement

and protection of public health and welfare.

 Environmental studies:

It is the process of educating the people for preserving quality environment.

Scope of Environmental studies:

 To get an awareness and sensitivity of the environment and its related

problems.

 To motivate the active participation in environmental protection and

improvement.

 To develop skills for identifying and solving Environmental problems.

 To know the necessity of conservation of natural resources.
 To evaluate the environmental problems in terms of social,

economic, ecological and aesthetic factors.

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Importance/Significance of Environmental studies:

The knowledge of environmental studies is very important, because

there is no zero pollution industries. All are contaminated by the industrial activities

and the valuable resources are polluted.

 By the environmental studies, people will understand the need of

development without destruction of environment

 Through the studies, people can gain the knowledge and different environmental

hazards.

 Through the studies, people know about their role in protecting the

environment through the laws and enforcement systems.

 Environmental studies have a direct relation to the quality of life we live.

Need for public awareness Community participation

The community participation plays a major role in the effective

environmental management.

 Pressure group

These groups influence the government and industries.

 Watch dog

The public act as watch dog to protect the environment against

the hazardous activities.

 Advisory council
The public act as advisory council to keep the environment suitable for living.

Ecosystem

A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with

environment is known as ecosystem.

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Ecology: It is the study of interactions among organisms or a group of organism

with their environment. The environment consists of both biotic and a biotic

components (eg) animals cannot synthesise their food directly but depend on the

plants directly or indirectly.

Biome small ecosystem):

Biomes are very large ecological areas on the earth surface, with flora and

fauna adapting to their environment.

Structure (or) components of an ecosystem:

The structure of an ecosystem explains the relationship between the

abiotic and biotic components.

1. A biotic (or) Non-living components

2. Biotic (or)Living components

Fig1.1 Components of an ecosystem

1. A biotic(or)Non-living components
The non–living components of the environment are called a biotic components

(i) Physical components (ii) Chemical components

They are useful for the growth and They are the sources of the essential
maintenance of the components. nutrients.

It includes energy, climate and living It includes organic and inorganic

space. substances

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(eg) air ,soil ,water etc. (eg) organic

substances-proteins,
lipids etc. Inorganic substances-P, H, C
etc.

1. Biotic (or) Living components

The living organisms in an ecosystem form their community

is called biotic components.

Classification of biotic components

1. Producers (Autotrophs)
 They synthesize their food by themselves

through photosynthesis.(eg) green plants ,trees.

 The green pigment called chlorophyll converts CO2 and H2O in the

presence of sun light into carbohydrates.

 This process is called photosynthesis.

hυ
6CO2+12H2O C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O
Chlorophyll
1. Consumers (Heterotrophs)

They cannot prepare their own food and depend directly or indirectly

on the producers. (eg) (i) Plant eating species such as insects,

rabbits, goat etc.

(ii)Animal eating species such as fish, lion ,tiger etc.

Types of consumers

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Primary consumers Secondary Consumers Tertiary Consumers

(Herbivores) (Primary carnivores) (secondary carnivores)

They depend directly on They feed on They directly depend on

plants for their food. primary secondary consumers for

consumers. Their food.

(eg) rabbit ,goat ,rat etc. (eg) frog, cat, snakes etc. (eg ) tiger ,lion etc.

Fig1.2 Biotic components of an ecosystem

2. Decomposers
 They feed the dead organisms of plants, animals and then

decompose into simpler compounds.

 During the decomposition, inorganic nutrients are released.

(eg ) bacteria and fungi
Energy flow in an ecosystem

 Energy is required for a organism for their survival.

 The main source of energy in the ecosystem is sunlight.
 The flow of energy from producer level to top consumer level is called

energy flow.

 About 80% of energy is lost during flow of energy from one trophic level to

the next one.

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Energy flow in the eco system follows two laws of thermodynamics

(i) Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can

transfer from one form to another”

hυ
6CO2+12H2O C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O

Chlorophyll
(ie) Solar energy is converted into chemical energy.

(i) “Whenever energy is transformed from one form to

another, there is some loss of energy”

Fig1.3 Energy flow in an ecosystem

 During transformation, the loss of energy is due to respiration, hunting,

running etc.

CH2O+O2 CO2+H2O

Ecological Succession

Ecological succession is defined as, ―Progressive replacement of

one community by another till the development of stable community in a

particular area”.

Stages of ecological succession

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1.Pioneer community 2.Seres (or) seral stage

The first group of organism which The various developmental

Establish their community in the area stages of the community is

is called pioneer community called seres.

Types of ecological succession:

1. Primary Succession

It involves the gradual establishment of biotic communities on a lifeless

ground.

a) Hydrarch (or) Hydrosere b) Xerarch (or) Xerosere

Establishment starts in a watery area Establishment starts in a dry

Such as pond, lake. Area such as desert ,rock.

1. Secondary Succession

It involves the gradual establishment of biotic communities in an are a

where another biotic community is already present.

(i) Nudation
It is the development of bare area with out any life form
(i) Invasion

It is the development of one or more species on a bare area

through migration followed by establishment.

a. Migration B .Establishment

The seeds are brought by wind, The seeds then germinate ,grow and
water, birds. establish its community.

(ii) Competition

As the number of individual species grows, there is a competition

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between the same species or the different species for water, space,

nutrients.

(iii) Reaction

The living organisms take water; nutrients then grow and

modify the environment known as reaction. This modification is

unsuitable for some existing species and favors for some new

species, which replace the existing species.

(iv) Stabilizations.

It leads to the formation of stable community.

Fig1.4Stagesofecologicalsuccession

Bio-Diversity

‗Bio‘ means ‗life‘ and ‗Diversity‘ means ‗variety’. Therefore Bio-

Diversity means wide variety of life on earth. Our planet earth contains more

than 20 million species of organisms. Out of which only 1.4 million species have

been identified.

Bio-Diversity is defined as‖ the variety and variability among all groups of

living organisms and the ecosystem in which they occur.”

Classification of Bio-Diversity

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1.Geneticdiversity 2.Speciesdiversity 3.communitydiversity

The diversity Diversity between The diversity at the
within the species is different species is called ecological(or)habit at level is
called genetic species Known as ecosystem
diversity. diversity. diversity.

(eg)rice varieties. (eg) Plant species – apple, (eg) River ecosystem- It

mango, grapes, wheat etc. includes fishes, aquatic insects
Animal species– ,mussels and variety of plants.
Cow ,deer, dog etc.

Significance of biodiversity
1. Biodiversity is important for human life, as we depend on plants,

animals, microorganisms for our food, medicine and industrial

products.

2. It is important for forestry, fisheries and agriculture.

Biodiversity protects the fresh air, clean water and productive land
Value (or) use of bio-diversity

1. Consumptive use value

 These are direct use values where the biodiversity products are

harvested and consumed directly.

 (eg)Food ,drug, fuel

Food A large number of wild plants and wild animals are consumed by

human beings as food.

(eg)Molluscs, spider etc.

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Drugs Around 70% of modern medicines are derived from plants and

plant extracts .In India,3,000 plant species are used in Ayurveda,

Unani and Siddha.

Penicillin Fungus Antibiotic

Streptomycin Actinimycete Antibiotic

Quinine Cinchona Malaria

bark

Reserpine Rauwolfia Hypertension

Morphine Poppy Painkiller

Fuel Fire woods are directly consumed by villagers and

tribals. (eg) Coal, petroleum, natural gases are fossilized

2. Productive use

 Biodiversity products are having commercial value.

 These products are derived from animals and plants and they are marketed

and solid

Animal products Animal Plant products Industry

Silk Silk Wood Paper andpulp
worm industry, plywood
industry
Wool Sheep cotton Textile industry
Musk Musk Fruits, Food industry
deer vegetables
Tusk Elephant Oilseed Oil industry
Leather All Rice Flour industry
animals

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1. Social value

 It refers the bio recourses are used in the society.

 These are associated with the social life, religion, spiritual aspects of the

people.

 (eg) Holy plants-Tulsi, Lotus, Bael, Neem tree.

Holy animals–Cow, snake, peacock, rat

2. Ethical value

 It means that, any species may or may not be used, but its existence

in nature gives as pleasure.

 (eg) River Ganga is a holy river. Vembu, Vengai, Tulsi are considered as holy

trees.

3. Aesthetic value

 The beautiful nature of plants and animals insists us to protect the biodiversity.

 (eg) Colour of butterfly, colour of flowers

4. Optional value

 It suggests that any species may be proved it to be a valuable

species after some day. (eg) Growing bio-technology field is

searching a species for curing cancer and AIDS.

India as a Mega Diversity Nation

India is one of the 12 mega diversity countries in the world. It has

89,450 animal species and 47,000 plant species.

Plants Number Animals Number

Fungi 23,000 Mollusca 5,042
Bacteria 850 Lower groups 9,979
Algae 2,500 Arthropoda 57,525

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Bryophytes 2,564 Amphibia 2,546

Gymnosperms 64 Birds 1,228
Pteridophytes 1,022 Reptiles 428
Angiosperms 15,000 Mammals 372
Hotspots of Bio-Diversity

The hot spots are the geographic are as which has high endemic species.

Criteria for recognizing hot spots:

1. The richness of the endemic species is the primary criterion for recognizing

hot spots.

2. The hot spots should have a significant percentage of specialized species.

3. It should contain important gene pools of plants of potentially useful plants.

Reason for rich biodiversity in the tropics:

1. The tropics have a more stable climate.

2. Warm temperature and high humidity in the tropical are as provide

favourable conditions

3. No single species can dominate and thus there is an opportunity

4. for many species to coexist.

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Fig1.5 Hot spots of Bio-Diversity

The major hot spots of India are,

(i) Eastern Himalayas: (ii)Western Ghats:

This comprises Nepal, Bhutan and The area comprises

neighbouring states of Northern India. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil

There are35,000 plant species found in Nadu and Kerala.

Himalayas.

(Eg) Rice, Banana, Citrus, Ginger, Chilli, Jute Nearly 1500 dicotyledones, 62%

and Sugarcane. amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic in

Western Ghats.

Threats to biodiversity

Any disturbance in natural ecosystem tends to reduce biodiversity.

The causes for loss of biodiversity is given as,

1. Habitat loss

The loss of populations of inter breeding organisms is caused by habitat loss.

Factors:

a.Deforestation  The loss of habitat is mainly caused by

deforestation activities.
 The forest and grass lands are converted to
agricultural lands, settlement areas, developmental
areas etc.
 This affects the natural habitat of wildlife.

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b. Destruction of  The wet lands, estuaries etc are destroyed by

wetlands draining, filling and pollution, which causes a
large biodiversity loss.

c. Habitat  Sometimes the habitat is divided into small

fragmentation and scattered patches. This is known as habitat
fragmentation.
 Due to this, many species are vanishing.
d. Production  Many pharmaceutical companies collect wild
of drugs Plant for the production of drugs.

 Therefore, many medicinal plants are on the averge of

extinction.

e. Raw materials  For a production of a single hybrid plant, we need

more than two pounds of wild plants.
f. Illegal trade  It also reduces the biodiversity.
g. Development al  The construction of massive dams in the
activities forest areas, discharge of effluent skills the
birds and other aquatic organisms.
1. Poaching

It means killing of animals (or) Commercial hunting.

Subsistence poaching Commercial poaching

Killing animals for food. Hunting and killing animals to sell their products.
Factors

a. Human population

Increased human population has led to pressure on forest resources.

b. Commercial activities

Though, there is an international ban on trading the products of

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endangered species, smuggling of wild life products continues.(e.g.)

Blue Morpho Butterfly – To make attractive

Trays in Brazil.

Snowy large egret–Its white plumes are kept in ladies

hats.

Elephant feet–To make ash trays, Baleen–To prepare

combs.

Remedies:

 Illegal hunting should be stopped immediately.

 Should not purchase the wild life products like furcoat, purseetc.
 Bio-diversity laws should be strengthened.

2. Man–wildlife conflicts

 When wild life causes damage and danger to man, Man–wildlife conflicts

arise.

 (Eg) In Orisa, Sambalpur, 195 humans were killed by elephants

in last 5 years, in retaliation, the villagers killed 98 elephants.

 Recently, 2 men were killed by leopards in Mumbai.

 In Kathmandu,16 Nepalese, one 4-year child was killed by a man eating
 tiger.

 In Mysore, several elephants were killed by due to their damage of cotton

and sugar cane crops

Factors

 Shrinkage of forest.
 Human encroachment in to the forest area.

 Injured animals have a tendency to attack man.

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Remedies:

 Adequate crop and cattle compensation schemes must be started.

Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest.

 Endangered and Endemic species

 Endangered species of India:

 A species is said to be endangered, when its number has been reduced to a

critical level. Number of threatened species of India:

Group of species Number of species

Plants 250
Birds 70
Mammals 86
molluscs 2
Reptiles 25
Amphibians 3
Fishes 3
Insects 50
The names of few species is given below,

 Reptiles–tortoise, greens eaturtle, python

 Birds–peacock, Siberian white crane, pelican, and Indian bustard
 Mammals–Indian wolf, sloth bear, golden cat, desert cat.

Red-data book:

 It is the book that contains the list of endangered species of plants and

animals.

 It gives the warning signal for those species which are endangered

and if not protected them become extinct in near future.

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Factors affecting endangered species:

1. Pollution:
 Humans dispose their waste products on land, river and air.
 These pollutants enter our environment and travel through the food

chain and accumulate in the tissues of the living things leads to death.

2. Over-Exploitation:

 Over–exploitation of natural resources and poaching of wild animals

leads to extinct of wild animals.

3. Climate change:

 Climate change threatens the organisms and .ecosystems.

Remedies:

―convention of International Trade in Endangered Species 1975‖(CITES)

treaty lists 900species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens

or wild life products.

Endemic species
The species which are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species.

1.Flora 2. Fauna

Plants present in a particular region Animals present in a particular region

(eg) Sapria, Himalayana, (eg) Monitor lizards, reticulated

Nepentheskhasiana python, Indian salamander etc.

Endemic species in India

Group of Animal/plant Number of species

Plant 878

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Insects 16214

Reptile 214

Amphibians 110

Pteridophyta 200

Angiosperms 4950
Factors affecting endemic species

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation is the first factor which affects the wildlife.

2. Pollution also plays an important role.

Conservation of biodiversity

1) In-situ conservation

It involves the protection of fauna and flora within its natural habitat,

where the species normally occurs.

Important in-situ conservation

In-situ conservation Numbers available

Biosphere reserves 7
National parks 80
Wildlife sanctuaries 492
Gene sanctuary 120
i. Biosphere reserves
 It covers large area, more than 5,000 sq.Km.
 It protects endangered species for long time.
 It serves as a site of recreation and tourism.
 It is also useful for educational and research purposes.

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Remedies:

Adequate crop and cattle compensation schemes must be started. Cropping

pattern should be changed near the forest.

(eg) Examples of Biosphere reserves of India:

Name of biosphere State

Nanda Devi UP
Manas Assam
Nilgiri Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Kerala
Nokrek Meghalaya

Fig1.6 Biosphere reserves

i. National parks

 It is an area dedicated for the conservation of wild life along with its

environment.

 It covers about 100 to 500sq.Km.

Name of National parks State Important wildlife

Kaziranga Assam One horned Rhino
Gir National Park Gujarat Indian Lion
Periyar Kerala Elephant
Sariska Rajasthan Tiger

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Role of national park:

 It is used to protect, propagate and develop the wildlife.

 It is used as tourism without affecting the environment.

ii. Wildlife sanctuaries

 It is an area which is reserved only for the conservation of animals.
 At present we have 492 wildlife sanctuaries.

Name of sanctuary State Important wildlife

Mudamalai TamilNadu Elephant, tiger, leopard

Vedanthangal Tamil Nadu Water birds

Role of wild life sanctuaries

 It protects animals and birds.

 It allows the operation such as harvesting of timber, collection of forest

products etc.

iii. Gene sanctuary

It is an area which is reserved only for the conservation of plants

 (eg) Gene sanctuary for citrus, Gene sanctuary for pitcher plant

Advantages Disadvantages
 It is very cheap and convenient method.  A large area is required.

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 The species gets adjusted to the natural  Maintenance is not proper, due to the
disaster. shortage of staff and pollution.

1) Ex-situ conservation

It involves the protection of fauna and flora outside the natural habitat.

Role of ex-situ conservation:

 It involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and

animal species under controlled conditions.

 It prefers the species which are more important to man in near future.
 It identifies the species which are at more risk of extinction.

(eg) Botanical gardens, seed banks, microbial culture collections, tissue

and cell cultures, museums, zoological gardens.

Methods:

1. NationalBureauofPlantGeneticResources(NBPGR):Itisin

Delhi,where cyropreservation technique is used.

2. National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR):it is in

Hariyana, where it preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.

3. National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR): It

is in Delhi, where the varieties of crop plants or trees are preserved.

Advantages:

 Breeding of hybrid species is possible.

 The species can survive longer.

 The quality of offspring may be improved by genetic techniques.

 Survival of endangered speciesis increased.

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Disadvantages:

 It is an expensive method.
 The freedom of wildlife is lost.
 The species can not survive in natural environment.

 It can be adapted only for few kind of species.

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UNIT II

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

2.1 Introduction

Environmental pollution may be defined as, “the unfavourable alteration of our surroundings”. It changes the quality
of air, water and land which interferes with the health of humans and other life on earth. Pollution are of different
kinds depending on the nature of pollutant generated from different sources.

Examples
Industry, automobiles, thermal power plants, farming, nuclear reactors, generate different types of pollutants causing
pollution to air, water bodies and land.

2.1.1 Types of Pollutants

1. Biodegradable pollutants:
Biodegradable pollutants decompose rapidly by natural processes.

2. Non-degradable pollutants:
Non-degradable pollutants do not decompose (or) decompose slowly in the environment.
The slowly decomposed materials are more dangerous because it is more difficult to remove them.

2.1.2 Classification of Pollution

The different kinds of pollution that affects the environment are,
(i) Air Pollution
(ii) Water Pollution
(iii) Soil Pollution and
(iv) Noise Pollution

2.2 AIR POLLUTION

Definition
Air pollution may be defined as, “the presence of one (or) more contaminants like dust, smoke, mist and odour in
the atmosphere which are injurious to human beings, plants and animals.” The rapid industrialization, fast
urbanization, rapid growth in population, drastic increase in vehicles on the roads and other activities of human
beings have disturbed the balance of natural atmosphere.

Composition of Atmospheric Air

During several billion years of chemical and biological evolution, the composition of the earth’s atmosphere has
varied. Today, about 99% of the volume of air we inhale consists of two gases: Nitrogen and Oxygen.

2.2.1 Sources of Air Pollution

The sources of air pollution are of two types
1. Natural sources
Examples:
Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, biological decay, pollen grains, marshes, radioactive materials etc.
These pollutants are caused by the natural sources.

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Table 2.1 Composition of atmospheric air

Constituents %

Nitrogen 78

Oxygen 21

Argon (Ar) <1

CO 0.037

Water vapour Remaining

O , He, NH Trace amount

2. Man-made (anthropogenic) activities

Examples:
Thermal power plants, vehicular emissions, fossil fuel burning, agricultural activities etc.,
2.2.2 Classification of Air Pollutants
Depending upon the form (origin) of pollutants present in the environment, they are classified as
1. Primary air pollutants.
2. Secondary air pollutants.

1. Primary air pollutants

Primary air pollutants are those emitted directly in the atmosphere in harmful form.

Example CO, NO, SO , etc.,

Indoor Air Pollutants

Indoor air pollutants are primary air pollutants.
The most important indoor air pollutant is radon gas.
Sources (causes) of indoor air pollutants
Radon gas is emitted from the building materials like bricks, concrete, tiles, etc., which are derived from soil containing
radium.It is also present in natural gas and ground water and is emitted indoors while using them.
Burning of fuels in the kitchen, cigarette smoke, liberates the pollutants like CO, SO , formaldehyde, BAP (benzo-(a)
pyrene).

2. Secondary air pollutants

Some of the primary air pollutants may react with one another (or) with the basic components of air to form new
pollutants. They are called as secondary air pollutants.
2.2.3 Common air pollutants sources (causes) and their effects
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 1.1 billion people live in urban areas where outdoor
air is unhealthy to breathe.
Some of the common air pollutants are described below.

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1. Carbon mono oxide(CO)

Description
It is a colourless, odourless gas that is poisonous to air-breathing animals.
It is formed during the incomplete combustion of carbon containing fuels.
2C + O2 −−−−−> 2CO

Human Sources (causes)

Cigarette smoking, incomplete burning of fossil fuels.
About 77% comes from motor vehicle exhaust.
Health Effects
Reacts with haemoglobin in red blood cells and reduces the ability of blood to bring oxygen to body cells and tissues,
which causes headaches and anemia.
At high levels it causes coma, irreversible brain cell damage and death.

Environmental Effects
It increases the globe temperature.

2.Nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 )

Description
It is a reddish-brown irritating gas that gives photochemical smog.
In the atmosphere it can be converted into nitric acid ( HNO3 ).

NO2 + Moisture −−−−−> HNO3

Human Sources (causes)
Fossil fuel burning in motor vehicles (49%) and power industrial plants (49%).

Health Effects
Lung irritation and damage.

Environmental Effects
Acid deposition of HNO3 can damage trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes, HNO3 can corrode metals and eat away
stone on buildings, statues and monuments. NO can damage fabrics.

3. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

Description
It is a colourless and irritating gas.
It is formed mostly from the combustion of sulphur containing fossil fuels such as coal and oil.
In the atmosphere it can be converted to sulphuric acid (H2SO4) which is a major component of acid deposition.
Human Sources (causes)
Coal burning in power plants (88%) and industrial processes (10%).

Health Effects
Breathing problems for healthy people.

Environmental Effects
Reduce visibility, acid deposition of H2SO4 can damage trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.

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 Department of Chemistry

4. Suspended Particulate matter (SPM)

Description
It includes variety of particles and droplets (aerosols).
They can be suspended in atmosphere for short periods to long periods.
Human Sources (causes)
Burning coal in power and industrial plants (40%), burning diesel and other fuels in vehicles (17%), agriculture,
unpaved roads, construction etc.,
Health Effects
Nose and throat irritation, lung damage, bronchitis, asthma, reproductive problems and cancer.
Environmental Effects
Reduce visibility, acid deposition of H2SO4 can damage trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.

5. Ozone (O3)
Description
Highly reactive irritating gas with an unpleasant odour that forms in the troposphere.
It is a major component of photochemical smog.
Human Sources (causes)
Chemical reaction with volatile organic compounds (emitted mostly by cars and industries) and nitrogen oxides.
Environmental Effect
Moderates the climate.

6. Photochemical smog
Description
The brownish smoke like appearance that frequently forms on clear, sunny days over large cities with significant
amounts of automobile traffic.
Sources (causes)
It is mainly due to chemical reactions among nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbon by sunlight.
Health Effects
Breathing problems, cough, eye, nose and throat irritation, heart diseases, reduces resistance to colds and
pneumonia.
Environmental Effects
Ozone can damage plants and trees. Smog can reduce visibility.

7. Lead (pb)
Description
Solid toxic metal and its compounds, emitted into the atmosphere as particulate matter.
Human Sources (causes)
Paint, smelters (metal refineries), lead manufacture, storage batteries, leaded petrol.
Health Effects
Accumulates in the body, brain and other nervous system damage and mental retardation (especially in children);
digestive and other health problems, some lead-containing chemicals cause cancer in test animals.
Environmental Effect
Can harm wild life.

8. Hydrocarbons ( aromatic and aliphatic)

Description

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 Department of Chemistry

Hydrocarbons especially lower hydrocarbons get accumulated due to the decay of vegetable matter.
Human sources (causes)
Agriculture, decay of plants, burning of wet logs.
Health Effects
Carcinogenic.
Environmental effect
It produces an oily film on the surface and do not as such causes a serious problem until they react to form
secondary pollutants.
Ethylene causes plant damage even at low concentrations.

9. Chromium (Cr)
Description
It is a solid toxic metal, emitted into the atmosphere as particulate matter.
Human Sources (causes)
Paint, smelters, chromium manufacture, chromium plating.
Health effects
Perforation of nasal septum, chrome holes, gastro intestinal ulcer, central nervous system disease and cancer.

2.2.4 Control (or) Preventive Measures of air pollution

The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational settling, flocculation,
absorption, rain washout and so on, to cleanse the atmosphere. In terms of a long range control of air pollution, control
of contaminants at their source is a more desirable and effective method through preventive (or) control technologies.

1.Source control
Since we know the substances that causes air pollution, the first approach to its control will be through source
reduction.
Some actions that can be taken in this regard are as follows:
Use only unleaded petrol.
Use petroleum products and other fuels that have low sulphur and ash content.
Reduce the number of private vehicles on the road by developing an efficient public-transport system and encouraging
people to walk (or) use cycles.
Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and places where children play are not located on busy streets.
Plant trees along busy streets because they remove particulates and carbon monoxide, and absorb noise.
Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city centre preferably downwind of the city.
Use catalytic converters to help control the emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.

II Control measures in industrial centre

The emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and every industry.
Incorporation of air pollution control equipments in the design of the plant layout must be made mandatory.
Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for the pollutants should be carried out to know the emission levels.
Equipments used to control air pollution
Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.
To ensure sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate temperature so that the combustion
is complete, eliminating much of the smoke consisting of partly burnt ashes and dust.
To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro-static precipitators, reducing particulate
pollutants..
The four figures (fig 2.1) are commonly used control methods for removing particulates from the exhaust gases of

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electric power and industrial plants.

All these methods retain hazardous materials that must be disposed of safely.
The wet scrubber can also reduce sulphur-dioxide emissions.
Chemical treatment to deal with factory fumes. The disposal of the collected air pollutants is equally important for
successful control of air pollution.

Fig. 2.1 Control methods for removing particulates from exhaust gases

2.3 WATER POLLUTION

Definition
Water pollution may be defined as, “the alteration in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water which
may cause harmful effects on humans and aquatic life.”
The pollutants include sewage, industrial chemicals and effluents, oil and other wastes.
Besides, chemicals from the air dissolved in rain water, and fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides leached from the land
also pollute water.

2.3.1 Types, effects and sources (causes) of water pollution

Water pollution is any chemical, biological (or) physical change in water quality that has a harmful effect on living
organisms (or) makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
1. Infectious Agents
Example: Bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms.
Human Sources (causes)
Human and animals wastes.
Effects
Variety of diseases.

2. Oxygen Demanding Wastes (Dissolved Oxygen)

Example: Organic wastes such as animal manure and plant debris that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxygen-
requiring) bacteria.
This degradation consumes dissolved oxygen in water.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given quantity of water at a particular pressure and
temperature.The saturated point of DO varies from 8-15 mg/lit.
Human Sources (causes)
Sewage, animal feedlots, paper mills, and food processing facilities.

Effects

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Large populations of bacteria decomposing these wastes can degrade water quality by depleting water of dissolved
oxygen.
This causes fish and other forms of oxygen-consuming aquatic life to die.

3. Inorganic Chemical
Example: Water soluble inorganic chemicals, acids, compounds of toxic metals such as lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and
selenium (Se) and salts such as NaCl in ocean water and fluorides (F−) found in some soils.
Human Sources (causes)
Surface runoff, industrial effluents and household cleansers
Effects
Can make fresh water unusable for drinking (or) irrigation.
Causes skin cancers and neck damage.
Damage the nervous system, liver and kidneys.
Harm fish and other aquatic life.
Lower crop yields.
Accelerates corrosion of metals exposed to such water.

4. Organic Chemical
Examples Oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents.
Human Sources (causes)
Industrial effluents, household cleansers, surface runoff from farms.
Effects
Can threaten human health by causing nervous system damage and some cancers.
Harm fish and wild life.

5. Plant Nutrients
Examples Water-soluble compounds containing nitrate ( NO3 ), phosphate (PO4 ) and ammonium (NH4+) ions.
Human Sources (causes)
Sewage, manure, and runoff of agricultural and urban fertilizers.
Effects
Can cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants, which die, decay, deplete dissolved oxygen in water and
kill the fish.
Drinking water with excessive levels of nitrates lower the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood and can kill urban
children and infants.

6. Sediment
Examples Soil, silt, etc.,
Human Sources (causes)
Land erosion.
Effects
Can reduce photosynthesis and cloud water.
Disrupt aquatic food webs.
Carry pesticides, bacteria, and other harmful substances.
Settle out and destroy feeding and spawning rounds of fish.
Clog and fill lakes, artificial reservoirs, stream channels and harbours.

7. Radioactive Materials
Examples Radioactive isotopes of iodine, radon, uranium, cesium, and thorium.

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Human Sources (causes)

Nuclear power plants, mining and processing of uranium and other ores, nuclear weapons production and natural
sources.
Effects
Genetic mutations, birth defects, and certain cancers.

8. Heat (Thermal Pollution)

Example Excessive heat
Human Sources (causes)
Water cooling of electric power plants and some types of industrial plants.
Almost half of all water withdrawn in United States each year is for cooling electric power plants.
Effects
Lowers dissolved oxygen levels and makes aquatic organisms more vulnerable to disease, parasites and toxic chemicals.
When a power plant first opens (or) shuts down for repair, fish and other organisms adapted to a particular temperature
range can be killed by the abrupt change in water temperature known as thermal shock.

9. Point and Non- point sources of water pollution

(i) Point Sources
Point sources are discharged pollutants at specific locations through pipes, ditches (or) sewers into bodies of surface
water.
Examples: Includes factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and oil tankers.

(ii) Non-point sources

They are usually large land areas (or) air sheds that pollute water by runoff, subsurface flow (or) deposition from the
atmosphere.
Location of which cannot be easily identified.
Examples: Include acid deposition and runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands, livestock feedlots, logged
forests, urban street, lawn, golf courses and parking lots.

2.3.2 Characteristics (or) Testing of river water (waste water)

1 . Dissolved oxygen (DO)
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given quantity of water at a particular pressure and
temperature.

Significance of DO
DO is vital for the support of fish and other aquatic life in river water.
It determines whether the biological changes are brought about by aerobic (or) anaerobic micro-organisms.
DO determinations serve as the means of control of river pollution.
A minimum level of DO (4 mg/lit) must be maintained in rivers so as to support the aquatic life in a healthy condition.
Thus, it is necessary to ensure that the treated water must have atleast 4 mg/lit of DO before its disposal into river.

2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

BOD is the amount of oxygen required for the biological decomposition of organic matter present in the water.
Significance of BOD
It is an important indication of the amount of organic matter present in the river water.
Since complete oxidation occurs in indefinite period, the reaction period is taken as 5 days at 20°C. For all practical

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purposes, it is written as BOD .

The rate of oxidation and demand depends on the amount and type of organic matter present in river water.

3. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD is the amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation of organic matter using some oxidising agent like K2Cr2O7
and KMnO4 .
Significance of COD
It is carried out to determine the pollutional strength of river water.
It is rapid process and takes only 3 hours.

2.3.3 Control (or) Preventive measures (methods) of water pollution

The administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of State (or) Central Government.
Scientific techniques are necessary to be adopted for the environmental control of catchment areas of rivers, ponds
(or) streams.
The industrial plants should be based on recycling operations, because it will not only stop the discharge of industrial
wastes into natural water sources but by products can be extracted from the wastes.
Plants, trees and forests control pollution and they acts as natural air conditioners.
Forests in and around big cities and industrial establishments are capable of reducing the sulphur dioxide and nitric
oxide pollutants to a greater extent from the atmosphere. Hence the national goal should be “Conservation of Forests”
and campaign should be “Plant more trees”.
The global destruction of forests should be discouraged (or) atleast minimized and afforestation should be encouraged
because no one on this earth will escape from the adverse effects of a balding earth.
It is not advisable to discharge any type of waste, either treated, partially treated (or) untreated, into streams, rivers,
lakes, ponds and reservoirs. The industries are expected to develop close-loop water supply schemes and domestic
sewage may be used for irrigation.
Highly qualified and experienced persons should be consulted from time to time for effective control of water
pollution.
Public awareness regarding adverse effects of water pollution is a must. So there should be propaganda for water
pollution control on radios, TVs etc.,
Suitable laws, standards and practices should be framed to regulate the discharge of undesirable flow of water in
water bodies and such regulations should be modified from time to time in order to accommodate the changing
requirements and technological advancements.
Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.
The possible reuse (or) recycle of treated sewage effluents and industrial wastes should be emphasized and
encouraged.

2.3.4 Waste Water (or) Sewage Treatment Objectives of waste water treatment
The main objectives of waste water treatment are
to convert harmful compounds into harmless compounds.
to eliminate the offensive smell.
to remove the solid content of the sewage.
to destroy the disease producing microorganisms.
Treatment Process
The sewage (or) waste water treatment process involves the following steps.
Preliminary Treatment
In this treatment, coarse solids and suspended impurities are removed by passing the waste water through bar and
mesh screens.

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II Primary Treatment (or) Settling Process

In this treatment, greater proportion of the suspended inorganic and organic solids are removed from the liquid
sewage by settling. In order to facilitate quick settling coagulants like alum, ferrous sulphate are added.
These produce large gelatinous precipitates, which entrap finely divided organic matter and settle rapidly.

Al2(SO4) 3 + 6H2O −−−−−> 2Al(OH)3 ↓ + 3H2SO4 .

III Secondary (or) Biological Treatment

In this treatment, biodegradable organic impurities are removed by aerobic bacteria.
It removes upto 90% of the oxygen demanding wastes.
This is done by trickling filter (or) activated sludge process.

(a) Trickling filter process

It is a circular tank and is filled with either coarse (or) crushed rock. Sewage is sprayed over this bed by means of slowly
rotating arms (Fig. 2.2).
When sewage starts percolating downwards, microorganisms present in the sewage grow on the surface of filtering
media using organic material of the sewage as food.
After completion of aerobic oxidation the treated sewage is taken to the settling tank and the sludge is removed.
This process removes about 80-85% of BOD.

(b) Activated sludge process

Activated sludge is biologically active sewage and it has a large number of aerobic bacterias, which can easily oxidise
the organic impurities.
The sewage effluent from primary treatment is mixed with the required amount of activated sludge.
Then the mixture is aerated in the aeration tank (Fig. 2.3).
Under these condition, organic impurities of the sewage get oxidised rapidly by the microorganisms.
After aeration, the sewage is taken to the sedimentation tank.
Sludges settle down in this tank, called activated sludge, a portion of which is used for seeding fresh batch of the
sewage. This process removes about 90-95% of BOD.

IV Tertiary treatment
After the secondary treatment, the sewage effluent has a lower BOD (25 ppm), which can be removed by the
tertiary treatment process. In the tertiary treatment, the effluent is introduced into a flocculation tank, where lime is
added to remove phosphates. From the flocculation tank the effluent is led to ammonia stripping tower, where pH is
maintained to 11 and the NH4 is converted to gaseous NH3 . Then the effluent is allowed to pass through activated
charcoal column, where minute organic wastes are adsorbed by charcoal. Finally the effluent water is treated with

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disinfectant (chlorine).

Fig. 2.3 Activated Sludge Process

V Disposal of sludge
This is the last stage in the sewage treatment.
Sludge formed from different steps can be disposed by
dumping into low-lying areas.
burning of sludge (incineration),
dumping into the sea,
using it as low grade fertilizers.

The flow sheet diagram of sewage treatment

2.3.5 Specifications for Drinking Water

The common specifications recommended by the U.S Public Health for Drinking Water are given below.
Water should be clear and odourless.
It should be cool.
It should be pleasant to taste.
Turbidity of the water should not exceed 10 ppm.
pH of the water should be in the range of 7.0 - 8.5.
Chloride and sulphate contents should be less than 250 ppm.
Total hardness of the water should be less than 500 ppm.
Total dissolved solids should be less than 500 ppm.
Fluoride content of the water should be less than 1.5 ppm.
The water must be free from disease-producing bacteria.

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Water should be free from objectionable dissolved gases like H2S.

Water should be free from objectionable minerals such as lead, chromium, manganese and arsenic salts.

2.3.6 Water Quality Standards

Water used for drinking should have certain quality.
The following table 2.2 summarises several quality criteria and their standards for drinking water.

No. Parameter WHO standard in mgs/litre ISI standard in mgs/litre

1. Colour, odour and taste. Colourless, odourless and tasteless Colourless, odourless and tasteless

2. PH 6.9 6.9

3. Total dissolved solids 1,500 -

4. Dissolved Oxygen - 3.0

5. Chloride 250 600

6. Sulphate 400 1,000

7. Nitrate 45 -

8. Cyanide 0.2 0.01

9. Fluoride 1.5 3.0

10. Chromium 0.05 0.05

11. Lead 0.05 0.1

12. Arsenic 0.05 0.2

Significance of the parameters

1.Chlorides:
Although chlorides are not considered as harmful as such, their concentrations over 250 mg/lit impart peculiar taste
to water, which is unacceptable for drinking purposes.

2.. Sulphates:
When sulphates are present in excess amount in drinking water, they may produce a cathartic effect on the people
consuming such water.

3. Nitrates:
Excessive concentrations of nitrates are undesirable especially for infants. The maximum contaminant level for nitrate

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is 10 mg/lit.
4. Fluorides:
Prescribed in drinking water is in the range of 0.7 to 1.2 mg/lit. Low concentration of fluoride in drinking Optimum
fluoride concentrations water causes dental problem in children. Excessive concentration causes fluorosis
(discoloration and chipping of teeth).

5. Arsenic:
Arsenic is a toxic heavy metal even a very small dose can result in severe poisoning. Only 0.05 mg/lit has been
recommended for arsenic in drinking water.

2.4 SOIL POLLUTION

Definition
Soil pollution is defined as, “the contamination of soil by human and natural activities which may cause harmful effects
on living beings.”

2.4.1 Types, effects and sources (causes) of soil pollution

Soil pollution mainly results from the following sources
Industrial wastes.
Urban wastes.
Agricultural practices.
Radioactive pollutants.
Biological agents.

Table 2.3 Composition of soil

Components %

Mineral matter (inorganic) 45

Organic matter 5

Soil water 25

Soil air 25

1. Industrial wastes
Disposal of industrial wastes is the major problem for soil pollution.
Sources
The industrial pollutants are mainly discharged from the various origins such as pulp and paper mills, chemical
industries, oil refineries, sugar factories, tanneries, textiles, steel, distilleries, fertilizers, pesticides, coal and mineral
mining industries, drugs, glass, cement, petroleum and engineering industries etc.,
Effect
These pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological properties of soil.
As a result, hazardous chemicals can enter into human food chain from the soil (or) water and disturb the biochemical
process and finally lead to serious effects on living organisms.

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2. Urban wastes
Urban wastes comprises both commercial and domestic wastes consisting of dried sludge of sewage.
All the urban solid wastes are commonly referred to as refuse.

Constituents of urban refuse

This refuse contains garbage and rubbish materials like plastics, glasses, metallic cans, fibres, paper, rubbers, street
sweepings, fuel residues, leaves, containers, abandoned vehicles and other discarded manufactured products.
Urban domestic wastes though disposed off separately from the industrial wastes, can still be dangerous.
This is so because they cannot be easily degraded.

3. Agricultural practices
Modern agricultural practices pollute the soil to a large extent.
Today with the advancing agro-technology, huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, weedicides are added
to increase the crop yield.
Apart from these farm wastes, manure, slurry, debris, soil erosion containing mostly inorganic chemicals are reported
to cause soil pollution.

4. Radioactive pollutants
Radioactive substances resulting from explosions of nuclear dust and radioactive wastes (produced by nuclear testing
laboratories and industries) penetrate the soil and accumulate there by creating land pollution.

Examples
Radio nuclides of radium, thorium, uranium, isotopes of potassium (K-40) and carbon (C-14) are very common in soil,
rock, water and air.

Explosion of hydrogen weapons and cosmic radiations induce neutron, proton reactions by which nitrogen (N-15)
produces C-14. It participates in the carbon metabolism of plants which is then introduced into animals and man.
Radioactive waste contains several radio nuclides such as Strontium-90, Iodine-129, Cesium-137 and isotopes of iron
which are most injurious. Sr-90 gets deposited in bones and tissues instead of calcium.
Nuclear reactor produces waste containing Ruthenium-106, Iodine-131, Barium-140 and Lanthanum-140, Cesium-144
along with the primary nuclides Sr-90 and Cs-137 has a half life of 30 years while Sr-90 has 28 years. Rain water carries
Sr-90 and Cs-137 to be deposited on the soil where they are held firmly with the soil particles by electrostatic forces.
All these radio nuclides deposited on the soil emit gamma radiations.

5. Biological agents
Soil gets large quantities of human, animal and bird’s excreta which constitute the major source of land pollution by
biological agents.
Examples
Heavy application of manures and digested sludges could cause serious damage to plants within a few years. Because
the sludges are containing more live viruses and viable intestinal worms.
In addition to these excreta, faulty sanitation, municipal garbage, waste water and wrong methods of agricultural
practices also induce heavy soil pollution.

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Table 2.4 Major physico-chemical characteristics of untreated wastes of Organic chemical industries in Soil

S.No. Industry Physico-chemical characteristics

1. Pulp and Paper Suspended solids, high (or) low pH, colour, fibres, BOD, COD, high temperature,
fibres.

2. Rubber Industry Chlorides, suspended and dissolved solids, variable pH and high BOD.

3. Oil refineries Acids, alkalis, phenols, resinous materials and petroleum oils.

4. Antibiotics Toxic organics and high acidity (or) alkalinity.

5. Synthetic drugs High suspended and dissolved organic matter including vitamins.

6. Distillery Very high COD, low pH, high organic matter, high suspended and dissolved soli
ds containing nitrogen, high potassium.

7. Organic chemical Toxic compounds, phenols, high acidity, alkalinity.

industy

Table 2.5 Major physico-chemical characteristics of untreated wastes of Inorganic chemical industries in Soil

S.N Industry Physico-chemical characteristics

o

1. Thermal Power Heat, heavy metals, dissolved solids and inorganic compounds.
Plants

2. Steel Mills Acids, phenols, low pH, alkali, limestone, oils, fine suspended solids, cyanides, cyanates,
iron salts, ores and coke.

3. Cotton Industry Sodium, organic matter, colour, high pH and fibres.

4. Metal Plating Metallics, toxic cyanides, cadmium, chromium, zinc, copper, aluminium and low pH.

5. Iron Foundry Coal, clay, suspended solids and iron.

6. Pesticides Aromatic compounds, acidity and high organic matter.

7. Acids Low pH and organic content.

8. Tanneries Calcium, chromium, high salt content, colour, dissolved and suspended matter.

9. Explosives Alcohol, metals, TNT and organic acids.

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2.4.2 Control (or) Preventives measures of soil pollution

The pressure on intensification of farm activities increases for two reasons.
Population growth.
Decrease of the available farm land due to urbanization.

1. Control of Soil erosion

Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices.
Example
(a) Trees may be planted on barren slopes.
(b) Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting cultivation.
(c) Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken. Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical
manures by animal wastes would also help to arrest soil erosion in the long term.
Maintaining soil productivity is vital and essential for sustainable agriculture.

2. Proper dumping of unwanted materials

Excess of waste products by man and animals cause chronic disposal problem. Open dumping is most commonly
practiced method.Recently controlled tipping is followed for solid waste disposal.The surface so obtained then can be
used for housing (or) sports field.

3. Production of natural fertilizers

Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides should be avoided. Biopesticides should be used in place of toxic
chemical pesticides.
Example Organic wastes contained in animals dung can be used for preparing compost manure and biogas rather than
throwing them wastefully polluting the soil.

4. Proper Hygienic condition

People should be trained regarding the sanitary habits.
Example Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal methods.

5. Public Awareness
Informal and formal public awareness programs should be imparted to educate people on health hazards by
environmental pollution.
Example Mass media, educational institutions and voluntary agencies can achieve this.

6. Recycling and Reuse of wastes

To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper, plastics, metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and
industrial effluents etc., should be recycled and reused.
Example Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated waste treatment method should be
adopted.

7. Ban on Toxic Chemicals

Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like DDT, BHC etc., which are fatal to plants and animals.
Nuclear explosions and the improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.

2.5 NOISE POLLUTION

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Definition
Noise pollution is defined as, “the unwanted, unpleasant (or) disagreeable sound that causes discomfort for all living
beings.”

Unit of Noise (Decibel)

The sound intensity is measured in decibel (dB), which is one tenth of the longest unit Bel. One dB is equal to the
faintest sound, a human ear can hear. Noise level. Normal conversation sound ranges from 35 dB to 60 dB.
Impairment of hearing takes place due to exposure to noise of 80 dB (or) more. Noise above 140 dB becomes painful.

2.5.1 Types and sources (causes) of noise

It has been found that environmental noise is doubling every 10 years. Generally noise is described as,
Industrial noise.
Transport noise.
Neighbourhood noise.
1. Industrial Noise
Highly intense sound (or) noise pollution is caused by many machines. There exists a long list of sources of noise
pollution including different machines of numerous factories, industries and mills. Industrial noise, particularly from
mechanical saws and pneumatic drill is unbearable and is a nuisance to public. Recently, it has been observed by the
Institute of Oto-Rino Laryngology, Chennai that enormously increasing industrial pollution has damaged the hearing of
about 20% workers.
Example In the steel industry, the workers near the heavy industrial blowers are exposed to 112 dB for eight hours and
suffer from the occupational pollution.

2. Transport Noise
The main noise, comes from transport. It mainly includes road traffic noise, rail traffic noise and air craft noise.The
number of road vehicles like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles, buses, trucks and particularly the diesel engine
vehicles have increased enormously in recent years. That is why, this form of pollution is gaining importance, especially
in large and over crowded towns and cities. According to experts, the noise level in most of the residential areas in
metropolitan cities is already hovering on the border line because of vehicular noise pollution.A survey conducted in
metropolitan cities has shown that noise level in Delhi, Bombay and Calcutta is as high as 90 dB. Inhabitants of cities
are subjected to this most annoying form of transport noise which gradually deafen them.

3. Neighbourhood Noise
This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and community.
Common noise makers are musical instruments, TV, VCR, radios, transistors, telephones, and loudspeakers etc.,
Ever since the industrial revolution, noise in environment has been doubling every ten years.

2.5.2 Effects of Noise Pollution

Noise Pollution affects human health, comfort and efficiency.
It causes contraction of blood vessels, makes the skin pale, leads to excessive secretion of adrenalin hormone into
blood stream which is responsible for high blood pressure. Blaring sounds have known to cause mental distress, heart
attacks neurological problems, birth defects and abortion.
It causes muscles to contract leading to nervous breakdown, tension etc.,
These adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood, which in turn increase the rate of
heart beat, contraction of blood vessels, and dilation of pupil of eye.
It affects health efficiency and behaviour. It may cause damage to heart, brain, kidneys, liver and may also produce
emotional disturbances.

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The most immediate and acute effect of noise is the impairment of hearing which diminishes by the damage of some
part of auditory system.
When exposed to very loud and sudden noise acute damage occurs to the ear drum. Prolonged exposure to noise of
certain frequency pattern will lead to chronic damage to the hair cells in the inner ear.
In addition to serious loss of hearing due to excessive noise, impulsive noise also causes psychological and pathological
disorders.
Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardio vascular systems and semicircular canals of the internal
ear. The rate of heart beat may also be affected. It may decrease (or) increase depending on the type of noise.
Brain is also adversely affected by loud and sudden noise as that of jet and aeroplane noise etc. People are subjected
to Psychiatric illness.
Recently it has been reported that blood is also thickened by excessive noises.
It is quite surprising that our optical system is also a prey for noise pollution. Pupillary dilation, impairment of night
vision and decrease in the rate of colour perception are some of its severe effects.

2.5.3 Control (or) Preventive measures of noise pollution

1. Source Control
This may include source modification such as acoustic treatment to machine surface, design changes, limiting the
operational timings and so on.

2. Transmission Path Intervention

This may include containing the source inside a sound insulating enclosure, construction of a noise barrier (or)
provision of sound absorbing materials along the path.

Table 2.6: Ambient Noise Level dB.

Zone Day-time Night-time

Silent zone 50 40

Residential zone 55 45

Commercial zone 65 55

Industrial zone 70 70

3. Receptor control
This includes protection of the receiver by altering the work schedule (or) provision of personal protection devices
such as ear plugs for operating noisy machinery.
The measure may include dissipation and deflection methods.
4. Oiling
Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the machines.
5. Planting trees around houses can also act as effective noise barriers.
6. Different types of absorptive materials can be used to control interior noise.

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2.5.4 Other Preventive measures

Noise can be reduced by prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic, ban on honking of horns in certain areas and
creation of silent zones near schools and hospitals and redesigning of buildings to make them noise proof.
Other measures can involve reduction of traffic density in residential areas and giving preferences to mass public
transport system.

2.6 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (OR) WASTE SHED MANAGEMENT

Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries have led to the generations of enormous quantities
of solid wastes and consequential environmental degradation. An estimated 7.6 million tonnes of municipal solid waste
is produced per day in developing countries. These wastes are disposed in open dumps creating considerable nuisance
and environmental problems.These are potential risks to health and to the environment from improper management
of solid wastes. Management of solid waste is therefore, become very important in order to minimize the adverse
effects of solid wastes.
Definition
Solid waste management is the process of collecting, treating and disposing of solid waste.
2.6.1 Types and sources of solid wastes
Depending upon the nature, solid wastes can be broadly classified into three types
Urban (or) Municipal wastes.
Industrial wastes.
Hazardous wastes.

I Source of Urban (Municipal) Wastes

Urban (or) municipal wastes include the following wastes
(a) Domestic wastes
It contains a variety of materials thrown out from the homes.
Examples Food waste, cloth, waste paper, glass bottles, polythene bags, waste metals, etc.,
(b) Commercial wastes
It includes the wastes coming out from the shops, markets, hotels, offices, institutions, etc.,Examples Waste paper,
packing material, cans, bottle, polythene bags, etc.,

(c) Construction wastes

It includes the wastes of construction materials.
Examples Wood, concrete, debris etc.,

(d) Biomedical wastes

It includes mostly the waste organic materials.
Examples Anatomical wastes, infectious wastes, etc.,
Type and characteristics of Urban (municipal) Wastes

(i) Bio-degradable wastes

The urban solid waste materials, that can be degraded by micro organisms are called biodegradable wastes.
Examples Food, vegetables, tea leaves, egg shells, dry leaves, etc.,

(ii) Non - Biodegradable wastes

The urban solid waste materials that cannot be degraded by micro organisms are called non-biodegradable wastes.
Examples Polythene bags, scrap metals, glass bottles, etc., I Source and characteristics of industrial wastes
The main sources of industrial wastes are chemical industries, metal and mineral processing industries.

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Examples
(i) Nuclear power plants: It generates radioactive wastes.
(ii) Thermal power plants: It produces fly ash in large quantities.
(iii) Chemical industries: It produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials.
(iv) Other industrie: Other industries produce, packing materials, rubbish, organic wastes, acids, alkalis, scrap metals,
rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, dyes, etc.,

2.6.2 Effect of Solid Wastes (or) Effect of Improper Solid Waste Management
Due to improper disposal of municipal solid wastes on the road side and their immediate surroundings, biodegradable
materials undergo decomposition. This produces foul smell and breeds various types of insects, which spoil the land
value. Industrial solid wastes are the sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which affect the soil characteristics
and productivity of soils when they are dumped on the soil. Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and
contaminate the ground water. Burning of some of the industrial wastes (or) domestic wastes (like cans, pesticides,
plastics, radioactive materials, batteries) produce furans, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls, which are harmful to
human beings.

2.6.3 Process of Solid Waste Management (or) Process of preventing solid waste generation in urban areas (or) Waste
Shed Management
Solid waste management includes, the waste generation, mode of collection, transportation, segregation of wastes
and disposal techniques.
Flow Chart

Steps involved in Solid waste management (or) Shed waste management

Two important steps of solid waste (waste shed) management is Reduce, reuse and recycle, before destruction and
safe storage of wastes.

I Reduce, Reuse and Recycle (3R)

(a) Reduce the usage of raw materials
If the usage of raw materials are reduced, the generation of waste also gets reduced.
(b) Reuse of waste materials

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The refillable containers, which are discarded after use, can be reused.
Rubber rings can be made from the discarded cycle tubes, which reduces the waste generation during manufacturing
of rubber bands.
(c) Recycling of materials
Recycling is the reprocessing of the discarded materials into new useful products.

Examples
(a) Old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and bottles.
(b) Preparation of cellulose insulation from paper.
(c) Preparation of fuel pellets from kitchen waste.
(d) Preparation of automobiles and construction materials from steel cans.

The above process saves money, energy, raw materials, and reduces pollution.
II Discarding wastes
For discarding solid wastes the following methods can be adopted.

Methods of disposal of solid waste

Landfill
Incineration (Thermal)
Composting

1. Landfill
Solid wastes are placed in sanitary landfill system in alternate layers of 80 cm thick refuse, covered with selected earth
fill of 20 cm thickness. After two (or) three years, solid waste volume shrinks by 25-30% and the land is used for parks,
roads and small buildings.he most common and cheapest method of waste disposal is dumping in sanitary land-fills
which is invariably employed in Indian cities. Land-fill structure is built either into the ground (or) on the ground into
which the waste is dumped.The method involves spreading the solid waste on the ground, compacting it and then
covering it with soil at suitable intervals.
Advantages
It is simple and economical.
Segregation not required.
Landfilled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes.
Converts low-lying, marshy waste-land into useful areas.
Natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.

Disadvantages
A large area is required.
Since land is available away from town, transportation cost is heavy.
Bad odours, if landfills are not properly managed.
The land filled areas will be the sources of mosquitoes and flies and hence insecticides and pesticides are to be applied
at regular intervals.
Causes fire hazard due to the formation of methane in wet weather.

2. Incineration (or) Thermal process

It is a hygienic way of disposing solid waste.
It is more suitable if the waste contains more hazardous material and organic content.
It is a thermal process and is very effective for detoxification of all combustible pathogens.
It is an expensive technology compared to land-fill and composting because incinerators are costly.

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 Department of Chemistry

In this method the municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace called incinerator.
The combustible substances such as rubbish, garbage, dead organisms and the non-combustible matter such as glass,
porcelain, metals are separated before feeding to incinerators. The non-combustible materials can be left out for
recycling and reuse. The leftout ashes and clinkers from the incinerators may be accounted for only about 10 to 20%
which need further disposal either by sanatory landfill (or) by some other means. The heat produced in the incinerator
during the burning of refuse is used in the form of steam power for generation of electricity throughout turbines.
The municipal solid waste is generally wet but has a very high calorific value so it has to be dried up first before burning.
The waste is dried in preheater from where it is taken into large incinerating furnace called destructors which can
incinerate about 100 to 150 tonnes per hour. The temperature normally maintained in a combustion chamber is about
700°C and may be increased to about 1000°C when electricity is to be generated.

Advantages
The residue is only 20-25% of original weight, the clinker can be used after treatment.
It requires very little space.
Cost of transportation is not high as incinerators located within city limits.
Safest from hygienic point of view.
An incinerator plant of 300 tonnes per day capacity can generate 3MW of power.
Disadvantages
Its capital and operating cost is high.
Needs skilled personnel.
Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal, due to which air pollution may be caused.

3. Composting
It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our country. In this method, bulk organic waste is converted
into a fertilising manure by biological action. The separated compostable waste is dumped in underground earthern
trenches in layers of 1.5 m and is finally covered with earth of about 20 cm and left over for decomposition.Sometimes
certain microorganisms such as actinomycetes are introduced for active decomposition. Within 2 to 3 days biological
action starts, the organic matters are being destroyed by actinomycetes and lot of heat is liberated increasing the
temperature of the compost by about 75°C and finally the refuse is converted to powdery brown coloured odourless
mass known as humus and has a fertilizing value which can be used for agricultural field. The compost contains lot of
nitrogen essential for plant growth apart from phosphates and other minerals. World Health Organisation (WHO) has
set up a compost plant in New Delhi in 1981 with a capacity to handle 90 to 100 tonnes of waste everyday. The prepared
compost was supplied to nurseries, kitchen gardens and World Health Organisation (WHO) has set up a compost plant
in New Delhi in 1981 with a capacity to handle 90 to 100 tonnes of waste everyday. The prepared compost was supplied
to nurseries, kitchen gardens and horticulture department. The composting technology is widely employed in
developing countries.
Advantages
When the manure is added to soil, it increases the water retention and ion-exchange capacity of soil.
A number of industrial solid wastes can also be treated by this method.
It can (manure) be sold thereby reducing the cost of disposing of wastes.
Recycling - occurs.
Disadvantages
The non-consumables have to be disposed separately.
Use of compost has not yet caught up with farmers and hence no assured market.

2.7 Hazardous waste

It is the waste that has potential threats to public health (or) the environment.
Examples

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Cleaning solvents (acids and bases).

Spent acids and bases.
Metal finishing wastes.
Painting wastes.
Sludges from air and water pollution control units.
Disinfectants and pesticides.

2.7.1 Types and characteristics of hazardous wastes

1. Toxic wastes
These are poisonous even in very small (or) trace amounts. They may have
(i) Acute effects
Causing death (or) violent illness
(ii) Chronic effects
Slowly causing irrseparable harm.
2. Carcinogenic waste
It causes cancer after many years of exposure.
3. Mutagenic
It causes major biological changes in the off-spring of exposed humans and wild life.
4. Reactive wastes
These are chemically unusable and react violently with air (or) water.
They cause explosions (or) form toxic vapours.
5. Ignitable wastes
They burn at relatively low temperatures and caus an immediate fire hazard.
6. Corrosive wastes
These include strong acidic (or) alkaline substances.
They destroy solid material and living tissue upon contact.
7. Infectious wastes
These include used bandages, hypodermic needles from hospitals (or) biological research facilities.
8. Radioactive wastes
These emit ionizing energy that can harm living organisms.

2.7.2 Hazardous waste management

Definition
It is the collection, treatment and disposal of waste materials that can cause substantial harm to human health (or) to
the environment. Improper hazardous-waste storage (or) disposal contaminates surface water and ground water
supplies as harmful water pollution and land pollution. People living in homes, built near waste disposal sites, may be
in a vulnerable position. The best remedy for this problem is to regulate the practice of hazardous - waste management.

2.7.3 Various steps of hazardous waste management

Hazardous waste management involves the following 4 steps

Step 1: Analysis:
Physical and chemical properties of hazardous waste must be analysed before collection and recovery of useful
components. It is essential because it can be used as a fertilizer, liming material (or) soil amendment.

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Fig 2.4 Steps of hazardous waste management

Step 2: Collection and transport

Hazardous waste, generated at a particular place, is generally collected and transported by truck over public highways.
It can also be shipped in tank trucks, made of steel (or) aluminium alloy, with capacities upto about 34,000 litres. It
can be containerized and shipped in 200 litre drums.

Step 3: Treatment (or) Recovery

Hazardous waste can be treated (or) recovered by
Chemical method.
Thermal method.
Biological method.
Physical method.
1. Chemical method
It includes ion-exchange, precipitation, oxidation and reduction and neutralization.
2. Thermal method
High temperature incineration
It not only can detoxify certain organic wastes but also can destroy them.
Special type of thermal equipment
Examples
Fluidized-bed incinerator, multiple hearth furnace, rotary kiln and liquid-injection incinerator.
Problem
Hazardous-waste incineration is the source of air pollution.
3. Biological treatment
Example: Land farming
Land farming is one method of treating hazardous waste biologically, in which waste is mixed with surface soil on a
suitable land. Microbes that can metabolize the waste may be added, along with nutrients.
Bio-remediation
Microbes can also be used for stabilizing hazardous wastes on previously contaminated sites. This process is called
bio-remediation.
4. Physical treatment
Example
Evaporation, sedimentation, solidification, flotation and filtration.
The above treatment concentrates, solidifies (or) reduces the volume of the waste. Solidification is achieved by
encapsulating waste in concrete, asphalt (or) plastic container. Encapsulation produces a solid mass of material that is

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resistant to leaching.
Step 4: Storage and disposal
Hazardous wastes that are not destroyed by incineration (or) other chemical processes need to be disposed properly.
This can be done by the following methods.
1. Surface storage (or) containment systems - Temporary method
It includes
New waste piles
Ponds (or) lagoons.

(i) New waste piles

It is carefully constructed over an impervious base.
The piles must be protected from wind dispersion, erosion and leaching.
Only non-containerized solid, non-flowing waste material can be stored in a new waste pile.
(ii) Ponds (or) lagoons
It is lined with impervious clay soils and flexible membrane liners inorder to protect ground water.
Leachate collection systems is installed between the liners.

2. Deep-well injection
It involves pumping liquid waste through a steel casing into a porous layer of limestone (or) sandstone.
High pressure is applied to force the liquid into the pores, where it is permanently stored.

Fig. 2.5 Storage of Hazardous waste in Land fill

3. Land fills
It provides at least 3 metres (10 ft) of separation between the bottom of the landfill and the underlying bed rock (or)
ground water table. It is also provided with two impermeable liners and leachate collection system, which pumps the
collected leachate to a treatment plant.

2.8 e-WASTE (Electronic waste)

Definition
e-waste describes discarded electrical (or) electronic devices. e-wastes are considered dangerous because they contain
hazardous chemicals. The hazardous content of e-waste pose a threat to human health and environment.

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2.8.1 Hazardous chemicals in e-wastes (or) Causes of e-wastes

Some of the hazardous chemicals present in some e-wastes are
Circuit boards in computer have heavy metals like lead and cadmium.

Fig. 2.6 e-waste logo

Batteries have cadmium.

Cathode ray tubes have lead oxide and barium.
Most of the electronic products have polyvinyl chloride.
Plastics have dioxins and furans. So, if these waste electronic products are not properly disposed, they can leach
hazardous elements such as lead, cadmium and other chemicals into the soil and ground water and cause severe threat
to environment.
2.8.2 e-waste management
Definition
e-waste management is defined as a holistic method of cutting down e-waste from the earth to prevent its harmful
toxic to deteriorate earth. Management of e-waste should begin at the point of generation. This can be done by waste
minimisation techniques and by sustainable product design.
Some e-waste management techniques
Waste management in industries involves adopting, inventory management, production process modification,
sustainable product design, use of renewable raw materials.
1. Inventory management
Proper control over the materials, used in the manufacturing process, is an important way to reduce waste generation.
By reducing the quantity of hazardous materials, used in the process, e-waste could be reduced.
2. Production process modification
By changing the production process e-waste generation can be minimised.
3. Sustainable product design
Efforts should be made to design a product with less amount of hazardous material.
Example
New computer designs that are lighter and more integrated.
4. Use of renewable materials
Bio based plastics are plastics made with plant based chemistry (or) plant producted polymers.
Most e-waste have non-degradable polymers in them.
By using these bio polymers we can reduce ‘e’-wastes.
Like wise bio based toners, glues and inks are new development e-wastes.

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 Department of Chemistry

2.9 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (OHASMS)

An occupational health and safety management system (OHASMS) is a fundamental part of an organization’s risk
management strategy. It enables an organization to protect its work force and others under its control.
Importance
It reduces risk (or) accidents (or) injuries by identifying and mitigating hazards.
2.9.1 Case studies on OHASMS
I A Footwear manufacturing industry in Ambur, Tamil Nadu
Objective
The main objective of this case study is to assess the status of occupational health and safety of a footwear
manufacturing industry with respect to the social compliance.
Observation
We have visited Azim leather and footwear industries. Ambur, Tamil nadu.
Overall occupational health and safety management practice in Azim leather and footwear industries was found to be
good.
Production Process
Production process of Azim industries starts after collecting the raw materials, cutting them, assembling, joining the
insole and outsole to the shoe, finishing and packing.
Lots of people engaged during this production process.
About 70% of total workers are female.
In every section, Azim industries have employed experts to look after the work of the worker and improve the
efficiency.
Some of the encouraging approaches observed in Azim industry
Positive attitude of owner towards welfare of the workers.
Dedicated work force.
Experienced and professional management team.
Good relationship between management and workers.
Disbursement of salary and wages to workers.
First aid box is found in all floors according to requirements of Indian labour rules.
Factory has own health centre to provide primary treatment.
Certified physician and nurse were available during the visit. Factory has its child care centre.
Factory has well maintained hygienic canteen.
Factory is conducting fire drill regularly.
Regular testing of drinking water, etc., is carried out.
Deficiency observed in Azim Industry and solution
According to environmental conservation rules, labour rules of Indian Government and International guide lines,
below findings are observed during factory visit and discussed the solutions with management.
Management should maintain cleanliness of the area.
Management should place temperature and humidity measuring device in workplace because excessive heat and
humidity are injurious for workers health.
Management should monitor and maintain sufficient and suitable lightings.
Factory must display material safety data sheet at all chemical storage areas.
Factory should confirm risk assessment for entire work place health and safety.
Report (or) Conclusion
Overall occupational health and safety management practice in Azim industries was found good.
Though some deficiency were found during this visit, but commitment of top management towards occupational
health and safety was impressive.

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 Department of Chemistry

2. Fire work industry in Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu

Safety and well-being is very essential for firework employees because in fireworks they are handling dangerous
materials every day. So the safety measures are most important in the firework industry.
They are handling chemicals which will affect their health too.
According to the factories Act, safety and well-being is very necessary.
For well-being first aid kit, toilet facilities, cleanliness and medical camp are very essential
Objectives of this study
The main objective of this study is to analyze the industrial safety and well-being of firework employees in “Kumaran
fireworks” in Sivakasi.
We have visited “Kumaran fireworks” and analyzed overall occupational health and safety management practices of
257 employees and selected 30 respondents and conducted survey question regarding safety measures of the
employees.
Some of the encouraging approaches observed in “Kumaran fireworks”
100% of respondent feels that adequate safety measures are taken during fire accidents.
93.3% of respondent said limited safety materials are provided during the work.
100% of respondent said the air circulation is perfect in the industry.
90% of respondent said first aid box is available all the time.
80.5% of respondent felt the work place is always clean and neat.
85% of respondent said the building and machines are maintained in proper way.
Deficiency observed in Kumaran fireworks and solution
Management should conduct medical camp once in 6 months, in the industry.
Management must provide separate toilet facilities for men and women.
Proper rest room must be provided to the workers for taking rest in the break time.
Enough safety materials like gloves, face mask must be provided while they are working near chemicals and machines
in the factory.
More safety guards around the machines must be provided.
Report (or) Conclusion
Overall occupational health and safety management practice in “Kumaran fireworks” was found good.
Though some deficiency were found during this visit, commitment of top management towards occupational health
and safety was impressive.

2.10 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Definition
Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment by individuals, organizations and
governments.
Objectives
Its objectives are
to conserve natural resources,
to conserve the existing natural environment,
to repair damage and reverse trends.
Due to the pressures of over consumption, population growth and technology, the biophysical environment is being
degraded. This has been recognized and governments have begun placing restraints on activities that cause
environmental degradation.
Importance (or) Goal of environmental protection
To reduce air, water and land pollution.
To facilitate the conservation of natural resources for our future generations.
To ensure the protection of biodiversity.
To implement sustainable development.

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To restore the ecological balance.

To save our planet from harmful effects of global warming.

2.10.1 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

This is a general legislation law in order to rectify the gaps and laps in the above Acts.
This Act empowers the Central government to fix the standards for quality of air, water, soil and noise and to formulate
procedures and safe guards for handling of hazard substances.
Objectives of environmental act
To protect and improvement of the environment,
To prevent hazards to all living creatures and property,
To maintain harmonious relationship between humans and their environment.
Important features of Environment Act
The Act further empowers the Government to lay down procedures and safe guards for the prevention of accidents
which cause pollution and remedial measures if an accident occurs. The Government has the authority to close (or)
prohibit (or) regulate any industry (or) its operation, if the violation of the provisions of the Act occur. The penal
sections of the Act contain more stringent penalties. Any person who fails to comply (or) who contravenes any provision
of the Act shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term extending to five years (or) be punishable with fine up to
Rupees one lakh (or) both. If the violation continues, an additional fine of Rupees five thousands per day may be
imposed for the entire period of violation of rules. The Act fixes the liability of the offence punishable under Act on
the person who is directly in charge. Whether he/she is the director (or) Manager (or) Secretary (or) any other officer,
unless he/she proves that it was committed without his/her knowledge (or) consent. The Act empowers the officer of
Central government to inspect the site (or) the plant (or) the machinery for preventing pollution and to collect samples
of air, water, soil (or) other material from any factory (or) its premises for testing.
The Environment (Protection) Act is the most comprehensive legislation with powers for the central government to
directly act, avoiding many regulatory authorities (or) agencies.

2.10.2 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

This act provides for maintaining and restoring the sources of water. It also provides for preventing and controlling
water pollution.
Objectives of the water act
prevention and control of water pollution,
maintaining (or) restoring the wholesomeness of water,
establishing central and state boards for the prevention and control of water pollution.
Important features of Water Act
This Act aims at, to protect the water from all kinds of pollution and to preserve the quality of water in all aquifers.
The Act further provides for the establishment of Central Board and State Boards for prevention of water pollution.
The States are empowered to restrain any person from discharging a pollutant (or) sewage (or) effluent into any water
body without the consent of the Board. Any contravention of the guidelines (or) standards would attract penal action
including prison sentence ranging from three months to six years. The Act is not clear about the definition of pollutant,
discharge of pollutant, toxic pollutant which allows scope for misinterpretation at the time of decision whether the law
is violated (or) not. The Amendment Act of 1988 requires permission to set up an industry which may discharge
effluent.
State Pollution Control Board
The consent of the State Pollution Control Board is needed to Take steps to establish any industry (or) any treatment
and disposal system (or) any extension (or) addition there to, which is likely to discharge (or) trade effluent into a stream
(or) well (or) river (or) on land.
Use any new (or) altered outlet for the discharge of a sewage.
Begin to make any new discharge of sewage. In the event of a violation of the conditions imposed, the State Board

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may serve on the offender a notice imposing any such conditions as it might establishment, such outlet (or) discharge
that is a violation of the conditions.
The Act further empowers the State Board to order closure (or) stoppage of supply (or) electricity, water (or) any other
services to the polluting unit.
Non-compliance of the order may attract imprisonment for a term of one and half years to six years and fine which
may extend to Rupees five thousand for every day, if the default continues.

2.10.3 Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

This Act was enacted in the Conference held at Stockholm in 1972.
It deals with the problems relating to air pollution.
It envisages the establishment of Central and State Control Boards endowed with absolute powers to monitor air
quality and pollution control.
Objectives of air act are
to prevent, control and abatement of air pollution,
to maintain the quality of air,
to establish a board for the prevention and control of air pollution.
Important features of Air Act
The Central Board may lay down the standards for the quality of air.
The Central Board co-ordinates and settle disputes between state boards, in addition to providing technical assistance
and guidance to State Boards.
The State Boards are empowered to lay down the standards for emissions of air pollutants from industrial units (or)
automobiles (or) other sources.
The State Boards are to collect and disseminate information related to air pollution and also to function as inspectorates
of air pollution. The State Boards are to examine the manufacturing processes and the control of equipment to verify
whether they meet the standards prescribed. The State Board can advise the State Government to declare certain
heavily polluted areas as pollution control areas and can advice to avoid the burning of waste products which cause air
pollution in such areas. The directions of the Central Board are mandatory on State Boards. The operation of an
industrial unit is prohibited in a heavily polluted areas without the consent of the Central Board’.
Violation of law is punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months (or) fine up to Rupees
ten thousand (or) both.
This Act applies to all pollution industries.
The Air Act, like Water Act, confers wide powers on State Boards to order closure of any industrial unit (or) stoppage
(or) regulation of supply of water, electricity (or) other services, if it is highly polluting.

2.10.4 Forest (Conservation (or) Preservative) Act, 1980

This act provides conservation of forests and related aspects.
This act also covers all type of forests including reserved forests, protected forests and any forested land.
This Act is enacted in 1980. It aims at to arrest deforestation.
Objectives of forest act
to protect and conserve the forest,
to ensure judicious use of forest products.
Important features of Forest Act
The reserved forests shall not be diverted (or) dereserved without the prior permission of the central government.
The land that has been notified (or) registered (or) forest land may not be used for non-forest purposes.
Any illegal non-forest activity within a forest area can be immediately stopped under act.
Important features of Amendment Act of 1988
Forest departments are forbidden to assign any forest land ‘by way of lease (or) otherwise to any private person’ (or)
non-government body for re-afforestation.

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Clearance of any forest land of naturally grown trees for the purpose of re-afforestation is forbidden.
The diversion of forest land for non-forest uses is cognisable offence and any one who violates the law is punishable.

2.10.5 Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, Amended in 1983, 1986 and 1991
This act is aimed to protect and preserve wildlife. Wild life refers to all animals and plants that are not domesticated.
India has rich wildlife heritage. It has 350 species of mammals, 1200 species of birds and about 20,000 known species
of insects. Some of them are listed as ‘endangered species’ in the Wildlife (Protection) Act. Wildlife is an integral part
of our ecology and plays an essential role in its functioning. The wildlife is declining due to human actions, the wildlife
products - skins, furs, feathers, ivory etc., have decimated the populations of many species. Wildlife populations are
regularly monitored and management strategies formulated to protect them.
Objectives of the wildlife act
To maintain essential ecological processes and life-supporting systems,
To preserve biodiversity,
To ensure a continuous use of species.
Important features
The act covers the rights and non-rights of forest dwellers.
It provides restricted grazing in sanctuaries but prohibits in national parks.
It also prohibits the collection of non-timber forest.
The rights of forest dwellers recognized by the Forest Policy of 1988 are taken away by the Amended Wild life Act of
1991.

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Unit 3 Renewable Sources of Energy

3.1 ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION

3.1.1 Energy management

Definition

Energy management is planning and operation of energy production and energy consumption units as well as
energy distribution and storage.

 For the paste decades, energy generation has been shifted to alternative energy sources like renewable
energy forms such as solar, wind and biomass energy, etc., instead of the conventional fossil fuel sources.

 Apart from the growth in the energy sector, there has been an equivalent increase in business and
organizations, which has brought tremendous competition in the market in terms of increasing
environmental standards and reducing global warming, carbon foot print and green house gas emissions.

 Energy management introduced in an organization, can effectively manage how much energy they produce
and how to controls and monitor.

 A large amount of energy and money can be saved by employing energy management principles.

It can also help companies by not only improving productivity but also the quality that they offer using energy
efficiency techniques and better materials and manufacturing processes

Objectives (or) Aims of energy management

 Resource conservation.

 Climate protection.

 Cost savings / minimize waste.

 Minimize environmental effects.

 The ultimate aim (or) objectives of this process is not only to save the cost but also to achieve
complete environmental sustainability.

Principles of energy management

 It controls the costs of the energy function and not Btu of energy.

 The second principle is to control energy functions as a product cost.

 The third principle is to control and meter only the main functions, which accounts for only 20% functions
which make up 80% of the costs.

 The last principle states that the major effort of an energy management program should be put into
installing controls and achieving results.

Steps involved in the process of energy management

 The following 5 steps are important in the process of energy management.

Step 1: Collecting and analyzing continuous data.

Step 2 : Identify optimizations in equipment schedules, set points and flow rates to improve energy efficiency.

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 Department of CHEMISTRY

Step 3: Calculate return on investment. Units of energy saved can be metered and calculated just like units of energy
delivered.

Step4: Execute energy optimization solutions.

Step 5 :Repeat step 2 to continue optimizing energy efficiency

3.1.2 Energy conservation

Definition

Energy conservation is the practice of using less energy inorder to lower the costs and reduce environmental
impact.

 This can be achieved either by using

 energy more efficiently (using less energy for a constant service),

 by reducing the amount of service used (by driving less).

Objectives (or) Aim of energy convertion

 Energy conservation is the key element. The main objectives are

 to reduce overall energy demand,

 to lower energy cost,

 to reduce energy consumption,

 to lower the overall green house gas emission.

 When we conserve energy more efficiently, we directly reduce the amount of green house gas emissions
entering the earth’s atmosphere.

 It insists us to replace the energy, used, with an alternate energy source.

15 ways to conserve energy (or) conservation

 There are 15 ways to start conserving energy.

1. Adjust your day-to-day behaviors

Example

 Switch off lights (or) appliances when you do not need them.

2. Replace your light bulbs

Traditional incandescent light bulbs consume more amount of electricity and must be replaced by energy efficient
alternatives like CFL and LED bulbs

. Use smart power strips

 “Phantom loads” (or) the electricity used by electronics, when they are turned off (or) stand by mode, are
the major source of energy waste.

 Smart power strips, eliminate this problem, when they are not in use.

4. Install a programmable (or) smart thermostat

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 It automatically turn-off (or) reduce heating and cooling during the time when you are asleep (or) away.

5. Purchase energy efficient appliances

 These will consume less energy during use.

6. Reduce your water heating expenses

Efficient water heaters can be 8% to 300% more energy efficient than a conventional storage water heater.

7. Install energy efficient windows

 To prevent heat loss through your windows,

 you can replace single-pane windows with double-pane windows,

 gas filled windows with “low-e” coatings can be fixed.

8. Upgrade your HVAC system

 Most energy efficient way to upgrade your home’s HVAC system is installing air source heat pump.

 In order to heat and cool your home a heat pump transfers heat from one place to another.

9. Weatherize your home

 Air leaks into your home are windows, doors and vents.

To prevent these leaks, care must be taken in such a way that no cracks (or) opening between the walls and windows
is present

10. Insulate your home

 Insulation retains heat during the winter and keeping heat out of your home during the summer.

11. Wash your clothes in cold water.

12. Replacing dirty air filters regularly can reduce energy consumption upto 15%.

13. As microwave is more energy efficient, microwave oven can be used instead of ordinary stove.

14. Using natural light, like sun, we can reduce the energy consumption.

15. Dress appropriately for the weather inside and outside

3.2 NEW ENERGY SOURCES

3.2.1 Need

 Fossil fuels and nuclear energy are the important resources used to meet most of our energy needs today.

 These are expected to be widely used in the near future.

 However, fossil and nuclear energy resources are non-renewable and will someday be exhausted, while their
continued use possess environmental risks related to air pollution, global climate change, land use and waste
disposal.

 These issues have stimulated the search for new energy sources for producing and using energy.

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3.2.2 Different types of new energy sources

 New energy sources (or) Renewable energy resources that are being developed include

 Hydrogen energy.

 Ocean thermal energy conversion.

 Tidal and wave energy.

 Geothermal energy.

 Solar energy.

 Wind energy.

Bio-mass energy

 Artificial Intelligence (AI).

 Photovoltaics (PV).

 Distributed energy storage systems (DESS).

 Grid integration.

 Space technologies.

 Norwegian Crystals.

 Algal bio-fuels.

 Body heat.

Dance flowers

1. Hydrogen

 The fuel that has potential of being widely used in the future is hydrogen gas ( H ).

 Like natural gas hydrogen can be burned to heat buildings, cook food and produce electricity in power
plants.

 Hydrogen possess high calorific value.

 It is non-polluting, because the combustion product is water.

2H + O −−−−−> 2H O + 150 kJ

 H gas can be compressed in a fuel tank and used to power cars and buses.

Sources of hydrogen

 Plentiful hydrogen is available from water (H O). Water can be split into gaseous H and O by an
electrolysis process.

 Hydrogen can also be produced from natural gas and biomass resources.

1. Hydrogen

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 The fuel that has potential of being widely used in the future is hydrogen gas ( H ).

 Like natural gas hydrogen can be burned to heat buildings, cook food and produce electricity in power
plants.

 Hydrogen possess high calorific value.

 It is non-polluting, because the combustion product is water.

2H + O −−−−−> 2H O + 150 kJ

 H gas can be compressed in a fuel tank and used to power cars and buses.

Sources of hydrogen

 Plentiful hydrogen is available from water (H O). Water can be split into gaseous H and O by an
electrolysis process.

Hydrogen can also be produced from natural gas and biomass resources

 Electrical power plants can be built using large banks of fuel cells, but small groups of cells provide electricity
for individual home and commercial buildings.

Problem

 Difficulties in storing enough hydrogen for motor vehicles to run long distances.

 Infrastructure to refuel these vehicles.

 Highly inflammable and explosive in nature.

 Safe handling is required.

Ocean thermal energy (OTE)

 There is often large temperature difference between the surface level and deeper level of the tropical
oceans.

 This temperature difference can be utilized to generate electricity.

The energy available due to the difference in temperature of water is called ocean thermal energy

Condition

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 The temperature difference should be of 20°C (or) more is required between surface water and deeper
water.

Significance of OTE

 OTE is continuous, renewable and pollution free.

 The use of cold deep water, as the chiller fluid in air-conditioning, has also been proposed.

 Electric power generated by OTE can be used to produce hydrogen.

3. Tidal energy (or) Tital power

Tidal energy is a renewable energy powered by the natural rise and fall of ocean tides and currents

Significance of tidal energy

 Tidal power plants do not require large areas of valuable lands as they are on the bays (or) estuaries.

 As the sea water is inexhaustible, it is completely independent of the uncertainty of precipitation (rainfall).

 It is pollution-free energy source, as it does not use any fuel and also does not produce any wastes.

4. Geo thermal energy

 The heat produced deep in the Earth’s core is called Geothermal energy.

 The energy harnessed from the high temperature present inside the earth can be used to produce electricity.

Significance of geothermal energy

 The power generation level is higher for geothermal than for solar and wind energies.

 Geothermal power plants can be brought on line more quickly than most other energy sources.

 GTE is effectively and efficiently used for direct uses such as hot water bath, resorts, aquaculture,
greenhouses.

5. Solar energy

 Solar energy is derived by capturing radiant energy from sunlight and converting it into heat, electricity (or)
hot water.

Significance of solar energy

 Solar cells are noise and pollution free.

 Solar water heaters, cookers, require neither fuel nor

 attention while cooking food.

 Solar cells can be used in remote and isolated areas, forests, hilly regions.

6. Wind energy

 Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the force of wind is called wind energy.

 The energy possessed by wind is because of its high speed.

 The wind energy is harnessed by making use of wind mills.

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Significance of wind energy

 The generation period of wind energy is low and power generation starts from comissioning.

 It is recommended to broaden the nation’s energy options for new energy sources.

 It is made available easily in many off-shore, on-shore and remote areas.

7. Bio Mass energy

 Biomass is the organic matter, produced by plants (or) animals, used as sources of energy.

 Most of the biomass is burned directly for heating, cooling and industrial purposes.

Examples Wood, crop residues, seeds, cattle dung, sewage, agricultural wastes, etc.,

Significance of bio-mass energy

 The cost of obtaining bio-energy through bio-gas plant is less than the cost of obtaining energy from fossil
fuels.

 Biomass consumes more CO than is released during combustion of biomass.

It provides a stored form of energy and in many cases in a form suitable for vehicle propulsion

8. Artificial intelligence (AI) in the energy sector

 Artificial intelligence (AI) is used to forecast demand and manage the distribution of resources, to ensure
that power is available at the time and place it’s needed with a minimum of waste.

 AI plays an essential role in the world’s transition to clean energy.

 Artificial intelligence is particularly important in the renewable energy industry, where it often can’t be
stored for long periods of time and has to be used close to the time and location where it is generated.

9. Photo Voltaics (PV)

 Solar companies are integrating PV systems to minimize the need for additional land usage.

 As a result, integrated PV, floatovoltaics and agrivoltaics are logical shift in trends.

 Now thin film PV cells are being developed to make solar panels flexible, cost-effective, light weight and
environment friendly.

10. A distributed energy storage system (DESS)

 A distributed energy storage system (DESS) is a packaged solution that stores energy for use at a later time.

 The system is provided with two main components.

 DC charged batteries and

 Bi-directional inverter.

 It’s major role is to prevent power fluctuation and power quality problems.

11. Grid integration

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 Grid integration is the practice of developing efficient ways to deliver variable renewable energy to the grid.

12. Space technologies

 Space-based energy technologies like

harvesting hydrogen from the moon to power fuel cell on earth

 orbiting solar rays that absorb around-the-clock direct sunlight and send the energy back down to stations
on the ground via radio (or) microwaves, are being developed as the new energy technology.

13. Norwegion crystal

 Low carbon mono crystalline silicon ingots, is a type of crystal, used for high performance photovoltaic
devices.

 Gallium-doped ingots, that increases the lifetime of the solar cells.

 Through this, Norwegian crystals controls the carbon footprint of solar panel components at ultra low levels.

14. Algal bio - fuels

 Algae is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels.

 It offers huge commercial potential.

 Like fossil fuel, algae fuel releases CO when burnt.

 But unlike fossil fuel, the CO released by algae fuel is removed from the atmosphere via., photosynthesis as
the algae (or) plant grew.

 The impact of algal bio-fuels on the atmosphere is much lower.

 Algal fuel production has a minimal impact on land and water resources.

 It can be produced using seawater (or) even grey waste water.

15. Body heat

 The body heat, liberated by humans in the crowded area like central station, market place, is channelled
through the station’s vent system.

 Then it is used to warm up water in underground tanks and pumped through the heating system.

16. Dance floor

 The kinetic energy of the dance floor is converted to electricity that lights up the dance floor itself.

Pavegen, a london based company is demonstrating this with its development of the energy harvesting “smart
street

3.3 APPLICATIONS OF HYDROGEN ENERGY

 Hydrogen is a reagent, used in many industries, including chemicals, textile fiber manufacturing, glass,
electronics and metallurgy.

 It is also used as a fuel for rocket launchers.

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 In electronics, hydrogen is used as a carrier gas, for the manufacture of electronic components.

 Hydrogen is used in industries for many applications.

Example

 It combines with nitrogen to produce ammonia, a base for fertilizers.

It is a good reagent for textile fibers like nylon, polyurethane foam

 orbiting solar rays that absorb around-the-clock direct sunlight and send the energy back down to stations
on the ground via radio (or) microwaves, are being developed as the new energy technology.

14. Algal bio - fuels

 Algae is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels.

 It offers huge commercial potential.

 Like fossil fuel, algae fuel releases CO when burnt.

 But unlike fossil fuel, the CO released by algae fuel is removed from the atmosphere via., photosynthesis as
the algae (or) plant grew.

 The impact of algal bio-fuels on the atmosphere is much lower.

 Algal fuel production has a minimal impact on land and water resources.

 It can be produced using seawater (or) even grey waste water.

15. Body heat

 The body heat, liberated by humans in the crowded area like central station, market place, is channelled
through the station’s vent system.

 Then it is used to warm up water in underground tanks and pumped through the heating system.

16. Dance floor

 The kinetic energy of the dance floor is converted to electricity that lights up the dance floor itself.

Pavegen, a london based company is demonstrating this with its development of the energy harvesting “smart
stree

t3.3 APPLICATIONS OF HYDROGEN ENERGY

 Hydrogen is a reagent, used in many industries, including chemicals, textile fiber manufacturing, glass,
electronics and metallurgy.

 It is also used as a fuel for rocket launchers.

 In electronics, hydrogen is used as a carrier gas, for the manufacture of electronic components.

 Hydrogen is used in industries for many applications.

Example

 It combines with nitrogen to produce ammonia, a base for fertilizers.

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It is a good reagent for textile fibers like nylon, polyurethane foam

 Hydrogen is used in metallurgy for heat treatment process to produce mechanical parts (or) to alter their
properties.

 Hydrogen is used during fuel refining to remove this sulphur via a process of desulphurization.

 Atomic hydrogen welding (AHW) is a type of arc welding which utilizes a hydrogen environment.

 A mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen is used to prevent oxidation in flat glass production.

 As an efficient reducing and etching agent, hydrogen is used to create semiconductors, LEDs, displays.

Hydrogen gas is used as a therapeutic gas for a number of different diseases

11. Hydrogen fuel cell

 Hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen as a fuel in an electrochemical process that combines H and O to
produce electrical energy with water and heat as the only by-product.

 Two main applications of fuel cells are,

(i) Stationary power sources.

 These are used to power office buildings, data centres, grocery stores and off-grid telecommunication
towers.

 It is used as a part of uninterruptible power supply (UPS) system, where continuous uptime is critical.

(ii) Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs)

 The heat produced by the hydrogen fuel cell can be used for space and water heating (or) industrial process.

Hydrogen fuel cells power clean trucks, fork lifts, etc

 Hydrogen power is being considered for transportation applications including hydrogen fuel cell buses.

 Hydrogen fuel cell trains have now appeared.

 Hydrogen offers versatile options for mobile power generation. Some of the hydrogen fuel cells were
developed by NASA to provide electricity for rockets and shuttles in space.

 Hydrogen fuel cells have found a number of marine applications (used in boats and submarines).

3.3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cells Advantages

 Hydrogen is readily available.

 It does not produce harmful emissions.

 It is environmentally friendly.

It can be used as fuel in rocket

 It is energy efficient and more powerful than fossil fuels.

 It is renewable.

 It reduces carbon foot prints.

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 Charging times is fast.

 It does not make noise and visual pollution.

 It can be used for long time.

Disadvantages

 It is expensive.

 It is difficult to store.

 It is highly inflammable.

 Infra-structure.

 Regulatory issues.

3.4 APPLICATIONS OF OCEAN ENERGY RESOURCES

 Tidal energy (or) tidal power is a form of ocean energy that is harnessed by converting tide energy into
useful forms of power.

 Tidal energy is obtained from the rise and fall of tides.

 Tidal barrages and dams are constructed across a narrow opening to the sea.

 Water rushes into the dam when the sea level rises which moves the blade of the turbines which helps in
the generation of electricity.

 Below are some important applications of ocean energy.

1. Ocean waves

Potential energy associated with ocean waves can be harnessed using modular technologies

2. Temperature gradients

 Difference in thermal energy between sea surface and deep water can be harnessed by Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion (OTEC) process.

3. Salinity gradient

 At the mouth of rivers, where fresh water mixes with salt water, energy associated with the salinity gradient
can be harnessed using pressure retarded reverse osmosis process and associated conversion technologies.

4. Ocean wave energy convertors

 These are the technology used to trap the mechanical energy of the wave to convert it to electrical power.

5. Oscillating bodies

Oscillating waves uses hydraulic motors (or) electrical generators as a power take-off system

6. Overtopping wave energy convertors

 The overtopping wave energy convertors (or) terminators, using the low head hydraulic turbines, converts
the potential energy formed by the height of accumulated water over the wave surface to electrical power.

7. Ocean thermal energy (OTE)

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 The temperature difference, between the surface level and deeper level of the tropical oceans, can be
utilized to generate electricity.

3.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of ocean energy

Advantages (or) Benefits

 Ocean energy is cheaper and efficient.

 It is environment - friendly.

 The source of ocean energy is inexhaustible

 Operational and maintenance costs are low.

Tidal energy sources can last for decades

3.4 APPLICATIONS OF OCEAN ENERGY RESOURCES

 Tidal energy (or) tidal power is a form of ocean energy that is harnessed by converting tide energy into
useful forms of power.

 Tidal energy is obtained from the rise and fall of tides.

 Tidal barrages and dams are constructed across a narrow opening to the sea.

 Water rushes into the dam when the sea level rises which moves the blade of the turbines which helps in
the generation of electricity.

 Below are some important applications of ocean energy.

1. Ocean waves

Potential energy associated with ocean waves can be harnessed using modular technologies

2. Temperature gradients

 Difference in thermal energy between sea surface and deep water can be harnessed by Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion (OTEC) process.

3. Salinity gradient

 At the mouth of rivers, where fresh water mixes with salt water, energy associated with the salinity gradient
can be harnessed using pressure retarded reverse osmosis process and associated conversion technologies.

4. Ocean wave energy convertors

 These are the technology used to trap the mechanical energy of the wave to convert it to electrical power.

5. Oscillating bodies

Oscillating waves uses hydraulic motors (or) electrical generators as a power take-off system

6. Overtopping wave energy convertors

 The overtopping wave energy convertors (or) terminators, using the low head hydraulic turbines, converts
the potential energy formed by the height of accumulated water over the wave surface to electrical power.

7. Ocean thermal energy (OTE)

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 The temperature difference, between the surface level and deeper level of the tropical oceans, can be
utilized to generate electricity.

3.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of ocean energy

Advantages (or) Benefits

 Ocean energy is cheaper and efficient.

 It is environment - friendly.

 The source of ocean energy is inexhaustible

 Operational and maintenance costs are low.

Tidal energy sources can last for decades

 It protects coastal floodings due to the stability of rock armor.

Disadvantages (or) limitations

 Construction of tidal power plant is expensive and requires high capital investment.

 Maintenance and equipment repairing is a challenge.

 Negative influence on marine life forms.

 Storage capacity is required.

 Environmental problems like habitat change arises.

3.5 APPLICATIONS OF TIDAL ENERGY CONVERSION

 Electricity can be generated from the tidal energy.

 Tidal energy is used in grining mills for the mechanical crushing of grains.

Tidal energy is used to rotate a turbine

 Tidal energy is used to store energy in a hydroelectric dam, acting as large energy storage.

 Tidal barrages and reservoirs can be modified to store energy.

 Tidal barrages are capable of preventing damages to the coast during high storms.

 Tidal barrages also help to create easy transport between the two arms of an estuary (or) a bay.

3.5.1 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages (or) Merits

 It is environment friendly.

 It is cheaper and efficient.

 Low operating and maintenance costs.

 The source of energy is inexhaustible.

 Protects coastal flooding.

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 Tidal energy sources can last for decades.

 Power output is highly predictable.

Disadvantages

 Construction of tidal power plants is expensive and requires high capital investment.

 Equipment repairing and maintenance is difficult.

 Environment problems, like habitat change, arises.

 Storage capacity is required.

 Negative influence on marine life forms.

Location limited

3.6 GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT (GPP)

3.6.1 Definitions

1. Geothermal Power

 It is the electrical power generated from geothermal energy.

2. Geothermal Energy

 It is the heat produced deep in the earth’s core.

3.6.2 Origin

 Geothermal energy is the thermal energy found in the earth’s crust which originates from the formation of
the planet and from radioactive decay of materials.

The high temperature and pressure in earth’s interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave
plasmically

 This results in parts of the mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock.

 Temperatures at the core mantle boundary can reach over 400°C.

3.6.3 Concept

 Geothermal technology extracts the heat found within the subsurface of the earth, which can be used
directly for heating and cooling (or) converting it to electricity.

 The steam comes from the reservoirs of hot water, found a few miles (or) more below the earth’s surface,
rotates a turbine that activates a generator, which produces electricity.

3.6.4 Power plants of GTE

 Geothermal power plant uses hydrothermal resources that have both water (hydro) and heat (thermal).

 Geothermal power plants requires high temperature(300°F to 700°F) hydrothermal resources that come
from either dry steam wells (or) from hot water wells.

 Generally we use these resources by drilling wells into the earth and then piping steam (or) hot water to the
surface.

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 The hot water (or) steam rotates a turbine that generates electricity.

 The depth of the geothermal wells is as much as 2 miles.

Types of geothermal power plant

 There are three basic types of geothermal power plants.

1. Dry steam power plant

 It uses steam directly from a geothermal reservoir to drive generator’s turbines.

Fig. 3.2 Dry steam power plant

2. Flash steam power plant

 It takes high-pressure hot water from deep inside the earth and converts it into steam to drive generator’s
turbine.

 When the steam cools, it condenses to water and is injected back into the ground to be used again.

 Most geothermal power plants are flash steam plants.

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3 Binary cycle power plants

 It transfers the heat from geothermal hot water to another liquid.

 The heat causes the second liquid to convert it into steam, which is used to drive a generator’s turbine.

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3.6.5 Advantages and disadvantages of GTE

Advantages

 GTE is environmentally friendly.

 GTE is a source of renewable energy.

 It is the sustainable form of energy.

 The potential of GTE is huge.

 Energy generated from this resource is reliable.

 As GTE is natural, no fuel is required.

Disadvantages

 Location is restricted.

 As GTE does not release green house gases, there are many other gases released into the
atmosphere (cause side effects).

 May cause earthquakes.

 It is expensive resource.

Management is required to maintain sustainability

3.6.6 Applications of GTE

 GTE is used for space heating and cooling.

 GTE is used to generate electricity.

 It is also used for industrial process heat.

 It is used for desalination of geothermal water and heavy water production.

 It is also used in the extraction of minerals from geothermal fluids.

 Geothermal Heat Pumps (GHPs) are used to heat buildings in the winter and cool them in summer.

 The direct use of GTE involves the use of heated water from the ground without the need for any other
sources.

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UNIT IV
Sustainability and Management

4.1 DEVELOPMENT

 A true development does not mean a high standard of living with all benefits and an increase in the GNP
(Gross National Product) of few countries.
 But it brings benefits to all, not only for the present generation, but also for the future generation.

Definition
 Development is a process that creates growth progress, positive change in economic, environmental and
social component without damaging the resources of the environment.

4.1.1 Types of development

1. National development

 National development starts from the national planning frame work.

 These are developments that would make a significant contributions to overall success (or) its international
role.

2. Major development

 Some categories falling under “major development” includes fish farms, offices, storage and distribution
centres, housing estates, renewables, waste management (or) disposal facilities, mineral extraction sites, etc.,

3. Local development

 This is the most common form of development and comprises of small scale developments including house
extensions, conversions, small and medium housing, industrial development and small scale renewable
developments

4.1.2 Principles of development

 The following 7 principles are the important for the development.

 Equitable use.
 Flexibility in use.

 Simple and intuitive use.

 Perceptible information.

 Tolerance for error.

 Low physical effort.

 Size and space for approach and use.

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4.1.3 Characteristics of development

 It is a continuous process.

 It is the result of interaction of individual and environment.

 It is predictable.

 It is both quantitative and qualitative.

 It follows a particular pattern like infancy, childhood, adolescence and maturity.

4.1.4 Steps involved in concept development

 There are 5 important steps involved, in the development process.

Step 1: Brain storming to create a pool of potential product (or) service concept.

Step 2: Performing customer research to target your ideal customer.

Step 3: Estimating the market potential for your product (or) service concept.

Step 4:Creating a prototype for your product.

Step 5:Devising a marketing strategy.

4.1.5 Effects of development

 It increases wealth (or) reduces poverty.

 It improves standards of living, health, education, infrastructure and technology.

4.1.6 Factors affecting development

 Followings are the important economic factors affecting development.

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1. Natural resources
Examples: Trees, soil, water, minerals, coal, oil, etc.,

 They help countries develop by creating jobs and increasing their wealth through the sales.

2. Power and energy resources

Examples: Oil, gas, coal and water.

 They, being natural, can be mined and sold quickly.

 They are important for producing power and energy within the country.
3. Capital accumulation

 If a country has more capital, it can creates more job. Low capital countries may have a low living wage and
high unemployment.

4. Technological resources

Examples: Computers, cell phones, etc.,

 It refers to ability to use advanced technologies within a country.

 It increases business capabilities and economic development of the country.

 Countries with low technological resources have poor economic development.

. Available labour force

 Number of skilled labours within the country increases the development.

6. Transportation and communications.

7. Education and training.

4.1.7 Advantages and disadvantages of development

Advantages of development

 Increased job satisfaction and morale among employees.

 Increased employee motivation.

 Increased efficiencies in processes, resulting in financial gain.

 Increased capacity to adopt new technologies and methods.

 Economic growth increases state capacity and the supply of public goods.

Disadvantages of development.

 Population growth.

 Weak governance and rapid urbanization.

 Poverty.

 Pollution like smog, acid rain, green house effect, depletion of ozone layer, sewage and garbage.

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4.2 GDP (GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT)

 GDP is the total market value of the goods and services, produced within a country, during the specified
period of time (usually 12 months (or) a year)

It is the broadest financial measurement of a nation’s total economic activity.

4.2.1 Types of GDP

1. Normal GDP

 It is the total value of all goods and services produced at current market prices.
2. Real GDP

 It is the sum of all goods and services produced at constant prices.

3. Actual GDP

 It is the real-time measurement of all outputs at any interval (or) any given time.

4.2.2 Significance (or) importance of GDP

 It identifies the present state of economy.

 It is used to compare the economics between countries.

 GDP is objective of policy formulation.

 GDP is the root cause.

 It gives information about the size of economy and how an economy is performing.

 It is used to determine the development and performance of the economy.

4.2.3 Calculation of GDP

 There are three different ways of calculating GDP

 The value added approach.

 The income approach (how much is earned as income on resource used to make stuff).
 xpenditure approach (how much is spent on stuff). Of three, the expenditure approach is followed.

Expenditure approach

 The expenditure approach calculates the GDP by calculating the sum of all the services and goods produced
in an economy.

 It is calculated with the following formulae.

 Private consumption + (Gross private investment +

 GDP= Government investment) + Government spending +

 (Exports − Imports)

 Y = C + I + G + (X − M)

 where,

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 Y = Gross Domestic Product.

 C = Consumption.

 I = Investment.

 G = Government spending.

 X = Exports.

 M = Imports.

4.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of GDP

Advantages of GDP

 GDP is a broad indicators of development.

 It is easy to measure growth in percentage.

 It is easy to compare to itself and other countries.

 GDP is easy and cheap to collect.

 GDP is calculated from a formula which all countries use therefore it is reliable indicator.

 It is the very good way for government to know whether economic policies have been successful.

 It can be broken up into GDP per capita which accounts for the population of the country when it is
calculated.

Disadvantages of GDP

 It does not include non-market transactions.

 It is narrow indicator that fails to show quality of life, standard of living, happiness, health care.

 It fails to indicate whether the growth of a nation is sustainable.

 GDP does not account inequality.

 It doesn’t account for environmental impacts of the economic policies.

 It doesn’t include the activity of informal sector (black market).

 Overseas income not taken into account.

 High inflation may be behind a high GDP rate.

 Government could adjust the figures to gain power.

 Production process could be immoral.

 It measures the growth in the past are not hugely relevant.

4.3 SUSTAINABILITY

It is defined as “meeting our own needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs”.

4.3.1 Need of sustainability

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 Sustainability is key to preserving our planet.

 Sustainability helps reduce pollution and conserve resources.

 Sustainability creates jobs and stimulates the economy.

 Sustainability improves public health.

 It protects biodiversity.

 It protects the natural environment.

 It is the choice of non-toxic materials.

 It reduces and reuses the resources.

 It minimizes waste.

 It is used for life-cycle analysis.

4.3.2 Concept (or) Approaches (or) Significance of Sustainability

 To build up the sustainability development, the following approaches (or) methods are proposed.

1. Developing appropriate technology: It is the one,

 which is locally adaptable, eco-friendly, resource-efficient and culturally suitable.

 It uses local labours, less resources, and produces minimum waste.

2. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (3-R) approach: It insists

 optimum use of natural resources, using it again and again instead of throwing it on the waste land (or)
water and recycling the material into further products.

 It reduces pressure on our natural resources and reduces waste generation and pollution.

3. Providing environmental education and awareness:

 By providing environmental education and awareness, the thinking and attitude of people towards our earth
and the environment can be changed.

4. Consumption of Renewable Resources:

 In order to attain sustainability, it is very important to consume the natural resources in such a way that the
consumption should not exceed regeneration capacity.

5. Conservation of non renewable resources:

 Non-renewable resources should be conserved by recycling and reusing.

6. Population Control:

 By controlling population growth, we can make very good sustainability development.

4.3.3 Economic and Social Challenges of Sustainability

I Economic sustainability

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 It refers to the organisation’s ability to manage its resources and responsibly generate profits in the long
term.

Examples

1. A company uniliver

 It has followed a strategy to achieve a balance between sustainability and the company’s economic
performance.

 So, it implemented several measures like increasing package recycling, promoting the use of recycled
materials and responsible consumption awareness campaigns.
2. A company suez

 It has reduced its emissions, related to electricity consumption, by 95% by using renewable energy and
conservation of natural habitats.
Economic challenges

 High rates of unemployment (or) under employment.

 High rates of poverty and low growth.

 Increasing inequality, with many not being included in the growth process.
 Disruption of major economic activities due to pandemic situation like tourism.

 Volatile growth dependent on one source.

 Low productivity due to poor human capital development.

 Skills mismatch between skills you have and the jobs you want to create.

 Lack of quality jobs.

 Macroeconomic instability and recurrent balance of payments shocks.

2. Social Sustainability

 It refers to strengthening the cohesion and stability of specific social groups.

Examples

1. A Company CEMEX

 It is working to contribute to the social development of communities.

 Thus, it offers decent housing through self-building programmes and loans with favourable access
conditions.

2. A Gigante group

 It contributes funds and resources to a range of social causes like school materials for collaborators and
grants to improve visual health.
Social Challenges

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 Though social impact, social sustainability challenges, issues are not easily measurable, they are easier to
identify.

 Social sustainability performance challenges include

 Human rights.

 Fair labour practices.

 Living conditions.

 Health and safety.

 Wellness, diversity and equity.

 Work-life balance.
 Empowerment.

 Community engagement.

4.3.4 Aspects of sustainability

 There are 4 aspects of sustainability, of them environmental sustainability is the fundamental and important
aspect.

1. Environmental aspect

 Environmental aspect acknowledges the need to enhance and maintain the biophysical systems that sustain
all the life on earth.

 It includes the structure and function of natural ecosystems and the interactions between them and people
and calls for guardianship (or) kaitiakitanga of our environment.

2. Social aspect

 Social aspect acknowledges the need for equity

 within and between generations, and

 within and between ethnic and social groups.

 It is inclusive of people’s mental and physical well-being and the cohesion of their communities based on a
fair distribution of resources.

3. Cultural aspect

 Cultural aspect acknowledges the need to nourish and share attitudes and values that represent diverse
world views and the political need for all people to express their views freely and to participate in decision
making.

 Addressing these needs can build resilience for the future.

4. Economic aspect

 Economic aspect acknowledges the interactions of humans with the natural environment in using resources
to create goods and services which add value to their lives.

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 It acknowledges the resource use and waste disposal must occur within the capacity of our planet.
 It encourages a fair trading system that equitably distributes benefits and costs.

 It further encourages innovation and creativity in developments that lead to a sustainable future.

 This model shows how our economy is a subset of our society.

 It also shows that everything in our economy and everything in our society entirely dependent on our
environment.

 This relationship means that any impact (or) change to our environment will impact on society and the
economy.

 Therefore any sustainability related issue must be considered holistically and recognise their
interdependence.

4.4 FROM UNSUSTAINABILITY TO SUSTAINABLITY

4.4.1 Unsustainability

 Our ancestors have left a lot of resources for us.

 They used their resources sensibly and not for their greed.

 But we are exploiting limited resources. Instead of using it for our needs, we are exploiting it for our greeds.

Characteristics of Unsustainability

 Unsustainability is one in which we forget our responsibility towards the environment.

 In unsustainability, we degrade the available resources.

 It not at all cares about the needs of future generations.

 Unsystematic planning can lead to damage to natural as well as human-made resources.

 Unsustainability leads to extreme degradation of the environment as well as the living organism.

Causes for unsustainability

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 Developing countries are responsible for the degradation.

 The rate of increase of National pollution. In this regard, developed countries contribute much more
developing countries.

 Raising population.

 People should look at environment as not only reserve of man but of all living organism.
 People built so many buildings, roads and dams for a luxurious life-style. We neglected the needs of animals
and destroy their habitats.

 We extract a lot of material from the lithosphere than what we need.

 We create a lot of chemical compounds, which break down in the environment and becomes problematic.

 We cut trees at a faster rate than they can grow, which causes global warming.
 Purchasing and using polythene bags contribute to growth of pollution.

4.4.2 Characteristics of Sustainability

 It reduces emission of greenhouse gases, which will reduce global warming and helps in preserving the
environment.

 It uses natural and biodegradable materials for reducing the impact on the environment.

 It emphasis on using renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy.

 It follows non-polluting construction practices.

 It protects the natural habitats.

 It improves the quality of human life.

 It minimises the depletion of natural resources.

 It teaches us to respect and care for all the life forms.

 It makes arrangements, so that the future generations are able to meet their own demands.

S.No. Sustainability Unsustainability

1. Prevention of natural Exploitation of natural resources is faster than the

resources. planet can handle and replenish.

2. Long-term economic Not quantifying ecosystem services and increased

growth without vulnerability to crises.
negatively impacting
our environment (or)
society.

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3. Equality, diversity, Labour laws, human rights, gender inequality and

social cohesion and poor treatment of indigenous people.
democracy.

4.5 MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

 The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were 8 international development goals.

 To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.

 To achieve universal primary education.

 To promote gender equality and empower women.

 To reduce child mortality.

 To improve maternal health.

 To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases.

 To ensure environmental sustainability.

 To develop a global partnership for development.

4.6 SUSTAINABILITY PROTOCOLS

 Sustainability protocols are sustainability standard and certifications.

 These are voluntary guidelines used by producers, manufacturers, traders, retailers and service providers to
demonstrate their commitment to good environmental, social, ethical and food safety practices.

 There are over 400 such standards across the world.

 The sustainability protocols listed below are important because they build awareness and policy support,
create clear guideline and goals.

 They have third-party verification and maintain consistency within a portfolio while developing Green
economy.

Few sustainability protocols

 LEED

 WELL

 Fitwel

 Living building challenge

 BREAM

 Passive house

 National Green Building Standard

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 Built green
 Evergreen sustainable development standard (ESDS)

 Introduction of eco-labels and standards for organic food and other food products.

 Triple bottom line, it includes a set of practices (or) criteria for how a crop should be sustainably grown (or)
a resource should be ethically harvested.
 It includes, responsible fishing practices that do not endanger marine biodiversity (or) respect for
humanrights and the payment of fair wages on a coffee (or) tea plantation.

 Sustainability protocols are accompanied by a verification process (certification) to evaluate that an

enterprise complies with a standard as well as a traceability process for certified products to be sold along
the supply chain, often resulting in a consumer-facing label.

 It also focus on capacity building and working with partners and other organizations to support small holders
(or) disadvantages producers to make the social and environmental improvements needed to meet the
standard.

4.7 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Definition

 Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

4.7.1 Aim of true sustainable development

 It aims at optimum use of natural resources with high degree of sustainability, minimum wastage, least
generation of toxic by-products and maximum productivity.

1. Inter - generational equity:

 It states that we should hand over a safe, healthy and resourceful environment to our future generations.

2. Intra - generational equity:

 It states that the technological development of rich countries should support the economic growth of the
poor countries and help in narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.

3. Place more emphasis on pollution prevention and waste reduction.

4. Recycle and reuse as many of our waste products and resources possible.

5. Make more goods that last longer and easy to use, recycle and repair.
6. Depends on renewable sources of energy (sun, wind, water, bio-mass).

7. Sustain earths biodiversity.

8. Earth degrading activities should be discouraged.

9. Reduce poverty and rate of population growth.

10. Don’t use high quality energy to do a job.

4.7.2 Goals of Sustainable Development

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 There are a total of 17 goals

 End poverty everywhere, in all its forms.

 End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition.

 Ensuring good health and promote the well-being of all age groups.

 Ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education.

 Achieving gender quality and empowering all women and children.

 Ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
 Ensuring access to affordable, reliable, clean and modern energy for all.

 Promoting sustainable economic growth.

 Building resilient infrastructure and promoting sustainable industrialisation.

 Reducing inequality within and among countries.

 Making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe resilient and sustainable.

 Ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns.

 Taking urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

 Conserving and sustainabily using the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.

 Protecting, restoring and promoting the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems.

 Promoting peaceful societies for sustainable development.

 Strengthening the means of implementation and revitalising the global partnership for sustainable
development.

4.7.3 Sustainable development targets

 Eradicate extreme poverty for all the people everywhere.

 Reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty.
 Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all including floors.

 Ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights to economic
resources, natural resources and new technology and financial services.
 Built the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure to climate
related events and disasters.

 Ensure significant mobilization of resources from a variety of sources from developed countries to less
developed countries.

 End hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor people and people in vulnerable
situations.

 End all forms of malnutrition.

 Double the agricultural productivity and income of small scale food producers.

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 Ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices.
 Maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed animals.

 Increase investment in rural infrastructure, agricultural research and technological development to enhance
agricultural productive capacity.

 Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets.
 Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets.

 Reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 1,00,000 live births.
 End preventable deaths of new borns and children under 5 years of age.

 End the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, hepatities, water-borne diseases.

 Reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through prevention and
treatment.

 Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse like narcotic drug abuse and harmful use of
alcohol.

 Halve the number of global death and injuries from road accidents.

 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive healthcare services like family planning.

 Achieve universal health coverage including financial risk protection.

 Reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water, soil pollution.

4.7.4 Sustainable development indicators

 Proportion of the population living below the international poverty line by sex, age, employment status.

 Proportion of the population living below the national poverty line by sex and age.

 Proportion of population covered by social protection floors.

 Proportion of total adult population with secure tenure rights to land with legally recognized
documentation.

 Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with
national disaster risk reduction strategies.

 Proportion of total government spending on essential services.

 Prevalence of under nourishment.

 Prevalence of stunting and mal-nutrition among children and 5 years of age and prevalence of anaemia in
women aged 15 to 49 years.
 Average income of small-scale food producers.

 Proportion of agricultural area under productive and sustainable agricultural practices.

 Proportion of local breeds classified as being at risk of extinction.

 Total official flows to the agricultural sector.

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 Agricultural export subsidies.

 Indicator of food price anomalies.

 Maternal mortality ratio.

 Under - 5 mortality rate.

 Hepatities B (or) Tuberculosis incidence per 100,000 population. Malaria incidence (or) HIV infections per
1000 population.

 Suicide mortality rate.

 Alcohol per capital consumption within a calendar year in litres of pure alcohol.

 Death rate due to road traffic injuries.

 Proportion of women of reproductive age, who have their need for family planning.

 Coverage of essential health services.

 Mortality rate due to unsafe water, sanitation and lack of hygiene.

4.7.5 Intervention areas of sustainable development goals

 Implementation of sustainable development goals are some what difficult because of the following
interventions.

 Climate change.

 Use of natural resources.

 Waste production.
 Water pollution.

 Deforestation.

 Over fishing. Poverty.

 Ocean acidification.

 Air pollution.
4.8 CLIMATE CHANGE

 Climate change refers to the long-term shifts in temperatures and weather pattern.
 These changes may be natural (through variations in solar cycle) (or) artificial (human activities like burning
of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gases).

4.8.1 Causes of climate change

 Presence of green house gases in the atmosphere increases the global temperature.

 Depletion of ozone layer also increases the global temperature.

 Uneven distribution of rainfall.

 Rotation of earth on its axis.

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Seasonal changes. 4.8.2 Effect (or) Issues of climate change

 Even small changes in climatic conditions may disturb agriculture that would lead to migration of animals
including humans.

 Climate change may upset the hydrological cycle, results in floods and droughts in different regions of the
world.

 Global pattern of winds and ocean currents also gets disturbed by climate.

 More frequent and intense drought.

 Sea levels gets raised.

 Melting glaciers and warming oceans can directly harm animals and destroy the places they live.

 Higher temperature increases heat related illnesses and make working outdoors more difficult.
 If conditions are hot wild fires start more easily and spread more rapidly.

 As green house concentration increases, global surface temperature also increases.

4.8.3 Possible solutions to climate change

 Burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas must be avoided.

 Renewable energy sources like solar, wind, tidal and geothermal power must be used instead of fossil fuels.

 Reducing petrol and diesel vehicles, planes and ships and switching to electric vehicles stop climate change.

 Heat our homes in a green way, by insulating walls and roofs and switching away from oil (or) gas boilers to
heat pumps.

 The best way for individuals to help stop climate change is by reducing their meat and dairy consumption
(or) by going fully vegetarian.

 Planting more trees in the right place will absorb more carbon from the emissions.
 Protect forests, which fight against climate change.

 Oceans also absorb large amounts of CO from the atmosphere, which helps to keep our climate stable.

 Reducing overall consumption in more wealthy countries can help put less strain on the planet.

 Avoid of using plastics.

 Reduce carbon pollution to avoid the worst consequence of climate change.

 Provide financial support to developing countries, so people and nature can successfully adapt.

4.9 CASE STUDIES

4.9.1 Climate change on Chennai, East Coast Road (ECR) and Old Mahabalipuram Road (OMR)

 ECR and OMR are the today’s landmark will receive the highest climate impact.
 Due to Chennai’s land use patterns, population stress and abuse of natural resources, climate has changed
drastically in the last few years.

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 Climate induced impacts like drought, floods, heavy rains and winds are becoming increasingly evident in the
city.

 On one end of the continuum is summer water crises and on the other end is monsoonal flood disasters.

Reason for flood in Chennai

 Increasing population and building / Land use pattern have changed the natural hydrology of the city.
 The water which needs to naturally drain into the sea via, the regional watershed are now blocked by
buildings and artificial man-made structures.

 These are all reason for flood in Chennai city.

Remedy

 Researchers predicts that Chennai’s climate is more unpredictable and aggressive.

 Climate change will affect people and the environment.

 People need to take action to reduce the emission of green house gases that is the root cause for climate
change.

4.9.2 Climate change on Chennai, Ennore

 Ennore thermal power station (ETPS), a 660 MW coal-fired thermal power plant in Ennore at north Chennai,
CPCL’s oil refinery, Madras Fertilizers Ltd, Tamil Nadu Petroproducts Ltd and Madras Petrochemical Ltd.

 These six factories were, operating in violation of prescribed air pollution norms for nearly 60%, responsible
for drastic climate change.

 More than 56 lakh tonnes of coal ash is spread over the river bed with flyash deposits ranging in depth from
1 ft to 8 ft.

Issues (or) effects

 Ground-level particulate matter pollution due to emissions, from above said 6 factories at around Ennore,
exceeded the carrying capacity of the area in the vicinity of the plant.

 Ground-level SO and NO pollution exceeded the carrying capacity of the area.

 In Ennore, children and women are particularly affected and gynecological problems were particularly
reported by respondents.

 Natural drainage pattern have been considerably altered due to fly ash pond construction and ash
contamination. This will have an impact on local hydrology and flooding.
 Climate change manifeasts in the form of rising sea levels, increased heat stress, intense rain events and
droughts and ocean desertification due to warming seas.
 More than 120 million litres of hot waste water is discharged daily, from Ennore power plant, into the
Ocean. Such discharge in an already warming Ocean will create localised marine deserts.

4.10 CARBON CREDIT

4.10.1 Definition

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 A carbon credit is a tradable permit (or) certificate that represents the right to emit a set amount of CO
(or) 1 tone of CO (or) the equivalent amount of green house gas.

4.10.2 Concept

 Kyoto protocol is an international agreement that aims to manage and reduce carbon dioxide emissions and
green house gases.

 Kyoto protocol introduced the concept of carbon credits.

 According to this, a country should reduce carbon emissions in the atmosphere.

 A carbon credit is a tradable certificate that allows its holder to emit green house gases.
 One carbon credit is equal to one ton of carbon dioxide.

 Countries need to reduce their emissions by 5.2% compared to the numbers recorded.
 Countries and companies need to be designed to reduce carbon emissions without the need to buy credits.

 Less the purchase, less will be the carbon release into the atmosphere.
4.10.3 Types of carbon credits

 There are two types of carbon credits.

1. Voluntary emissions reduction (VER)

 It is a carbon offset that is exchanged in the over-the-counter (or) voluntary market for credits.

2. Certified emissions reduction (CER)

 It relies on emission credits created through a regulatory frame work with the purpose of off-setting a
project’s emissions.

4.10.4 How to get carbon credit

 Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of a national and international attempts to mitigate
the growth in concentrations of green house gases (GHGs).

 One carbon credit is equal to one ton of CO (or) CO equivalent gases.

 There are many companies, that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who are
interested in lowering their carbon foot print.

 Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade, which is like a stock exchange for carbon
credits.

4.10.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Carbon Credits

Advantages of Carbon Credit

 Each carbon credit corresponds to one ton of carbon that was not emitted into the atmosphere.
 The company that does not have an alternative to reduce its emission finds an advantage in the purchase of
this credit.

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 The purchase of carbon credits by companies that are environmentally conscious is favorable for their
image.

 Sometimes the company behaves sustainably, but it cannot stop emitting some amount of carbon. In this
case, the purchase of credit shows how much the company cares about encouraging sustainable activities.

 It enables companies to support decarbonization beyond their own carbon footprint.

Disadvantages of Carbon Credit

 Some institutions and countries can accommodate themselves in the exchange market to continue emitting
their greenhouse gases.
 Companies do not invest in action to avoid emissions because they are able to buy unlimited credits.

 The reduction of 1 ton of carbon that is 1 credit, will never be enough.

 It is an alternative for emergency needs, not to rest on the fact that the other has saved.

 Main focus of carbon credit is to reduce green house gas emissions, but it is not possible to stop the
negative impacts caused by the globle warming.
4.11 CARBON FOOTPRINT

Definition
It is the total amount of green house gases (including CO and CH ) that are generated (emitted) by our
direct and indirect activities.

Individual carbon footprint

 It is the sum total of their direct and indirect carbon emissions over the course of a year.

i.e., Smaller your carbon Footprint : better for the future

Bigger your carbon Footprint : Have bigger negative impact in environment

 The average carbon footprint for a person in united state is 16 tons. Globally, the average is closer to 4 tones.

 To avoid 2°C rise in global temperatures, the average global carbon footprint per year needs to drop under 2
tons by 2050.

4.11.1 Sources of carbon footprint

 Climate change.

 Natural process like volcanos.

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 Green house gases emitted from human activities.

 Pollution released by human beings doing human things.

 Transportation accounted for about 28% of total country.

 Electricity generation accounted for about 28%.

 Industrial activities 22%.

 Heating and cooling in homes and businesses contribute 11%.

4.11.2 Causes of a carbon footprint

 The major contributors to carbon footprints are

 food: (especially meat (beef))

 consumption

 transportation
 house hold energy

4.11.3 How to lower (control) carbon footprint (or) 15 ways to reduce your carbon footprint

 Lowering individual carbon footprint from 16 tons to 2 tons does not happen over night.

 But, by making small changes in our action we can reduce carbon footprint.

 Once you understand where your emission comes from, you can take steps to reduce your impact.

 Calculate your carbon footprint.

 Drive less.

 Switch to an electric (or) hybrid car.

 Travel smart.

 Switch to renewable energy.

 Consider solar panels.

 Make your home more efficient.

 Turn your thermostat just 2 degrees cooler in winter and 2 degrees warmer in summer.
 Get energy efficient appliances.

 Unplug electrical devices when not in use.

 Buy locally - sourced food.

 Start a home garden.

 Eat less meat.

 Don’t waste water.

 Reduce, reuse and recycle.

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 To monitoring plan to enable evaluation of the success (or) failure of environmental management measures.
 To carry out reorientation of the plan if found necessary.

 To implement the protective and enhancement measures by adopting suitable planning and design criteria
for construction of the project.

 To improve the quality of human life.

 To prevent and solve environmental problems.

 To establish limits and standards.

4.12 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Environmental management is a set of practices and processes that enable any organization, whether private
(or) public, to reduce its environmental impacts and increasing its operating efficiency.
4.12.1 Objective (or) Aim of EM

 To mitigate adverse impacts on various environmental components, which have been identified during the
rapid environmental impact assessment study.

 To protect environmental resources.

 To enhance the value of environmental components where possible.

 To warn against threats and identify opportunities.

 To develop strategy for improving quality of life.

 To identify new eco-friendly technologies for sustainable development.

 To protect the environment from the effects of manufacturing byproducts.

 To protect your business from non compliance fines and penalties.

4.12.2 Principles of environmental management

 There are 7 basic principles, which are some guiding principles of environmental management.
 These principles are helpful in environmental decision making.

 1. Polluter pays principle (PPP)

 It states that firms discharge polluting effluent to the environment.

 If measures are adopted to reduce pollution, the cost should be paid by the polluters (firms).

 2. The user pays principle (UPP)

 It states that all resource users should pay the cost of the use of a resource and related services.

 3. The precautionary principle (PP)

 It states that a substance (or) activity, posing a threat to the environment, is prevented from adversely
affecting the environment.

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 4. Principle of effectiveness and efficiency

 The efficiency of resource use may be accomplished by the use of policy instruments that create incentive to
minimize wasteful use.

 5. The principle of responsibility

 It is the responsibility of all persons, to use the environmental resources in an ecological sustainable,
economically efficient and socially fair manner.

 The principle of participation

 It is the duty of all the persons to participate in collectively environmental decision making activities.
 7. The principle of proportionality

 It is based on the concept of balance. A balance is to maintain between the economic development on the
one hand and environmental protection on the other hand.

 4.12.3 Steps involved in environmental management

 The following 5 steps are involved in environmental management.

Flow Chart

Fig. 4.4 Environmental Management

Step 1: Environmental policy

 It is the mission of an organization, which starts with establishing an environmental policy.

Step 2: Planning

 It involves identifying the resources, processes, significant impacts and pollution prevention opportunities.

 It also includes objectives and targets for improvement efforts.

Step 3: Implementation

 This step consists of defining the structure, responsibilities and programs.

 It also develops and implements standard operating procedures and training.

Step 4: Checking and correction

 It includes monitoring and measuring problems identification and corrective and preventive action
implementation.

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Step 5: Management review

 It involves modification of environmental management system to ensure solutions on compliance.

 Based on the result of checking and correction, management must take corrective actions.

4.12.4 Characteristics of environmental management

 Environmental management supports sustainable development.

 It demands the multidisciplinary approach.

 It has to integrate different development view points It seeks to integrate natural and social
science.

 It can extend from short-term to long-term and from local to global level.
 It deals with a world affected by humans.

4.12.5 Benefits of Environmental Management

 Improved environmental performance

 Enhanced compliance

 Pollution prevention
 Resource conservation

 Attracts new customers/markets Increased efficiency/reduced costs

 Enhanced employee morale

 Enhanced image with public, regulators, lenders and investors.

4.13 CASE STUDTIES

4.13.1 Electronic waste (E-waste) Recycling, Dell company

 Dell company, through its “legacy of good” programme, the technology giant has plan to cut waste, create
more eco-friendly products.

 It plans to use 50 m pounds of recycled plastic and other sustainable materials, create 100% recyclable (or)
compostable packaging and recover 2 bn pounds of electronic waste.

 Dell sourced 4.5 m kilos of recycled plastic to make monitors and desktops.

 Dell eliminated 20 m pounds of packaging waste and generating more than 18 m in cost savings.

 Its intention to reduce packaging waste, replacing non biodegradable, oil-base material with organic
alternatives such as bamboo and mushrooms.
 As a part of its effort to encourage others to see waste as a valuable resource.

 Finally, the most appropriate environmental management strategy to control environmental pollution is
cleaner production So, according to environmental management principles, cleaner production is a proactive
approach where companies take preventive measure to reduce waste production at source.

4.13.2 Biomedical waste management in Nepal

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 Due to improper environment management techniques, Nepal has many problems with medical waste,
which impact adversely the environment including human health.

 Nepal Health Resource council in collaboration with world health organization (WHO) has developed
national health care waste management guidelines and training manuals for medical professionals, but it has
not been functioning well.

 As a result, many hospitals use small scale incinerators (or) open burn (or) dump the waste in their premises
until the garbage pickers comes and dispose in the landfill.

 Incinerator facilities, if properly implemented, not only reduce final disposal of waste, but also produce
electricity/heat, saving (energy) resources.
 This situation in Nepal is much worsen because it was not properly built and there are residents who could
directly be affected by emissions resulted from the smoke around the burning equipment.

4.13.3 Municipal solid waste management in solapur city, Maharashtra, India

 Total waste generated in solapur corporation area is 420 MT/day, of which 50% is biodegradable, 25% is
recyclable, 15.3% is green and 9.9% is debris and slit.
 About 51% of the total solid waste, collected from entire city, is biodegradable.

 The waste is disposed daily to the landfill site located on Tuljapur road and Bhogaon.
 The disposal site is open and gives rise to contamination and the treatment process is not followed.

 The landfill sites are not well maintained, which create the threat of groundwater contamination due to
leachate percolation.
 Most of the waste remains lying down in open causing pollution with the odour and smell unless degrades
naturally.

 A treatment plant of anaerobic digestion is in progress to extract energy from organic waste generating the
biogas.

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Unit-V
Sustainability Practices
5.1 ZERO WASTE

Definition

Zero waste is a set of principles, focused on waste prevention, that encourages redesigning resource life cycles, so
that all products are reused.

5.1.1 Goal

 The material should be reused until the optimum level of consumption is reached.

 It provides guidelines for continually working towards eliminating waste.

 To avoid sending trash to landfills, incinerators (or) the ocean.

5.1.2 Concept

 The conservation of all the resources by means of responsible production, consumption, reuse and recovery
of products, packaging and materials without burning and with no discharges to land, water (or) air that
threaten the environment (or) human health.

Fig. 5.1 Logo for zero waste

Examples of zero waste

 one - way recyclable glass bottles.

 one - way milk bags.

 one - way aseptic cartons.

 one - way table - top paper board cartons.

5.1.3 Principles of zero waste

1. Refuse what you don’t need:

 It prevents unwanted items from coming into your home.

2. Reduce what you do use:

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 It is equal to less waste at the end.

3. Reuse whatever you can.

4. Recycle what you can’t refuse (or) reduce.

5. Regulate of what’s left over:

 Composting food scraps, paper pieces and wooden (or) bamboo tooth brushes returns nutrients and fiber
back to the earth.

FLOW CHART

Fig. 5.2 Zero waste Hierarchy

5.1.4 Steps to achieve zero waste

 Identify the high waste areas of our life-style.

 Know where to apply the principle of zero waste, if the waste cannot be removed (or) reduced.
 Substitute single use plastic with eco-friendly zero waste options.

 Buy zero waste (or) eco-friendly products.

 Support eco-friendly businesses.

 Put all your kitchen waste to good use (compositing).

 Reuse, up cycle and re-purpose.

5.1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of zero waste

Advantages (or) Benefits

 Zero waste reduces our climate impact.

 It conserves resources and minimizes pollution.

 It promotes social equity and builds community.

 It supports a local circular economy and creates jobs.

 Zero waste needs businesses to play a key role.

Disadvantages (or) problem of zero waste

 Since zero wastes are solids, it is difficult to store.

 It is more expensive.

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 Zero waste in time-consuming.

 It can cause anxiety.

 Zero waste can be misleading.

 It can be difficult for a large household.

 Zero waste products are hard to find.

5.2 R CONCEPT (OR) 3R CONCEPT (REDUCE,REUSE AND RECYCLE)

Definition

The principle of reducing waste, reusing and recycling resources and products is often called 3Rs.

1. Reduce

 Reducing means choosing to use things with care to reduce the amount of waste generated.
 If the usage of raw materials are reduced, the generation of waste also gets reduced.

2. Reuse

 Reusing involves the repeated use of items (or) parts of items which still have usable aspects.

 The refillable containers, which are discarded after use, can be reused.

 Rubber rings can be made from the discarded cycle tubes, which reduces the waste generation during
manufacturing of rubber bands.

3. Recycle

 Recycling means the use of waste itself as the resources.

 It involves reprocessing of the discarded materials into new useful products.

Examples

 Old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and bottles.
 Preparation of cellulose insulation from paper.

 Preparation of fuel pellets from kitchen waste.

 Preparation of automobiles and construction materials from steel cans.

 The above process saves money, energy, raw materials, and reduces pollution.

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Fig. 5.3 3R Concept

5.2.2 Principle

 3R is the order of priority of actions to be taken to reduce the amount of waste generated and to improve
overall waste management processes and programs.

5.2.3 Importance of 3 Rs
 The most effective way to reduce the garbage is reducing the amount of solid waste produced.

 By reducing waste at the source, the resources like water and energy can be saved.
 Like reducing, reusing avoids creating waste rather than trying to recycle it once it’s already there.

 Operating a well-run recycling program costs less than waste collection and land filling.

 Recycling helps families save money because they pay for less disposal costs.
 recycling produces less air and water pollution than manufacturing with new materials.

 By recycling less materials are sent to landfills, which will keep them for future.
 Proper disposal and recycling will prevent water and soil contamination.

5.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of 3 Rs

Advantages (or) Benefits of 3 Rs

 Reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

 Saves energy.

 Helps sustain the environment for future generations.

 Reduces the amount of waste that will need to be recycled (or) sent to landfills and incinerators.

 Save money.
 Prevent pollution.

Disadvantages of 3 Rs

 High upfront capital cost.

 Recycling sites are always unhygienic, unsafe and unsightly.

 Products from recycled waste may not be durable.

 Recycling might not be inexpensive.

 3R is more energy consumption and pollution.

 3R generates pollutants.

 Processing cost is high.

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 Quality of resultant product is low.

5.3 CIRCULAR ECONOMY

Definition

Circular economy is a new production and consumption model that ensures sustainable growth over time. It
reduces the consumption of raw materials and recover wastes by recycling (or) giving it a second life as a new
product5.3.1 Aim (or) Purpose

 Aim of the circular economy is to make the most of the material resources available to us by applying
three basic principles reduce, reuse and recycle.
 In this way the life cycle of products is extended, waste is used and a more efficient and sustainable
production model is established over time.

5.3.2 Benefits of circular economy

 It protects environment.

 Circular economy benefits the local economy.

 It drives employment growth.

It promotes resource independence

Fig. 5.4 Circular Economy

5.3.3 Necessary steps (7Rs) to achieve a circular economy

1. Redesign
 Redesigning process consumes fewer raw materials, extends their life cycle and generates less waste.

2. Reduce

 If we reduce consumption, waste generation and use of raw materials, impact on the environment gets
reduced.

3. Reuse

 Reusing the products extends their life cycle.

4. Repair

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 Repairing avoids the use of new raw materials, saves energy and does not generate environmental waste.
 5. Renovate

 Update old objects, so that they can be reused.

 6. Recycle

 Waste product can be used as raw material to manufacture new products.

 7. Recover

 The products that are going to be discarded, can be used for new uses.
 Example for Circular Economy

 Manufacturers design products to be reusable.

 Electrical devices are designed in such a way that they are easier to repair. Products and raw materials are
also reused as much as possible.

 5.4 ISO 140000 SERIES

 ISO

 ISO is an International Organization for Standardization.

 It is composed of representatives from various national standard organizations.

 It provides standards and guidelines for a variety of businesses and purposes and publishes technical reports.

 ISO 14000 series

 It is a family of standards related to environmental management that exist to help organizations.

 minimize how their operations negatively affect the environment.

 comply with applicable laws, regulations and other environmentally oriented requirements.
 continually improve with above 5.4.1 Objective of ISO14000 series

 The primary objective of ISO14000 series of standard is to promote effective environmental management
systems in organizations

Fig. 5.5 Logo of ISO

5.4.2 List of ISO 14000 Series Standards

 It includes a catalogue of over 50 Environmental management and performance related standards.

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But some important ISO14000 series standards are listed here.

Standard Title Applications

ISO14001 Environmental Requirements with guidance for use.

management
system.

ISO14004 Environmental General guidelines on implementation.

management
system.

ISO14005 Environmental Guidelines for flexible approach to

management implementation.
system.

Standard Title Applications

ISO14015 Environmental Environmental

management. assessment of sites.

ISO14020 to Environmental Environmental labels and declarations.

14025 management.

ISO14030 Green bonds. Environmental performance of nominated

projects

and assets.

ISO14031 Environmental Environmental performance evaluation &

Guidelines.
management.

ISO14040 to Environmental Discusses pre-production planning.

14049 management.

Standard Title Applications

ISO14050 Environmental Vocabulary, terms

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management. and definitions.

ISO14062 Environmental Product design and

management. development.

ISO14063 Environmental Guidelines and

management. examples.

ISO14064 Environmental Reducing green

management. house gas

emissions.

ISO14090 Environmental Adaptation of

management. climate change.

5.4.3 Core elements of ISO 14000

 It contains the following six key elements.

 Environmental policy.

 Planning.

 Implementation and operation.

 Checking and corrective action.

 Management review.

Continuous improvement

5.4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of ISO14000

Advantages (or) Benefits

 The following five important benefits of quality management system

 It identifies risks and opportunities.

 It prevents problems from reoccurring.

 It boosts your marketing and sales efforts.

 It improves employee performance.

It improves your control over the business

 It lowers costs like energy bills, tax and insurance bills.

 It helps to reduce waste.

 It helps to minimize the carbon footprint of a company.

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 It is recognised internationally.
 It gives immediate notice about the environmental performance of a company.

Disadvantages (or) limitations

 It is extremely costly to implement if not done properly.

It requires a lot of administrative work

 No improvement in environmental performance.

 Organizations face a lot of challenges while implementing this standards.

5.5 MATERIAL LIFE CYCLE ASSESMENT

Definition

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a process of evaluating the effects of a material on the environment over the entire
period of its life, there by increasing resource use efficiency and decreasing liabilities.

 Generally LCA is used to study the environmental impact of a material.

LCA is commonly referred to as a cradle-to-grave analysis

5.5.1 Stages of a life cycle assessment

 The followings are the 5 stages of a life cycle assessment

Step 1: Raw materials (Resources) extraction and processing.

Step 2: Manufacturing.

Step 3: Transportation.

Step 4: Distribution.

Step 5: Usage and retail.

Step 6: Waste disposal (end of life).

Fig 5.6 Life cycle assessment

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 In the manufactured product, environmental impacts are assessed from raw material extraction and
processing, through the product’s manufacture, distribution and use, to the recycling (or) final disposal of the
materials.
5.5.2 Benefits (or) Advantages of LCA

 LCA is widely used to support sustainable development.

 LCA allows decision makers to compare two products and to select the product that has lowest impact on
the environment.

 It is a modelling tool to assess environmental impacts of a product during its entire lifespan.
 LCA provides a holistic view on the environmental impacts, to avoid optimizing one environmental indicator
without considering the effects on the other indicators.

 LCA identifies hotspots in the environmental impact.

LCA is purely based on internationally accepted standards.

5.5.3 Disadvantages (or) Limitations

 LCA assesses the real world in a simplified model.

 The assumptions, scenaries and scope may vary from one study to the other leading to different LCA results.
 Variations in LCA approaches and results may be confusing especially for non-experts.

 LCA study requires large amount of data.

 If data collection is poor, the study will not lead to solid conclusions.

 It is not easy to communicate the results of a LCA study.

 Human health is improved.

 It helps in preventing natural calamities like earthquake, cyclone, etc.,

5.6.4 Process of EIA (or) Key Elements of EIA

 The key elements used in the process of EIA are

 Scoping

 Screening

 Identifying and evaluating alternatives

 Mitigating measures dealing with uncertainty

 Issuing environmental statements

1. Scoping

 It is used to identify the key issues of the concern in the planning process at an early stage. It is also used to
aid site selection and identify any possible alternatives.

2. Screening

 It is used to decide whether an EIA is required (or) not based on the information collected.

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3. Identifying and evaluating alternatives

 It involves knowing alternative sites and alternative techniques and their impacts.

4. Mitigating measures dealing with uncertainty

 It reviews the action taken to prevent (or) minimize the adverse effects of a project.

5. Environmental statements

This is the final stage of the EIA process. It reports the findings of the EIA 5.7 SUSTAINABLE HABITAT

 Sustainable habitat means the maintenance of our natural home.

Definition

 A sustainable habitat is an ecosystem that produces food and shelter for people and other organisms
without resource depletion ie., no external waste is produced.

5.7.1 Features (or) Characteristics of sustainable habitat

 Proper waste management.

 Affordable housing.

 Waste water treatment and facility of recycling waste water.

Green transportation using green fuel like biodiesel 5.7.2 Objectives of national mission on sustainable habitat

 To reduce energy demand by promoting alternative technologies and energy conservation practices in both
residential and commercial areas.

 Better urban planning like

 using better disaster management

 lesser use of private transport

 more usage of public transport

 Encourage community involvement and participation of stake holders.

 Conservation of natural resources such as clean air, water, flora and fauna.
 Facilitate the growth of small and medium cities.

To create sustainable habitats, engineers and architects should not consider any element as a waste product How
to maintain sustainable habitat

 For maintaining our sustainable habitat, we should

 Promote energy efficiency.

 Promote the use of eco-friendly fuels.

 Better manage municipal solid waste.

 Promote to public transport.

5.8 GREEN BUILDINGS

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Definition
Green building is an efficient method of construction that produces healthier buildings, which have less impact on
the environment and climate. It requires less cost to maintain.

 Green buildings preserve previous natural resources and improve our quality of life.

5.8.1 Criteria for green building

 Green builders are encouraged to build on previously developed land rather than developing new land.

 It is also important to build near existing infrastructure like bus routes, market, libraries.
 The building site should be smaller because there is less environmental foot print.

 Sites must be sustainably landscaped and don’t suffer from soil erosion (or) light pollution.
 Water reduction is built in by design using low-flow toilets, grey water systems.

 Green buildings are constructed using clean energy like geothermal, solar, wind energies.

 Green builders reduce material usage wherever possible. Mainly they use natural, renewable sources.
Selecting low emitting materials and products not only improves human health but also protect the overall
environment

5.8.2 Features of green building

 Efficient use of energy, water and other resources.

 Use of renewable energy such as solar energy.

 Pollution and waste reduction measures ie., reuse and recycling.

 Good indoor environmental air quality.

 Use of materials that are non-toxic, ethical and sustainable.

 A design that enables adaptation to a changing environment.

 Consideration of the quality of life of occupants in design, construction and operation.

 Construction of the environment in design, construction and operation.

 Thus, any building can be a green building whether it is a home, an office, a school, a hospital, a community
centre provided it includes features listed above.

5.8.3 Principles of green building

 The five principles of green building are

 Livable communities.

 Energy efficiency.

 Indoor air quality.

 Resource conservation.

 Water conservation.

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5.8.4 Components of green building

 Seven important components of green buildings are

 Aluminium weather resistant insulated access panel. It helps regulate in door temperature and
prevent moisture and pest from entering.

 Energy efficient windows.

 Green roof.

 Solar power.
 Water conservation.

 Recycling.
 Landscaping.

5.8.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of green building

Advantages of green buildings

 Green buildings are energy efficient.

 Higher fraction of eco-friendly materials.

 Water - efficient devices.

 Reduction in waste.

 Less air pollution.

 Reduction in green house gas emissions.

 Protection of our natural resources.

 Indoor air quality is improved.

 Use of recycled metal and other construction materials.

 Emphasis on renewable energies.

 Day lighting is utilized as best as possible.

 Use of renewable plant materials.

 Higher market value.

 Rainwater collection and use of compost bins.

 Overall health improvements.

Disadvantages of green building

 High initial costs.

 Energy supply may depend on weather condition.

 Technology problems are more.

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 Maintenance may be difficult.

 Indoor air temperature may greatly vary over time.

 Experienced green construction workers may be rare.

 Green construction is not suitable for all locations.

 Availability of green construction materials.

Funding problems for green buildings

5.9 GREEN MATERIALS

Definition

Green materials also called eco-friendly materials, building construction materials that have low impact on the
environment. Due to the properties of non-toxic, organic and recycling, green materials are widely used in various
industrial applications.

Examples: Naturally occurring materials like wood, ceramics, glass, clay, sand, stone.
5.9.1 Criteria for green materials

 Following criteria can be used to identify the green materials.

 Local availability of materials.

 Embodied energy of materials.

 % of recycled (or) waste materials used.

 Rapidly renewable materials.

 Contribution in energy efficiency of building.

 Recyclability of materials.

 Durability.

 Environmental impact.

 Evolution of the material can be made using the mentioned criteria.

5.9.2 Characteristics of green materials

 Common characteristics of green materials are

 Green materials are energy efficient products, it uses less energy to do the same task.

 It lowers energy cost and lessen pollution.

 Green materials are mostly renewable, can be regenerated again and again.

Example Bamboo grows quickly while pine grows more slowly, but both are renewable

 Green materials are recyclable (or) made from recycled material. So, they save energy and reduce waste.

 Green materials are non-toxic, they do not emit odors, irritants (or) hazardous compounds that affect human
health.

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 They are durable and no need to upgrade (or) repair. They preserve resources and energy.
 They are cost-effective.

 They can be locally sourced, so transport cost can be reduced.

5.9.3 Important green building materials

 Green building is construction that primarily uses natural materials and renewable resources. These
structures look really cool.

1. Stone: It is low maintenance and durable

2. 2. Cob:
3. (mud mixture of natural ingredients like soil, sand, straw and lime).
4. It is cheap and energy efficient.
5. 3. Bamboo
6. It is durable and light weight.
7. 4. Cork: (Cork canes from oak trees).
8. It is a very good thermal insulator and mold resistant
9. 5. Adobe brick: (brick made of clay and straw).
10. Natural noise protection and posses unique design (can be easily cut and transformed).
11. 6. Straw bale
12. Easily renewable and cheap.
13. 7. Cord wood
14. Affordable (cheap and easy construction), thermal efficiency
15. 2. Cob:
16. (mud mixture of natural ingredients like soil, sand, straw and lime).
17. It is cheap and energy efficient.
18. 3. Bamboo
19. It is durable and light weight.
20. 4. Cork: (Cork canes from oak trees).
21. It is a very good thermal insulator and mold resistant
22. 5. Adobe brick: (brick made of clay and straw).
23. Natural noise protection and posses unique design (can be easily cut and transformed).
24. 6. Straw bale
25. Easily renewable and cheap.
26. 7. Cord wood
27. Affordable (cheap and easy construction), thermal efficiency
28. 8. Earth bags (or) sand bags
29. Locally sourced and provide natural insulation.
30. 9. Mycelium (or) mushroom roots
31. Strong and light weight.
32. 5.9.4 Examples of green materials
33. Bamboo floorings.
34. LED lightings.
35. Reclaimed wood.
36. Energy efficient appliances.
37. High-efficiency glass windows.
38. Solar panels
39. Recycled steel.

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40. Cork.
41. Precast concrete slabs.
42. Low VOC paint.
1. Recycled steel.

2. Cork.

3. Precast concrete slabs.

4. Low VOC paint.

5.10 ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Definition

Energy efficiency is the use of less energy to perform the same task (or) produce the same result.
Energy efficient homes and buildings use less energy to heat, cool and run appliances and electronics

Fig. 5.7 Energy efficiency logo

5.10.1 Methods of achieving energy efficiency

 Energy efficiency can be achieved by the following methods.

 Alternative waste treatment.

 Avoided emissions from diverting legacy waste from landfill for process engineered fuel manufacture.
 Avoided emissions from diverting legacy waste from landfill through a composting alternative waste
technology.

Capture and combustion of landfill gas

5.10.2 Calculation of energy efficiency

 Energy efficiency can be calculated using the following relation.

energy output

Energy efficiency = × 100%

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energy input
wout

η= × 100%

win

5.10.3 Advantages (or) Benefits of energy efficiency

 Using energy more efficiently is one of the fastest, most cost - effective ways to save money.

 Increased energy efficiency can lower greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants.
 Energy efficiency also decreases water use.

 It can lower individual utility bills, create jobs and help stabilize electricity prices.

 It provides long-term benefits by lowering overall electricity demand, thus reducing the need to invest in
new electricity generation and transmission infrastructure.

Energy efficient construction is environmentally - friendly as it does not emit harmful carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.

Example

Energy - efficient LED light bulbs are able to produce the same amount of light as incandescent light bulbs by
using 75 to 80% less electricity.

5.10.4 Disadvantages (or) limitations of energy efficiency

 Energy efficient construction is the high cost of enforcing ie., addition cost is required to build and plan such
buildings.

 Building materials are not always available.

 Although energy efficient construction is environmentally friendly, it produces less carbon emissions and has
slight unfavorable effects on the human health.

 Indoor air is 3 to 7 times more polluted than outdoor air.

5.11 SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT

Definition

Sustainable transport refers to any means of transportation that is “green” and has low impact on the
environment.

Examples

 walking
 cycling

 transit
 carpooling

 car sharing

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 green vehicles
 Sustainable transport can carry people for more efficiently than cars.

 Electric cars pollute less and reduce individual carbon foot prints.

Fig. 5.8 Sustainable transport

5.11.1 Importance of sustainable transport
 Sustainable transport contributes to reduction in damaging CO emission and therefore to a reduction in
atmospheric pollution and improved air quality in cities.
 The aim of this type of transport is to reduce the negative impacts on the environment.

5.11.2 Key elements of sustainable transport

1. Fuel economy

 The better fuel economy gets the lower emissions go. By improving fuel economy we can get the same
mileage while generating fewer emissions.

 It is achieved by

 making engines more efficient.

 vehicles lighter and bodies more aerodynamic.

2. Occupancy

 The cheapest and simplest way to lower the carbon intensity of a vehicle is to stick more people in the
vehicle.

Example

 Local bus has emissions 7 times higher than the school bus.

 The main difference is that the school bus has very high occupancy.

3. Electrification

 Electrification is the most important pathway to low carbon transport.

4. Pedal power

 Bicycles reduces the carbon emissions.

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5. Urbanization
 It is a huge opportunity for lowering both distance travelled per person and the carbon intensity of that
travel.

5.11.3 How to Promote sustainable transport

 Followings are steps for promoting sustainable transport.

1. Enhancing public transportation:

 It is not only less polluting means of transportation, but also promoting HSE (Health, safety and
environment) policy.
2. Encouraging car pooling:

 It reduces the volume of CO , emitted per inhabitant.

3. Encouraging bicycle use:

 It is reliable and non-polluting means of transportation.

4. Teleworking:

 It reduces employee travel and therefore their carbon food print.

5. Improving the parking experience:

 It can be done effectively with the help of a parking management

Software

5.11.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of sustainable transport

Advantages (or) benefits

 It creates job.

 Provides safer transportation.

 Emits less pollution.

 Promotes health (sustainable transit reduces emissions and air pollution)

 It saves energy.

 Saves money.
7. Decreases congestion:

 When people choose sustainable transportation, over driving themselves, congestion also decreases.
8. It conserves land.

 It encourages compact development, fewer roadways in country areas results in less runoff, thereby
protecting the land and the biodiversity.

Disadvantages (or) limitations

 Modifications to handling and transport facilities.

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 The initial purchase of reusable containers.

 Additional costs of the tracking system e.g., software packages, reading equipments, electronic
chips, barcode labelling, detector’s etc.,

5.12 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

Definition
Sustainable energy is the energy which meets the needs of present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.

 It should be encouraged as it does not cause any harm to the environment and is available widely at free of
cost.

5.12.1 Sources of sustainable energy

 Followings are the sustainable enery sources as they are stable and available in plenty.

 Wind energy.

 Solar energy.

 Ocean energy.

 Hydro power.

 Geothermal energy.

5.12.2 Advantages and disadvantages of sustainable energy

Advantages (or) Benefits

1. Improves public health

 Burning of fossil fuels produces serious public health issues like neurological damage, cancer, heart attacks,
breathing problems and premature death.
 However these problems can be eliminated by using sustainable energy sources, which emit no air (or)
water pollutants.

2. Creates local jobs

Since most of the sustainable energy infrastructure is built locally (or) in the same country, it helps creates jobs
and improves the economy 5.12.2 Advantages and disadvantages of sustainable energy
Advantages (or) Benefits

1. Improves public health

 Burning of fossil fuels produces serious public health issues like neurological damage, cancer, heart attacks,
breathing problems and premature death.

 However these problems can be eliminated by using sustainable energy sources, which emit no air (or)
water pollutants.
2. Creates local jobs

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Since most of the sustainable energy infrastructure is built locally (or) in the same country, it helps creates jobs
and improves the economy

3. Decrease your carbon footprint

 Sustainable energy like wind and solar energy creates zero carbon emissions.

4. Cost saving
 As it is easily available they are much more cost-effective than traditional energy resources, such as power
plants

5. Energy security
 It helps to conserve the planet’s natural resources and reduce the pollution.

Disadvantages (or) limitations

 Sustainable energy sources are not available round the clock.

 The efficiency of sustainable energy technologies is low.

 The initial cost of sustainable energy is high.

 Sustainable energy sites require a lot of space.

 Sustainable energy devices need recycling.

5.13 NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES (OR) RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE

 Non-conventional sources are natural resources which can be regenerated continuously and are
inexhaustible.

 They can be used again and again in an endless manner.

Examples Wood, solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, tidal energy, etc.,

Merits of Non-conventional energy resources

 Unlimited supply.

 Provides energy security.

 Fits into sustainable development concept.

 Reliable and the devices are modular in size.

 Decentralized energy production.

5.13.1 Solar energy

The energy that we get directly from the sun is called solar energy.

 The nuclear fusion reactions occurring inside the sun release enormous amount of energy in the form of
heat and light.
 Several techniques are available for collecting, converting and using solar energy.

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Some important solar energy harvesting devices are given below

1. Solar cells (or) photovoltaic cells (or) PV cells

Fig. 5.9 Solar cell

 Solar cells consists of a p-type semiconductor (such as Si doped with B) and n-type semiconductor (such as Si
doped with P).
 They are in close contact with each other.

 When the solar rays fall on the top layer of p-type semiconductor, the electrons from the valence band get
promoted to the conduction band and cross the p-n junction into n-type semiconductor.

 There by potential difference between two layers is created, which causes flow of electrons (ie., an electric
current).

Uses

 Used in calculators, electronic watches, street lights, water pumps to run radios and TVs.

1.Solar Battery

 When a large number of solar cells are connected in series it form a solar battery.

 Solar battery produce more electricity which is enough to run water pump, to run street-light, etc.,

 They are used in remote areas where conventional electricity supply is a problem.

2. Solar heat collectors

 Solar heat collectors consist of natural materials like stones, bricks (or) materials like glass, which can absorb
heat during the day time and release it slowly at night.

Uses

 It is generally used in cold places, where houses are

kept in hot condition using solar heat collectors

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Fig. 5.10 Solar pump run by solar cells (Battery)

3. Solar water heater

 It consists of an insulated box inside of which is painted with black paint.


 It is also provided with a glass lid to receive and store solar heat.

 Inside the box it has black painted copper coil, through which cold water is allowed to flow in, which gets
heated up and flows out into a storage tank.

 From the storage tank water is then supplied through pipes.

Fig. 5.11 Solar water heater

5.13.2 Wind energy

 Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the force of the wind is called wind energy.

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 The energy possessed by wind is because of its high speed.

 The wind energy is harnessed by making use of wind mills.

1. Wind mills

 The strike of blowing wind on the blades of the wind mill makes it rotating continuously.

The rotational motion of the blade drives a number of machines like water pump, flour mills and electric
generators

Fig. 5.12 Wind mill

2. Wind farms

 When a large number of wind mills are installed and joined together in a definite pattern it forms a wind
farm.

 The wind farms, produce a large amount of electricity.

Condition

 The minimum speed required for satisfactory working of a wind generator is 15 km / hr.
Advantages

 It does not cause any air pollution.

 It is very cheap.

5.13.3 Ocean energy

 Ocean can also be used for generating energy in the following ways.

I Tidal energy (or) Tital power

 Ocean tides, produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon, contain enormous amount of energy.

 The ‘high tide’ and ‘low tide’ refer to the rise and fall of water in the oceans. The tidal energy can be
harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.

During high tide, the sea-water is allowed to flow into the reservoir of the barrage and rotates the turbine, which
inturn produces electricity by rotating the generators

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5.13.3 Ocean energy

 Ocean can also be used for generating energy in the following ways.

I Tidal energy (or) Tital power

 Ocean tides, produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon, contain enormous amount of energy.

 The ‘high tide’ and ‘low tide’ refer to the rise and fall of water in the oceans. The tidal energy can be
harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.
During high tide, the sea-water is allowed to flow into the reservoir of the barrage and rotates the turbine, which
inturn produces electricity by rotating the generators

5.13.3 Ocean energy

 Ocean can also be used for generating energy in the following ways.

I Tidal energy (or) Tital power

 Ocean tides, produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon, contain enormous amount of energy.

 The ‘high tide’ and ‘low tide’ refer to the rise and fall of water in the oceans. The tidal energy can be
harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.

During high tide, the sea-water is allowed to flow into the reservoir of the barrage and rotates the turbine, which
inturn produces electricity by rotating the generators

5.13.3 Ocean energy

 Ocean can also be used for generating energy in the following ways.

I Tidal energy (or) Tital power

 Ocean tides, produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon, contain enormous amount of energy.

 The ‘high tide’ and ‘low tide’ refer to the rise and fall of water in the oceans. The tidal energy can be
harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.

During high tide, the sea-water is allowed to flow into the reservoir of the barrage and rotates the turbine, which
inturn produces electricity by rotating the generators

5.13.3 Ocean energy

 Ocean can also be used for generating energy in the following ways.
I Tidal energy (or) Tital power

 Ocean tides, produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon, contain enormous amount of energy.

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 The ‘high tide’ and ‘low tide’ refer to the rise and fall of water in the oceans. The tidal energy can be
harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.

During high tide, the sea-water is allowed to flow into the reservoir of the barrage and rotates the turbine, which
inturn produces electricity by rotating the generators

Fig. 5.13 (a) Fig. 5.13 (b)

Fig. 5.13 (a) Water flows into the reservoir from sea.

Fig. 5.13 (b) Water flows out from the reservoir to the sea

 During low tide, when the sea level is low, the sea water stored in the barrage reservoir is allowed to flow
into the sea and again rotates the turbine.

 There is often large temperature difference between the surface level and deeper level of the tropical
oceans.
 This temperature difference can be utilized to generate electricity.

 The energy available due to the difference in temperature of water is called ocean thermal energy.
Condition

 The temperature difference should be of 20°C (or) more is required between surface water and deeper
water.

Process

 The warm surface water of ocean is used to boil a low boiling liquid like ammonia. The high vapour
pressure of the liquid, formed by boiling, is then used to turn the turbine of the generator and generates
electricity.

 The cold water from the deeper ocean is pumped to cool and condense the vapour into liquid.
3. Geo- thermal energy

 Temperature of the earth increases at a rate of 20 − 75°C per km, when we move down the earth surface.

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 High temperature and high pressure steam fields exist below the earth’s surface in many places.
The energy harnessed from the high temperature present inside the earth is called geothermal energy

Fig. 5.14 Geo-thermal Energy

1. Natural geysers

 In some places, the hot water (or) steam comes out of the ground through cracks naturally in the form of
natural geysers.

2. Artificial geysers
 In some places, we can artificially drill a hole up to the hot region and by sending a pipe in it, we can make
the hot water (or) steam to rush out through the pipe with very high pressure.

 Thus, the hot water (or) steam coming out from the natural (or) artificial geysers is allowed to rotate the
turbine of a generator to produce electricity.
5.13.4 Biomass energy

 Biomass is the organic matter, produced by plants (or) animals, used as sources of energy.

 Most of the biomass is burned directly for heating, cooling and industrial purposes.

Examples
Wood, crop residues, seeds, cattle dung, sewage, agricultural wastes, etc., Biomass energies are of any one of
the following types.

1. Biogas

 Biogas is a mixture of gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, etc.,

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 It contains about 65% of methane gas as a major constituent.

Biogas is obtained by the anaerobic fermentation of animal dung (or) plant wastes in the presence of water

Examples

Wood, crop residues, seeds, cattle dung, sewage, agricultural wastes, etc., Biomass energies are of any one of
the following types.

Fig. 5.15 Biogas Plant

2. Biofuels
 Biofuels are the fuels, obtained by the fermentation of biomass.

Example Ethanol, methanol.

(a) Ethanol:
 Ethanol can be produced from the sugarcane.

 Its calorific value is less when compared to petrol, and produces much less heat than petrol.
(b) Methanol:

 Methanol can be easily obtained from ethanol (or) sugar-containing plants.

 Its calorific value is also too low when compared to gasoline and diesel.

(c) Gasohol:

 Gasohol is a mixture of ethanol + gasoline.

In India trial is being carried out to use Gasohol in cars and buses

3. Hydrogen Fuels

 Hydrogen can be produced by thermal dissociation (or) photolysis (or) electrolysis of water.

 It possess high calorific value.

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 It is non -polluting, because the combustion product is water.

2H + O −−−−−> 2H O + 150 kJ

Disadvantages of hydrogen fuel

 Hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive in nature.

 Safe handling is required.

 It is difficult to store and transport.

5.14 ENERGY CYCLE

Energy cycle, is the interactions between energy sources within the Earth’s environment.

 These interactions are very complex and even small changes in them can lead to significant changes in long-
term climate behavior.

Illustration
 A simple illustration of the major elements of the energy cycle is shown in the figure. 5.16 Soil moisture is an
important factor in the absorption and reflection of the sun’s energy by the earth’s surface.

Fig. 5.16: Energy Cycles

 Important energy cycles

 Carbon cycle.

 Nitrogen cycle.

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 Phosphorus cycle.
5.14.1 Carbon cycle

Definition

Carbon cycle is the movement of carbon (or) carbon compounds continuously from the atmosphere to the earth
and then back into the atmosphere.
(Or)

Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds are interchanged among the biosphere, geosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere of the earth
 Carbon in the atmosphere is present in the form of carbon dioxide.

 Carbon enters the atmosphere through natural process such as respiration and industrial applications such as
burning of fossil fuels

Sources of CO in atmosphere

 During respiration, plants and animals liberates CO in the atmosphere.

 Combustion of fuels also release CO .

 Volcanic eruptions also release CO .

Various steps involved in carbon cycle

Carbon cycle involves the following 5 important steps

Fig. 5.13 Carbon cycle

Step I:

 Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants by the processes photosynthesis, which involves
the absorption of CO by plants to produce carbohydrates (producers).

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CO + H O + energy −−−−−> (CH O) + O

Step II:

 These plants are then consumed by animals and carbon gets bioaccumulated into their bodies (consumers).

Step III:

 These animals and plants eventually die and decomposers eat the dead organism and return the carbon
from their body back into the atmosphere (decomposers)

CH O) + O −−−−−> CO + H O + energy
Step IV:

 Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere eventually become fossil fuels.
Step V:

 These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pump more carbon back into the atmosphere.

Importance (or) benefits of carbon cycle

 It plays a vital role in balancing the energy and traps the long-wave radiations from the sun ie., it acts like a
blanket over the planet, avoids global warming.

 Carbon cycle is an important aspect of the survival of all life on earth.

Carbon is the building block of life and forms bonds with other elements necessary for life

5.15 CARBON EMISSION AND SEQUESTRATION

5.15.1 Carbon emission

Carbon emission is the release of green house gases and their precursors into the atmosphere over a specified area
and period of time.

Types of carbon emission

 Carbon (Green house gas) emissions are classified into two scopes.

1 Scope 1 emissions (or) Direct emission

 Scope 1 emissions are direct emissions from company.

It is divided into 4 categories

(a) Stationary combustion

 All fuels that produce GHG.

(b) Mobile combustion

 All vehicles owned by a firm, burning fuel.

Example: cars, vans, trucks.

(c) Fugitive emissions

 These are leaks from green house gases (GHG).

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Example
Refrigeration, air-conditioning units.

(d) Process emissions

 These are from industrial processes and on-site manufacturing.

Example

Cement manufacturing, chemical manufacturing

II Scope 2 emissions (or) Indirect emission

 Scope 2 emissions are indirect emissions from the generation of purchased energy (purchased electricity
steam, heat and cooling) from a utility provider (end user).
Sources (or) Causes of carbon emission

1. Natural sources of CO emission

 It includes
 Decomposition of matter.

 Ocean release.
 Respiration.

 Most animals, which exhale CO as a waste product.

Carbonate rocks

2. Human sources of CO emission

 It includes

 Burning of fossil fuels like coal, natural gas and oil.

 Deforestation.

 Industrial activities like cement manufacture, oil refineries and leather industries.
 Transportation sector generates largest amount of CO in the atmosphere.

Harmful effect of carbon emission

 Carbon emission, nothing but emission of green house gas, affects the planet significantly.

It causes global warming and affects climate change

Reduction of carbon emission

 There are many ways to reduce green house gas emissions like

 energy efficiency.

 fuel switching.

 combined heat and power.

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 use of renewable energy.

 more efficient use.

 recycling of materials.

 plant more trees.

 reduce air travel.

 driving more efficient.

5.15.2 Carbon sequestration

 It is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbondioxide.

 It is one method of reducing the amount of CO in the atmosphere.

 Goal of carbon sequestration is to reduce global climate change.

 25% of our carbon emissions have been captured by earth’s forests, farms and grassland.
Scientists and land managers are working to keep landscapes vegetated and soil hydrated for plants to grow and
sequester carbon

 30% of the carbon dioxide, we emit from burning fossil fuels, is absorbed by the upper layer of the ocean.
 45% of carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere the rest in sequestered naturally by the environment.

Concept (or) Aim of carbon sequestration

 The concept of carbon sequestration is to stabilize carbon in solid and dissolved forms so that it doesn’t cause
the atmosphere to warm.
The process shows tremendous promise for reducing the human “carbon foot print

Method (or) Types of carbon sequestration

 There are three main types of carbon sequestration.

1. Biological carbon sequestration

 It is the storage of CO in vegetation like grassland, forests, soils and oceans.

2. Geological carbon sequestration

 It is the process of storing CO in underground geologic formations (or) rocks.

 Typically, CO is captured from an industrial sources like steel (or) cement production, power plant and
injected into the porous rocks for long-term storage.

3. Technological carbon sequestration

 Scientists are using innovative technologies to remove and store carbon from the atmosphere using
innovative technologies.
Example: Graphene production

 The use of CO as a raw material to produce graphene (a technological material).

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 Graphene is used to create screens for smart phones and other technical devices.
 Graphene production is an example of how CO can be used as a resource and a solution in reducing
emissions from atmosphere.

Advantages and disadvantages of carbon sequestration

Advantages (or) merits

 Carbon sequestration prevents the occurrence of climate change.

 Deep injection of CO improves the extraction of fuels like oil and methane from their reserves in
addition to removing excess pollutants from the air.
Since the gas can be easily liquefied, it can be easily transmitted through pipelines

 No CO leaking out from the injection site.

 It lowers carbon emission by 80% to 85% while using fossil fuels.

Disadvantages (or) limitations

 Due to carbon sequestration, in power plants, 40% additional coal is consumed and hence cost of
energy gets increased by 1 to 5% per kilowatt hour.

 CO from power plant emissions must be captured and liquified, which uses a lot of electrical power.

 It can be disastrous if the injected gas leaks due to structural flaws in the geological formation.

 The ocean can become acidic due to the large amounts of carbon dioxide being injected into it,
endangering aquatic life.

 Planting trees, with the intention of storing and absorbing carbon, requires more time for the
trees to mature.

 There is no enough available geological resources to sequester carbon.

 The concentration of CO , from power plant exhaust is too low for being effectively
liquified.

5.16 GREEN ENGINEERING

5.16.1 Definition

Green engineering is the design, commercialization and use of processes and products that minimizes pollution,
promotes sustainability and promotes human health without affecting environment.
5.16.2 Examples for green engineering

 Biodegradable cups and straws.

 Enhanced industrial emission filters.

 Waste water treatment.

 Radiant floors (heat homes efficiently by installing warming tubes under a floor).

 Plant-based cooling (an alternate cooling solution using plants and trees installed around (or) on a building)

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5.16.3 Goal of green engineering

 Decrease in the amount of pollution that is generated by a construction.

 Minimization of human population exposure to potential hazards (reducing toxicity).

 Improved uses of matter and energy throughout the life cycle of the product.

 Maintaining economic efficiency and viability.

 Reduces energy and water consumption.

 Reduces waste and our carbon footprint.

 Improves business efficiency by lowering costs while improving the product design and creating new jobs.

5.16.4 Principles of green engineering

 All materials and energy inputs and outputs are inherently non-hazardous as possible.

 It is better to prevent waste that to treat (or) clean up waste after it is formed.
 Separation and purification operations should be designed to minimize energy consumption and material
use Products, processes and systems must be designed to maximize mass, energy, space and time efficiency.

 Products, processes and system should be “output pulled” rather than “input pushed” through the use of
energy and materials.

 Complexity must be viewed as an investment when making design choices on recycle, reuse.

 Durability rather than immortality should be a design goal.

 Material diversity in multi-component products should be minimized.

 Design of products, processes and system must include integration and inter-connectivity with available
energy and materials flow.

 Products should be designed for performance in a commercial “after life”.

 Material and energy inputs should be renewable rather than depleting.

5.16.5 Benefits of green engineering

 This process enhances business practices by eliminating improper production methods.

 It improves a company’s reputation by showing consumers it cares about the environment.

 It minimizes energy (or) production waste.

 It provides tax incentives.

 It helps the global environment.

 It reduces air, water and soil pollutions.

It provides new business opportunities.

5.16.6 Limitations (or) disadvantages of green engineering

 R & D costs, production and implementation costs are high.

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 Implementation will take many years.

 Green technology is still quite immature.

 Some companies may go out of business.

 Job losses.

 Sophisticated regulatory frame work needed.

Not everything that is labeled as green is actually green

5.17 SUSTAINABLE URBANIZATION

 Urbanization is the movement of human population from rural areas to urban areas for the want of better
education, communication, health, employment, etc., without affecting the environment and needs of future
generations.
5.17.1 Rules to develop a sustainable urbanization

 Sustainable transportation.
 Sustainable urban development.

 Climate change mitigation and landscape architecture.

 Resilient design (regarding natural hazards).

Applying ecological design

 Improving water efficiency.

 Increasing energy efficiency.

 Using low-impact materials.

 By following the above rules, urbanization can be made into sustainable.

5.17.2 Pillars of sustainable urbanization

 Sustainability is based on three functional areas ie., social, environmental and financial/economical.

 These functional areas are interconnected and must be considered together.

 The place where these all meet and are balanced is the goal of sustainability.

SubCode:GE3451 Subject Name: Environment Science &Sustainability

 Department of CHEMISTRY

Fig. 5.18 Functional areas of urban sustainability

 The goal of urban sustainability is to prevent resource availability issues for existing (or) future generations.
 It also minimizes an urban area’s impact on its ecosystem.

5.17.3 Advantages and disadvantages of sustainable urbanization

Advantages

 Urbanization creates convenience.

 Urban economies can be better than rural ones.

 Provides better education.

 Get better housing.

Provides better social life

 Provides better healthcare services.

 More security and police availability.

 More entertainment options.

 More tourist attractions.

 More places to shop in urban areas.

Disadvantages

 Over crowding in urban areas.

 Buying a house might be a challenge.

Decline in rural area

 Too much crime occurs in urban area.

 Unemployment problem is more.

SubCode:GE3451 Subject Name: Environment Science &Sustainability

 Department of CHEMISTRY

 Cost of living is higher.

 No privacy.

 Pollution problem is more.

5.18 SOCIO – ECONOMICAL CHANGE ON SUSTAINABLE URBANIZATION

 Urbanization has many adverse effects on the structure of society because,

gigantic concentrations of people compete for limited resources

 rapid housing construction leads to overcrowding.

 slums, which experience major problems such as poverty, poor sanitation, unemployment.

 it leads to higher crime rates and pollution.

 it also leads to increased levels of inequality and social exclusion.

environmental degradation is occurring very rapidly causing problems like land insecurity, excessive air pollution,
waste disposal problems
5.18.1 Technological change on sustainable urbanization

 Technological change involves the introduction of something new (or) a new idea, method (or) device.
 Technological innovations, as part of technological change, allows organisations to test new ideas at speeds
and prices that were newer anticipated a decade ago.

 Technological innovation has changed the overall effectiveness and benevolence over time and with regard
to sustainability.

 Upgrading of industrial structure improves the sustainable urbanization.

Technological change and sustainability are closely related to each other

 Both factors form the innovation inorder to improve the effectiveness of environmental and social
development and economic progress.

The combination of digital technology in the business model will establish and empower a city to be more
sustainable

SubCode:GE3451 Subject Name: Environment Science &Sustainability