Endocrine

A & P-II
System
Unit V

Muhammad
Iqbal Lecturer
KMU
 Objective
s
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
• Define Endocrine system
• Identify the means of communication among
cells
• Identify Endocrine glands and Endocrine
tissues present in the body
• Discuss types of Hormones, target cells, target
organ
• Briefly discuss Mechanism of Action of Hormone

( protein and steroids)

• Discuss the location and structure of pituitary
 Objective
• shypothalamic hormones in
Discuss the role of
the regulation of pituitary gland secretions.
• Discuss the functions of the hormones secreted by
anterior and posterior pituitary gland.
• Briefly discuss the structure, function & hormones of
the following glands
• Thyroid
• Para Thyroid
• Pineal
• Adrenal
• Pancreas
The Endocrine
System
 Definition
• s the system of glands that
Endocrine system:
produce cellular secretions which help to control
bodily metabolic activities.
• Endocrine gland: A ductless gland that
secretes hormones into the blood stream.
• Exocrine gland: A gland that secretes its
products through a duct.
• Hormone (Gk. "impetus") is a chemical
released by a cell or a group of cells in one part
of the body that usually affects cells in other
parts of the body.
• Ligand: A substance which binds with receptor.
 Communication among
• cells activities are regulated by two
All physiological
major systems as Nervous(autonomic nervous
system) and Endocrine system.
• For the body to maintain homeostasis, cells must be
able to communicate and integrate their activities.
• Cells communicate with each other in the following
ways:
 Cell to Cell Signaling or Cell signaling
• The cells communicate with each other via chemical
messengers which are hormones or hormone like
substances. They may be secreted by endocrine
glands or nerve endings.
 Classification of
chemical
messengers
• Endocrine
Messengers
• Paracrine
Messengers
• Autocrine
Messengers
• Neurocrine
Messengers
 Classification of chemical
messengers cont....
• Endocrine Messengers
• They are classical hormone like GH and Insulin.
• Paracrine Messengers (para =beside/near + crine =secrete)
• They diffuse from control cells to target cells via the
interstitial fluid. Some of them directly enter the
neighboring target cells via gap junctions. Such
messengers are also called juxtacrine or local
messengers.
• e.g. Prostaglandin, histamine, somatostatin, and NO(g)
 Communication among cells cont…
 Autocrines Those that act on the same cells that secrete them.
e.g
Leukotrienes
 Neurocrines
• Neurocrine or neural messengers are neurotransmitters
and neurohormones
o Neurotransmitter -----from nerve cell to another or nerve cell or
muscle
like Ach and dopamine.
o Neurohormone ------ by nerve cell into blood and transported to
the distant target cells like OT, ADH and hypothalamic releasing
hormones.
 Norepinephrine acts both as neurohormone and neurotransmitter.

One example of local hormone is interleukin 2 (IL-2) which is released

by helper T cells during immune responses. IL-2 helps activate
other nearby cells, a paracrine effect. But it also acts as an
 The Role of Hormone
Receptors
• A hormone travels through the body in the
blood. It influences only its target cells by
binding to specific protein receptors.
• Only the target cells recognize that hormone like
key- lock relationship.
• Receptors, like other cellular proteins, are
constantly being synthesized and broken down.
• Generally, a target cell has 2000 to 100,000
receptors for a particular hormone.
• Target cells can modulate (adjust) their sensitivity
to a hormone.
• When a hormone is present in excess, the number of
target cell receptors may decrease. This effect is known
as down- regulation. For example, when certain cells
of the testes are exposed to a high concentration of LH,
the number of LH receptors decreases. Down
regulation makes a target cell less sensitive.
• In contrast, when a hormone is deficient, the number
of receptors may increase. This phenomenon is
known as up- regulation which makes a target cell
more sensitive to a hormone
 Classification of
Hormones
• Classified into three:
• 1. Steroid Hormones
• 2. Protein Hormones
• 3. Derivatives of Amino acid called
Tyrosine
 Steroid
Hormones
• Aldosterone
• Cortisol
• Corticosteron
e
• Testosterone
• Estrogen
• Progesterone
• Vit D
 Protein
• GH
Hormones• Insulin
• TSH • Glucagon
• ACTH
• Somatostati
• FSH
n
• LH
• HCG
• Prolactin
• ADH
• OT
• Parathermon
e
 Derivatives of
Tyrosine
• T3
• T4
• Epinephrine
• Norepinephrin
e
• Dopamin
 Endocrine
• EndocrineGlands
glands include:
• Pituitary
• Pineal
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Adrenal
In addition, several organs and tissues are not
exclusively classified as endocrine glands but
contain cells that secrete hormones. These are:
• Hypothalamus
• Ovaries
• Testes
• Placenta
• Kidneys
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Liver
• Pancreas
• Heart, Skin, Adipose
tissues
Names and Abbreviations for
Hormones
Abbr. Name Source
ACTH Adrenocorticotropi Anterior
c hormone pituitary gland
ADH Antidiuretic hormone Posterio
r
pituitary
ANP Atrial natriuretic peptide Heart
CRH Corticotropin- Hypothalamus
releasing hormone
EPO Erythopoietin Kidney, liver
Names and Abbreviations for
Hormones
Abbr. Name Source
FSH Follicle stimulating hormone Anterior pituitary
GH Growth hormone Anterior pituitary
GHRH Growth hormone releasing h. Hypothalamus
GnRH Gonadotropin-releasing h. Hypothalamus
IGFs Insulin-like growth Liver, other tissues
factors
(somatomedins)
LH Lutinizing hormone Anterior pituitary
NE Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla
OT Oxytocin Posterior pituitary
Names and Abbreviations for
Hormones
Abbr. Name Source
PIH Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (dopamine) Hypothalamus

PRH Prolactin-releasing hormone Hypothalamus

PRL Prolactin Anterior pituitary
PTH Parathermone Parathyroids
T3 Triiodothyronine Thyroid
T4 Thyroxin (tetraiodothyronine) Thyroid
TH Thyroid hormone Thyroid
TRH Thyrotropin-releasing h. Hypothalamus
TSH Thyroid stimulating hormone Anterior pituitary
 Pituitary
Anterio
Hormones
Target Organ Effect/Function
r
pituitar
y
FSH Ovaries, Testes Female: Growth of
ovarian follicles,
secretion of estrogen.
Male: Sperm production

LH Ovaries, Testes Female: ovulation,

maintenance of
corpus luteum
Male:
Testosterone
secretion
 Pituitary
Anterio Hormones
Target Organ Effect/Function
r
pituitar
y
TSH Thyroid gland Growth of thyroid,
secretion of
thyroid hormone

ACTH Adrenal cortex Growth of

adrenal cortex,
secretion of
corticosteroids
 Pituitary
Anterior Hormones
Target Organ Effect/Function
pituitary
PRL Mammary Female: Milk
glands, testes synthesis. Male:
Increased LH
sensitivity and
testosterone
secretion

GH Liver Somatomedin
secretion,
widespread
tissue growth
 Pituitary
Posteri
Hormones
Target Organ Effect/Function
or
pituitar
y
ADH Kidneys Water retention

OT (Oxytocin) Uterus, Labor

mammar contraction
y glands s, Milk
ejection
 Other Sources of
Hormones
Gland + Target Effect/Function
Hormone
Pineal Influence mood; may regulate
Gland: Brain the timing of puberty.
Melatonin
and
serotonin
Thymus: Stimulates T
Thymosin T lymphocytes lymphocytes proliferation
Thymopoietin Suppresses neuromuscular
or thymin activity by inhibiting Ach
release.
Hypersecretion causes
myesthenia gravis
Thyroid: Most tissues Elevate metabolic rate,
T3, T4 promotes nervous system
and skeletal development.
Reduces blood Ca2+ level,
Calcitonin Bone promotes Ca2+ deposition in
bone
 Other Sources of
Gland +Hormones
Hormone Target Effect/Function
Parathyroids: Increases blood Ca2+
Parathermone Bone, kidneys level by stimulating
bone resorption, and
calcitriol synthesis and
reducing urinary ca2+
excretion.

Adrenal medulla: Complement effects of

Epinephrine, Most tissues sympathetic nervous
norepinephrine, system.
dopamine
 Other Sources of
Gland +Hormones
Hormone Target Effect/Function
Adrenal cortex: Promotes Na+ retention
Mineralocorticoid Kidneys and K+ excretion,
maintains BP and
s( Aldosterone) volume.
Stimulate fat and protein
Glucocorticoi Most tissues catabolism,
ds (Cortisol gluconeogenesis, stress
and resistance and tissue
repair;
corticosterone Suppress immunity.
)
Pubic and axillary hair
Androgen Bone, growth, bone growth, libido
(DHEA) and muscle, (sex drive).
estrogen skin, many
other tissues
 Other Sources of
Organ +Hormones
Hormone Target Effect/Function
Pancreas: Stimulates glucose and
Insulin (by Most tissues amino acids uptake;
lowers blood glucose level;
Beta cells) promotes glycogen, fat,
and protein synthesis.

Glucagon (by Primarily liver Stimulates

Alpha cells) glycogenolysis,gluconeoge
nesi s; Increases blood
glucose level.

Somatostatin Intestine Identical to GHIH which is

(by delta cells) and other secreted by hypothalamus
tissues
 Other Sources of
Hormones
Organ + Target Effect/Function
Hormone
Ovaries: Stimulates female
Estrogen Many tissues reproductive
development, Regulates
menstrual cycle and
pregnancy, prepares
mammary glands for
lactation.

Progesterone Uterus, Regulates menstrual

cycle and pregnancy,
mammar prepares mammary
y glands glands for lactation.
 Other Sources of
OrganHormones
+ Target Effect/Function
Hormon
e
Testes: Stimulates male
Testosterone Many reproductive
development,
tissues
Musculoskeletal
development, Sperm
production, and
Heart: libido.
ANP
Kidney Lowers blood
volume and
pressure by
promoting Na+ and
 Pituitary
• The pituitary Gland
gland or hypophysis is a pea-
shaped structure that measures about 1 cm
in diameter and lies in the hypophyseal
fossa (sella tercica) of the sphenoid bone.
• It attaches to the hypothalamus by a stalk,
called
infundibulum (=funnel).
• It has two lobes, the anterior lobe or
adenohypophysis, and the posterior lobe
or neurohypophysis. The posterior
pituitary gland contains about 10,000 axon
terminals whose cell bodies are lying in the
• Anterior pituitary gland secretes seven
different hormones which are stimulated by
releasing hormones and suppressed by
inhibiting hormones from the
hypothalamus.
• It regulates other endocrine glands.
• There are Five types of pituitary cells.
• hypophyseal portal system
• a set of vessels (arteries and capillaries)
that carry blood and regulatory hormones
from the hypothalamus to the
adenohypophysis, where the target cells
of the releasing hormones are located.
• Posterior pituitary gland or
Neurohypophysis:
• It does not synthesizes hormones but stores
(coming from hypothalamus) and release
two hormones: ADH (vasopressin) and
Oxytocin (OT)

–Antidiuretic hormone (ADH):

responsible for fluid retention
–Oxytocin: contraction of the uterus
and ejection of milk
 Pituitary
disorders
Hyperactivity
Hypoactivi
• Gigantism
ty • Dwarfism
• Acromegaly • Acromicria
• Cushing • Diabetes
disease insipidus
 Thyroid
Anatomy
• The thyroid lies over the trachea below
larynx.
• The thyroid gland consists of two lobes
of endocrine tissue joined in the middle
by a narrow portion of the gland called
isthmus.
• The major Hormone secretory
Cells: are Follicular cells
 HORMONES OF THYROID
GLAND
Thyroid gland secretes three hormones:
• 1. Tetraiodothyronine or T4 (thyroxine)
• 2. Tri-iodothyronine or T3
• 3. Calcitonin
Both T4 and T3 are iodine-containing
derivatives of amino acid tyrosine.
• T4 forms about 90% of the total
secretion, whereas T3 is about 10%.
FUNCTIONS OF THYROID
HORMONES
• Thyroid hormones have two major effects
on the body:
• I. To increase basal metabolic rate
• II. To stimulate growth in children.
Thyroid Hormone:
• T3 (Triiodothyronine) and T4 (Thyroxin)—
Increase BMR, stimulate synthesis of
protein, Increase glucose and fat
consumption for ATP production,
accelerate body growth, and contribute to
the development of nervous system.
• Calcitonin (CT): High blood Ca++ levels
stimulate its secretion and low levels inhibit
it.
• It lowers blood Ca++ and HPO4 2- level by
uptake into bone and inhibiting bone
 Thyroid
Disorders
 Hypothyroidis
m
• Myxedema
• Critinism
• Non toxic goiter

 Hyperthyroidi
sm
• Grave’s Disease
 Calciton
in
• Calcitonin is secreted by the parafollicular
cells or clear cells (C cells), situated
among the follicles in thyroid gland.
• Plasma Level and Half-life
• Plasma level of calcitonin is 1 to 2 ng/dL. It
has a half life of 5 to 10 minutes.
 ACTIONS OF
• CALCITONIN
1. On Blood Calcium Level
• Calcitonin plays an important role in controlling the blood
calcium level. It decreases the blood calcium level and
thereby counteracts parathormone. Calcitonin reduces
the blood calcium level by acting on bones, kidneys and
intestine.
• i. On bones
• Calcitonin stimulates osteoblastic activity and
facilitates the deposition of calcium on bones. At the
same time, it suppresses the activity of osteoclasts
and inhibits the resorption of calcium from bones. It
inhibits even the development of new osteoclasts in
bones.
• ii. On kidney
• Calcitonin increases excretion of calcium through
urine, by inhibiting the reabsorption from the renal
tubules.
into the
• iii. On intestine
Educational
Platform
 Parathyroid
• Human Gland
beings have four parathyroid glands,
which are situated on the posterior surface of
upper and lower poles of thyroid gland.
• Parathyroid glands are very small in size,
measuring about 6 mm long, 3 mm wide
and 2 mm thick, with dark brown color.
• Parathormone (PTH) is secreted by the chief
cells of the parathyroid glands.
• Half-life and Plasma Level
• Parathormone has a half-life of 10 minutes.
• Normal plasma level of PTH is about 1.5
to 5.5 ng/dL.
 Functions of
PTH
• PTH maintains blood calcium level by
acting on:
• 1. Bones
• 2. Kidney
• 3. Gastrointestinal tract.
• PTH Regulates the levels of Ca++, Mg2+, and
HPO4 2-
ions in blood.
• Osteoclastic activity is specific (bone
resorption)
• It promotes the formation of calcitriol (active
form of Vit D)by kidneys which increases
dietary Ca++, HPO4 2- and Mg+2absorption.
 Adrenal
Glands
• There are two adrenal glands. Each
gland is situated on the upper pole of
each kidney. Because of the situation,
adrenal glands are otherwise called
suprarenal glands.
• Each gland weighs about 4 g.
 Functional
Anatomy
• PARTS OF ADRENAL GLAND
• Adrenal gland is made of two distinct
parts:
• 1. Adrenal cortex: Outer portion,
constituting 80% of the gland
• 2. Adrenal medulla: Central
portion, constituting 20% of the
gland.
 Functional
Anatomy
• HISTOLOGY OF ADRENAL CORTEX
• Adrenal cortex is formed by three
layers of structure.
• Each layer is distinct from one another.
• 1. Outer zona glomerulosa
• 2. Middle zona fasciculata
• 3. Inner zona reticularis.
 Physiolog
y
• HORMONES OF ADRENAL CORTEX
• Adrenocortical hormones are steroids
in nature, hence the name
‘corticosteroids’.
• Based on their functions, corticosteroids
are classified into three groups:
• 1. Mineralocorticoids
• 2. Glucocorticoids
• 3. Sex hormones.
Adrenal Glands:
• Adrenal Cortex—
Mineralocorticoids(affect minerals
homeostasis—Na+ and K+ and also
excrete H+ in the urine)
• Glucocorticoids (affect glucose
homeostasis), sectretes cortisone,
corticosterone, cortsol and small amount
of Androgens.
• It causes glucose formation, protein break
down, lipolysis, resistance to stress, anti-
 Adrenal Cortex
cont..
• .
FUNCTIONS OF MINERALOCORTICOIDS
• Ninety percent of mineralocorticoid
activity is provided by aldosterone.
• Life-saving Hormone
• Aldosterone is very essential for life and it
maintains the osmolarity and volume of ECF.
It is usually called life-saving hormone
because, its absence causes death within 3
days to 2 weeks. Aldosterone has three
important functions.
Adrenal Cortex cont... Aldosterone
Functions
• It increases:
• 1. Reabsorption of sodium from renal
tubules
• 2. Excretion of potassium through renal
tubules
• 3. Secretion of hydrogen into renal tubules.
 Actions of
Aldosterone
• It reduces the hydrogen ion concentration in
the ECF.
• In normal conditions, aldosterone is
essential to maintain acid base balance in
the body.
• In hypersecretion, it causes alkalosis
• and in hyposecretion, it causes acidosis.
• Adrenal Medulla hormone:
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine—
sympathetic response
 Pancre
as
• Alpha cells—Glucagon
• Beta cells—Insulin
• Delta cells--
Somatostatin
 Pancre
as
• insulin decreases the blood glucose level by:
• i. Facilitating transport and uptake of
glucose by the cells
• ii. Increasing the peripheral utilization of
glucose
• iii. Increasing the storage of glucose by
converting it into glycogen in liver and
muscles
• iv. Inhibiting glycogenolysis
 Pineal
Gland
• Pineal gland is a small cone shaped body
measuring 10 mm in length that projects
posteriorly from the posterior end of the roof
of the third ventricle of the brain.
• Melatonin
• Serotonin