Module – 1

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Heat transfer is a branch of science which deals with the transmission of heat energy from one
region to another as a result of temperature difference. Since difference in temperatures exist all
over the universe the phenomena of heat transfer is universal. Thus temperature difference is the
main driving force behind the heat transfer.
Similar to heat energy transfer, we have
(a) Fluid transfer – For fluid transfer the main driving force is pressure difference.
(b) Mass transfer – For mass transfer the main driving force is concentration difference.
(c) Electrical energy transfer – Main driving force is voltage difference.
The main objectives of heat transfer are
(a) To estimate the rate of flow of energy as heat through the boundary of a system under steady
and unsteady conditions.
(b) To determine the temperature field under steady and unsteady conditions.
1.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEENTHERMODYNAMICSAND HEATTRANSFER
(1) Thermodynamics is concerned with the equilibrium states of matter and makes impossible
the existence of temperature gradient. Heat transfer is inherently non-equilibrium process.
(2) Thermodynamics helps to determine the quantity of work and heat interactions when a
system changes from one equilibrium state to another. However, it does not provide any
information on the nature of interaction and the time rate at which interactions occur.
Heat transfer mainly concerned with the rate at which heat is transferred. (heat transfer per
unit time)
(3) Heat transfer helps to predict the temperature distribution, which may be a function of both
spatial coordinates and time with in regions of matter.
Thermodynamics gives temperature at end states of a system.
1.3 APPLICATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Applications of heat transfer can be found in every branch of engineering. Some of the important
applications are
(1) The laws of heat transfer are very important to the engineers in the designs, construction,
testing and operation of heat exchange apparatus
(2) To estimate the cost, the feasibility and the size of the equipment necessary to transfer a
specified amount of heat in a given time, a detailed heat transfer analysis must be made.
(3) The dimensions of boilers, heaters, refrigerators and heat exchangers are estimated on the
rate at which heat is to be transferred under given conditions.
2 Heat Transfer

(4) The successful operation of equipment components such as turbine blades, walls of the
combustion chamber of gas turbine mainly depends on the cooling rate. i.e., removing of
heat at a rapid rate from the surface.
(5) Many ordinary household appliances such as electric or gas range, TV, computer, VCR are
designed by using the principles of heat transfer.
(6) In electrical engineering heat transfer is applied to the design of cooling systems for motors,
generators and transformers.
(7) In chemical engineering heat transfer is applied to the processes like evaporation,
condensation, heating and cooling of fluids.
(8) In civil engineering heat flow laws are applied in the construction of dams, structures and
design of building
(9) In electronics engineering, heat transfer laws are applied for the manufacture of hardware
parts of electronic equipment.
1.4 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER AND BASIC LAWS
Heat is transferred in three distinct modes. They are (i) Conduction (ii) Convection (iii) Radiation.
All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference and all modes are
from the high temperature medium to a lower temperature medium.
A detailed study of these modes and their governing laws is given below.
1.4.1 Conduction
It is a mechanism of heat propagation from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature with in a medium or between different mediums in direct physical contact
The energy may be transferred by means of electrons which are free to move through the lattice
structure of the material. Conduction can take place in solids, liquids and gases. Conduction in
solids is mainly due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the energy
transport by free electrons. In pure solids, the flow of electrons is very powerful, thus make them
good conductor of heat. In non-metals the energy transfer is due to lactice vibrations only.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collision and diffusion of the molecules during
their random motion.
However, conduction is more dominant in solids as molecules are packed very closely.
1.4.1.1 Governing law of conduction (Fourier’s law of conduction)
Conduction heat transfer is governed by Fourier’s law of heating.
Fourier’s law of heating states that “the rate of heat flow by conduction in any direction is
proportional to the temperature gradient and area perpendicular to the flow direction”
Mathematically it is given by
dT
QaA
dx
or
dT
Q = − KA
dx
Introductory Concepts and Definitions 3
dT
QaA
Wheredx Q = Heat transfer rate in watts
or A = area of the surface normal to the heat flow direction in m2
dT dT
Q = − KA = Temperature gradient in oC/mQoraK/m
A
dx
dx
or
K = Thermal conductivity of the material in W/mK
dT
‘–’ve sign makes the heat transfer rate positive as
Q = − KA is negative along positive x – direction
dx
(Heat transfer in the + X direction is a + ve quantity)
The characteristics features of Fourier’s law are
(a) It is applicable to all matter (Solid, liquid or gas)
(b) It is based on experimental evidence and cannot be derived from first principle.
(c) It helps to define thermal conductivity of the medium through which heat is conducted.
1.4.1.2 Thermal conductivity
It is a physical property of the material. It is defined as the ability of material to conduct heat
through it.
Thermal conductivity of a material is the measure of how fast heat will flow in that material.
The SI unit of thermal conductivity is W/moC or W/m-K
For a given material, the value of thermal conductivity depends on its state and vary with
structure, humidity, pressure and temperature.
Metal in pure state has the maximum thermal conductivity and is a good conductor. The thermal
conductivity decreases with increasing amount of impurities in metals. Most non-metals have
low values of thermal conductivity and are poor conductors of heat. They are called as thermal
insulators.
For metals, the value of thermal conductivity decreases as temperature increases. The main
reason is, increase in temperature makes the molecules to vibrate violently and they obstruct the
flow of free electrons which results in decrease of heat flow. But for mercury and aluminium, it is
exceptional.
For non-metals, thermal conductivity increases with the increase of temperature. It is mainly
due to the increase of number of collisions per unit time with temperature - Hence heat flow
increases in non-metal.
For most of the liquids, the thermal conductivity decreases with increase in the temperature.
But water and glycerine are exceptional.
For gases, thermal conductivity increases with increase in temperature. As the temperature
increases, velocity of molecules become higher. It results in more energy transfer through
collisions.
Thermal conductivity of some common materials at 300K is given in table.
4 Heat Transfer

Thermal Conductivity
Materials
K (W/mK)
Diamond 2300
Silver 425
Copper 385
Gold 310
Aluminium 220
Cast iron 55
Steel 20 – 45
Window glass 0.75
Asbestos sheet 0.17
Brick 0.72
Concrete 1.2
Cork 0.045
Glass wool 0.038
Water 0.55 – 0.7
Human skin 0.17
Glass fiber 0.043
Air 0.026

1.4.2 Convection
It is a process of heat energy transport affected by the circulation or mixing of a fluid medium.
Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the transport of
medium itself.
Two types of convections are
(i) Natural convection or Free convection
(ii) Forced convection
(i) Natural Convection
In this heat transfer, the circulation of fluid medium is caused by buoyancy effects i.e., by the
difference in the densities of cold and heated particles.
Examples: (1) Chilling effect of a cold wind on a warm body
(2) Cooling of billets in the atmosphere
(3) Heating of air in a room by a stove.
(4) Heat transfer from a human body to room air
(ii) Forced convection
In this heat transfer, the mixing motion of fluid is induced by some external means such as a
pump or blower.
Introductory Concepts and Definitions 5

Examples: (1) Flow of water in condenser tubes

(2) Cooling of internal combustion engines
(3) Air conditioning
(4) Heat transfer in heat exchangers
The convection heat transfer is due to superposition of energy transfer by random motion of
the molecules and by the bulk motion of the fluid. Therefore, the convection is not fundamentally
different mode of heat transfer. It consists of “ conduction from surface to adjacent layer of fluid,
energy transfer due to mass transfer and conduction to adjacent layer of fluid from receiving
surface.
1.4.2.1 Governing law of Convection heat transfer (Newton’s law of cooling)
Convection heat transfer is governed by Newton’s law of cooling.
It states that "heat flow is directly proportional to the exposed surface area and temperature
difference between surface and fluid".
ie Q α As (Ts – T∞)
Q = h As (Ts – T∞)
Where Q = Heat transfer rate, watts
As = Surface area exposed to heat transfer, m2
Ts = Surface temperature, oC or K
T∞ = Fluid temperature, oC or K
h = Heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K or W/m2 oC
Heat transfer coefficient : The intensity of heat transferred is called heat transfer coefficient. It
is indicated by ‘h’.
Heat transfer coefficient is also defined as “the amount of heat transmitted for a unit temperature
difference between the fluid and unit area of surface in unit time.
The SI unit of heat transfer coefficient is W/m2-K or W/m2 oC
The value of heat transfer coefficient depends on the following factors.
(i) Thermodynamic and transport properties of fluid
(ii) Nature of the fluid
(iii) Geometry of the surface.
Typical value of convective heat transfer coefficient
1) Free convection
(i) Gases — 2 to 25 W/m2K
(ii) Liquids — 50 to 1000 W/m2K
2) Forced convection
(i) Gases — 25 to 250 W/m2K
(ii) Liquids — 50 to 2000 W/m2K
(iii) Boiling or condensation — 2500 to 100000 W/m2K
6 Heat Transfer

1.4.3 Radiation Heat transfer

It is a process by which heat flows from a higher temperature body to a body at lower
temperature when the bodies are separated in space even when a vacuum exists between them.
Radiation heat transfer does not affect the material medium between the heat source and the
receiver. Therefore in radiation heat transfer mode heat is transferred from one body to another
with or without medium in between the bodies. Thermal Radiation is the energy emitted by a
substance because of its temperature. These radiations are transmitted in the space in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
The properties of radiant heat are similar to those of light.
Some of the properties of thermal radiations are:-
(i) It does not require the presence of material medium for its transmission.
(ii) Radiant heat can be reflected from the surfaces and obeys the ordinary laws of reflection.
(iii) It travels with velocity of light.
(iv) It shows interference, diffraction and polarisation
(v) The wavelength of heat radiations is longer than that of light waves, hence they are invisible
to the eye.
Examples for radiation heat transfer:
1) Transfer of heat from sun to earth. Between sun and earth, there is a layer of atmospheric air
and vacuum. Heat transfers from sun to earth through vacuum and atmospheric air. But it
does not heat the atmospheric air during transmission.
2) Heat transfer from human body to atmosphere.
3) Cooking by microwave oven.
Food is cooked in a microwave oven by absorbing the electromagnetic radiation energy
generated by the microwave tube, called the magnetron. The radiation emitted by the magnetron
is due to the conversion of electrical energy into electromagnetic radiation at a specified wave
length. The wavelength of the microwave radiation is such that it is reflected by the metal surfaces,
transmitted by the cookware made of glass, ceramic or plastic and absorbed and converted into
internal energy by food molecules.
Microwave ovens replace the slow conversion heat transfer process in conventional ovens
by the instantaneous radiation heat transfer. As a result, microwave ovens transfer energy to the
food at full capacity the moment they are turned on. Thus, they cook faster while consuming less
energy.
Radiation heat transfer is one of the most efficient mode of heat transfer, because it does not
heat the medium while transmitting from one body to another.
1.4.3.1 Governing law of Radiation heat transfer
Radiation heat transfer is governed by Steafan-Boltzmann law.
It states that "the heat radiated is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of
surface and its area",
i.e., Q α A T4 or Q =Î s A s T 4
Introductory Concepts and Definitions 7

Where T = Surface temperature from which heat is emitted in K

As = Surface area in m2
σ = Steafan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2K4
When the net rate of heat transfers between a real surface and surroundings, then Stefan-Boltzmann
law become
Q = s A s Î éëê Ts 4 - T¥ 4 ùûú

Where Î= Emissivity of the surface from which radiations emitted
T∞ = Surrounding or receivers temperature in K
For black body Î= 1

Surrounding or
receiver (T∞)

Radiation

Ts

Surface
1.4.3.2 Radiation heat transfer coefficient
The rate of radiation heat transfer between a surface of emissivity Î and surface area As
at temperature Ts and surrounding surface at some average temperature Tsurr is given by
Q =Î s A s (Ts 4 - Tsurr 4 ) ——— (1)

The radiation heat transfer can be written similar to convection heat transfer
i.e., Q = hr As (Ts – Tsurr) ——— (2)
Equating (1) & (2) we get
Î s A s (Ts 4 - Tsurr 4 ) = h r A s (Ts - Tsurr )
Î s A s (Ts 4 - Tsurr 4 )
or h r = =Î s (Ts 2 + Tsurr 2 )(Ts + Tsurr )
A s (Ts - Tsurr )
Where hr is the radiation heat transfer coefficient
hr strongly depends on temperature while convection heat transfer coefficient (h) does not.
1.4.3.3 Combined Heat transfer coefficient
It is the sum of convection heat transfer coefficient and radiation heat transfer coefficient.
8 Heat Transfer

The rate of heat transfer from surface by combined mechanisms of convection and radiation is
expressed as
Q = h A s (Ts - T¥ ) + Î s A (Ts 4 - T¥ 4 )
Using radiation heat transfer coefficient, the expression can be written as
Q = hA s (Ts - T¥ ) + h r A s (Ts - T¥ )
= (h + h r ) A s (Ts - T¥ )
= h c A s (Ts - T¥ )
Where hc = combined heat transfer coefficient
i.e., Combined heat transfer coefficient is the sum of convection heat transfer coefficient and
radiation heat transfer coefficient.
1.5 COMBINED HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat is usually transferred by several of the basic mechanisms occurring simultaneously. The
following examples explain the combined heat transfer mechanisms.
(1) In winter heat is transferred from the room of a house to the colder ambient environment
by convection and radiation, while the heat transfer through the roof from the interior to
the exterior surface is by conduction. Heat transfer between the panes of a double glazed
window occurs by convection and radiation acting in parallel. The heat transfer through
the panes of glass is by conduction with some radiation passing directly through the entire
window systems.
(2) Cooling of hot coffee in a Thermos flask
The following heat transfer modes occur.
i) Free convection from the coffee to the flask Plastic Flask
ii) Heat conduction through the flask
Air space
iii) Free convection from the flask to the air
iv) Radiation exchange between the outer surface Cover
of the flask and the inner surface of the cover Coffee
Surrounding
v) Free convection from air to the cover
vi) Heat conduction through the cover
vii) Free convection from the cover to the room
air
viii) Radiation exchange between the outer
surface of the cover and the surrounding
(3) Automobile engine with themosiphon cooling system
The following heat transfer modes occur
i) Free convection and radiation from hot combustion gases to cylinder walls
ii) Conduction through cylinder walls
Introductory Concepts and Definitions 9

iii) Free convection from cylinder walls to water and from water to radiator tubes
iv) Conduction through walls of the radiator tubes
v) Convection from radiator tubes to surrounding air
(4) Heat transfer from a person
Room Air
i) Heat transfer between the person and the air in the room by natural
convection
ii) Heat loss by the person to surroundings through radiation
iii) Heat transfer by the body to the floor through conduction.
10 Heat Transfer

CONDUCTION - BASIC EQUATIONS

1.6 INTRODUCTION
Heat transfer problems are classified according to the variables that influence the temperature.
If the temperature is a function of single space coordinate, the problem is said to be one
dimensional. If it is a function of two or three coordinates, the problem is two or three dimensional.
If the temperature is function of time, the problem is unsteady or transient. If the temperature is
independent of time, the problem is called steady state problem.
The conduction equation is a mathematical expression of the conservation of energy in a solid
substance. To derive this equation, an energy balance is performed on an elemental volume of
material in which heat is being transferred only by conduction. Heat transfer by radiation occurs
in a solid only if the material is transparent or translucent.
1.6.1 Three dimensional conduction heat transfer equation in Rectangular or Cartesian
coordinates
Assumptions: The following assumptions are considered for deducing there dimensional
conduction heat transfer equation
1) Material is considered as isotropic
2) Density of the material remains the same and does not change with time
3) Specific heat of the material remains the same
4) Temperature is the function of all the three coordinates as well as time.
Derivation
y Qy+∆y
Qz+∆z

Qx Qx+∆x
∆y
∆z

∆x
Qy
Q
z

z
Consider a three dimensional rectangular element in Cartesian coordinates as shown in figure.
Let ∆x, ∆y and ∆z are dimensions of element in x, y, z coordinates
ρ = Density of the element material
Conduction - Basic Equations 11

C = Specific heat of the element material

Gelement = Heat generated by the element
x, y, z are the distances from origin at which element is lying in X, Y, Z coordinates. Temperature
in the material is the function of time t and X, Y, Z coordinates.
i.e., T = f (t, x, y, z)
Applying energy balance equation at inlet and outlet of the element.
é Rate of heat ù é Rate of heat ù é Rate of heat ù é Rate of change ù
ê ú ê ú ê ú ê ú
ê conduction intoú + ê generated in ú = ê conduction out ú + êof energy content ú
ê ú ê ú ê ú ê ú
ê the element ú ê the material ú êof the element ú êof the element ú
ë û ë û ë û ë û
DE element
(Q x + Q y + Qz ) + G element = (Q x+Dx + Q y+Dy + Qz+Dz ) + Dt
——— (1)

Q x, Q y and Q z are the heat transfers into the element at a distance of x, y and z from the origin
Qx+∆x, Qy+∆y and Qz+∆z are the heat transfers out of the element at distance x+∆x, y+∆y and z+∆z
from origin.
The above equation is re-written as
DE element
- êé(Q x +Dx - Q x ) + (Q y+Dy - Q y ) + (Q z+Dz - Q z )úù + G element = ——— (2)
ë û Dt
But Gelement = Heat generated / m3 × Volume of the element
= qG × V
= qG × ∆x ∆y ∆z
and ∆ Eelement = Et+∆t – Et
Et is Energy stored in the element at time ‘t’
Et+∆t is energy stored in the element at ‘t+∆t’ time
∆E = m Cv ∆T
Now ∆ Eelement = m C (Tt+∆t – Tt) But Cv = Cp = C for solids and
= ρ V C (Tt+∆t – Tt) liquids
= ρ ∆x ∆y ∆z C (Tt+∆t – Tt) Mass m = Volume × density

Substituting Gelement and ∆ Eelement expressions in equation (2)

(T - Tt )
- éê(Q x +Dx - Q x ) + (Q y+Dy - Q y ) + (Q z+Dz - Q z )ùú + q G Dx Dy Dz = rC Dx Dy Dz t +Dt
ë û Dt
Dividing by ∆x ∆y ∆z on both sides
éQ - Q x Q y+Dy - Q y Q z+Dz - Q z ù rC (Tt +Dt - Tt )
- ê x +Dx + + ú + qG =
ê Dx Dy Dz Dx Dy Dz Dx Dy Dz úû Dt
ë
Let A1 = ∆y ∆z = area of faces of the element in x - direction
A2 = ∆x ∆z = area of faces of the element in y - direction
A3 = ∆x ∆y = area of faces of the element in z - direction
12 Heat Transfer

\ The above expression become

éQ - Q x Q y+Dy - Q y Q z+Dz - Q z ù rC (Tt +Dt - Tt )
- ê x +Dx + + ú + qG =
ê A Dx A 2 Dy A 3 Dz û ú Dt
ë 1

Assume A1 = A 2 = A 3 = A
1 éê Q x +Dx - Q x Q y+Dy - Q y Q z+Dz - Q z ùú rC (Tt +Dt - Tt )
- + + + qG =
A êë Dx Dy Dz ú
û Dt
Taking Limits as ∆x → 0, ∆y → 0, ∆z → 0, and ∆t → 0,
1 éê Lt çæ Q x +Dx - Q x ÷ö Lt çæ Q y+Dy - Q y ÷ö Lt çæ Q z+Dz - Q z ÷öùú Lt æ (T - Tt )÷ö
- ê çç ÷+
÷ çç ÷+
÷ ç ÷÷ú + q G = rC ççç t +Dt ÷÷÷
A ë Dx ® 0 è Dx ø÷ Dy ® 0 è Dy ø÷ Dz ® 0 èç Dz øû Dt ® 0 èç Dt ø
é ¶Q r ¶Q y ¶Q z úù ¶T
-ê + + + q G = rC
ê A1¶x A 2¶y A 3¶z ú ¶t
ë û
¶T ¶T ¶T
But Q x = -KA ,Q y = -KA ,Q z = -KA
¶x ¶y ¶z
\ The above equation become
1é¶ æ ¶T ö÷ ¶ çæ ¶T ÷ö ¶ æç ¶T ö÷ùú ¶T
- ê çç-KA ÷
÷ + ç -KA ÷+
÷ ç-KA ÷
÷ + q g = rC
ê ç
A ë ¶x è ¶x ø ¶y è ç ¶y ø÷ ¶z è ç ¶z øû ú ¶t
¶ 2T ¶ 2T ¶ 2T ¶T
K 2 + K 2 + K 2 + q G = rC
¶x ¶y ¶z ¶t
¶ 2 T ¶ 2 T ¶ 2 T q G rC ¶T
+ + + =
¶x 2 ¶y 2 ¶z 2 K K ¶t
¶ 2T ¶ 2T ¶ 2T q G 1 ¶T
or 2
+ 2+ 2+ = ——— (3)
¶x ¶y ¶z K a ¶t
K
Where a = = Thermal diffusivity
rC
Equation (3) is the three dimensional conduction heat transfer equation in Cartesian or rectangular
coordinates
¶
Note: (i) For steady state, =0
¶t
d 2T d 2T d 2T q G
The conduction equation become + + + =0
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2 K
This equation is called as Poisson’s equation.

(ii) For steady state, with no heat generation (qG = 0)

Conduction - Basic Equations 13

d 2T d 2T d 2T
+ + =0
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
d2 d2 d2
or Ñ2 T = 0 where Ñ = + + = Laplacian Order
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
The above equation is called as Laplace equation.
(iii) Transient no heat generation
¶ 2 T ¶ 2 T ¶ 2 T 1 ¶T
+ + =
¶x 2 ¶y 2 ¶z 2 a ¶t
The above equation is called as Diffusion equation.
(iv) For two dimensional heat transfer, the conduction equation became
¶ 2T ¶ 2T q G 1 ¶T
2
+ 2+ =
¶x ¶y K a ¶t
(v) For one dimensional heat transfer
¶ 2T q G 1 ¶T
2
+ =
¶x K a ¶t
1.6.2 Three dimensional conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates
z Qz+∆z
r

r∆θ
Qr
Qθ+∆θ
dθ ∆z
θ

Qθ ∆r Qr+∆r
θ
∆ r)∆
(r+
Qz
y
dθ
θ

Consider a three dimensional cylindrical element in cylindrical coordinates as shown in figure.

Let ∆r, r∆θ and ∆z are the dimensions of element in r, θ and z directions respectively
14 Heat Transfer

ρ = density of the element material

C = specific heat of the element material
Gelement = Heat generated by the material
Temperature in the material element is the function of three coordinates and time
i.e., T = f (r, θ, z, t)
Applying energy balance equation at inlet and outlet of the element.
é Rate of heat ù é Rate of heat ù é Rate of heat ù é Rate of change ù
ê ú ê ú ê ú ê ú
ê conduction intoú + ê generated in ú = ê conduction out ú + êof energy content ú
ê ú ê ú ê ú ê ú
ê the element ú ê the element ú êof the element ú êof the element ú
ë û ë û ë û ë û
DE element
Q r + Qq + Q z + G element = Q r +Dr + Qq+Dq + Q z+Dz + —— (1)
Dt
é ù DE element
ë(Q r +Dr - Q r ) + (Qq+Dq - Qq ) + (Q z+Dz - Q z )û + G element = Dt —— (2)

But Gelement = Heat generated /m3 × Volume of the element

= qG × V = qG × r ∆ θ ∆ r ∆ z
∆Eelement = Et+∆ t – Et
Et is the energy stored in the element at time ‘t’
Et+∆t is the energy stored in the element at time t+∆t
Now ∆ Eelement = mC (∆T) = mC [Tt+∆t – Tt]
= ρ V C [Tt+∆t – Tt] = ρ r ∆ θ ∆ r ∆ z C [Tt+ ∆t – Tt]
Substituting Gelement and ∆Eelement expressions in equation (2), we get
( Tt +Dt - Tt )
- éë(Q r +Dr - Q r ) + (Qq+Dq - Qq ) + (Q z+Dz - Q z )ùû + q G r Dr Dq Dz = rCr Dr Dq Dz
Dt
Dividing by r ∆ θ ∆ r ∆ z on the both sides
éQ - Q r Qq+Dq - Qq Q z+Dz - Q z ù (T - Tt )
ú + q G =rC t +Dt
- ê r +Dr + +
êé Q ú
ë rDq D- rD Qzr Q rDq D- rD Qzq Q rDq D- rDQzz ùû (T D-
ú + q G =rC t +Dt
t Tt )
- ê r +Dr + q+Dq + z+Dz
êé QrDq D-rD Qzr Q rDq D- rD Qzq Q rDq D- rDQzz ùúû (T Dt- Tt )
- ëê r +Dr + q+Dq + z+Dz ú + q G =rC t +Dt
êé Q A1 D
-rQ r Qq+Dq A 2 rDq- Qq Q zA 3D
ú
-zQ z ùû (T Dt- Tt )
ë
- ê r +Dr + + +Dz ú + q G =rC t +Dt
Taking ê A1limits
Dr as DrA® 0 , Dq ® 0 ,A
2 rDq
D3zD® z 0 úûand Dt ® 0 Dt
ë
Taking
Where é LtAlimits
=æ Q as D-
rDqDz, r®QAr20ö÷=, Dq
DrDz, Lt 0A,D
® æ=Q
z rDqDr
® 0-and 0 æç Q z+Dz - Q z ö÷ù
Qq ö÷Dt ® Lt Lt æ (T - Tt )÷ö
- êê 1 ç r +Dr
çç ÷+
÷
3ç q+Dq
ç
ç
÷÷ +
çç ÷÷ú + q G =
ú rC ççç t +Dt ÷÷
êéêDrLt
ë ® 0 èæ Q A1 D r øö÷ DqLt
r +Dr - Q r ÷
® 0 èæ QA 2 r -DqQq øö÷ DzLt ® 0 èæ Q A 3 D z øö÷ù
z +Dz - Q z ÷ûúú
DtLt
® 0 èçæ (Tt +DDt t- Tt )÷÷øö
ç
-ê ç
ç ÷+ ç
ç
q+Dq ÷
÷÷ + ç
ç ÷÷ + q G = rC ç ÷
éëêD¶rQr ® 0 èç ¶AQ1qDr ¶ø÷÷ QzDq ù ® 0 èç A 2 ¶r DqT ø÷ Dz ® 0 çè A 3 Dz ø÷ûúú Dt ® 0 ççè Dt ÷÷ø
-ê + + ú + q G = rC
éêë A¶1Qr ¶x A¶2Q¶q q A¶3Qz ¶z ùúû ¶¶Tt
- ê ∂Q r + ∂Q q + ∂Q z ú+ q G = rC ∂T
− ê A1 ¶x + A 2 ¶q + A3 ¶z ú + q G = rC¶t
ë û
 A1∂x A 2 r∂q A 3∂z  ∂t
∂T ∂T ∂T
But Q r =
− KA ,Q r = − KA 2 ,Q 2 =
− KA 3
∂r r∂q ∂z
The above equation become
1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T  ∂T
  ∂Q ∂Q ∂Q  ∂T
− + - Basic  + qG =
+Equations rC 15
r q z
Conduction
 A1∂x A 2 r∂q A 3∂z  ∂t
∂T ∂T ∂T
But Q r =
− KA ,Q r = − KA 2 ,Q 2 =
− KA 3
∂r r∂q ∂z
The above equation become
é ù
- ê 11 ∂¶ æç-K A∂T¶T ÷÷ö + 1 1∂ ¶ çæK A∂T ¶ T ÷÷ö1+ ∂1  ¶ çæ-K ∂TA  ¶T ÷÷öú + q ∂=T rC ¶T
− ê çèç−KA1 1  +÷ø ç
KA
ç + ÷  − ç
KA
ç  + q ÷ =rC
 è r∂qr¶q øA 3 ∂Az3 ¶z è ∂z   ¶z øúû
2 3 G
A11 ∂¶rr
ë A ∂r¶r A 2Ar∂q 1 ¶q
2 3 G
∂t ¶t
¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ çæ ¶T ö÷ ¶ æ ¶T ö ¶T
K çç ÷÷÷ + K çç ÷÷ + K çç ÷÷÷ + q G = rC
ç
¶r è ¶r ø r ¶q è r ¶q ÷ø ç
¶z è ¶z ø ¶t
1 ¶ æç r ¶T ö÷ ¶ æç ¶T ÷ö ¶ æç ¶T ö÷ r C ¶T
çèç ÷÷ + çç ÷+
÷ ç ÷ + q =
r ¶r ¶r ø r ¶q è r ¶q ÷ø ¶z èç ¶z ø÷
G
K ¶t

¶ 2 T 1 ¶T 1 ¶ 2 T ¶ 2 T q G 1 ¶T
2
+ + 2 2
+ 2+ = is the conduction equation in cylindrical
¶r r ¶ r r ¶q ¶z K a ¶t
coordinates
K
Where , a = Thermal diffusivity =
rC
The conduction equation can also be obtained by transformation from rectangular coordinates
using x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, z = z
¶
Note:- (1) For steady state = 0 . The conduction equation become
¶t
d 2 T 1 dT 1 d 2 T d 2 T q G
2
+ + 2 2
+ 2+ =0

d r r d r r d q d z K
(2) For steady state with no heat generation
d 2 T 1 dT 1 d 2 T d 2 T
2
+ + 2 2
+ 2 =0

d r r d r r d q dz
(3) Transient with no heat generation
¶ 2 T 1 ¶T 1 ¶ 2 T ¶ 2 T 1 ¶T
2
+ + 2 2
+ 2=

¶ r r ¶ r r ¶ q ¶z a ¶t
(4) For two dimensional heat transfer
¶ 2 T 1 ¶T 1 ¶ 2 T q G 1 ¶T
2
+ + 2 2
+ =

¶r r ¶r r ¶q K a ¶t
(5) For one dimensional heat conduction
¶ 2 T 1 ¶T q G 1 ¶T
2
+ + =

¶r r ¶ r K a ¶t
16 Heat Transfer

1 ¶ æç ¶T ö÷ q G 1 ¶T
or çr ÷+
÷ =
r ¶ r çè ¶ r ø÷ K a ¶t

1.6.3 Three dimensional conduction equation in spherical coordinates
z
f Qθ+∆θ
D q
in
rs
Qf+Df
Qr
θ
r∆θ
y Q
r+∆
ϕ Qϕ
r

x ∆r Qθ

Consider a three dimensional spherical element in spherical coordinates is shown in figure.
Let ∆r, r ∆ θ and r sin θ ∆ ϕ are the dimension of the element in r, θ and ϕ direction
ρ = Density of the element material
C = Specific heat of the element material
Gelement = Heat generated by element
Temperature in the material element is the function of three coordinates and time
i.e., T = f (r, θ, f, t)
Applying energy balance equation at inlet and outlet of the element
é Rate of heat ù é Rate of heat ù é Rate of heat ù é Rate of change ù
ê ú ê ú ê ú ê ú
ê conduction intoú + ê generated in ú = ê conduction out ú + êof energy content ú
ê ú ê ú ê ú ê ú
ê the element ú ê the element ú êof the element ú êof the element ú
ë û ë û ë û ë û
DE element
Q x + Q y + Qf + G element = Q x +Dx + Q y+Dy + Qf+Df + —— (1)
Dt
DE element
- éê(Q x +Dx - Q x ) + (Q y+Dy - Q y ) + (Qf+Df - Qf )ùú + G element = —— (2)
ë û Dt
But Gelement = Heat generated /m3 × Volume of the element
= qG × V = qG × ∆r × r∆θ × r sinθ ∆ϕ
∆ Eelement = Et+∆ t – Et
= mC [Tt+∆t – Tt]
= ρ V C [Tt+∆t – Tt]
= ρ ∆r × r∆θ × r sinθ∆ϕ C [Tt+ ∆t – Tt]
Substituting Gelement and ∆ Eelement expressions in equation (2), we get
Conduction - Basic Equations 17

é Tt +Dt - Tt ù
- éê(Q r +Dr - Q r ) + (Qq+Dq - Qq ) + (Qf+Df - Qf )ùú + q G ´Dr ´ r Dq´ r sin q Df = rDr ´ r Dq´ r sin q Df C ê ú
ë û êë Dt úû

Dividing by ∆r × r∆θ × r sinθ ∆ϕ on the both sides

é Q r +Dr - Q r Qq+Dq - Qq Qf+Df - Qf ù é T - Tt ù
-ê + + ú + q G =rC ê t +Dt ú
ê rD rDq r sin q Df rD rDq r sin q Df rD rDq r sin q Df ú êë Dt úû
ë û
é 1 ìï Q - Q r ïüï 1 ïïì Qq+Dq - Qq ïüï 1 ïìï Qf+Df - Qf ïüïùú é Tt +Dt - Tt ù
- êê ïí r +Dr ý+ í ý+ í ýú + q G =rC ê ú
ï ïþï A 2 ïîï rDq þïï A 3 ïîï r sin q Df ïþï êë Dt úû
ë A1 îï Dr û
A1 = rDq´r sin q Df, A 2 = Dr ´ r sin q Df, A 3 = Dr´rDq
Applying limits and simplifying, we get
é 1 ¶Q r 1 ¶Qq 1 ¶Qf ù
-ê + + ú + q G = rC ¶T —— (3)
ê A1 ¶r A 2 r¶q A 3 r sin q¶f úû ¶t
ë
¶T ¶T ¶T
But Q r = -KA1 , Qq = -KA 2 , Qf = -KA 3
¶r r¶q ¶f´ r sin q
Substituting above relations in equation (3), we get
é1 ¶æ æ öù
- êê
ö æ ö
çç-K A1 ¶T ÷÷ + 1 ¶ çç-K A 2 ¶T ÷÷ + 1 ¶ çç -K A 3 ¶T ÷÷ú + q = rC ¶T
ç ¶r ÷ø A 2 r¶q çè r¶q ÷ø A 3 r sin q ¶ f çè r sin q ¶f ÷ø÷ûú
G
ë A1 ¶r è ¶t
¶ æ ¶T ö ¶ æ ¶T ö æ ö
K çç ÷÷÷ + K 2 çç ÷÷÷ + K 2 2
¶ ç ¶T ÷÷ + q = rC ¶T
ç
¶r çè ¶r ø r ¶q èç ¶q ø r sin q ¶ f çè ¶f ÷ø
G
¶t
æ ö æ ö
or
1 ¶ æç 2 ¶T ÷ö
r ÷ +
¶ çsin q ¶T ÷÷ +
ç
¶ ç ¶T ÷÷ + q G = rC ¶T
ç
çè ÷
2
r ¶r ç ÷ 2 ç
¶r ø r sin q ¶ q è ¶q ÷ø r sin q ¶ f èç ¶f ø÷ K
2 2
K ¶t
1 ¶ æç 2 ¶T ö÷ 1 ¶ çæ ¶T ÷ö 1 ¶ 2T q G 1 ¶T
ç r ÷
÷ + çsin q ÷
÷ + + = —— (4)
2 ç 2
r ¶r è ¶r ø r sin q ¶q èç ¶q ø÷ r sin q ¶f
2 2 2
K a ¶t
K
Where a = Thermal diffussivity =
rC
The above expression is the general heat conduction equation in spherical coordinates.

Note: (1) For steady state with no heat generation.

1 d éê 2 dT ùú 1 d éê dT ùú 1 d 2T
r + sin q + =0
r 2 d r ëê d r ûú r 2sin q d q ëê d q ûú r 2sin 2 q d f2
(2) Transient, no heat generation
1 ¶ éê 2 ¶T ùú 1 ¶ éê ¶T ùú 1 ¶ 2 T 1 ¶T
r + sin q + =
r 2 ¶ r êë ¶ r úû r 2sin q ¶ q êë ¶ q úû r 2sin 2 q ¶ f2 a ¶ t

18 Heat Transfer

(3) For two dimensional heat transfer

1 ¶ éê 2 ¶T ùú 1 ¶ éê ¶T ùú q G 1 ¶T
r + 2 sin q + =
r ¶ r ëê ¶ r ûú r sin q ¶ q ëê
2
¶ q ûú K a ¶ t

(4) For one dimensional heat transfer
1 ¶ é ¶T ù ¶ 2 T q G 1 ¶T
êr ú+ 2 + =

r ¶r êë ¶r úû ¶z K a ¶t
(5) For one dimensional steady state heat transfer without heat generation
1 d é 2 dT ù
2
êr ú =0
r dr ë dr û
ê ú
(6) The equation (4) can also be transformed from spherical coordinates to cartesian coordinates
by using
x = r sin q sin f
y = r sin q cos f
z = r cos q
1.7 THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
Thermal diffusivity is the property of material that represents how fast heat propagates through
the material.
It is given by
K
Thermal diffussivity a =
rC
The thermal conductivity K indicates how well a material can conduct heat. The heat capacity
ρC represents how much energy a material can store per unit volume.
Heat Conducted
Therefore , thermal diffussivity a =
Heat energy stored
per unit volume

The SI unit of thermal diffusivity is m2/s

A small value of thermal diffusivity indicates that heat is mostly absorbed by the material and
only a small quantity of heat will be conducted across the material.
1.7.1 Thermal Diffusivity of some materials at room temperature
Material α, m2/s
Silver 149 × 10–6
Gold 127 × 10–6
Copper 113 × 10–6
Aluminium 97.5 × 10–6
Conduction - Basic Equations 19

Iron 22.8 × 10–6

Concrete 0.75 × 10–6
Brick 0.52 × 10–6
Water 0.14 × 10–6
1.8 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the boundaries are called as
boundary conditions. Heat transfer problem in a medium is not complete without a full description
of thermal conditions at the boundary surfaces of the medium.
The temperature distribution in a medium depends on the conditions at the boundaries of the
medium as well as the heat transfer mechanism inside the medium. To describe heat transfer
problem completely two boundary conditions must be given to each direction of the coordinate
system along which heat transfer is significant. Therefore, it is needed to specify two boundary
conditions for one dimensional problem, four boundary conditions for two dimensional problem
and six boundary conditions for three dimensional problems.
1.8.1 Types of boundary conditions
1) Specified Temperature boundary conditions (Boundary conditions of first kind)
Temperature of an exposed surface can usually be measured directly and easily.
For one dimensional heat transfer through a plane wall of thickness L, specified temperature
boundary conditions can be expressed as
(i) at x = 0 we get T(0, t) = T1
(ii) at x = L we get T(L, t) = T2

T1 T(x,t) T2

o X
L
Where T1 and T2 are the specified temperature at surface at x = 0 and x = L respectively
The specified temperature can be constant, which is the case for steady state heat conduction or
may vary with time.

2) Specified heat flux boundary conditions (Boundary conditions of second kind)

When there is a sufficient information about energy interactions at a surface, it may be possible to
determine the rate of heat transfer and thus the heat flux on that surface. This information can be
used as one of the boundary conditions.
20 Heat Transfer

q1 q2

o X
L
Heat flux boundary condition (From Fourier’s law of heat conduction) is expressed as
¶T
q = -K

¶x
Where q = heat flux = Heat transfer rate per unit area
Q
=
A
For one dimensional heat transfer through a plane wall of thickness ‘L’, the specified heat flux
boundary conditions are
æ ¶T ö
(i) at x = 0 we have , - K çç ÷÷÷ = q1
çè ¶x ø 0 , t
( )

æ ¶T ö
(ii) at x = L we have , - K çç ÷÷÷ = q 2
çè ¶x ø L , t
( )

where q1 and q2 are the heat fluxes at x = 0 and x = L respectively
3) Convection boundary conditions (Boundary conditions of third kind)
The convection boundary conditions are based on an energy balance on the surface.
It can be expressed as
é Heat conduction ù é Heat convection ù
ê ú ê ú
ê at the surface in a ú = ê at the surface in ú
ê ú ê ú
êselected direction ú ê the same direction ú
ë û ë û
For one dimensional heat transfer through a plate of thickness L in x-direction, the convective
boundary conditions on both surfaces can be expressed as
Conduction - Basic Equations 21

Convection Conduction ho,

hi To
Ti
Conduction Convection
o X
L

(i) at x = 0 and time t, we have

¶T
h i éë Ti - T (0 , t )ùû = -K (0 , t )
¶x
(ii) at x = L and time t, we have
æ ¶T ö
-K çç ÷÷÷ = h o éë T (L , t ) - To ùû
çè ¶x ø L ,t
( )

hi and ho are heat transfer coefficients between inner surface and fluid and outer surface and
fluid.
Ti and To are the temperature of the surrounding mediums on the two sides of the plate
(4) Radiation boundary conditions
In some space and cryogenic application, the transfer surface is surrounded by an evacuated
space and thus there is no convection heat transfer between the surface and the surrounding
medium. In such conditions, radiated boundary conditions are used.
Radiation Conduction Î2 ,
Î1 , Tsurr 2
Tsurr1
Conduction Radiation

o X
L
It is expressed as
é Heat conduction at the surfaceù é Radiation exchange at the ù
ê ú=ê ú
êë in a selected direction úû êë surface in the same direction úû
For one-dimensional heat transfer in the x-direction in a plate of thickness ‘L’ the radiation
boundary conditions on both the surfaces are
æ ¶T ö÷
(i) Î1 s éêëTsurr
4 4 ù ç
1 - T (0 , t )úû = -K ç ÷ at x = 0 & time t
ç è ¶x ø÷(0 ,t)
æ ¶T ö÷
(ii)- K ççç ÷÷ =Î2 s éëê T (0 , t ) - Tsurr 2 ùûú at x = L & time t
4 4

è ¶x ø(L ,t)
 æ ¶T ö÷
(i) Î1 s éëêTsurr
22
4 4 ù ç
1 - T (0 , t )ûú = -K ç ÷ at x = 0 & time t Heat Transfer
è ¶x ø÷(0 ,t)
ç
æ ¶T ö÷
(ii)- K ççç ÷÷ =Î2 s éêë T (0 , t ) - Tsurr 2 ùúû at x = L & time t
4 4

è ¶x ø(L ,t)

Where Î1 and Î2 are the emissivities of the boundary surfaces

σ = Steafan – Boltzman constant = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2 K4

Radiation boundary conditions involve the fourth power of temperature, thus it is a linear condition.
1.8.2 Special type boundary conditions
Insulated boundary conditions
Some surfaces are commonly insulated in order to minimise heat loss or heat gain through
them. Heat transfer through a properly insulated surface can be taken to be zero, i.e., for well
insulated surface, the specified heat flux is zero.
Insulated

T(x,t)

o X
L
Then the boundary condition on a perfectly insulated surface is given by
æ ¶T ö æ ö
K çç ÷÷÷ = q = 0 or çç ¶T ÷÷ = 0
çè ¶x ø 0 ,t çè ¶x ø÷ 0 ,t
( ) ( )

i.e., on an insulated surface, the first derivative of temperature with respect to the space variable
in the direction normal to the insulated surface is zero.
Thermal symmetry boundary conditions
Zero slope
Temperature
distribution

o X
L
Some heat transfer problems possess thermal symmetry as a result of the symmetry in imposed
thermal conditions. Ex:- The two sides of large hot plate of thickness ‘L’, suspended vertically in
air will be subjected to the same thermal conditions. Thus the temperature distribution in one half
of the plate will be the same as that in the other half. That is, the heat transfer problems in the plate
Conduction - Basic Equations 23

L
possess thermal symmetry about the center plane at x =
2
Therefore the centre plane can be viewed as an insulated surface.
Thus, the boundary condition is
æ ¶T ö÷
ççèç ø÷÷æ L ö = 0 It resembles the insulation or zero heat flux boundary condition.
¶x çç ,t÷÷
çè 2 ÷ø
24 Heat Transfer

Problems on Basic Conduction equation and Boundary Conditions

1. A steel pan is placed top of an electric heating unit. The bottom section of the pan is
0.4cm thick and has a diameter of 18cm. The electric heating unit on the range top
consumes 800W of power during cooking and 80% of the heat generated in the heating
element is transferred uniformly to the pan. Assuming constant thermal conductivity,
obtain differential equation that describes the variation of the temperature distribution
in the bottom section of the pan during steady operation.
Ans. Since pan has a large surface area relative to its thickness, it can be approximated as a large
plane wall. Also it is a 1 - dimensional problems as heat transfers from bottom to top.
f18cm
Bottom section
0.4 cm of the pan

800W
¶T
For steady state =0
¶t
\ T = f (x)
Also K = constant, qG = heat generated in the pan = 0
From 1 - dimensional conduction equation in rectangular coordinates,
¶ 2T q G 1 ¶T
We get , 2
+ =
¶x K a ¶t
Substituting the given conditions, the above equation become
d2T
+0= 0
dx 2
d 2T
= 0 This is the required differential equation.
dx 2
2. A 2kW resistance heater wire with thermal conductivity K = 15 W/moC, diameter D =
0.4cm and length L = 50cm is used to boil water by immersing it in water. Assuming the
variation of thermal conductivity of the wire with temperature to be negligible, obtain the
differential equation that describes the variation of the temperature in the wire during
steady operation.
Ans. The resistance wire is considered as a very long cylinder as its length is more that its
diameter. Also heat is generated uniformly in the wire and the conditions on the outer
surface of wire are uniform.
Therefore, temperature in the wire vary in the radial direction ‘r’ only.
Thus the heat transfer to be 1- dimensional
G 2000
Heat generated by the wire q G = = = 0.318´109 W / m3
V p
´ 0.042 ´ 0.5
4
Conduction - Basic Equations 25

¶T
For steady state , =0
¶t
1-Dimensional differential equation in cylindrical coordinates is
1 ¶ æç ¶T ö÷ q G 1 ¶T
ççèr ÷÷ + =
r ¶r ¶r ø K a ¶t
Substituting the above conditions
1 d æç dT ö÷ q G
çr ÷ + =0
r dr çè dr ÷ø K
3. A spherical metal ball of radius R is heated in an oven to a temperature of 600oF
throughout and is then taken out of the oven and allowed to cool in ambient air at T∞=
75oF by convection and radiation. The thermal conductivity of the ball material is known
to vary linearly with temperature. Assuming the ball is cooled uniformly from the entire
outer surface, obtain the differential equation that describes the variation of temperature
in the ball during cooling.
Ans. As the temperature at any point in the ball will change with time Air
during cooling, this is a 1-dimensional transient heat conduction 75oF
problem. Also thermal conductivity varies.
Metal
\ T = f (K , r , t ) and q G = 0 Q
ball
The 1- dimensional conduction equation in spherical coordinates 600 Fo

is
1 ¶ æç 2 ¶T ÷ö q G 1 ¶T
2 ççèr ÷÷ + =
r ¶r ¶r ø K a ¶t
Substituting the given conditions, we get
1 ¶ æç 2 ¶T ö÷ ¶T
2 ççèr K ÷÷ = rC
r ¶r ¶r ø ¶t
4. For the following heat conduction equations, state
(i) Type of heat transfer – steady or transient
(ii) One, two or three dimensional
(iii) Is there heat generation in the medium
(iv) Is the thermal conductivity of the medium constant or variable
¶ 2 T 1 ¶T
Ans. (a) =
¶x 2 a ¶t
(i) T depends on time ‘t’. It is transient heat conduction
(ii) Since T depends on one space coordinate ‘x’, it is one dimensional heat transfer
(iii) Since there is no qG, medium is not generating the heat
(iv) As the thermal conductivity of the medium does not appear with in the differential
symbol, the conductivity of the medium is constant.
26 Heat Transfer

1 d æç dT ö
(b) ççèr K ÷÷÷ø + q G = 0
r dr dr
(i) Steady state heat conduction (No ‘t’ term in differential equation)
(ii) One dimensional (T depends on r)
(iii) With heat generation
(iv) Variable thermal conductivity
1 ¶ æç ¶T ö÷ ¶ æç ¶T ÷ö
(c) çèK r ÷+ çK ÷ + qG = 0
r ¶r ç ¶r ø÷ ¶ z èç ¶z ÷ø
(i) Steady state heat conduction
(ii) Two dimensional (T depends on r and z)
(iii) With heat generation
(iv) Variable thermal conductivity
1 ¶ æç 2 ¶T ö÷ 1 ¶ 2 T 1 ¶T
(d) 2 çr ÷+ =
r ¶r çè ¶r ø÷ r 2 sin 2 q ¶f2 a ¶t
(i) Transient
(ii) Two dimensional (T depends on r and φ)
(iii) No heat generation
(iv) Constant thermal conductivity
¶ 2T ¶ 2T 1 ¶T
(e) 2
+ 2 =
¶x ¶y a ¶t
(i) Transient heat conduction
(ii) Two dimensional
(iii) No heat generation
(iv) Constant thermal conductivity
1 ¶ æç ¶T ö÷ ¶ çæ ¶T ö÷
(f) çr ÷+ ç ÷+ =0
r ¶r çè ¶r ø÷ ¶z çè ¶z ø÷ K
(i) Steady state
(ii) Two dimensional
(iii) With heat generation
(iv) Constant thermal conductivity
d 2 T dT
(g) r + =0
dr 2 dr
(i) Steady state
(ii) One dimensional
(iii) No heat generation
(iv) Constant thermal conductivity
5. A plane wall of thickness ‘L’ is subjected to a heat supply at a rate of qo W/m2 at one
boundary surface and dissipates heat from the surface by convection to the ambient
which is at uniform temperature of T∞ with a heat transfer coefficient of h∞. Write
Conduction - Basic Equations 27

mathematical formulation of the boundary conditions for the plane wall.

Ans. (i) At left side boundary, heat flux is specified. Therefore, the boundary conditions is
æ dT ö÷
at x = 0, -K çç ÷÷ = q o at x = o
çè dx ø
x =o
h∞
(ii) At right side boundary, heat is dissipated to ambient air byqo
T∞
convection. Therefore the boundary condition is
æ dT ö
at x = L, çè dx ø (
-K çç ÷÷÷ = h ¥ T(L) - T¥ ) at x = L
x =L
O
L
x
6. Consider a solid cylinder of radius R and height Z. The outer curved surface of cylinder
is subjected to uniform heating electrically at a rate of qo W/m2 Both the circular faces
of the cylinder are exposed to an environment at a uniform temperature T∞ with a
surface heat transfer coefficient h. Write the mathematical formulation of the boundary
conditions for the solid cylinder.
Ans.
z
h, T∞

Z
qo qo

r
0
R

Cylinder is a symmetrical body

Therefore boundary conditions are applied from axis of symmetry to either side of the
cylinder.
Boundary conditions are
In radial direction
¶T
(i) at r = 0 = 0 (axis of symmetry)
¶r
¶T
(ii) at r = R , - K = q o (heat flux boundary condition )
¶r

In Z direction
æ ¶T ö
(iii) at z = 0, h éêëT(z=o) - T¥ ùúû = -K ççç ÷÷÷
è ¶Z ø(z=o)

æ ¶T ö
(iv) at z = Z, - K ççç ÷÷÷ = h [Tz=Z - T¥ ]
è ¶Z ø(z=Z)
 In Z direction
æ ¶T ö
(iii) at z = 0, h éëêT(z=o) - T¥ ùûú = -K ççç ÷÷÷
28 Heat Transfer
è ¶Z ø
(z =o)

æ ¶T ö
(iv) at z = Z, - K ççç ÷÷÷ = h [Tz=Z - T¥ ]
è ¶Z ø(z=Z)

7. An aluminium pan used to cook is placed on top of electric range. The bottom section of
the pan is L = 0.3cm thick and has a diameter of D = 20cm. The electric heater consumes
800W of power during cooking and 90% of the heat generated in the heating element is
transferred to the pan. During steady operation, the temperature of the inner surface of
the pan is measured to 110oC. Express the boundary conditions for the bottom section of
the pan during this cooking process.
Ans. It is a 1-dimensional heat transfer as the heat transfers from bottom to top.
¶T
For steady state =0
¶t
Thus T = f (x)
Heat transfer rate
Heat flux q =
Bottom surface area 110oC
0.9´800
= = 22.9 k W / m 2
p
´ 0.22 0.3cm
4
φ 20cm
Boundary conditions
dT
(i) Outer surface , at x = 0, - K = q = 22.9 k W / m 2
dx
(ii) Inner surface , at x = L = 0.3cm , T = 110o C
8. Steam flows through pipe at an average temperature of T∞= 200oC. The inner and outer
radii of the pipe are r1= 8cm r2 = 8.5cm and the outer surface of the pipe is heavily
insulated. If the convection heat transfer coefficient on the inner surface of the pipe h =
65 W/m2K, express the boundary conditions on the inner and outer surfaces of the pipe
during transient period.
Ans. During initial transient periods, heat transfer through the pipe material will be in the radial
direction. Thus it can be approximated as 1-dimensional.
i.e., T = f (r, t)
Insulated
Boundary conditions are
Q=0
()i Inner boundary condition
æ ¶T ö
-K çç ÷÷÷ = h éêT¥ - T(r1 ,t) ùú r1
èç ¶r ø(r1 ,t) ë û

(ii) Outer boundary condition 200oC r2

Q æ ¶T ö
= 0 = çç ÷÷÷
A çè ¶r ø
(r2 ,t )
Conduction - Basic Equations 29

9. A hollow cylinder of inner radius ri, outer radius ro and hieght H is subjected to the
following boundary condition i. The inner curved surface is heated uniformly with an
electric heater at a constant rate of qo W/m2 ii. The outer surface dissipates heat by
convection into an ambient at a uniform temperature of T∞ with the surface heat transfer
coefficient h. iii. The lower flat surface of the cylinder is insulated. iv. The upper flat
surface of the cylinder dissipates heat by convection into the ambient at T∞ with surface
heat transfer coefficient h. Write the mathematical formulation of boundary conditions
for the cylinder. hz,T∞
Ans. It is a two dimensional heat transfer problem
Boundary conditions are
¶T
(i) at r = ri , - K = qo
¶r
¶T
(ii) at r = ro , - K = h r éëêT(r=ro ) - T¥ ùûú H
qo hr,T∞
¶r
¶T
(iii) at z = 0, = 0 (Insulated )
¶z
æ ¶T ö
(iv) at Z = H , - K ççç ÷÷÷ = h Z éê T(Z=H) - T¥ ùú
è ¶Z ø(Z=H) ë û
ri
Insulation ro
10. A Plane wall of thickness L and with constant thermal property is initially at a uniform
temperature Ti. Suddenly one of the surfaces of the wall is subjected to heating by the
flow of hot gasses at temperature T∞ and the other surface is kept insulated. The heat
transfer coefficient between the hot gases and surface exposed to it is h. There is no heat
generation in the wall. Write the one dimensional unsteady state temperature within the
wall. VTU Jan 2006
Ans. Data: K = constant, qG = 0, unsteady state 1-dimensional heat transfer
Governing differential equation is
∂ 2 T q g 1 ∂T
+ =
∂x 2 K a ∂t T = Ti
h∞, T∞
∂T2
1 ∂T at t = o
+ 0 =
∂x 2 a ∂t ted la L
¶ 2 T 1 ¶T su
= In
¶x 2 a ¶t
Initial condition is at t = 0, T = Ti
Boundary conditions are x
æ ¶T ö
(i) at x = 0, ççç ÷÷÷ = 0 [ Insulated ]
è ¶x ø(x=O)
æ ¶T ö÷
(ii) at x = L ,- K ççç ÷ = h ¥ éêT(x=L) - T¥ ùú for all t > 0
è ¶x ÷ø(x=L) ë û
30 Heat Transfer

11. A copper bar of radius R is initially at a uniform temperature of Ti, suddenly the heating
of the rod begins at time t = 0 by the passage of electric current which generates heat at
a uniform rate q W/m3. The outer surface of the cylinder dissipates heat into an ambient
at a uniform temperature T∞ with a convective heat transfer coefficient h. Assuming
that thermal conductivity of bar to be constant, write the mathematical formulation of
the heat conduction problem to determine the one dimensional radial unsteady state
temperature distribution in the rod.
Ans. K = constant, unsteady state, heat generation T = f (r, t)
The Governing equation is
æ ö h, T∞
1 ¶ ç ¶T ÷ q G 1 ¶T
ççr ÷+
÷ =
r ¶ r è ¶ r ø÷ K a ¶t
Initial condition
T = Ti at t £ 0
Boundary conditions
¶T
(i) at r = 0, = 0 [ Axis of symmetry ]
¶r
æ ¶T ö
(ii) at r = R , - K ççç ÷÷÷ = h [Tr=R - T¥ ]
è ¶r ør= R
12. Consider a solid cylinder of radius R and height H. Heat is generated in the solid at a
uniform rate of q W/m3. One of the circular faces of the cylinder is insulated and the
other circular face dissipates heat by convection into a medium at a uniform temperature
of T∞ with a surface heat transfer coefficient h. The outer curved surface of the cylinder
is maintained at a uniform temperature of To. Write the mathematical formulation to
determine the two dimensional steady state temperature in the cylinder. VTU Jan - 2006
Ans. T = f (r, z), heat generation, steady state, 2 - dimensional heat transfer
The governing differential equation is
z
1 d æç dT ö÷ d 2 T q G h,T∞
çr ÷ + + =0
r dr çè dr ÷ø dz 2 K
Boundary conditions are
æ dTæ dT
ö ö÷
r =r0=. çç0. ççç ÷÷÷
(i) (ati) at (axis
÷ = 0= 0(axis ) )
of symmetry
of symmetry To
ç è
è dr ødr ø÷
r =o r =o H
R

(ii)(iiat) at
r =rR=. RT. =TT=o To
æ dTæç dTö ö
(iii()iiiat) zat=z0=, 0ççç, ççè ÷÷÷ ø÷÷÷ = 0=(0Insulated
(Insulated
) )
è dz ødz (z=o()z=o) Insulation
æ dTæ dT
ö ö
(iv()ivat) at
Z =ZH -,K-ççK ççç ÷÷÷ ÷÷÷ = h=[Thz=[T
=, H = HT
H z-
T ]
¥] ¥
-
çè dzè ødz øz=H
z= H
Conduction - Basic Equations 31

13. Consider a rectangular plate as shown in fig. The plate is generating heat at the rate of
q W/m3. Write the mathematical formulation to determine two dimensional steady state
temperature distribution in the plate. y
Ans. T = f (x, y), steady state
Differential equation is
d 2T d 2T q G
+ + =0 h, T∞
dx 2 dy 2 K
Boundary conditions are
æ dT ö÷
(i) at x = 0, - K ççç ÷ = qo qo b
è dx ÷øx=0 To
(ii) at x = a , T = T0
dT x
(iii) at y = 0, = 0 (Fully Insulated ) Insulated
dy a
æ dT ö
(iv) at y = b , - K ççç ÷÷÷÷ = h éëêTy=b - T¥ ùûú
è dy ø y= b

14. Consider the north wall of a house of thickness L The outer surface of the wall exchanges
heat by both convection and radiation. The interior of the house is maintained at a
uniform temperature of Ti, while exterior of the house at a uniform temperature of To.
Heat exchange takes place due to radiation between wall and sky, Tsky is the effective
temperature. The emissivity of the outer surface of the wall is εo. Assuming the heat
transfer through the wall is steady and 1 - dimensional, express the mathematical
formulation for temperature distribution.
Ans. T = f(x), steady state, 1 - dimensional heat transfer, qg = 0
Governing equation
d 2T x
=0
dx 2
Boundary conditions are
æ dT ö To, h∞
((ii)) at Ti - Tx=0 ] = -K æçç dT ö÷÷÷
= 00 ,, hh i [T
at xx =
i [ i - Tx =0 ] = -K ç
çè dx ÷øx=0
è dx øx=0 Ti, Qradiation
((iiii)) at
at xx =
=LL hi Qconvection
Qconduction =
Q =Q Qconvectoin + + Q Q radiation
conduction convectoin radiation
ææ dT öö÷
ç dT éé Tx44=L - Tsky
4 ùùú
= hh oo [[T ]] + 4
-K
-K ççè dx ÷÷÷ø = -T
Txx==LL - T¥ + ee os
s ê
ë T
o êë x = L - Tsky úûû
çè dx øx=L ¥
x =L

15. A plate of thickness L whose one side is insulated and the other side is maintained at
temperature T1 is exchanging heat by radiation to a surrounding area at a temperature
T2, with atmospheric air being the outside medium. Write the mathematical formulation
for 1-dimensional, steady state heat transfer without heat generation. VTU June - 2007
32 Heat Transfer

Ans. Steady state, qG = 0

T = f(x)
Governing equation Qcond Qrad
d 2T
=0 Insulated T1 T2, ε
dx 2
Boundary conditions
dT
(i) at x = 0 =0
dx
(ii) at x = L L
dT
-K =Î s éêë T14 - T2 4 ùúû
dx
16. Write the mathematical formulation of 1-dimensional steady state heat conduction
for a hollow sphere with constant thermal conductivity in the region a ≤ r ≤ b when
heat is supplied to the sphere at a rate of qo W/m2 from the boundary surface at r = a
and dissipated by convection from the boundary surface at r = b into medium at zero
temperature with a heat transfer coefficient h. VTU June - 2011
Ans. T = f (r), steady state, no heat generation
1 d æç 2 dT ö÷ T = 0oC
Governing equation 2 ççè r ÷
÷ø = 0 h
r dr dr
Boundary conditions are qo
dT a
(i) at r = a, -K = q0 b
dr
dT
(ii) at r = b, -K = h [Tx=b - 0]
dr
17. Write the mathematical formulation for a plane wall used as a shield in a nuclear reactor
which is exposed to gamma ray radiation results in heat generation according to the
relation q = ge–ax where g and a are constants. The wall is 2L units thick and its surface at
x = L is kept insulated and the surface at x = L dissipate heat by convection into a medium
at temperature T∞ with heat transfer coefficient h. Assume steady state heat transfer.
Ans. T = f (x)
Differential Governing equation
d 2T q G
+ =0
dx 2 K Insulated h, T∞
d 2 T ge-ax
+ =0
dx 2 K
Boundary conditions are
æ ö
dT
(i) at x = – L, ççç ÷÷÷ = 0 [ Fully insulated ] L L
è dx øx=-L
Conduction - Basic Equations 33

æ dT ö
(ii) at x = L, K ççç ÷÷÷ = h [Tx=L - T¥ ]
è dx øx=L
18. Write the mathematical formulation for one dimensional steady state heat conduction
for a hollow sphere in the region x ≤ r ≤ y in which heat is generated at a rate of gr3,
where g is a constant. The boundary surface at r = x is kept at a uniform temperature To
while the boundary surface at r = y dissipates heat by convection to the surroundings at
temperature T∞ with a heat transfer coefficient h
Ans. T = f(r) , qG = gr3
Governing equation is T ,h∞
1 d çæ 2 dT ÷ö q G
çr ÷+ =0
r 2 dr çè dr ÷ø K
To
1 d æç 2 dT ö÷ gr 3 x •
çr ÷+ =0
r 2 dr çè dr ÷ø K y
Boundary conditions are
(i) at r = x T = To
æ dT ö÷
(ii) at r = y, -K çç ÷ = h éëê Tr= y - T¥ ùûú
è dr ø÷r= y
ç
19. Consider one dimensional steady state heat conduction in a plate with constant thermal
conductivity in a region 0≤ x≤ L. A plate is exposed to uniform heat flux q W/m2 at x=0 and
dissipates heat by convection at x = L with heat transfer coefficient h in the surrounding
air at T∞. Write the mathematical formulation of this problem for the determination of
one dimensional steady temperature distribution within the wall. VTU Dec - 2013
Ans. K = Constant steady state.
1-D heat transfer.

q
h,T∞

o x
L
1-D conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates is
34 Heat Transfer

2
∂ T qGa 1 ∂T
+ =
∂x 2 K a ∂t
Substituting the given condictions, the above equation become.
d2T d2T
= + 0 0 or
= 0
dx 2 dx 2
Boundary Conditions :
dT
( i) at x= 0 we get q = −K
dx x =0

dT
( ii) at x=L we get −K = ( Tx
h= L − T∞ )
dx x=L

20. The temperature distribution across a wall 1m thick at a certain instant of time is given
by T(x) = 900 – 300x – 50x2 where given by T is in oC and x is in m. The uniform heat
generation of 1000 w/m3 is present in wall of area 10m2 having the properties r = 1600 kg/
m3, k = 40 w/mK, c = 4 kJ/kg K, Determine
(i) the rate of heat transfer entering the wall at x = 0 and leaving the wall at x = 1m
(ii) the rate of change of internal energy of the wall
(iii) the time rate of temperature change at x = 0, and x = 0.5m (VTU Dec / Jan 2018)
Data : T(x) = 900 – 300x – 50x2, qu = 1000 W/m3, A = 10m2, r = 1600 kg/m3,
K = 40 w/mk, C = 4 × 103 J/kg K, Qx = 0 = ? Qx = 1 = ?,
DE dT
= ?,= ?
dt dt
T ( x ) =900 − 300x − 50x 2
dT
= −300 − 100x
dx
Rate of heat transfer entering the wallat x = 0
dT
Q x = 0 = −KA
dx x =0

=−40 × 10 × ( −300 − 100 × 0 )

=−40 × 10 × ( −300 ) =1, 20,000 W =120kW
Rate of heat transfer leaving the wallat x =1m
dT
Q x =1 = −KA
dx x =1

=−40 × 10 × ( −300 − 100 × 0 )

= 1,60,000
= W 160kW
Applying energy balance equation
Rate of heat entering + heat generated
= Rate of heat leaving + Rate of change of internal energy
DE
=x 0= Q
x 1 + G= Q +
dt
DE
120000 + q G ×
= V 160000 +
= 1,60,000
= W 160kW
Applying energy balance equation
Conduction - Basic Equations 35
Rate of heat entering + heat generated
= Rate of heat leaving + Rate of change of internal energy
DE
=x 0= Q
x 1 + G= Q +
dt
DE
120000 + q G ×
= V 160000 +
dt
DE
120000 + 1000 × 10
= × 1 160000 +
dt
DE
= −30000W = −30kW
dt
Rate of change of temperature
d 2 T q G 1 dT
+ =
dx 2 K a dt
d 2 T d  dT  d
=  = ( −300 − 100x ) = −100
dx 2 dx  dx  dx
K 40
=a = = 3
6.25 × 10−6 m 2 / s
rC 1600 × 4 × 10
1000 1 dT
∴−100 + = −6
40 6.25 × 10 dt
dT
=−4.6875 × 10−4 o C / s
dt
The change of temperature is independent of position.
21. At a certain time, the temperature distribution in a long cylindrical tube with an inner
radius of 250mm and outside radius of 400mm is given by T(r) = 750 + 100r – 5000r2 where
r in metre, T in oC. The thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of the material are
58 W/mK and 0.005 m2/h respectively.
Calculate (i) Rate of heat flow at inside and outside surfaces per unit length.
(ii) Rate of heat storage per unit length
(iii) Rate of change of temperature at inner and outer surfaces.
Data : T(r) = 750 + 1000r – 5000r2, K = 58 W/mK, a = 0.004 m2/h, r1 = 0.25m, r2 = 0.4m
dT
Q
=
=r r1=r r2?,Q
= ?,= ?
dt
T(r) =750 − 1000r − 5000r 2
dT
= 1000 − 10000r
dr
Rate of heat transfer at inner surface •
r1
dT r2
Q = −KA = −58 × 2π × r1L × (1000 − 10000 × 0.25 )
dx r = r1

= −58 × 2π × 0.25 × 1(1000 − 10000 × 0.25 ) = 13.66 × 104 W / m

Rate of heat transfer at outer surface
dT
Q =− KA =−58 × 2πr2 L × (1000 − 10000 × 0.4 )
dx r = r2

= −58 × 2π × 0.4 × 1(1000 − 10000 × 0.4 ) = 4.37 × 105 W / m

 Rate of heat transfer at inner surface
dT
Q = −KA = −58 × 2π × r1L × (1000 − 10000 × 0.25 )
dx
36 r = r 1
Heat Transfer
= −58 × 2π × 0.25 × 1(1000 − 10000 × 0.25 ) = 13.66 × 104 W / m
Rate of heat transfer at outer surface
dT
Q =− KA =−58 × 2πr2 L × (1000 − 10000 × 0.4 )
dx r = r2

= −58 × 2π × 0.4 × 1(1000 − 10000 × 0.4 ) = 4.37 × 105 W / m

Rate of heat storage =Qin − Qout =13.66 × 104 =4.37 × 105 =−3 × 105 W / m
It is decrease rate of internalenergy
Rate of change of temperature
1 d  dT  q G 1 dT
r + +
r dr  dr  k a dt
But q G = 0
1 d  dT  1 dT
∴ r =
r dr  dr  a dt
dT a d  dT 
= r 
dt r dr  dr 
d  dT  d d
 =( r (1000 − 10000r ) ) =(1000r − 10000r ) =
2
r 1000 − 20000r
dr  dr  dr dr
at r = r1
dT a 0.004
= [1000 − 20000r1 ] = [1000 − 20000 × 0.25] =
−64o C / h
dr r1 0.25
at r = r2
dT a 0.004
= [1000 − 20000r2 ] = [1000 − 20000 × 0.4] =
−70o C / h
dr r2 0.4
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 37

ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION

1.9. Introduction
The steady state heat transfer is one in which temperature at fixed points do not change with
time.
In one dimensional heat flow there is a single predominant direction in which temperature
differential exists and obviously the heat flow takes place. Only one space coordinate is required
to describe the distribution of temperature with in the heat conducting body, one dimensional heat
conduction situations are rarely exist in real problems.
The following are the some of the examples by making the assumption of 1 - dimensional heat
conduction
(i) Heat flow through a plane wall at regions far removed from the edges
(ii) Heat flow through a very long hollow cylinder which is maintained at uniform temperature
on its inner and outer surfaces. Here the heat conduction is considered to depend only on
radial distance as the coordinate
(iii) Heat flow from a very thin wire or rod whose ends are maintained at different temperatures.
1.10 STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A SLAB WITHOUT
HEAT GENERATION.
T

T1

Q
dT

dx T2
x

L
X
o
Consider one - dimensional heat conduction through a homogeneous, isotropic slab or plane wall
Let L = Thickness of the slab
K = Constant thermal conductivity
A = Area of the slab normal to heat flow
T1, T2 = Temperatures maintained at the boundary surfaces of the slab
For steady state conduction and without heat generation, 1-dimensional equation in rectangular
38 Heat Transfer

d 2T
coordinates become =0
dx 2
Integrating the above equation with respect to x
dT
= C1
dx
dT = C1 dx
Again integrating
T = C1x + C2 –––––––––––– (1)
Applying boundary conditions
at x = 0 we have T = T1 Equation (1) become T1 = 0 + C2 Þ C2 = T1
& at x = L we have T = T2 Equation (1) become T2 = C1× L + T1
T2 - T1
C1 =
L
Substituting C1 and C2 values in equation (1)
æ ö
T2 - T1 ÷
T = ççç ÷÷ x + T1
è L ø
x æ T - T2 ö÷
T = T1 - (T1 - T2 ) or T = T1 - çç 1 x ----(2)
L çè L ÷÷ø
This is the temperature distribution equation for a rectangular slab. The above equation is in the
æ T1 - T2 ÷ö
form of y = a + bx which is a linear equation y = T a = T1 , b = – çç
çè L ÷÷ø
Thus the temperature distribution is linear across the plane wall or slab. Since it does not
contain K, it can be concluded that temperature distribution is independent of the type of material.
Heat transfer rate through slab
From Fourier’s equation
dT d é æ T - T2 ÷ö ù
Q = -KA = -KA ê T1 - çç 1 ÷ x ú éSubstituting equation (2) in Q expression ùû
dx dx êë èç L ÷ø úû ë
é æ T - T2 öù
= -KA ê 0 - çç 1 ÷ú
êë çè L ÷÷øúû
æ T - T2 ÷ö
Q = KA çç 1
çè L ÷÷ø
(T1 - T2 ) T1 - T2
Q= = This is heat transfer rate expression for a slab
æ L ö÷ Rt
çç
çè KA ø÷÷
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 39

L
Where Rt = = Thermal resistance of the slab due to conduction
KA
Analogy between heat flow system and electric circuit system
Heat flow system is represented by
T -T DT Q Q
Q= 1 2
= ----- (1)
æ ö T1 T2
çç L ÷÷ Rt
Rt =
L
çè KA ø÷ KA

Heat transfer takes place due to temperature difference ∆T.
L
System offers a thermal resistance Rt =
KA
Electric circuit system is represented as follows
R
I I

∆V
DV
=I − − − ( 2)
R
current I flows from one point to another due to potential difference ∆V.
The electrical system offers a resistance for this current flow
Comparing (1) and (2)
L
Q = I, ∆T = ∆V and =R
KA
Note: Thermal conductance is defined as the reciprocal of thermal resistance. It is expressed as
1 KA
Thermal conductance G = =
Rt L
1.10.1 Steady state conduction through a composite wall
A composite wall refers to a wall of several heterogeneous layers
Ex: Walls of a house (Concrete + Brick + Cement)
Walls of furnace (Metal + Brick + Asbestos)
T1 Figure shows the composite wall having three
T2 Q
layers.
Q Let L1, L2 and L3 are thickness of layer (1), layer (2)
(1) (2) (3)
T3 and layer (3)
K1 K2 K3 K1, K2 and K3 are the thermal conductivities of the
T4
layers.
Assume a perfect contact at the interface of the
layers.
L1 L2 L3
Under steady conditions, heat flow does not vary
Q T1 T2 T3 T4
Q
Rt1 Rt2 Rt3
40 Heat Transfer

across the wall.

ie Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q
Heat transfer through layer (1)
T1 - T2 T - T2
Q1 = = 1 Þ T1 - T2 = Q1R t1
æ L1 ö÷ R t1
çç ÷
çè K A ø÷÷
1 1

Heat transfer through layer (2)

T2 - T3 T - T3
Q2 = = 2 Þ T2 - T3 = Q 2 R t 2
æ L 2 ö÷ R
çç ÷ t2
çè K A ø÷÷
2 2

Heat transfer through layer (3)

T3 - T4 T - T4
Q3 = = 3 Þ T3 - T4 = Q3 R t3
æ L3 ÷ö R
çç ÷ t3
çè K A ÷÷ø
3 3

Now T1 – T4 = (T1 – T2) + (T2 – T3) + (T3 – T4)

T1 – T4 = Q1 Rt1 + Q2 Rt2 + Q3 Rt3
But Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q
T1 – T4 = Q [Rt1 + Rt2 + Rt3]
T1 - T4
Q= ----- (1)
R t1 + R t 2 + R t3
T1 - T4
Q=
L1 L L
+ 2 + 3
K1A1 K 2 A 2 K 3 A 3
For a composite wall A1 = A2 = A3 = A
Equation (1) can be written as
T1 - T4
Q=
å Rt
For ‘n’ layers
T1 - Tn +1
Q= n

åR
i =1
t

1.10.2 Steady state heat conduction through composite wall with heat transfer coefficient
Consider a composite wall made of two layers. The layer (1) is exposed to hot gases while the
layer (2) is exposed to cold air or fluid.
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 41

Ti Qcond Qconv
T1
hi
T2
Qcond To,ho
(2)
Qconv (1)
K1 K2
T3

L1 L2
Q Q
Ti Rc T1 Rt1 T2 Rt2 T3 Rc To
i o
Let T1 = Hot gas temperature or fluid temperature at inside of the composite wall.
hi = Heat transfer coefficient from hot gas to surface.
To = Temperature of cold fluid or fluid temperature at outside of the wall.
ho = Heat transfer coefficient from the surface to the cold fluid.
For steady state heat conduction
Qci = Q1 = Q2 = Qco
Where Qci = Convection heat transfer from hot fluid to inside layer of composite wall
Qco = Convection heat transfer from outside layer of composite wall to cold fluid
Ti - T1 T - T1
Now Qci = h i A i (Ti - T1 ) = Þ i Þ Ti - T1 = Qci R ci
1 R ci
h i Ai
T1 - T2 T1 - T2
Q1 = = Þ T1 - T2 = Q1R t1
L1 R t1
K1A1
T2 - T3 T2 - T3
Q2 = = Þ T2 - T3 = Q 2 R t 2
L2 R t2
K 2A2
T3 - T0 T3 - T0
Q3 = h o A o (T3 - To ) = = Þ T3 - T0 = Qco R co
1 R co
h o Ao
R ci & R co are thermal resistances due to convection heat transfer at inside and outside
of the wall
Now over all temperature difference
Ti – To = (Ti – T1) + (T1 – T2) + (T2 – T3) + (T3 – T0)
42 Heat Transfer

Ti – T0 = Qci Rci + Q1 Rt1 + Q2 Rt2 + Qco Rco

= Q [Rci + Rt1 + Rt2 + Rco]
Ti - To Ti - To
Q= =
R ci + R t1 + R t 2 + R co 1 L L 1
+ 1 + 2 +
h i A i K1A1 K 2 A 2 h o A o
For ' n ' layers
Ti - To
Q=
1 1 n
Ln
+ +å
h i A i h o A o i=1 K n A n
Overall heat transfer coefficient
We know that for a composite wall (2 layers) with convection heat transfer
Ti - To
Q= ----- (1)
1 L1 L2 1
+ + +
h i A i K1A1 K 2 A 2 h o A o
Heat flow through a composite wall can also be written in the form of
Q = UA (Ti – To) –––––––– (2)
Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient
Comparing (1) & (2)
(Ti - T0 )
UA (Ti - T0 ) =
1 L L 1
+ 1 + 2 +
h i A i K1A1 K 2 A 2 h o A o
For a composite wall Ai = A1 = A2 = A0 = A
1
UA =
1 æ 1 L1 L 2 1ö
çç + + + ÷÷÷
A çè h i K1 K 2 h o ÷ø
1
U=
1 L1 L 2 1
+ + +
h i K1 K 2 h o
1 1 L L 1
or = + 1+ 2+
U h i K1 K 2 h o

1.10.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Overall heat transfer coefficient represents the intensity of heat transfer when heat is trans-
ferred from one fluid to another through a wall separating them. Numerically it is equal to the
quantity of heat passing through unit area of wall surface in unit time with a temperature differ-
ence of unit degree.
It has a dimension of W/m2 oC or W/m2K
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 43

1.11 Steady state heat conduction through a cylindrical wall without heat generation

dr
Q r2

r
r1
•

T1 ↓ L
dT
↑
dr
T2

Consider 1-dimensional heat conduction through a cylindrical wall as shown in figure

Let r1 = Inner radius of cylindrical tube
r2 = Outer radius of cylindrical tube
L = Length of the tube
K = Thermal conductivity of the tube material
Writing the 1 - dimensional heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates
1 ¶ æç ¶T ö÷ q G 1 ¶T
ççèr ÷÷ + =
r ¶r ¶r ø K a ¶t
¶T
For steady state =0
¶t
For no heat generation qG = 0
\ The equation become
1 d æç dT ö÷
çr ÷ = 0
r dr çè dr ø÷
d æç dT ö÷
or çr ÷ = 0
dr çè dr ø÷
Integrating
dT
r = C1
dr
C
or dT = 1 dr
 ççr ÷÷ = 0
r dr çè dr ø÷
d æç dT ö÷
or
44 çr ÷ = 0 Heat Transfer
dr çè dr ø÷
Integrating
dT
r = C1
dr
C
or dT = 1 dr
r
Again integrating
T = C1 loge r + C2 ––––––– (1)
Applying boundary conditions
= , we get T T1 Equation (1) become
At r r1=
=T1 C1 log e r1 + C2
= , we get T T2 Equation (1) become
At r r2=
=T2 C1 log e r2 + C2
Solving above equations
= T1 C1 log e r1 + C2
=T2 C1 log e r2 + C2
( −) ( −) ( −)
− T2 C1 [ log e r1 − log e r2 ]
T1 =

Now T1 = C1 loge r1 + C2
Substituting the value of C1 in above equation
T1 - T2
T1 = ´ log e r1 + C2
r1
log e
r2
r1
T1 log e - (T1 - T2 ) log e r1
(T1 - T2 ) r2
C2 = T1 - ´ log e r1 =
r r
log e 1 log e 1
r2 r2
T1log e r1 - T1log e r2 - T1log e r1 + T2 log e r1
=
r
log e 1
r2
T2 log e r1 - T1log e r2
C2 =
r
log e 1
r2
Substituting C1 and C2 expressions in equation (1)
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 45

T1 - T2 T log e r1 - T1 log e r2
T= log e r + 2
r1 r
log e log e 1
r2 r2
-1 é-(T1 - T2 ) log e r - (T2 log e r1 - T1 log e r2 ) ù
=
r1 ë û
log e
r2
1
= [-T1 log e r + T2 log e r - T2 log e r1 + T1 log e r2 ]
r2
log e
r1
é ù
T=
1 ê T1 log e r2 + T2 log e r ú This is the temperature distribution equation
r ê r1 r1 úû for a cylindrical wall.
log e 2 ë
r1

Since it posses loge terms, the temperature distribution through a cylindrical wall is logarithmic
Heat transfer rate through a cylindrical wall
dT
From Fourier's law Q = -KA
dr
é ù
ê ú
d ê 1 ïìï r2 r ïüïú
Q = -KA ê íT1 log e + T2 log e ýú
dr ê log r2 ïïî r r1 ïþïú
ê e ú
ëê r1 úû
é ù
ê ú
d ê 1 ú
= -KA ê {T1 log e r2 - T1 log e r + T2 log e r - T2 log e r1 }ú
dr ê log r2 ú
ê e ú
ëê r1 ûú
-KA é T T ù
= ê 0 - 1 + 2 - 0ú
r ê r r úû
log e 2 ë
r1
K2prL é T2 - T1 ù 2pKL (T1 - T2 )
= ê ú=
r êë r úû r
log e 2 log e 2
r1 r1
(T1 - T2 ) T1 - T2
Q= =
r2 Rt
log e
r1
2pKL
46 Heat Transfer

r2
log e
r1
Where Rt = Thermal resistance due to conduction =
2pKL
Alternate method to obtain heat transfer rate
dT dT
From Fourier’s law Q = -KA = -K2prL
dr dr
A = Surface area of the element.
dr
Or Q´ = -K2prL ´ dT
r
Integrating the above equation between the limits 1 & 2
2 dr 2
Qò1 = -2pKL ò 1 dT
r
2 2
Q [log e r ]1 = -2pKL [T ]1
r2
Q´ log e = -2pKL [T2 - T1 ]
r1
2pKL (T1 - T2 ) T1 - T2
Q= =
r r
log e 2 log e 2
r1 r1
2pKL
Note: Heat conduction through cylindrical tubes is found in power plants, oil refineries, boiler
tubes, condenser tubes, heat exchanger tubes.
1.11.1 Steady state heat conduction through a composite cylinder
Consider a composite cylindrical wall made of three layers as shown in figure.
For steady state conduction, the heat flow through each layer is same ie Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q
Q T1
T2
T3
r3
T4 r2 r4
r1
•

K3 K2 K1

Q Rt1 Rt2 Rt3 L

Q
T1 T2 T3 T4
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 47

T1 - T2 T - T2
Heat transfer through layer (1) Q1 = = 1 Þ T1 - T2 = Q1R t1
r2 R
log e t1
r1
2pK1L
T2 - T3 T - T3
Heat transfer through layer (2) Q 2 = = 2 Þ T2 - T3 = Q 2 R t 2
r3 R
log e t 2
r2
2pK 2 L
T3 - T4 T - T4
Heat transfer through layer (3) Q3 = = 3 Þ T3 - T4 = Q3 R t3
r4 R
log e t3
r3
2pK 3 L
Overall temperature difference
T1 – T4 = (T1 – T2) + (T2 – T3) + (T3 – T4)
= Q1 Rt1 + Q2 Rt2 + Q3 Rt3
= Q (Rt1 + Rt2 + Rt3)
T1 - T4 T1 - T4
Q= =
R t1 + R t 2 + R t3 r r r
log e 2 log e 3 log e 4
r1 r2 r3
+ +
2pK1L 2pK 2 L 2pK 3 L
For n layers
T1 - Tn +1
Q= n

åR
i=1
th

1.11.2 Steady state heat conduction through a composite cylindrical wall with heat transfer
coefficient.
Consider a composite cylindrical wall made of two layers which is exposed to hot fluid at inner
side and cold fluid at outer side as shown in figure.
Let Ti and To are hot and cold fluid temperatures.
hi and ho are heat transfer coefficients between hot fluid and inner layer, cold fluid and outer layer
respectively.
48 Heat Transfer

Q
r3

r2 K1 K2
r1 • To, ho
Ti, hi
T1 T2 T3

Rci Rt1 Rt2 Rco Q L

Q
Ti T2 T3 T4 To
For a steady state heat conduction
QCi = Q1 – Q2 = Qco = Q
Ti - T1 Ti - T1 Qci
But Qci = = Þ Ti - T1 = = Qci R ci
1 1 2pr1Lh i
h i Ai 2pr1L ´ h i
T1 - T2 T - T1
Q1 = = i Þ T1 - T2 = Q1 R t1
r R t1
log e 2
r1
2pK1L
T2 - T3 T - T2
Q2 = = 1 Þ T1 - T3 = Q 2 R t 2
r R t2
log e 2
r1
2pK 2 L
T3 - To T - To T - To
Qco = = 3 = 3 Þ T3 - To = Qco R co
1 1 R co
h o Ao h o 2pr3 L
The overall temperature difference
Ti – To = (Ti – T1) + (T1 – T2) + (T2 – T3) + (T3 – To)
= Qci Rci + Q1 Rt1 + Q2 Rt2 + Qco Rco
= Q [Rci + Rt1 + Rt2 + Rco]
Ti - To
Q=
R ci + R t1 + R t 2 + R co
Ti - To
Q=
r r
log e 2 log e 3
1 r1 r2 1
+ + +
 T -T
Q =Dimensionali Steady
One o
State Heat Conduction 49
R ci + R t1 + R t 2 + R co
Ti - To
Q= ------------- (1)
r r
log e 2 log e 3
1 r1 r2 1
+ + +
h i 2pr1L 2pK1L 2pK 2 L h o 2pr3 L

For n layers
Ti - To ri and ro are the inner and outer radii of
Q=
1 n
1 composite wall
+ å R ti +
h i 2pri L i=1 h o 2pro L
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Considering overall heat transfer coefficient, the heat flow rate can be written as
Q = Uin Ain (Ti – To) = Uout Aout (Ti – To) -------------(2)
Uin and Uout are the overall heat transfer coefficient at inner and outer sides of composite
wall. In a cylindrical wall, inner area of heat flow is not equal to outer area of heat flow (ri <
ro). Therefore over all heat transfer coefficients at inner and outer sides of the wall are to be
considered separately.
Comparing equations (1) & (2)
Ti - To
U in A in (Ti - To ) =
r r
log e 2 log e 3
1 r1 r2 1
+ + +
2pr1Lh i 2pK1L 2pK 2 L 2pr3 Lh o
But Ain = 2πr1L & Aout = 2πr3L
Inner overall heat transfer coefficient
1
U in =
r2 r
log e log e 3
A in r1 r2 A in
+ A in + A in +
2pr1Lh i 2pK1L 2pK 2 L 2pr3 Lh o
1
=
1 r r r r r 1
+ 1 log e 2 + 1 log e 3 + 1
h i K1 r1 K1 r2 r3 h o
1
Similarly U out =
r3 1 r r r r 1
+ 3 log e 2 + 3 log e 3 +
r1 h i K1 r1 K 2 r2 h o
 ,
50 Heat Transfer

1.12. Steady state heat conduction through a spherical wall without heat generation

dr Q

r1 r

• T1 T2

r2

T1
dT

T2
Consider steady state heat conduction through a spherical wall as shown in figure.
Let r1 = inner radius of sphere
r2 = outer radius of sphere
T1 = Inner temperature
T2 = Outer temperature
One dimensional heat conduction equation in spherical coordinates is given by
1 ¶ æç 2 ¶T ö÷ q G 1 ¶T
2 ççèr ÷÷ + =
r ¶r ¶r ø K a ¶t
For steady state and without heat generation
¶T
=0 & qG = 0
¶t
The above equation become
1 d çæ 2 dT ö÷
çr ÷= 0
r 2 dr çè dr ÷ø
d æç 2 dT ö÷
çr ÷= 0
dr çè dr ÷ø
Integrating
dT
r2 = C1
dr
C
dT = 21 dr
r
Inregrating again
-C1
T= + C2 ----- (1)
r
 dT
r2 = C1
dr
C Steady State Heat Conduction
One Dimensional 51
dT = 21 dr
r
Inregrating again
-C1
T= + C2 ----- (1)
r
Applying boundary conditions
ie T = T1 at r = r1
T = T2 at r = r2
Equation (1) become
-C1
T1 = + C2
r1
-C1
T2 = + C2
r2
é1 1ù
Subtracting (T1 - T2 ) = C1 êê - úú
ë r2 r1 û
æ T - T2 ö÷
\ C1 = çç 1 ÷÷ r1r2
èç r1 - r2 ø÷
-C1
Now T1 = + C2
r1
Substituting C1 expression in the above expression
æ T - T2 ö÷ r1r2
T1 = -çç 1 ÷ + C2
çè r1 - r2 ÷÷ø r1
æ T - T2 ö÷ r1r2
C2 = T1 + çç 1 ÷
çè r1 - r2 ø÷÷ r1
Substituting C1 and C2 in equation (1)
æ T - T2 ö÷ r1r2 æ T - T2 ö÷ r1r2
T = -ççç 1 ÷÷ + T1 + ççç 1 ÷÷
è r1 - r2 ø÷ r è r1 - r2 ø÷ r1
æ ö÷
çç ÷
çç T1 - T2 ÷÷ 1 æ ö
= -çç ÷÷ + T1 + çç T1 - T2 ÷÷ r1r2 This is the temperature distribution equation for
÷
çç r1 - r2 ÷÷÷ r èç r1 - r2 ø÷ r1 a spherical wall.
çè r r ø÷÷
1 2

æ ÷÷ö
çç
ç T - T2 ÷÷æç 1 1ö÷
T = T1 + ççç 1 ÷÷ç - ÷÷ ----(2)
çç 1 - 1 ÷÷÷èç r1 r ÷ø
çè r2 r1 ÷÷ø
æ ö÷
çç ÷
çç T1 - T2 ÷÷æç 1 1ö÷
Or T - T1 = çç
1 1 ÷÷çç - ÷÷÷
÷
ç ÷è r r ø
 çç ÷÷
çç T1 - T2 ÷÷æç 1 1ö÷
T = T1 + çç ÷ç - ÷ ----(2)
ç 1 1 ÷÷÷çè r1 r ÷ø÷
52 ç - ÷÷ Heat Transfer
çè r2 r1 ÷ø
æ ö÷
çç ÷
çç T1 - T2 ÷÷æç 1 1÷ö
Or T - T1 = çç ÷÷ç - ÷÷
çç 1 - 1 ÷÷÷èç r1 r ÷ø
çè r2 r1 ÷÷ø
æ 1 1 ö÷
çç - ÷
T - T1 çç r1 r ÷÷÷
=ç ÷
T1 - T2 çç 1 - 1 ÷÷÷
ç
çè r2 r1 ÷÷ø
Temperature distribution associated with radial heat conduction through a spherical wall is
represented by hyperbola
Heat transfer rate through a spherical wall
From Fourier’s equation
dT dT
Q = -KA 4 pr 2
= -KA
dr dr
Q dr
= -dT
4pK r2
Integrating between the limits 1 & 2
QQ 2 dr 2 dr 2 2
ò 1ò 1 2 2==-ò -ò1 dT dT
4p4K
pK r r 1

1 1
QQ é é 1 ù1 ù 2 2
ê--ú ú==--
ê [ T[T
] ]1
4p4K
pKêë ëê r úûr2 ûú 2 1

QQ éê 1éê 1 1 1ùú ùú
-- == [T[T-1 -T2T]2 ]
pKêë r1êë r1 r2 rúû2 úû 1
4p4K
4pK (T1 - T2 ) (T - T2 )
Q= = 4p K r1r2 ´ 1
æ 1 1 ö÷ r2 - r1
çç - ÷
÷
çè r1 r2 ÷ø
T1 - T2 T1 - T2
Q= =
r2 - r1 Rt
4pKr1rL
Where Rt = Thermal resistance due to conduction
r2 - r1
=

4pKr1r2
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 53

1.12.1 Steady state heat conduction through composite sphere

Q
r2
r3

r1
r4 ••
T1
T2
1 T3
T4
2 K1
K2
3

K3

Q Rt1 Rt2 Rt3 Q

T1 T2 T3 T4
Consider a composite spherical wall made up of three layers as shown in figure.
For steady state conduction, the heat flow through each layer is same.
ie Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q.
Heat
Heat transfer
transfer through layer (1
through layer 1)
T
T1 --T T2 T -T
T1 - T22 Þ T - T = Q R
Q
Q11 =
= r1 - r 2 = = 1 Þ T11 - T22 = Q11R tt11
r22 - r11 R
R t1t1
4pK
4p K11rr11rr22
Heat
Heat transfer
transfer through layer (2
through layer 2)
T
T2 - -T T3 = T -T
T22 - T33 Þ T - T = Q R
Q
Q 22 =
= r2 - r 3 = Þ T22 - T33 = Q 22 R tt 22
r33 - r22 R
R tt 22
4pK
4p K 22 rr22 rr33
Heat transfer through layer (3)
T3 - T4 T - T4
Q3 = = 3 Þ T3 - T4 = Q3 R t3
r4 - r3 R t3
4pK 3 r3 r4
Overall temperature difference is given by
T1 – T4 = (T1 – T2) + (T2 – T3) + (T3 – T4)
= Q1 Rt1 + Q2 Rt2 + Q3 Rt3
= Q [Rt1 + Rt2 + Rt3]
54 Heat Transfer

T1 - T4 T1 - T4
Q= =
R t1 + R t 2 + R t3 r - r r -r r -r
2 1
+ 3 2 + 4 3
4pK1r1r2 4pK 2 r2 r3 4pK 3 r3 r4
For 'n' layers
T -T
Q = 1 n n +1
å R ti
i=1

1.12.2 Steady state heat conduction through a composite sphere with heat transfer coefficient.

r3
Q
r2
••
r1 hi, Ti
K1
K2 T1
T2 ho, To
T3

Q Ti T2 T3 T4 To Q
Rci Rt1 Rt2 Rco
Consider a composite spherical wall made up of two layers, which is exposed to hot fluid at
inner side and cold fluid at outer side as shown in figure.
Let Ti and To are the hot and cold fluid temperatures.
hi and ho are the heat transfer coefficients between hot fluid and inner layer, outer layer and cold
fluid.
For steady state heat conduction
Qci = Q1 = Q2 = Qco
Heat transfer through layer (1)
Ti - T1 T - T1 T - T1
Qci = = i = i Þ Ti - T1 = Qci R ci
1 1 R ci
h i Ai h i 4pr12
T1 - T2 T - T2
Q1 = = 1 Þ T1 - T2 = Q1R t1
r2 - r1 R t1
4pK1r1r2
T2 - T3 T - T3
Q2 = = 2 Þ T2 - T3 = Q 2 R t 2
r3 - r2 R t2
4pK r r
 T1 - T2 T - T2
Q1 = = 1 Þ T1 - T2 = Q1R t1
r2 - r1 R t1 Heat Conduction
One Dimensional Steady State 55
4pK1r1r2
T2 - T3 T - T3
Q2 = = 2 Þ T2 - T3 = Q 2 R t 2
r3 - r2 R t2
4pK 2 r2 r3
T3 - To T - To T - To
Qco = = i = i Þ Ti - To = Qco R co
1 1 R co
h o Ao h o 4pr 23
Overall Temperature difference
Ti – To = (Ti – T1) + (T1 – T2) + (T2 – T3) + (T3 – To)
Ti – To = Qci Rci + Q1 Rt1 + Q2 Rt2 + Qco Rco
= Q [Rci + Rt1 + Rt2 + Rco]
Ti - To Ti - T4
Q= = -------- (1)
R ci + R t1 + R t 2 + R t3 1 r2 - r1 r3 - r2 r4 - r3
+ + +
h i 4pr12 4pK1r1r2 4pK 2 r2 r3 4pK 3 r3 r4
For 'n' layers
Ti - To
Q=
1 n
1
+ å R ti +
h i A i i=1 h o Ao
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Considering overall heat transfer coefficient the heat flow rate can be written as
Q = Uin Ain (Ti – To) = Uout Aout (Ti – To) -------------- (2)
Uin and Uout are the overall heat transfer coefficients at in and out sides of the sphere. In a spherical
wall, inner area of heat flow is not equal to outer area of heat flow as ri < ro. Therefore, we have two
overall heat transfer coefficients for spherical wall, one is based on inner area and other is based
on outer area.
Comparing equations (1) & (2)
Ti - To
U in A in (Ti - To ) =
1 r -r r -r 1
+ 2 1 + 3 2 +
h i 4pr12 4pK1r1r2 4pK 2 r2 r3 h o 4pr32
But Ain = 4πr12 Aout = 4πr32
1
U in =
A in A ´(r2 - r1 ) A in (r3 - r2 ) 1
2
+ in + +
h i 4pr1 4pK1r1r2 4pK 2 r2 r3 h o 4pr32
1
U in =
1 r1 (r2 - r1 ) r12 (r3 - r2 ) r12 1
+ + + 2
h i r2 K1 r2 r3 K 2 r3 h o
1
Similarly U out = 2
r3 1 r3 2
(r2 - r1 ) r3 (r3 - r2 ) 1
+ + +
r12 h i r1r2 K1 r2 K 2 ho
56 Heat Transfer

1.13 THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE

ture
e m pera ce
t a
No terf
p a t in e
dro peratu r
Tem ution
ib
distr dT

Perfect thermal Imperfect thermal contact

contact
All solid surfaces shows some roughness if they are viewed under microscope. When two such
surfaces pressed against each other, the peaks will form good material contact, but the valleys
will form voids filled with air. As a result, the interface will contain numerous air gaps of varying
sizes. These air gaps acts as insulation because of low thermal conductivity of air. Thus interface
offers some resistance to heat transfer. This resistance per unit interface area is called the thermal
contact resistance.
Heat transfer through the solid contact spots and the gaps in the non contact area is given by
Q = Qcontact + Qgap
From Newton’s law of cooling
Qgap = hc A ∆Tinterface
where A = Apparent interface area which is same as that of cross sectional area of voids
hc = Convection heat transfer coefficient or thermal contact conductance.
Thermal contact resistance is the reciprocal of thermal contact conductance
1
ie Rc = m 2 K/W

ho
∆T = The effective temperature difference at the interface.
The value of thermal contact resistance depends on
(i) Surface roughness
(ii) Material properties
(iii) Temperature and pressure at the interface
(iv) Type of fluid trapped at the interface
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 57

Problems on Steady State Heat Conduction

1. Air at 23oC blows over a hot plate made of carbon steel maintained at 260oC. The plate
is 60cm × 75cm and 2cm thick. If 290W is lost from the plate surface by radiation,
calculate the heat transfer and inside plate temperature. Assume convection heat transfer
coefficient 25W/m2K and K for carbon steel 43W/mK
Data. T∞ = 23oC T2 = 260oC A = 0.6 × 0.75 m2 L = dx = 0.02m h = 25W/m2 K
K = 43W/mK Qrad = 290W, Q = ?, T1 = ?
Convection Heat transfer from the plate
Qconv = h As (T2 – T∞)
T1 Qconv
= 25 × 0.6 × 0.75 (260 – 23)
= 2.66kW
Total heat transfer rate T2
Qcond
Q = Qcond = Qconv + Qradiation
= 2.66 × 103 + 290 = 2950W Qradiation
dT
Now Q = - KA
dx
Air
dT
2950 = -43´ 0.6´ 0.75´
0.02
dT = – 3.05oC 2cm
dT = T2 – T1 ⇒ – 3.05 = 260 – T1
T1 = 263.05oC

2. A horizontal steel pipe of 50mm diameter maintained at 60oC is kept in a large room at
22oC. Assuming surface emissivity of steel as 0.8 and heat transfer coefficient of air as
6.5W/m2 oC, calculate the heat lost by the pipe per unit length.
Data. d = 50mm = 0.05m, T1 = 60 + 273 = 333K, T∞ = 22 + 273 = 295K
Î = 0.8, h = 6.5W/m2 oC, Qtotal = ?
Total heat transfer rate
Q = Qconvection + Qradiation
= hA(T1 – T∞) + Î A s (T14 – T∞4) Where s = Stefan Boltzman
= 6.5 × π × 0.05 × 1 × (333 – 295) Constant = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2K4
+ 0.8 × π × 0.05 × 1 × 5.67 × 10 × (333 – 295 ) A = surface area of pipe
–8 4 4

Q = 72.45 W/m = πdl Where, l = 1m

3. A person is standing in a breezy room at 20 C. Determine the total rate of heat transfer
o

from this person if the exposed surface area and the outer surface temperature of the
person are 1.6m2 and 29oC and the convection heat transfer coefficient is 6W/m2 oC.
Assume emissivity of a person as 0.95.
Data. T∞ = 20 + 273 = 293K, Tw = 29 + 273 = 302K, A = 1.6m2 h = 6W/m2 oC
ε = 0.95 Qtotal = ?
Heat transfer from a person is mainly due to convection and radiation
ie Qtotal = Qconv + Qrad
58 Heat Transfer

= hA (TW – T∞) + Î s A (TW4– T∞4)

= 6 × 1.6 (302 – 293) + 0.95 × 5.67 × 10 –8 × 1.6 (3024 – 2934)
Qtotal = 168.1W
4. A thin metal plate is insulated on the back and exposed to solar radiation at the front
surface. The exposed surface of the plate has an absorptivity of 0.6 for solar radiation.
If solar radiation incident on the plate is at a rate of 700W/m2 and the surrounding air
temperature is 25oC, determine the surface temperature of the plate when the heat loss
by convection and radiation equals the solar energy absorbed by the plate. Assume the
combined convection and radiation heat transfer coefficient to be 50W/m2 oC.
Data. α = 0.6 q = 700W/m2, Tsurr = 25oC = T∞ hc = 50W/m2 oC

Insulated
Energy gained = Energy lost
α As q = hc As (Ts – T∞) Q
0.6 × 700 = 50 (Ts – 25)
Ts = 33.4oC = Surface temperature of the plate
5. A plane slab of thickness 60cm is made of a material of thermal conductivity 17.5 W/moC.
The left side of the slab absorbs a net amount of radiant energy at the rate of 530W/m2. If
the right hand face of the slab is at a constant temperature of 38oC, set up an expression
for temperature distribution as a function of relevant space coordinates. There from, work
out the temperature at the mid-plane of the slab and the maximum temperature within the
slab. Assume temperature distribution is steady and there is no heat generation.
Data. K = 17.5 W/moC, L = 0.6m q = 530W/m2, T2 = 38oC, Tmin = ?
T1 = Tmax = ?
1 – dimensional conduction equation without heat generation and with steady state heat
transfer gives
d 2T
=0 →
dx 2
Integrating twice, we get → 38oC
T = C1x + C2 --------------------- (1) 530W/m2
Applying boundary conditions →
dT
ie at x = 0, we have q = -K →
dx
d →
q = -K (C1x + C2 ) = -KC1
dx
60cm
-q -530
C1 = =
K 17.5
Again at x = L , T = TL \ Equation (1) become
-530
T2 = ´ L + C2
17.5
530
C2 = T2 + ´L
17.5
Substituting C1 & C2 in equation (1)
-530 530
 -530
T2 = ´ L + C2
17.5
One Dimensional 530 59
C2 =Steady
T2 +State Heat
´ L Conduction
17.5
Substituting C1 & C2 in equation (1)
-530 530
T= x + T2 + L
17.5 17.5
530
T = T2 + (L - x )
17.5
This is the temperature distribution equation
Max temperature is available at left side of the slab ie at x = 0
530
\ Tmax = 38 + (L - 0) = 56.17o C = T1
17.5
L
Temperature at midplane ie at x =
2
530 æç Lö 530 æç L ö÷
Tmid = T2 + çèL - ø÷÷÷ = 38 + ç ÷
17.5 ç 2 17.5 èç 2 ø÷
530 æç 0.6 ö÷ o
= 38 + ççè ÷÷ø = 47.08 C
17.5 2
6. A conical section made of a material with K = 3.46 W/mK. It is of circular cross section
with diameter D = ax, where a = 0.25, x is the distance measured from the apex of the cone.
The smaller diameter end is at x1 = 50mm and the larger diameter end is at x2 = 250mm,
with the corresponding temperatures being T1 = 400K and T2 = 600K. The lateral surface
of the cone is well insulated. i. Derive an expression for the temperature distribution T(x)
assuming 1- dimensional steady conduction in x-direction only ii. Calculate the rate of
heat transfer through the cone
T2 = 600K

T1 = 400K

x1 = 50mm
x
tion
Insula x2 = 250mm

Data: K = 3.46 W/mK, D = ax

Since the lateral surface is well insulated, there is a heat flow in x-direction only ie it is a
1- dimensional conduction.
From Fourier’s law, we have
dT
Q = -KA
dx
60 Heat Transfer

p 22 p p p
=pD = p aa 22 xx 22
2
But
But A=
A = ((ax
D = ax ))2 =
44 44 44
-Kp dT 4Q dx dx
\
\ Q=
Q = -Kp aa 22 xx 22 dT Þ 4Q2 ´
Þ ´ 2= =-K dT
-K dT
44 dx
dx paa
p 2
xx 2
xx1 T1
4Q
4Q dx
dx
1 T1
4Q é 1 ù 1
x
= - K dT T
= -K [T ]T1
2
paa 2
p òx xx 22 = - K òT dT Þ 2
ê- ú
pa ëê x ûú x
x T

4Q ééê 11 11 ùùú
4Q
22 êê
-
- úú = =- -K K [[T
T--T T11 ]]
p a ê x
pa ëë x11 x ûû x ú
4Q é ù
Or T= T1 - 4Q éêê 11 - 11 ùúú --- (1)
or T =T - - --- (1)
1 2
K êêë xx1 xx úúû
paa 2 K
p
ë 1 û
at xx =
at = xx 2 and
and T T= =T T2 the equation ((11)) become
the equation become
2 2

4Q ééê 11
4Q 11 ùùú
T = T -
T22 = T11 - 22 ê - úú ê -
paa K
p K êë xx1 xx 2 úû
ë 1 2û
éé ùù
êê ú
p
paa 22 K
K êê T T 11 -
- T2 úúú
T
Q 2 ú --------( 2)
Q= = ê --------(2)
44 êêê 11 - 11 úúú
êêê x - x úúú
ëëê x11 x 22 ûûú
Substituting
Substituting equation equation ((22)) in equation ((11))
in equation
´paa 22 K
4´p
4 K ((TT1 - T2 )) éé 11 11 ùù
-T
2 ê
T = T -
T = T11 - æ ö
1
êê - - úúú
æ
44 ççç 1 -
1 1 ö÷÷ pa 22 K ëë x11 xx úûû
1 ê x
- ÷ pa K
çèçè xx11 xx 22 øø÷÷
é1 1 ù
ê – ú
êx x1 ú
T = T1 + (T1 - T2 ) ê - ú --- (3) This is the temperature distribution equation
ê1 1 ú
ê – ú
êë x1 x 2 úû
Heat flow rate (from equation (2))
pa 2 K (T1 - T2 ) p´ 0.25 ´3.46 (600 - 400)
2

Q= ´ = = 2.12W
4 æ1 ö æ 1 1 ÷ö
çç - 1 ÷÷ ç
4ç -
çè x1 x 2 ø÷÷ çè 0.05 0.25 ÷ø÷

7. A conical cylinder of length L and radius R1 and R2 (R1 < R2) is fully insulated along the
outer surface. Surface of R1 is maintained at T1 and surface of R2 is maintained at T2
(T1>T2). Considering the heat flow along the axis of the cylinder, find the expression for
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 61

heat flow through the conical cylinder.

T2

T1
Rx R2 – R1 Rx – R1
R1
2R2 2R1
x
x L
L (i) (ii)
o
Ans. From Figure (ii)
R 2 - R1 R x - R1
=
L x
æ R - R1 ÷ö
R x = R1 + çç 2 x
çè L ÷÷ø
From Fourier's law Ax = Cross sectional area of conical cylinder at a
dT distance x as shown in figure
Q = -KA x
dx
But A x = pR x 2
2
é æ R - R1 ÷ö ù
= p´ ê R1 + çç 2 xú
êë çè L ÷÷ø ú
û
R 2 - R1
Let =C
L
2
\ A x = p (R1 + Cx )
Heat transfer rate become
2 dT
Q = -Kp (R1 + Cx )
dx
dx
Q´ 2
= -pKdT
(R1 + Cx )
Intergrating between 0 to L and T1 and T2
L dx T2
Qò o 2
= -pK ò T1 dT
(R1 + Cx )
L
é 1 1ù
Q ê- ´ ú = -pK (T2 - T1 )
ê R1 + Cx C ú
ë û0
Q éê 1 1ù
- + ú = pK (T1 - T2 )
C êë R1 + CL R1 úû
é ù
ê ú
 ê R1 + Cx C ú 2 1
ë û0
Q éê 1 1ù
62 - + ú = pK (T1 - T2 ) Heat Transfer
C êë R1 + CL R1 úû
é ù
ê ú
Q ê- 1 1ú
+ ú = pK (T1 - T2 )
æ R 2 - R1 ö÷ êê R 2 - R1
çç R1 + ´ L R1 úú
çè L ÷ø÷ ëê L û
QL éê 1 1ù
- + ú = pK (T1 - T2 )
R 2 - R1 êë R 2 R1 úû

QL éê R 2 - R1 ùú
- = pK (T1 - T2 )
R 2 - R1 êê R 2 ´ R1 úú
ë û
QL = pK (T1 - T2 ) R1R 2
æ T - T2 ÷ö
Q = pKR1R 2 çç 1
çè L ÷÷ø

8. A thin metal plate 0.1m × 0.1m is placed in a large container whose walls are kept at
300K. The bottom surface of the plate is insulated and the top surface is maintained at
500K as a result of electric heating. If the emissivity of the surface plate is 0.8, what is the
rate of heat exchange between the plate and the walls of the container Take s = 5.67 ×
10–8 W/m2K4 (VTU July - 2009 (02)
Data: A = 0.1 × 0.1 = 0.01m2 Î = 0.8
0K
Heat transfer rate due to radiation 30
=
Q = Î σ A (T14 – T24) T2
= 0.8 × 5.67 ×10–8 × 0.01 (5004 – 3004)
= 24.68W Q
T = 500K
↓1

Insulator
9. What is the thickness required of a masonry wall having thermal conductivity of 0.75W/
mK if the heat transfer rate is to be 80% the total heat transfer rate through a composite
structural wall having a thermal conductivity of 0.25W/mK and a thickness of 100mm.
Both the walls are subjected to the same surface temperature. VTU Jan - 2006
Data: Kmas = 0.75W/mK, Kcomp = 0.25W/mK, Lcomp = 0.1m, Qmas = 0.8 Qcomp, Lmas = ?
From the data, Qmas = 0.8 × Qcomp
K mas A mas (T1 - T2 ) 0.8´ K comp ´ A comp (T1 - T2 )
=
L mas Lcomp
K mas K
= 0.8 comp
L mas Lcomp
0.75 0.8´ 0.25
= Þ L mas = 0.375m = 375mm
L mas 0.1
 L mas Lcomp
K mas K comp
= 0.Steady
One Dimensional 8 State Heat Conduction 63
L mas Lcomp
0.75 0.8´ 0.25
= Þ L mas = 0.375m = 375mm
L mas 0.1
10. A furnace wall is made up of steel plate 10mm thick (K = 17.5W/mK) lined with silica
brick 150mm thick (K = 2.041 W/mK) and magnesia bricks 200mm thick (K = 5.25W/
mK). The inside and outside surfaces of wall are at temperatures 600oC and 125oC
respectively. Make calculations for heat loss from unit area of the wall. It is required
that the heat loss be reduced to 3kW by means of air gap between steel and silica bricks.
Estimate the necessary width of air gap if thermal conductivity of air is 0.035W/mK
Data: K3 = 175W/mK K2 = 2.041W/mK K1 = 5.25W/mK, L3 = 0.01m L2 = 0.15m
L1 = 0.2m T1 = 600oC T4 = 125oC Q = ? To reduce Q to 3kW, Lair = ?
A = 1m Kair = 0.035W/mK
2

Heat loss from the composite wall 1 2 3

Thermal resistance of Magnesia bricks Q
L1 0.2 T1 K1 K2 K3
R t1 = = = 0.0381o C/W
K1A1 5.25´1
T2
Thermal Resistance of silica bricks
T3
L2 0.150
R t2 = = = 0.0735o C/W
K 2 A 2 2.041´1 Magnesia Silica
Steel T4
Thermal Resistance of steel brick brick
L3 0.01
R t3 = = = 0.000571o C/W L1 L2 L3
K 3 A 3 17.5´1
Rt1 Rt2 Rt3
Total thermal resistance ∑Rt = Rt1 + Rt2 + Rt3 Q Q
= 0.0381 + 0.0735 + 0.00057 = 0.112oC/W T1 T2 T3 T4
Heat loss from the wall
T1 - T4 600 -125
Q= = = 4.24kW
å Rt 0.112
Air gap required to reduce heat loss to 3kW
T1 - T4 600 -125
Again, Q = Þ 3´103 = Þ å R t = 0.158o C/W
å Rt å Rt
But, ∑Rt = Rt1 + Rt2 + Rt air + Rt3
0.158 = 0.112 + Rt air
Lair Lair
Rt air = 0.046oC/W = = Þ Lair = 1.61´10-3 m
K air ´ A 0.035´1
Lair = 1.61mm
11. A 30cm thick wall of reactor is made of an inner layer of brick (K1 = 0.85W/mK) covered
with a layer of insulation (K2 = 0.15W/mK). The reactor operates at a temperature of
1600K, whilst the ambient temperature is 295K. Calculate the thickness of fire brick and
64 Heat Transfer

insulation which gives minimum heat loss. Also work out the heat loss assuming that the
insulating material has a maximum temperature of 1475K.
Data: K1 = 0.85W/mK, K2 = 0.15W/mK, T1 = 1600K, T3 = 295K, T2 = 1475K
1 2
Q
T1 K1 K2

T2

T3
Fire brick Insulation

L1 L2
L = 0.3m
Thickness of fire brick
For steady state Q1 = Q2 = Q
T1 - T2 T2 - T3 T1 - T3
= =
L1 L2 L1 L
+ 2
K1A1 K 2A2 K1A1 K 2 A 2
T1 - T2 T1 - T3
Now , =
L1 L1 L
+ 2
K1A1 K1A1 K 2 A 2
Let A1 = A 2 = 1m 2
1600 -1475 1600 - 295
= [ L 2 = L - L1 ]
L1 L1 0.3 - L1
+
0.85´1 0.85´1 0.15´1
Thickness of firebrick = L1 = 0.1125m = 11.25cm
Thickness of insulation = L 2 = L - L1 = 0.3 - 0.1125 = 0.1875m
Heat loss through the wall
T - T2 1600 -1475
Q= 1 = = 944.45W
L1 0.1125
K1A1 0.85´1
12. A furnace wall consists of an inside layer of silica brick 10cm thick (K = 1.75W/mK)
followed by a 20cm layer of magnesite brick (K = 5.8W/mK) on the outside. The
inside surface of the silica brick wall is maintained at 750oC whilst the outside surface
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 65

of magnesite is at 125oC. The contact thermal resistance between the two walls at the
interface is 0.0026K/W per unit wall area. What is the rate of heat loss per unit area of
the wall? Also calculate the temperature drop at the interface.
Data: T1 = 750oC, T4 = 125oC, K1 = 1.75W/mK, K2 = 5.8W/mK
L1 = 0.1m, L2 = 0.2m Rtc = 0.0026K/W Q=? T2 – T3 = ?

1 2
Q
T1

T2
Silica Magnesia
T3

T4

10cm 20cm
Rt1 Rtc Rt2
Q
T1 T2 T3 T4
Heat loss per unit area
Thermal resistance of silica bricks
L1 0.1
R t1 = = = 0.057K/W
K1A1 0.75´1
Thermal resistance of magnesia bricks
L2 0.2
R t2 = = = 0.0345K/W
K 2 A 2 5.8´1
∑Rt = Rt1 + Rtc + Rt2 (Rtc = Thermal contact resistance between the walls)
= 0.057 + 0.0026 + 0.0345
∑Rt = 0.0941 K/W
T1 - T4 750 -125
Heat loss from the wall Q = = = 6.64´103 W
å R t 0.0941
Temperature drop across the interface
For steady state Q1 = Q 2 = Q
T1 - T2 750 - T2
Q1 = Þ 6.64´103 =
R t1 0.057
T2 = 371.52o C
T3 - T4 T -125
Q2 = Þ 6.64´103 = 3 Þ T2 = 354.36o C
R t2 0.0345
66 Heat Transfer

Temperature drop across the interface = T2 – T3

= 371.52 – 354.36 = 17.2oC
13. A composite wall for thermal insulation has a rectangular section 2mx0.5m and is
made from timber 15cm thick, corkboard 30cm thick and steel plate 5cm thick. The
temperature at the outside faces of timber and steel are 25oC and 150oC respectively.
How the heat transfer rate would be affected if aluminium rods of 4cm dia were inserted
through each square m of composite wall. Neglect the effect of bolt head and all lateral
heat transfer. The thermal conductivities of timber, steel, aluminium and cork are 0.12,
45, 205 and 0.035 W/mK respectively.
Data: L1 = 0.15m L2 = 0.3m L3 = 0.05m K1 = 0.12W/mK K2 = 0.035W/mK
K3 = 45W/mK Kal = 205W/mK T1 = 25oC T4 = 150
Lal = L1 + L2 + L3 dal = 0.04m Qwithout bolt = ? Qwith bolt = ?

K1 K2 K3
Q T4

T3
Cork board
Timber

Steel
TT22
T1
15cm 30cm 5cm
Rt1 Rt2 Rt3
Q Q
T1 T2 T3 T4
Case (i) Heat Transfer rate without Bolt
Total thermal resistance
∑Rt = Rt1 + Rt2 + Rt3
L1 L L
= + 2 + 3
K1A1 K 2 A 2 K 3 A 3
A1 = A 2 = A 3 = 2´ 0.5 = 1m 2
0.15 0.30 0.05
\ å Rt = + + = 9.822 K/W
0.12´1 0.035´1 45´1
T - T1 150 - 25
Q without bolt = 4 = = 12.72W
å R t 9.822
Case (ii) Heat transfer rate when aluminium bolt is inserted
p
Area of bolt A at = ´ 0.042 = 1.256´10-3 m 2
4
Thermal resistance due to bolt
Lat 0.15 + 0.30 + 0.05
Rt bolt = =
K al A al 205´1.256´10-3
= 1.942K/W
 p
Area of bolt A at = ´ 0.042 = 1.256´10-3 m 2
One Dimensional Steady State4Heat Conduction 67
Thermal resistance due to bolt
Lat 0.15 + 0.30 + 0.05
Rt bolt = =
K al A al 205´1.256´10-3
= 1.942K/W
Area of wall with bolt
= 1 – 1.256 × 10–3 = 0.99874m2
Thermal resistance of wall
Rt wall = 0.99874 × 9.822
= 9.809 K/W Timber Cork board Steel
Net thermal resistance

1 1 1
= +
R e R t wall R t bolt
R t wall R t bolt
Re =
R t wall + R t bolt
9.809´1.942
= = 1.621 K/W
9.809 + 1.942 Rt bolt
150 - 25
Heat flow rate Q with bolt = = 77.11W T1 Rt wall T4
1.621

14. Calculate the heat loss per square m area from a composite furnace wall made up of the
following materials 200mm thick fire brick with K1 = 1.16W/mK, 150mm thick insulating
brick with K2 = 0.1W/mK, 100mm thick red brick with K3 = 1.74W/mK. The outside film
coefficient of heat transfer is 20W/m2K. The inside surface temperature of wall is 1200oC
and room air 50oC VTU Jan - 2006
Data: L1 = 0.2m L2 = 0.15m
L3 = 0.1m K1 = 1.16W/mK,
K2 = 0.1 W/mK K3 = 1.74 W/mK (1) (2) (3)
T1 ho, To
ho = 20W/m K2
T1 = 1200 C To = 50 C Q = ?
o o
Red
Total thermal resistance brick
Q T2
∑Rt = Rt1 + Rt2 + Rt3 + Rt co
L1 L2 L3 1 T3
= + + + Fire Insulating
K1A1 K 2 A 2 K 3 A 3 hhoA
o A 33 brick brick T4
0.2 0.15 0.1 1 L1 L2 L3
= + + +
1.16´1 0.1´1 1.74´1 20´1 Q
Rt1 Rt2 Rt3 Rco
=1.78K/W T1 T2 T3 T4 To
Heat transfer rate (loss)
T1 - To 1200 - 50
Q= = = 646.43W
å Rt 1.78
68 Heat Transfer

15. A furnace wall is made up of inside silica (K = 0.6W/mK), outside magnesia brick (K
= 4.8W/mK) 10cm thick each. The inside and outside surfaces are exposed to fluid
temperature of 820oC and 120oC. Find the heat flow through the wall/m2/h. Assume a
contact resistance of 0.002K/W. Draw the temperature profile through the composite
wall. The inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are 35 and 12W/m2K respectively.
VTU Jan - 2009
Data: L1 = 0.1m, L2 = 0.1m hi = 35W/m K
2
Rt co = 0.002 C/W, ho = 12W/m2K
o

K1 = 0.6W/mK K2 = 4.8W/mK Q = ? Ti = 820 C

o
To = 120­oC

T1
Q
Ti,
hi To ,ho
T2
Silica
Magnesia
T3

T4
L1 L2
Rci Rt1 Rtc Rt2 Rco
Q
Ti T1 T2 T3 T4 To
Total thermal resistance
∑Rt = Rci + Rt1 + Rtc + Rt2 + Rtco
1 L L2 1
= + 1 + Rt c + +
h i A1 K1A1 K 2A2 h oA2
1 0.1 0.1 1
= + + 0.002 + +
35´1 0.6´1 4.8´1 12´1
= 0.0286 + 0.167 + 0.002 + 0.0208 + 0.0833
= 0.302K / W
T - To 820 -120
Heat flow = Q = i = = 2320.18W
å Rt 0.302
= 2320.18´3600 = 8.35´106 J/h
Temperature profile
For steady state Qi = Q1 = Q2 = Qco = Q
Ti - T1 820 - T1
Q= Þ 2320.18 = Þ T1 = 753.64o C
R ci 0.0286
T1 - T2 753.64 - T2
Q= Þ 2320.18 = Þ T2 = 366.17 o C
R t1 0.167
T2 - T3 366.17 - T3
Q= Þ 2320.18 = Þ T3 = 361.53o C
R tc 0.002
T -T 361.53 - T
 Q= i 1
Þ 2320.18 = 1
Þ T1 = 753.64 C
R ci 0.0286
T -T 753.64 - T2
Q = 1 Steady
One Dimensional 2
Þ 2320 .18 =Conduction
State Heat Þ T2 = 366.17 o C 69
R t1 0.167
T2 - T3 366.17 - T3
Q= Þ 2320.18 = Þ T3 = 361.53o C
R tc 0.002
T3 - T4 361.53 - T4
Q= Þ 2320.18 = Þ T4 = 317.9o C
R t2 0.0208

753.64

ToC 366.17

361.53

317.9

0.1 0.2
Thickness of wall, m
16. The inside surface of an insulating layer is at 270oC and the outside surface is dissipating
heat by convection into air at 20oC. The insulation is 40mm thick and has thermal
conductivity 1.2W/mK. What is the minimum value of heat transfer coefficient at the
outside surface if the surface temperature should not exceed 70oC. Also calculate the rate
of heat transfer. VTU Jan - 2008
Date: T1 = 270 C,
o
To = 20 C
o
L = 40mm = 0.04m K1 = 1.2W/mK, ho = ?
T2 = 70oC Q=?
For steady state
T1 Q
T1 - T2 T2 - To
=
L 1
KA h 0A0
270 - 70 70 - 20
= Þ h o = 120W/m 2 K
0.04 1 T2
1.2´1 h o ´1 To, ho
T1 - T2 270 - 70 40 mm
Heat transfer rate Q = = = 600W
= 6000W
L/KA 0.04
1.2´1
17. The furnace wall is made of three layers. First layer is of insulation brick of 12cm thickness
(K = 0.6W/mK). The face is exposed to gases at 870oC with convection coefficient of
110W/m2K. It is covered with a 10cm thick layer of fire brick (K = 0.8W/mK) with a
contact resistance of 2.6 × 10-4 m2 K/W between first and second layer. The third layer is a
plate of 10cm thickness (K = 4W/mK) with a contact resistance between second and third
layer of 1.5 × 10–4 m2K/W. The plate is exposed to air at 30oC with convection coefficient
70 Heat Transfer

of 15W/m2K. Determine the heat flow and overall heat transfer coefficient. Also find the
temperature at the interface of first and second layer
Date: K1 = 0.6W/mK K2 = 0.8W/mK K3 = 4W/mK L1 = 0.12m
L2 = L3 = 0.1m, Rt c1 = 2.6 × 10–4m2K/W Rt c2 = 1.5 × 10–4m2K/W. ho = 15W/m2K
Ti = 870oC, To = 30oC hi = 110W/m2K, Q = 9, U = ?, T2 = ?, T3 = ?
Heat transfer rate through the composite wall
1 1
R ci = = = 9.09´10-3 K/W
h i A i 110´1
(1) (2) (3)
L 0.12 hi T1
R t1 = 1 = = 0.2K/W Ti
T2
Q
K1A1 0.6´1
T3
L2 0.1
R t2 = = = 0.125K/W T4
K 2 A 2 0.8´1 T5
Insulation Fire
L3 0.1 brick brick Plate T6 To, ho
R t3 = = = 0.025K/W
K 3 A 3 4´1 L1 L2 L3
Rci Rt1 Rtc1 Rt2 Rtc2 Rt3 Rco
1 1
R co = = = 0.0667K/W Ti T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 To
h o A o 15´1
∑Rt = Rci + Rt1 + Rt c1 + Rt2 + Rt c2 + Rt3 + Rco
= 9.091 × 10–3 + 0.2 + 0.125 + 0.025 + 0.0667 = 0.4258 K/W
Ti - T0 870 - 30
Heat transfer rate Q = = = 1972.79W
å R t 0.4258
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Q = UA (Ti – To), Þ 1972.79 = U × 1 (870 – 30)
U = 2.3969W/m K 2

Temperature at interface of I and II layers

Ti - T1 870 - T1
Q= Þ 1972.79 = -3
, Þ T1 = 851.69o C
R ci 9.09´10
T1 - T2 851.69 - T2 o o
Again Q = Þ 1972.79 = , Þ T2 = 681.35
457.7 CC
Rt 0.2
T2 - T3 681.35
457.7 – T3 o
Q= Þ 1972.79 = -4
, Þ T3 = 457.18
680.83oC C
R t c1 2.6´10
18. The exterior wall of building is constructed of four materials 12mm thick gypsum board,
75mm thick fiber glass insulation, 20mm thick plywood and 20mm thick hardboard
siding. The inside and outside temperatures are 20oC and –10 oC. The convection heat
transfer coefficient on the inner and outer surfaces of the wall are 6 and 10W/m2 oC.
Determine the heat flux and overall heat transfer coefficient Kgypsum = 0.176W/mK, Kplywood
= 0.115W/mK, Kfibre = 0.036W/mK, Khardboard = 0.215W/mK. VTU Aug - 2001
Data: L1 = 0.012m L2 = 0.075m L3 = 0.02m L4 = 0.02m Ti = 20oC
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 71

To = –10oC K1 = 0.176W/mK, K2 = 0.036W/mK K3 = 0.115W/mK,

K4 = 0.215W/mK ho = 10W/m2 oC, hi = 6W/m2 oC q=? U=?
Heat flux
Total thermal resistance

To Ti, hi

Fibre glass

Ply wood
Gypsum
ho

Hard board
Q
Q

interior
Exterior

1 2 3 4
L1 L2 L3 L4

Rci Rt1 Rt2 Rt3 Rt4 Rco

To Ti
∑Rt = Rco + Rt1 + Rt2 + Rt3 + Rt4 + Rci
1 L L L L 1
= + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +
h o A o K1A1 K 2 A 2 K 3 A 3 K 4 A 4 h i A i
1 0.012 0.075 0.02 1
= + + + +
10´1 0.176´1 0.036´1 0.115´1 6´1
= 2.59 K/W
Ti - To 20 - (-10)
Q= = = 11.57W/m 2 =q
å t R 2. 59
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Q = UA (Ti – To), 11.57 = U × 1 (20 – (–10))
U = 0.3857 W/m2K
19. A composite wall of an oven consists of three material, two of which are known thermal
conductivities KA = 20W/mK and Kc = 50W/mK and known thickness LA = 0.3m and Lc =
0.15m, the third material B which is sandwiched between A & C is of unknown thermal
conductivity KB, but of known thickness LB = 0.15m. Under steady operating conditions,
it was found that the outside surface of material C is at 20oC, the inside surface of material
A is at 600oC. The surface is in contact with hot air at 800oC and the inside surface heat
transfer coefficient is 25W/m2K. What is the value of KB? Also determine the overall heat
transfer coefficient for the composite wall. VTU Aug - 2004
Date: KA = 20W/mK, Kc = 50W/mK hi = 25W/m K,
2
Ti = 800 C,
o

T1 = 600 C,
o
T4 = 20 C
o
Lc = LB = 0.15m LA = 0.3m KB = ?
Ti - T1 800 - 600
Heat transfer rate Q = = = 5000W
1 1
hiA 25´1
72 Heat Transfer

Ti - T4
Now Q = Ti, hi
1 L L L T1
+ 1 + 2 + 3
h i A K1A1 K 2 A 2 K 3 A 3 Q
T2
800 - 20
5000 =
1 0.3 0.15 0.15 T3
+ + +
25´1 20´1 K B ´1 50´1 (A) (B) T4
(C)
KB = 1.53W/mK
LA LB LC
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Q = UA (Ti – T4)
5000 = U × 1 (800 – 20)
U = 6.4102 W/m2K
20. A composite wall is made of three layers of thickness 25cm, 10cm and 15cm of materials A,
B, C respectively. The K of A, B are 1.7, 9.5W/mK. The outside surface is exposed to air at
20oC with convection coefficient of 15W/m2K and the inside is exposed to gas at 1200oC with
h = 28W/m2K and the inside surface temperature is at 1080oC. Determine the unknown K
of C VTU June - 2010
Data: LA = 0.25m LB = 0.1m LC = 0.15m KA = 1.7W/mK KB = 9.5W/mK
To = 20 C
o
ho = 15W/m K Ti = 1200 C
2 o
hi = 28W/m2K T1 = 1080oC Kc = ?
Ti - T1 1200 -1080
Heat transfer rate Q = = = 3360W
1 1
hiA 28´1
Thermal conductivity of layer C
Tii - Too
Now Q =
1 L L L 1
+ AA + BB + CC + Ti, hi
h ii A ii K AA A11 K BB A 22 K CC A 33 h oo A oo
Q
1200 - 20 To, ho
3360 =
1 0.25 0.1 0.15 1 (A) (B) (C)
+ + + +
28´1 1.7 ´1 9.5´1 K cc ´1 15´1
1080
3360 =
0.15 LA LB LC
0.0357 + 0.147 + 0.01053 + + 0.0667
K CC
0.15
= 0.1278
K CC
0.15
K CC = = 1.63W / mK
0.1278
21. The wall of a house in cold region consists of three layers, an outer brick work 15cm
thick, the inner wooden panel 1.2cm thick, the intermediate layer is insulator of 7cm thick.
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 73

The K for brick and wood are 0.7 and 0.18W/mK. The inside and outside temperature of
wall are 21 and - 15oC. If insulation layer offer twice the thermal resistance of brick wall,
calculate i, heat loss per unit area ii. K of insulator VTU Dec-2010
Data: L1 = 0.012m L2 = 0.07cm L3 = 0.15m
K1 = 0.18W/mK K3 = 0.7W/mK Rt2 = 2Rt3
Q=? K2 = ? T1 = 21 C
o
T4 = –15oC
T - T4 21oC
Heat transfer rate Q = 1 T1
å Rt T2 Q

T1 - T4

Wooden panel
=
L1 L L

Insulator
+ 2 + 3 T3
K1A1 K 2 A 2 K 3 A 3

Brick
– 15oC
T4
T1 - T4 L1 L2
= L3
L1 L L 1.2cm 7cm 15cm
+ 2´ 3 + 3
K1A1 K 3A3 K 3A3
21- (-15)
=
0.012 0.15 0.15
+ 2´ +
0.18´1 0.7 ´1 0.7
Q = 50.74W
Thermal conductivity of insulation layers
T1 - T4
Again Q =
L1 L L
+ 2 + 3
K1A1 K 2 A 2 K 3 A 3
21- (-15) 36
50.74 = =
0.012 0.07 0.15 0.07
+ + 0.0667 + + 0.2142
0.18´1 K 2 ´1 0.7 ´1 K2
0.07 36
0.2809 + =
K2 50.74
K 2 = 0.163W/mK
22. The wall in furnace consists of 125mm think refractory bricks and 125mm thick insulating
fire bricks separated by an air gap. A 12mm thick plaster covers the outer wall. The inner
surface of the wall is at 1100oC and the ambient temperature is 25oC. The heat transfer
coefficient on the outside wall to the air is 17W/m2K and the resistance to heat flow of
the air gap is 0.16K/W. The thermal conductivities of refractory brick, insulating fire
brick and plaster are 1.6, 0.3 and 0.14 W/mK respectively. Calculate i. the rate of heat
loss per unit area of the wall surface ii. The interface temperature throughout the wall iii.
Temperature at outside surface of the wall.
Data: L1 = 0.125m L3 = 0.012m L2 = 0.125m, ho = 17W/m2K T1 = 1100oC To = 25oC
74 Heat Transfer

K1 = 1.6W/mK K2 = 0.3W/mK K3 = 0.14W/mK Rt air = 0.16K/W A = 1m2

Q=? T3 = ? T4 = ? T5 = ?
(i) Heat loss/m2 area
L1 0.125 T1 T2
R t1 = = = 0.0781K/W Q
K1A1 6´1

Refractory Brick
ho

Plaster of paris
T3
L2 0.125
R t2 = = = 0.417K/W

Fire brick
K 2 A 2 0.3´1 T4

Air Gap
T5
L3 0.012 To
R t3 = = = 0.0857K/W
K 3 A 3 0.14´1 L1 L2 L3
0.125m
1 1 0.125m 0.012m
R co = = = 0.0588K / W
h o A 17 ´1 Q Rt1 Rt air Rt2 Rt3 Rco Q
∑Rt = Rt1 + Rc air + Rt2 + Rt3 + Rco T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 To
= 0.0781 + 0.16 + 0.417 + 0.0857 + 0.0588
= 0.8 K/W
T1 - To 1100 - 25
Q= = = 1344W
å Rt 0.8
(ii) Interface Temperatures
T1 - T2 1100 - T2
Q= Þ 1344 = Þ T2 = 995o C
R1 0.0781
T2 - T3 995 - T3
Q= Þ 1344 = Þ T3 = 800o C
R cair 0.16
T3 - T4 800 - T4
Q= Þ 1344 = Þ T4 = 240o C
R t2 0.417
T4 - T5 240 - T5
Q= Þ 1344 = Þ T5 = 124.82o C
R t3 0.0857
23. The interior of a refrigerator has inside dimensions 60cm × 45cm base area and 120cm
high. The composite wall is made of two 3mm mild steel sheets (K = 40.83W/mK) with
6cm of glass wool (K = 0.0525 W/mK) sandwiched between them. The average values of
convective heat transfer coefficient at the interior and exterior wall are 11.37 and 14.5W/
m2K respectively. i. Calculate the individual resistance of this composite wall and the
resistance at the surface and overall conductance ii. Draw the thermal circuit iii. For the
air temperature inside the refrigerator at 6.5oC and outside of 25oC, determine the rate
at which heat must be removed from the refrigerator. Also calculate the temperature on
the outer surface of the metal sheet.
Data: L1 = 0.003m L2 = 0.06m L3 = 0.003m K1 = 40.83W/moC = K3
K2 = 0.0525W/m C o
hi = 11.37W/m C, ho = 14.5W/m2 oC Ti = 6.5oC To = 25oC
2o
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 75

Ti mild mild Q
Glass
hi steel wool steel
1.2m To, ho

3mm 60mm 3mm

5m
0.6m 0.4
Rci Rt1 Rt2 Rt3 Rco

Ti To
Area = A = 2 [(1.2 × 0.6) + (0.6 × 0.45) + (0.45 × 1.2)] = 3.06m2
(i) Individual thermal resistances
1
1 1
1
Inside
Inside air
air film
film RR cici =
=hA= = 11.37 ´3.06 = =0 0..0287K/W
0287K/W
h i A 11.37 ´3.06
i

L
L 11 = 0
0..003
003 -5
Inside
Inside mild
mild steel
steel sheet
sheet R R t1t1 =
=KA = 40.83´3.06 = =2
2..40
40´´10
10-5 K/W
K/W
K1A 40.83´3.06
1
L
L2 0
0..06
06
Glass
Glass wool
wool R
R tt 22 =
= K 2A = =0
= 0.0525´3.06 = 0..3734K/W
3734-4 K/W
K 2 A 0.0525´3.06
2
L 0
0..003
Outside
Outside nild
nild steel
steel sheet
sheet R
R t3 = L 33 = 003 = 2.40´10--54 K/W
t3 = K A = 40.83´ 3.06 = 2.40´10 K/W
K 3 A 40.83´3.06
3
1
1 1
1
Outside
Outside air
air film
film R
R co =
= h A= =0
= 14.5´3.06 = 0..0225
0225 K/W
K/W
co
h o A 14.5´3.06
o
Total thermal resistance ∑Rt = Rci + Rt1 + Rt2 + Rt3 + Rco
= 0.0287 + 2.40 × 10 – 5 + 0.3734 + 2.4 × 10 – 5 + 0.0225
= 0.42508 K/W
1 1
Overall conductance = = = 2.552W/K
å R t 0.42508
(ii) Heat loss
To - Ti 25 - 6.5
Q= = = 43.52W
å R t 0.42508
(iii) Temperature at the outer surface of mild steel sheet
To - T4
Q = h o A (To - T4 ) =
R co
25 - T4
43.52 = Þ T4 = 24.02o C
0.0225
76 Heat Transfer

24. A 3mm thick metal plate having thermal conductivity K = 98.6W/mK is exposed to
vapour at 100oC on one side and cooling water at 30oC on the opposite side. The heat
transfer coefficients are hi = 14200W/m2 oC on the vapour side, ho = 2325W/m2 oC on the
water side. Determine the rate of heat transfer, overall heat transfer coefficient and the
drop in temperature at each side of heat transfer.
Data: Ti = 100oC, To = 30oC, Q=? U=? Ti – T1 = ?, T2 –To = ?
hi = 14200W/m2 oC, ho = 2325W/m2 oC
Rate of heat transfer
Total thermal resistance ∑Rt = Rci + Rt1 + Rco
1 L 1 T 1 0.003- T 1
= + += T1 -
Q = 2 Þ 1344+
=
1100 +2 Þ T = 995o C
h i A KA h o ARt 14200´1 980.6.0781
´1 2325´ 2 1
1
= 53.09´10-5 K/W T - T3 995 - T3
Q= 2 Þ 1344 = Þ T3 = 800o C
DT 100 -Rc30air 0.16 2 Vapour T1
Q= = = 1.318´105 W/m water
å R t 53Q.09 = 3
T10
´ -5
- T4
Þ 1344 =
800 - T4
Þ T4 = 240Tio C
ho, To
Rt 2
Overall heat transfer coefficient 0.417 hi
Q = UA(Ti – To) T -T 240 - T
1.318 × 105 = U ×Q1(100
= 4 – 30)5 Þ 1344 = W/m2K5 Þ T5 = 124.82o C
U = 1882 T2
Temperature drop at the Rtvapour
3 film side0.0857
Q = hiA (Ti – T1)
1.318 × 105 = 14200 × 1 (Ti – T1) L = 3mm
Ti – T1 = 9.25 C
o

Temperature drop at the water film side

Q = hoA (T2 – To)
1.318 × 105 = 2325 × 1 (T2 – To)
T2 – To = 56.58oC
25. The guest house has a multilayer composite wall constructed as shown in fig. The
temperature of air inside the room is 20oC and the surface coefficient between the room
air and wall is 6.25W/m2K. The outside temperature is -12oC with an outside surface heat
transfer coefficient 17.25W/m2K. The wall measures 2m high and 4m deep. The different
wall thickness are as indicated in the fig and the thermal conductivities of wall materials
are Ka = 0.16W/mK, Kb = 0.21W/mK. Kc = 0.04W/mK, Kd = 0.17W/mK
Calculate the heat transfer rate across the wall in steady state.
Data: Ti = 20oC hi = 6.25W/m2K To = – 12oC ho = 17.25W/m2 K Q=?
Width = 4m
Area of wall a = Aa = 0.8 × 4 = 3.2m2
Area of wall b = Ab = 1.2 × 4 = 4.8m2
Area of wall c = Ac = 2 × 4 = 8m2
Area of wall d = Ad = 2 × 4 = 8m2 = Ai = Ao
Various thermal resistances
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 77

1 1 Ti
R ci = = = 0.02o C/W hi
h i A i 6.25´8

1.2m
La 0.01 b To,
R ta = = = 0.0195o C/W ho
K a A a 0.16´3.2
c d
Lb 0.01
R tb = = = 0.01o C/W
K b A b 0.21´ 4.8
Lc 0.04

0.8m
a
R tc = = = 0.125o C/W
K c A c 0.04´8
Ld 0.02 1cm 4cm 2cm
R td = = = 0.015o C/W
K d A d 0.17 ´8 Rtb
Rci Rtc Rtd Rco
1 1 Rta
R co = = = 0.007 o C/W Ti To
h o A o 17.25´8
Equivalent thermal resistance of a and b
R taR tb 0.0195´ 0.01
R t ab = = = 0.0065o C/W
R t a + R t b 0.0195 + 0.01
Now ∑Rt = Rci + Rt ab + Rtc + Rtd + Rco
= 0.02 + 0.0065 + 0.125 + 0.015 + 0.007 = 0.1735oC/W
Ti - To 20 - (-12)
Heat transfer rate Q = =
å Rt 0.1735

Q = 184.4W
26. A 30cm thick furnace wall (K = 1.5W/moC) has inner surface temperature of 1250oC.
If the heat transfer coefficient on the outer surface is prescribed by the relation h0 = 8
+ 0.09ΔT, where ΔT is the temperature difference between the outer wall surface and
surrounding. Calculate the rate of heat loss per unit area of the wall. Take surrounding
temperature as 30oC.
Data: L = 0.3m, K = 1.5W / m o C, T1 =1250o C, h 0 =8 + 0.09DT, Q = ?, T0 =30o C
Heat transfer rate
T1 − T0 T2 − T0
= Q =
 L 1  1
+
 KA h A 
0
h0A
 
1  T1 − T0 
T2 − T0 =  
h0  L + 1 
 K h 0 
1
Let =C
h0
   
 T1 − T0  1250 − 30 
 Heat transfer rate
T1 − T0 T2 − T0
= Q =
1
78  L + 1  Heat Transfer
 KA h A  h0A
0

 
1  T − T0 
T1
T2 − T0 =  1 
h0  L + 1 
 K h 0 
h0, T0
1
Let =C
h0 T2
   
 T1 − T0  1250 − 30  L = 30cm
∴= T2 − T0 C  =  C  0.3 
L
 +C  +C 
K   1.5 
 1 220 
T2 − T0 = C 
 0.2 + C
Now, we have
ho = 8 + 0.09DT
1
=8 + 0.09 ( T2 − T0 )
C
 1220 
= 8 + 0.09  C
 0.2 + C 
1
C=
26
1 1
=
h o 26
h o = 26W / m 2o C
T − T0 1250 − 30
∴ Heat loss Q =1 =
L 1 0.3 1
+ +
K ho 1.5 26
Q = 5116.2W

27. Two slabs each 100mm thick and made of materials with thermal conductivities of 16
and 200W/mK are placed in contact which is not perfect. Due to roughness of surface
only 40% of area is in contact and air fills 0.02mm thick gap in the remaining area. If
the extreme surface of the arrangement are at temperature of 250 and 30oC, determine
the heat flow through the composite system, contact resistances and temperature drop
in contact. Take thermal conductivity of air as 0.032W/moC and assume that half of the
contact is due to either metal.
Data: K=
A 16W / mK,
= K C , K=
B 200W / mK,
= K D , L=
air L=
C L=
D 0.02 × 10−3 m
L=
A L=
B 100mm
= 0.1m, T
=1 250o C, T
=2 30o C, =
Q ?, R =
tC ?, K=
air 0.032 W / mK
2
Assume A
= A 1m
= AB
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 79

T1 (C)
20% A Q
Q
Slab Slab
60%
(A) (B)
Air

(D)
T2
20% B
Rt C
K=
A 16W / m o=
C K C , K=B 200W / m o C,
= K D , L= air L=
C L=D 0.02 × 10−3 m
Q T R tA R RtB Q
L=
A L=
B 100mm= 0.1m, =
1 250o C, T=2 30toairC, =
Q ?, R t=
C ?
T Rt D T2
Assume A
= A 1m
= 2
AB 1
Heat Flow through the Composite Systems
Various thermal resistances are
LA 100 × 10−3
Rt A
= = = 0.00625o C / W
K A AA 16 × 1
LC 0.02 × 10−3 0.02 × 10−3
Rt C
= = = = 0.00000625o C / W
K C A C 16 × 20% of A A 16 × 0.2 × 1
Lair 0.02 × 10−3 0.02 × 10−3
R t air
= = = = 0.001042o C / W
K air A air 0.032 × 60% A A 0.032 × 0.6 × 1
LD 0.02 × 10−3 0.02 × 10−3
Rt D
= = = = 0.0000005o C / W
K D A D 200 × 20%A A 200 × 0.02 × 1
LB 100 × 10−3
Rt B
= = = 0.0005o C / W
K BAB 200 × 1
Equivalent resistance of C, air and D is
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = + +
R t eq R t C R t air R t D 0.00000625 0.001042 0.0000005
R t eq 0.462 × 10−6 o C / W
=
Total thermal resistance of the comosite wall
ΣR t = R t A + R t eq + R t B
= 0.00625 + 0.462 × 10−6 + 0.0005
= 0.00675o C / W
T1 − T2 250 − 30
∴ Heat flow Q = =
ΣR t 0.00675
Q = 32592W
Contact resistance R=
tC 0.46 × 10−6o C / W
 = 0.00625 + 0.462 × 10 + 0.0005
= 0.00675o C / W
80 T1 − T2 250 − 30 Heat Transfer
∴ Heat flow Q = =
ΣR t 0.00675
Q = 32592W
Contact resistance R=
tC 0.46 × 10−6o C / W
Temperature drop in contact
DT DT
Q = ⇒ 32592 =
Rt C 0.462 × 10−6
DT =0.01505o C
28. A square plate heater of size of 20cm × 20cm is inserted between two slabs. Slab A is
3cm thick (K = 50W/mK) and slab B is 1.5cm (K = 0.2W/mK). The outside heat transfer
coefficients on both sides of A and B are 200 and 50W/m2K respectively. Temperature of
surrounding air is 25oC. If the rating of heater is 1kW, find i) maximum temperature in
the system, ii) Outer surface temperature of two slabs. Draw the equivalent circuit for
the system. VTU Dec - 2011
Data: A = 0.2 × 0.2 = 0.04m 2 , L1 = 0.03m, K1 = 50W / mK, L 2 = 0.015m, K 2 = 0.2W / mK
h=
01 200W / m 2 K, h=
02 50W / m 2 K, T=
01 T=
02 25o C, Q=
h 1kW
= 1000W,
Th ?,=
= T1 ?,=
T2 ?
Maximum temperature in the system
Heater temperature is maximum temperature
Th of the system
Q2 Q1
Th − T01 Th − 25
Now, Q1 =
=
L1 1 0.03 1
+ + Heater
K1T
A1 , hh 01AT
1 50 × 0.04 200 × 0.04 T
02 02 2 1 T01, h01
=Q1 7.143Th − 178.56 − − − (1)
(B) (A)
Th − T02 Th − 25
Again Q 2
= =
L2 1 0.015 1
+ +
K1A 2 h 02 A 2 1.5cm
0.200 × 0.04 50 3cm
× 0.04
=QQ2 2 0.421 Th − 10.53 − − − ( 2) Q1
Also, Q=
h Q1R+C2Q 2 T2 Rt2− − − ( 3) Qh Rt1 T1 RC1
Substituting equations (1) & ( 2 ) R inC2( 3) RC1
OR
A = 0.2 ×Q0.2 2
3 Th ,−L
178.56 + 0.421 K1T=hT50W
10.53 Q2
h ==7.14
0.04m 1 = 0.03m, = / mK, L 2 = 0.015m, K 2 = 0.2W / mK
Th 1
h=
01
=
200W1000/ mQ2
7.56T
K,
h h= h − 189.09
02
2
50W / m K, T= 01 T=
02
o
25 C, Q= h 1kW
= 1000W,
Q1
Th ?,=
= TT1 =?,157.29
= T2 ?C
o
R T2 R
h t2 t1
Maximum temperature
Heat flow into slabe A is in the system
Heater temperature
Q1 7.143 T is the maximum temperature of the system
= h − 178.56
Th ×−157.29
T01 − 178.56 Th − 25
Now, Q1 =7.143
= =
L1 1 0.03 1
Q1 = 944.94W + +
K1A1 h 01A1 50 × 0.04 200 × 0.04
Heat flow into slab B is
= Q1 7.143Th − 178.56 − − − (1)
Q 2 = Q h − Q1 = 1000 − 944.94
Th − T02 Th − 25
Again Q 2 = 55.06W
= =
 Heater temperature is the maximum temperature of the system
Th − T01 Th − 25
= Now, Q1 =
L
One Dimensional Steady State 1 0.03 1 81
1
+ Heat Conduction +
K1A1 h 01A1 50 × 0.04 200 × 0.04
=Q1 7.143Th − 178.56 − − − (1)
Th − T02 Th − 25
Again Q 2
= =
L2 1 0.015 1
+ +
K 2 A 2 h 02 A 2 0.2 × 0.04 50 × 0.04
=Q 2 0.421 Th − 10.53 − − − ( 2)
Also, Q=
h Q1 + Q 2 − − − ( 3)
Substituting equations (1) & ( 2 ) in ( 3)
Q h = 7.143 Th − 178.56 + 0.421 Th − 10.53
1000 7.56Th − 189.09
=
Th = 157.29o C
Heat flow into slabe A is
= Q1 7.143 Th − 178.56
=7.143 × 157.29 − 178.56
Q1 = 944.94W
Heat flow into slab B is
Q 2 = Q h − Q1 = 1000 − 944.94
= 55.06W
Slab surface temperature
Th − T1 157.29 − T1
Q=
1 = = 944.94
L1 0.03
K1A1 50 × 0.04
T1 = 143.12o C
Th − T2 157.29 − T2
=Q2 = = 55.06
L2 0.015
K 2A2 0.2 × 0.04
T2 = 54.05o C

29. 2kW heater of area 0.04m2 is protected on the backside with insulation 50mm thick
of thermal conductivity 1.4W/mK and on the front side by a plate 10mm thick with
thermal conductivity of 45W/mK. The back side is exposed to air at 5oC with convection
coefficient of 10W/m2K and the front is exposed to air at 15oC with convection coefficient
including radiation of 250W/m2K. Determine the heater element temperature and the
heat flow into the room under steady conditions. Also find the surface temperature.
Data:= K1 45W / mK,= K 2 1.4W / mK,=Q h 2kW= 2000W,= L1 0.01m,= A 0.04m 2
T01 15o C,=
L 2 0.05m,=
= h 01 250W / m 2 K,=
T02 50 C,=
h 02 10W / m 2 K,
= Th ?,=
Q2 ?
Heater Element Temperature
Th − T01 Th − 15
We have Q1 =
=
L1 1 0.01 1
+ +
82 Heat Transfer

Th
T02, h02
T01, h01

T2 T1

(2) (1) Heater

Q2 Q1
L2 = 50mm L1 = 10mm

T02 T2 Th T1 T01
K1 45W / mK,Q=
= K 2 1.4W / mK,=
Q h 2kW
= 2000W,= A 0.04m 2
L1 0.01m,=
2 Rc2 Rt2 Q Rt1 Rc1 Q1
L 2 0.05m,=
= T01 15o C,= h 01 250W / m 2 K,=T02 50 C,=
h 02 10W / m 2 K,
= Th ?,=
Q2 ?
Heater Element Temperature
Th − T01 Th − 15
We have Q1 =
=
L1 1 0.01 1
+ +
K1A1 h 01A1 1.4 × 0.04 250 × 0.04
Q1 = 9.47 ( Th − 15 ) − − − − (1)
Th − T02 Th − 5
Again Q 2
= =
L1 1 0.05 1
+ +
K 2 A 2 h 02 A1 1.4 × 0.04 10 × 0.04
=
= 0.294( T
Q12 0.294 Thh −− 55) − − − − ( 2)
Heat generated by the element
Q=
h Q1 + Q 2 − − − − ( 3)
Substituting equation (1) & ( 2 ) in ( 3)
Q h 9.47 ( Th − 15 ) + 0.294 ( Th − 5 )
=
= 9.47 ( Th − 15 ) + 0.294 ( Th − 5 )
2000
Th = 219.44o C
Heat flow into the room
Q1 9.47 ( Th − 15
= = ) 9.47 ( 219.44 − 15)
= 1936.8W
Also Q 2 = Q h − Q1 = 2000 − 1936.8 = 63.2W
Surface Temperature
Th − T1 219.44 − T1
= Q1 = ; 1936.8
L1 0.01
K1A1 45 × 0.04
T1 = 208.68o C
Th − T2 219.44 − T2
=Q2 = ; 63.2
L2 0.05
K 2A2 1.4 × 0.04
=Q1 =
h 1
; 1936.8 1
L1 0.01
K1A1 45 × 0.04
One Dimensional Steady Stateo Heat Conduction 83
T1 = 208.68 C
Th − T2 219.44 − T2
=Q2 = ; 63.2
L2 0.05
K 2A2 1.4 × 0.04
T2 = 163.01o C

30. An electrical resistance mattress type is inserted in between two slabs of different
materials on a panel heater. On one side the material has K = 0.174W/mK and 10mm
thick, on the other side of the heater the material has K = 0.05W/mK and 25mm thick. The
convection heat transfer coefficients at thinner and thicker slabs are 23.16 and 11.63W/
m2K, neglecting edge effects, find surface temperature of the slabs and temperature of the
mattress assuming it to be the same as the inner surface of the slabs. VTU July - 2009(06)
Data: Solve this problem similar to that of (28) and (29).
31. An industrial freezer is designed to operate with an internal air temperature of -200 C
when the external air temperature is 250 C and the internal and external heat transfer
coefficients are 12 W/m2 oC, 8 W/m2 oC respectively. The wall of the freezer is composite
construction, comprising of an inner layer of 0plastic 3 mm thick with thermal conductivity
T = −20 C, T0 = 250 C
of 1W/m0C. An outer layer of stainlessi steel of thickness 1 mm and thermal conductivity
of 16 W/m0C. Sandwiched betweenhthese i = 12 W / m 2 is0 Ca layer of insulation material with
layers
thermal conductivity of 0.07 W/m0C.h Find the width
2 0
C of the insulation required to reduce
0 =8W /m
the convective heat loss to 15 W/m2. −3
VTU June/July
2009 (06) L1= 3 × 10 m
Data : L3 = 1 × 10 −3 m
Ti = −200 C, T0 = 250 C K1 = 1 W / m 0 C
h i = 12 W / m 2 0 C K 2 = 0.07 W / m 0 C
h 0 = 8 W / m2 0C K 3 = 16 W / m 0 C
L1= 3 × 10 −3 m q = 15 W / m 2
L3 = 1 × 10 −3 m L2 = ?
K1 = 1 W / m 0 C Thermal Resistamce T0,h0

K 2 = 0.07 W / m C 0 k1 1k2 1 k3
R ci
= = = 0.0833 K / W
h i A 12 × 1
K 3 = 16 W / m 0 C
L1 3 × 10 −3
q = 15 W / m 2 R f 1= = = 3 × 10 −3 K / W
K1 A 1×1
Insulation

L2 = ?
Steel
Plastic

L2 L2
Thermal Resistamce Rf 2
= = = 14.28 × L 2 K / W
k 2 A 0.07 × 1
1 1 Q
R ci
= = = 0.0833 K / W L3 1 × 10 −3
h i A 12 × 1 R
= f3 = = 6.25 × 10 −5 K / W
k 3 A 16 × 1
L1 3 × 10 −3 T1,hi −3 L1 L2 L3
R f 1= = = 3 × 10 K / W 1 1
K1 A 1×1 Q = Rcico Rt1 =
R Rt2 R=t3
Rco 0.125 k / W
h0A 8 × 1
L2 L2 T T1 T2 T3 T4 T0 Q
Rf 2 =
= = 14.28 × L 2 i ∑
KR /Wt = R ci + R t1 + R t 2 + R t3 + R c0
k 2 A 0.07 × 1
= 0.0833 + 3 × 10 −3 + 14.28 L 2 + 6.25 × 10 −5 + 0.125
L3 1 × 10 −3
R
= = = 6.25 × 10 −5 ∑ KR / W 0.2114 + 14.28 L
=
 K 3 = 16 W / m 0 C
q = 15 W / m 2
84 Heat Transfer
L2 = ?
ThermalResistance
Thermal Resistamce
1 1
R ci =
= = 0.0833 K / W
h i A 12 × 1
L1 3 × 10 −3
R f 1= = = 3 × 10 −3 K / W
K1 A 1×1
L2 L2
Rf 2
= = = 14.28 × L 2 K / W
k 2 A 0.07 × 1
L3 1 × 10 −3
R
= f3 = = 6.25 × 10 −5 K / W
k 3 A 16 × 1
1 1
R co
= = = 0.125 k / W
h0A 8 × 1
∑ R t = R ci + R t1 + R t 2 + R t3 + R c0
= 0.0833 + 3 × 10 −3 + 14.28 L 2 + 6.25 × 10 −5 + 0.125
∑R
= t 0.2114 + 14.28 L 2
Thickness or width of insulation
we have
T − Ti
q= 0
∑ Rt
25 − ( −20)
15 =
0.2114 + 14.28 L 2
0.2114 + 14.28 L 2 =
3
14.28L 2 = 2.79
2.79
L2
= = 0.1952 = m 195.2 mm
14.28
32. A furnace has a composite wall constructed of a refractory material for the inside layer
and an insulating material on the outside. The total wall thickness is limited to 60 cm. The
mean temperature of the gases within the furnace is 8500 C, atmospheric temperature is
30oC and the interface temperature is 5000 C. The thermal conductivities of refractory
and insulating materials are 2 W/m - K and 0.2 W/m - K. The combined co-efficient of
heat transfer by convection and radiation between gases and the refractory surface is 200
W/m2 - K and between outside surface and atmosphere is 40 W/m2 - K. Find :
i. The required thickness of each material.
ii. The rate of heat loss to atmosphere in kW/m2.
ii. The temperatures of the external and internal surfaces. VTU Jan 2015
Ans. L = 0.6m, Ti = 850 C, T0 = 30 C, T2 = 500 C, K1 = 2 W/mK, K2 = 0.2 W/mK, hi = 200 W/m2/K,
0 0 0

hs = 40 W/m2 K, L1 = ?, L2 = ?, Q = ? , T1 = ? T2 = ?
 One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 85

T1

Ti,hi

T0,h0
T2

T3
L1 L2

L=0.6 m
Rci Rt1 Rt2 Rc0 Q
Q
Ti T1 T2 T3 T0
For steady state
Q=Qci=Q1=Q2=Qco.
Let Q=Qci
T −T
Tii − T00 T −T
Tii −
− ((11))
= T11 −
= ∑ R R −−−−
∑ R ff R cici
∑ R f = R ci + R
∑ R = R + R t1 +
f +R +R
R t2 +
ci R co t1 t2 co
11 11 −3
R
R cici== h A == 200 × 1== 55 ×
× 10
10 −3 K
K // W
W
h1A i 200 × 1
1 i

L
L11 L
L11
R
=
R t1 K=
= t1 = =
= 0.5L
0.5L11 K
K // W
W
KA 1 A 1 2 ×
2 ×1 1
1 1
L
L 22 = 0.60.6 −−L L11 = 3 − 5 L1 K / W
R
R tt 22== K A = = 3 − 5 L1 K / W
K 22 A 22 2 ×
2 ×11

R co =
= = 11 =11 0.025 K
K // W
W
R
= co h A =
40 × 1 0.025
h A
0
0
0
040 × 1
∑R =55 × 10 −−33 +
× 10 + 0.5L + ( 33 −
0.5L1 + 5L1 ) + 0.025 =3.03 − 4.5L1
∑ Rtff = 1 ( − 5L 1)
+ 0.025 =3.03 − 4.5L
1
Now equation (
Now equation 1 become1 ) becom
() e
850 − 30
850 − 850
850 − −T−31 ⇒ ( 4.5L11 )( T11 )) 4.1
30 T ⇒ 3.03
=
( 3.03 −− 4.5L )(850
850 −
−=T
1

3.03 − =
4.5L 55 × 10 −3
= 4.1
3.03 − 4.5L1 1 × 10
4.1
4.1
850
850 −−T T11 =
= 3.03 − 4.5
3.03 − ×L
4.5 × L 11
 4.1 
− (( 22))
T 4.1
T11 850
=
= 850 − − 3.03 − 4.5 L  −
−−−−
−−
 3.03 − 4.5 L11 
Again Q
Again Qci = =Q Q1
ci 1
Ti −
T T1 T
−T T1 −
−TT2
i 1 = 1
= 2
 850 − T1 =
3.03 − 4.5 × L 1
 4.1 
T1 850 −
=
86 − − − − ( 2) Heat Transfer
 3.03 − 4.5 L1 
Again Qci = Q1
Ti − T1 T1 − T2
=
R ci R t1
850 − T1 T1 − 500
=
5 × 10 −3 0.5L1
 4.1   4.1 
850 −  850 −   850 − 3.03 − 4.5L  − 500
 3.03 − 4.5 L1  1
=
5 × 10 −3 0.5L1
4.1
4.1 3.03 − 4.5L1
= 350 −
5 × 10 ( 3.03 − 4.5L1 )
−3
0.5L1
820 1060.5 − 1575L1 − 4.1
=
3.03 − 4.5L1 ( 3.03 − 4.5L1 ) 0.5L1
1056.4 − 1575L1
820 =
0.5L1
410L
= 1 1056.4 − 1575 L1
1985 L1 = 1056.4
L1 = 0.532 m
L2 =0.6 − 0.532 =0.0678 m
Interior temperature of the wall
F rom equation ( 2)
4.1
T1 850 −
=
3.03 − 4.5L1
4.1
= 850 − ⇒ T1 = 843.55o C
3.03 − 4.5 × 0.532
Heat transfer rate
Ti − T1 850 − 843.55
=Q = = −3
1289.308 W= / m 2 1.289KW / m 2
R ci 5 × 10
Exterior temperature of the wall
T3 − T0 T − 30
=Q ⇒ 1289.308 = 3
R eo 0.025
T3 = 62.230 C
33. The Interior of a Refrigerator having inside dimensions of 0.5 × 0.5m base area and 1 m
height is to be maintained at 6°C. The walls of the Refrigerator are constructed of 2 mild
steel sheets, three (3mm) thick. [K = 46.5 W/m °C] with a 50mm of glass wool insulation
[K = 0.046W/m °C] between them. If the Average Heat transfer coefficients at the inner
and outer surfaces are 11.6W/m2 °C and 14.5W/m2 °C respectively.
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 87

Calculate : i) The rate at which the heat must be removed from the Interior to maintain
the specified temperature in the kitchen at 25°C and ii) The temperature on the outer
surface of the metal sheet. VTU Dec 2015 Jan 2016

Glass wool Mild steel sheet

Mild steel sheet
K = 0.046 [K = 46.5 W/moC]
W/moC
Exterior of Interior of
Refrigerator Refrigerator

3mm 50mm 3mm

Ans.
Interior of Exterior of
Refrigerator Refrigerator

1m Glass wool
1 2 3

0.5m 0.5m 3mm 50mm 3mm

Rci Rt1 Rt2 Rt3 Rco

Ti T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Data : L1 = 0.003m, L2 = 0.05m, L3 = 0.003m, K1 = K3 = 46.5 W/mK, K2 = 0.046W/mK, hi = 11.6
W/moC, h0 = 14.5 W/moC, Ti = 6oC, T0 = 25oC, Q = ?, Tu = ?
Area A = 2(1 × 0.5 + 0.5 × 0.5 + 0.5 × 1)
= 2.5m2
(i) Individual thermal resistances.
1 1
Inside air film =
R ci = = 0.034 K / W
h i A 11.6 × 2.5
L1 0.003
Inside mild steel sheet =
R t1 = = 2.58 × 10−5 K / W
K1A 46.5 × 2.5
L2 0.05
Glass wool=
R t2 = = 0.434 K / W
K 2 A 0.046 × 2.25
L3
Outside mild steel sheet R=
t3 = R=
t1 2.58 × 10−5 K / W
K3A
1 1
Outside air film=
R co = = 0.03065 K / W
h 0 A 0 14.5 × 2.5
Total thermal resistance
ΣR f = R ci + R t1 + R t 2 + R t3 + R co
= 0.0383 + 2.87 × 10−5 + 0.486 + 2.87 × 10−5 + 0.03065= 0.4957 K / W
Rate at which heat removed
 L3
Outside mild steel sheet R=
t3 = R=
t1 2.58 × 10−5 K / W
K3A
88 1 1 Heat Transfer
Outside air film=
R co = = 0.03065 K / W
h 0 A 0 14.5 × 2.5
Total thermal resistance
ΣR f = R ci + R t1 + R t 2 + R t3 + R co
= 0.0383 + 2.87 × 10−5 + 0.486 + 2.87 × 10−5 + 0.03065= 0.4957 K / W
Rate at which heat removed
T0 − Ti 25 − 6
=Q = = 38.3W
ΣR f 0.4957
Temperature at outer surface of the mild steel.
T − T4 25 − T4
Q= 0 ⇒ 34.42 =
R co 0.03065
T4 = 23.95o C
34. The inside temperature of a furnace wall with K = 1.35 W/mK, 200mm thick is 1400oC.
The heat transfer coefficient at the outside surface is a function of temperature difference
and is given by h = 7.85 + 0.08 DT W/m2 K. Where DT is the temperature difference
between outside wall surface and surroundings. Determine the rate of heat transfer per
unit area if the surrounding temperature is 40oC. (VTU Dec 2017 / Jan 2018)
Data : K = 1.35 W/mK, L = 0.2m, T1 = 1400oC, h = 7.85 + 0.08 DT, T∞ = 40oC, Q = ?
For steady state heat transfer
T1 − T2 h, T∞
= hA ( T2 − T∞ )
L T1
KA
T1 − T2 Q Q
= 7.85 + 0.08 ( T2 − T∞ )  ( T2 − T∞ )
L
K
1400 − T2
= 7.85 + 0.08 ( T2 − 40 )  ( T2 − 40 )
0.2
L
1.35
7.85T2 − 314 + 0.08 ( T2 − 40 )
2
9450 − 6.75T=
2

= 7.85T2 − 314 + 0.08T22 − 80T2 + 1600

0.08T22 + 8.2T2 − 9636 =
0
T2 = 299.57o C
T − T2 1400 − 299.57
Heat transfer rate
= Q= 1 = 7427.88W
L 0.2
KA 1.35 × 1
35. The wall of a house in a cold region consists of three layers, an outer brick work 20cm
thick, an inner wooden panel 1.4cm thick and an intermediate layer made of an insulating
material 10cm thick. The inside and outside temperatures of the composite wall are 28o C
and -12°C respectively. The thermal conductivity of brick and wood are 0.7W/m/K and
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 89

0.18 W/mK respectively. If the layer of insulation has a thermal conductivity of 0.023W/
mK, find i) The heat loss per unit area of the wall ii) Overall heat transfer coefficient.
 (VTU Dec 2016 / Jan 2017)
Data : L1 = 0.014m, L2 = 0.1m, L3 = 0.2m, T4 = –12 C, T1 = 28 C, K3 = 0.7 W/mK,
o o

K2 = 0.023 W/mK, K1 = 0.18 W/mK, Q = ?, U = ?

Wood Insulation Brick
T1

T2 Q
1 2 3
T3

T4

L1 L2 L3

T1 T2 T3 T4
Q Q
Rt1 Rt2 Rt3
L1 0.014
R t1
= = = 0.078 K / W
K1A 0.18 × 1
L2 0.1
R t2
= = = 4.35 K / W
K 2 A 0.023 × 1
L3 0.2
R t3
= = = 0.286 K / W
K 3 A 0.7 × 1
ΣR t = R t1 + R t 2 + R t3
= 0.078 + 4.35 + 0.286 = 4.714 K / W
T1 − T4 28 − ( −12 )
Heat=
loss Q = = 8.49W
ΣR f 4.714
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Q UADT
=
8.49 = U × 1 × ( 28 − ( −12 ) )
U = 0.212W / m 2 K
90 Heat Transfer

Problems on Cylindrical Wall

1. Derive the following expression for loss of heat from a lagged pipe per square m of metal
surface per degree difference between the metal and lagging surface.
q = K/(r loge R/r)
Data: We know that for a hallow cylinder
T − T2
Q= 1
r
log e 2
r1
2π KL
T1 − T2 T1 − T2 r
or= Q = T1
r r
r log e 2 r log e 2 R
r r T2
1 1
2 π Kr L KA
Where A = 2π rL
Q K ( T1 − T2 )
= − − − (1)
A r
r log e 2
r1
Q
But = q= Heat flux,
A
T2 1o C,=
T1 −= r1 r and=
r2 R
Therefore, equation (1) becomes
K ×1
q=
R
r log e
r
K
q=
R
r log e
r
2. A steam pipe 10cm outside dia is covered with two layers of insulation each having a
thickness of 2.5cm. The average thermal conductivity of one material is 3 times that of
other and the surface temperature of the insulated pipe are fixed. Examine the position
of better insulating layer relative to the steam pipe if heat dissipation from steam is to be
minimum. What percentage saving in heat dissipation results from that arrangement.
Data: r1 0.05m,
= = r2 0.075m,
= r3 0.1m
Case ( i ) : Better insulator is placed inside i.e., next to the steam pipe
K1 K,
= = K 2 3K
Total thermal resistance
ΣR t = R t1 + R t 2
r2 r
log e
log e 3
r1 r2
= +
2 π K1 L 2 π K 2 L
 K1 K,
= = K 2 3K
Total thermal resistance
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 91
ΣR t = R t1 + R t 2
r2 r
log e
log e 3
r1 r2
= + Q1
2 π K1 L 2 π K 2 L r3
r2 r r2
log e
log e 3 r1
r1 r2 K 3K
= +
2π KL 2π 3KL
 r 
 log e 3 
1 r r2 Q Q
= log e 2 + 
2π KL  r1 3  Rt1 Rt2
 
 0.1 
log e
1  0.075 0.075 
= log e + 
2π KL  0.05 3 
 
0.2506
ΣR t =
π KL
Heat dissipation
DT
DT 0.2506
=Q1 =
ΣR t πKL
Q1 = 3.99 πKL DT
Case ( ii ) : When better insulation is outside
=K1 3K,
= K2 K
Total thermal resistance
ΣR t = R t1 + R t 2
r2 r Q2
log e
log e 3 r3
r1 r2 r2
= +
2 π K1 L 2 π K 2 L r1
3K K
0.075 0.1
log e log e
= 0.05 + 0.075
2π 3KL 2π KL Q Q
0.2114
ΣR t = Rt1 Rt2
π KL
DT
DT
Heat dissipation=Q 2 = 0.2114
ΣR t π KL
Q=
2 4.7303π KL DT
Position of Better insulating layer
Q 3.99 πKL DT
 Heat dissipation=
Q2 =
ΣR t πDKL
T
DT 0.2114
Q= 4.7303
Heat dissipation
2 Q2 π =
= KL DT
92 ΣR t π KL Heat Transfer
Position of Better insulating layer
Q=2 4.7303π KL DT
Q1 3.99 πKL DT
=
Position of Better insulating layer
Q 2 4.7303 πKL DT
Q 3.99 πKL DT
Q11 = 0.843
Q =
Q 2 4.7303
21 πKL DT
Saving
Heat inQheat
dissipation
1 0.843
= dissipation
is small when the material with low thermal conductivity (better insulator)
is placed Qnext
2Q − to 1the steam pipe.
Q 4.7303 πKL DT − 3.99 π KL DT
= 2 1
× 100
= × 100
Saving in heatQdissipation 3.99 π KL DT
1
Q 2 − Q1 4.7303 πKL DT − 3.99 π KL DT
== 18.55% × 100
= × 100
Q1 3.99 π KL DT
= 18.55%
3. A 30mm outside diameter steam pipe is to be covered with two layers of insulation each
having a thickness of 25mm. The average thermal conductivity of one material is five
times that of the other. Determine the percentage decrease in heat transfer if better
insulating material is next to the pipe than when it forms the outer layer. Assume that the
outside and inside surface temperature of the composite insulation are fixed.
VTU June - 2008
0.03
Data: d1 =0.03m, r1 = =0.015m, r2 =0.015 + 0.025 =0.04m, r3 =0.04 + 0.025 =0.065m
2
Case ( i ) : Better insulator is placed inside i.e., next to the steam pipe
K1 K,
= = K 2 5K
Total thermal resistance
ΣR t = R t1 + R t 2
r2 r r3
log e
log e 3 r2
r1 r2 r1
= + K 5K
2 π K1 L 2 π K 2 L
0.04 0.065
log e log e
= 0.015 + 0.04
2π KL 2π 5KL
1
= [0.9808 + 0.0971]
2π KL
1.078 0.5389
= =
2π KL πKL
DT DT
Heat dissipation Q1 = = = 1.859π KL DT
ΣR t 0.5389
πKL
Case ( ii ) : When better insulation is ouside
ΣR t = R t1 + R t 2
r2 r3
log e log e
r1 r2
= +
 ΣR t 0.5389
πKL
Case ( ii ) : When better insulation is ouside
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 93
ΣR t = R t1 + R t 2
r2 r
log e
log e 3
r1 r2
= +
2 π K1 L 2 π K 2 L
r2 r3
0.04 0.065
log e log e r1
= 0.015 + 0.04 5K
K
2π × 5 KL 2π KL
1
= [0.1962 + 0.486]
2π KL
0.682 0.3409
= =
2π KL π KL
DT DT
Heat dissipatition Q 2 = = = 2.93 π KL DT
ΣR t 0.3409
π KL
Percentage decrease in heat transfer
Q 2 − Q1 2.93πK L DT − 1.859π KL DT
= × 100
= × 100
Q1 1.859π KL DT
= 57.61%

4. Saturated steam at 110oC flows inside a copper pipe (K = 450W/mK) having an internal
and external diameter of 10 and 12cm. The surface resistance on the steam side is 1200W/
m2K and that on the outside surface of pipe is 18W/m2K. Determine the heat lost from
the pipe if it is located in space at 25oC. How this heat loss would be affected if the pipe is
lagged with 5cm thick insulation of K = 0.22W/mK.
10 12
Data: T
=i 110o C, K = 450W / mK, = r1 = 5cm, = r2 = 6cm, T= 0 25o C, h=
i 1200W / m 2 K
2 2
Thickness of insulation
= 5cm, = h o 18W / m 2 K,
= K insu 0.22W / mK
Case ( i ) : When pipe is not insulated
ΣR t = R ci + R t + R co
To, ho
r
log e 2
1 r1 1 Ti, hi
= = +
2π r1L h i 2π K1L 2rπ r3 Lh o
1
0.06
log e r2
1 0.05 + 1
= +
2π × 0.05 × 1 × 2000 2π × 450 × 1 2π × 0.06 × 18
ΣR t =0.147 o C / W
Rci Rt Rco
Q Q
Ti − To
Heat loss Q1 =
ΣR tTi T1 T2 To
110 − 25
=Q1 = 578W / m [ L 1m]
=
0.147
Case ( ii ) : When pipe is insulated
 T
=i 110o C, K
= 450W / mK, =
r1 = 5cm, = r2 = 6cm, T= 0 25o C, h=
i 1200W / m 2 K
2 2
Thickness of insulation
= 5cm, =h o 18W / m 2 K,
= K insu 0.22W / mK
94 Heat Transfer
Case ( i ) : When pipe is not insulated
ΣR t = R ci + R t + R co
r2
log e
1 r1 1
= + +
2π r1L h i 2π K1L 2π r3 Lh o
0.06
log e
1 0.05 + 1
= +
2π × 0.05 × 1 × 1200 102π × 450 × 1 12 2π × 0.06 × 18
T
=i 110o C, K = 450W / mK, = r1 = 5cm, = r2 = 6cm, T= 0 25o C, h=
i 1200W / m 2 K
ΣR t = o
0.147 C / W 2 2
Thickness of insulation
= 5cm, = h o 18W / m 2 K, = K insu 0.22W / mK
Ti − To
Heat loss Q
Case ( i ) : When=
Σpipe
R t is not insulated
1

ΣR t = 110R ci −+25
R t + R co
= Q1 = 578W / m =
r2
[ L 1m]
0.147 log e
Case ( ii ) : When pipe 1 is insulated r1 1
= + +
r3 = 6 +25π=r111cm
L h i =20.11m
π K1L 2π r3 Lh o
To, ho
ΣR t = R ci + R t1 + R t 2 + R co log 0.06
1 e 1
= r2 + T , rh0.05 +
2π × 0.05 × 1log× 12e 00 r 2log 3
π ×ie 450i ×1 2π × 0.06 × 18
1 o r1 1 r2 1
ΣR t = = 0.147 C /+W +
2π r L h 2π K L 2π K L 2π r L hr
+
1 i 1 2 2 3 o
T − To r3
0.06 0.11
Heat loss Q1 = i log e log e
ΣR t 1 0.05 + 0.06 + 1
= +
2Rπci×
110 − 0.05
25 × 1 × 1200 R 2π × 450 × 1Rt22π × 0.22 × 1Rco2π × 0.11 × 1 × 18
= QQ
ΣR t =
1 =
518 o
C/ W
578W / mt1 = [ L 1m] Q
0.147
Ti T1 T2 T3 To
Case ( ii ) : When Ti pipe
− To is insulated
Heat loss Q 2 =
r3 = 6 + 5Σ=R11cmt = 0.11m
ΣR t = R110 − 25
ci + R t1 +164WR t 2 + /Rmco
= =
0.518 r r
Reduction in heat loss log e 2 log e 3
1 r1 r2 1
Q1= − 2Qπ2 r L h + 2π K L + 2π K L + 2π r L h
= 1 100
× i 1 2 3 o
Q1 0.06 0.11
log e log e
578 − 164 1 0.05 + 0.06 + 1
= = × 100 +
578
2π × 0.05 × 1 × 1200 2π × 450 × 1 2π × 0.22 × 1 2π × 0.11 × 1 × 18
= 71.6%
ΣR t = 518o C / W
Ti − To
Heat loss Q 2 =
ΣR t
110 − 25
= = 164W / m
0.518
Reduction in heat loss
Q1 − Q 2
= × 100
Q1
 Ti − To
Heat loss Q 2 =
ΣR t
One Dimensional 110
Steady − 25Heat Conduction
State 95
= = 164W / m
0.518
% Reduction in heat loss
Q1 − Q 2
= × 100
Q1
578 − 164
= × 100
578
= 71.6%
5. The shell of an experimental boiler water reactor has inside radius of 1m, length 1.25m
and 10cm wall thickness. The shell is made from alloy steel and concrete wall 50cm thick
surrounds it. The thermal conductivities of alloy steel and concrete are 22.5W/mK and
1.12W/mK. The reactor operates at a power level of 6kW of which 4% is lost in heat
transfer through shell. If the inside water is 150oC, workout the interface temperature
(temperature on inside and outside of concrete covering). Neglect any resistance to heat
flow between water and steel.
Data: r111 =
1m, r222 =+
1 0.1 =1.1m, L = 1.25m, r333 =
1.1 + 0.5 = 1.6m, Q = 4% of 6000 =240W,
ooo
=K111 22.5W / mK,= K 222 1.12W / mK,=
T111 150 C,= T222 ?,=T333 ?, =
R cicici 0
Thermal Resistances
ete
r o ncr l Q
log eee 222 log eee 1.1 C tee
S
r111 1.0
For steel
= R t1t1t1 =
2π K111L 2π × 22.5 × 1.25
T1
R t1t1t1 5.396 × 10−−−4o
= 4o C / W
4o
r1 T2
T3
r 1.6 r2
log eee 333 K1
r222 log eee K2
Concrete = R ttt222 = 1.1
r3
2π K 222L 2π × 1.12 × 1.25
−4o
R= ttt222 426 × 10−−4o 4o
C/W
ΣR ttt = R t1t1t1 + R ttt222 = 5.396 × 10−−−444 + 426 × 10−−−444
−4o
4o
= 431.39 × 10−−4o C/W
Now, Heat loss through the structure
T111 − T333 150 − T333
= Q = , 240
ΣR ttt 431.39 × 10−−−444
T333 = 139.65ooo C
Interface Temperature
T1 − T2 150 − T222
Q = 11 22 ⇒ 240 =
R t1t1t1 5.39 × 10−−−444
T222 = 149.87 ooo C
96 Heat Transfer

6. A steam main 75mm inside diameter and 90mm outside diameter is logged with two
successive layers of insulation. The layer in contact with the pipe is 38mm asbestos and the
asbestos layer is covered with 25mm thick magnesia insulation. The surface coefficients
for inside and outside surfaces are 227W/m2K and 6.8W/m2K respectively. If the steam
temperature is 375oC and the ambient temperature is 35oC, calculate the steady state
heat loss for 60m length of pipe. Also workout the overall heat transfer coefficient based
on inside and outside surfaces of the lagged steam main. Thermal conductivities of pipe
material 45W/mK, asbestos 0.14W/mK and magnesia 0.07W/mK.
Data Ti = 375o C, To = 35o C, r1 = 0.0375m, r2 = 0.045m, r3 = 0.045 + 0.038 = 0.083m,
r4 = 0.083 + 0.025 = 0.108m, L = 60m, h i = 227W / m 2 K, h o = 6.8W / m 2 K,
K1 45W / mK,=
= K 2 0.14W / mK,=
K 3 0.07W / mK,
= Q ?,=
U i ?,=
Uo ?
Total thermal resistance
Magn
ΣR t = R ci + R t1 + R t 2 + R t3 + R co esia
Asbe To, ho
r2 (3) r3 r4 stos
log e log e
(2) logPe ipe
1 r1 r2 r3 1
= + + (1) + +
2π r1L h i 2π K1L 2π K 2 L 2π K 3 L 2π r4 L h o
T, h
0.045i i 0.083 0.108
log e log e log e
1
= + r 0.035 + 0.045 + 0.085
2π × 0.0375 × 60 × 227 2π1× 45 × 60 2π × 0.14 × 60 2π × 0.07 × 60
r2
1
+
2π × 0.108 r
o o r × 60 ×46.8
Ti ==375 C, T −4= 35 C, r =
3.12 × 10o + 1.48 × 10 1
−50.0375m, 3r = 0.045m,
+ 0.0116 +29.075 × 10−3 r+3 3.61 = 0.045
× 10+−30.038 = 0.083m,
r = 0.083 + 0.025 = 0.108m, L = 60m, h i = 227W / m 2 K, h o = 6.8W / m 2 K,
Σ4R t = 0.0246 o C / W
=K1 45W / mK,= K 2 0.14W / mK,= K 3 0.07W / mK, = Q ?,= U i ?,= Uo ?
Ti − To 375 − 35
Heat
Totallossthermal= Q =
resistance = 13813.4W
ΣR t 0.0246
ΣR t = R ci + R t1 + R t 2 + R t3 + R co
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
r r r
Based on outer arealog e 2 log e 3 log e 4
1 r1 r2 r3 1
= Q+ +
Q + +
13813.4
= 2U
πor1L h= 2 π K1 L = 2π K 2 L 2π K 3 L 2π r4 L h o
A o DT 2π r4 L DT 2π × 0.108 × 60 × ( 375 − 35)
i

0.045 0.083 0.108

log e log e log e
U o = 0.9952W1 / m2 K 0.035 0.045 0.085
= + + +
Based on 2πinside
× 0.0375area× 60 × 227 2π × 45 × 60 2π × 0.14 × 60 2π × 0.07 × 60
Q Q 1 13813.4
= Ui = = +
2 π × 0.108 × 60 × 6.8
A i DT 2π r1L ( Ti − To ) 2π × 0.0375 × 60 ( 375 − 35)
= 3.12 × 10−4 + 1.48 ×2 10−5 + 0.0116 + 9.075 × 10−3 + 3.61 × 10−3
U i = 2.87W / m K
ΣR t = 0.0246 o C / W
Ti − To 375 − 35
Heat loss =Q = = 13813.4W
ΣR t 0.0246
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Based on outer area
 +
2π × 0.108 × 60 × 6.8
−4 −5
= 3.12 × 10 + 1.48 × 10 + 0.0116 + 9.075 × 10−3 + 3.61 × 10−3
One Dimensional Steady
o State Heat Conduction 97
ΣR t =
0.0246 C / W
Ti − To 375 − 35
Heat loss =Q = = 13813.4W
ΣR t 0.0246
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Based on outer area
Q Q 13813.4
= Uo = =
A o DT 2π r4 L DT 2π × 0.108 × 60 × ( 375 − 35)
U o = 0.9952W / m 2 K
Based on inside area
Q Q 13813.4
= Ui = =
A i DT 2π r1L ( Ti − To ) 2π × 0.0375 × 60 ( 375 − 35)
U i = 2.87W / m 2 K

7. A steam pipe is 5cm inside dia and 6.5cm outside dia is insulated with 2.75cm radial
thickness of high temperature insulation having K = 1.1W/mK. The surface heat transfer
coefficient for the inside and outside surfaces are 4650 and 11.5W/m2K. The thermal
conductivity of pipe material is 4.5W/mK. If the steam temperature is 200oC and ambient
temperature is 25oC, determine i) Heat loss per m length of pipe, ii) Temperature at the
interface, iii) Overall heat transfer coefficient. VTU Aug - 2002
o
Data: Ti 200
= = C, K 2 1.1W=
/ mK, K1 4.5W
= / mK, r1 0.025m,
= r2 0.0325m,
r3 = 0.0325 + 0.0275 = 0.06m, h i = 4650W / m 2 K, h o = 11.5W / m 2 K, To = 25o C,
Q ?,=
= T1 ?,=
T2 ?,=
T3 ?, =
U o ?,=
Ui ?
Individual thermal resistance are
tion 1 To, ho
=R ci Inside
= Insula
convection resistance
Pip e
2π r1L × h i
1 Ti, hi T
= 1
T2
2π × 0.025r×
1
1 × 4650 T3
= 1.369 × 10−r32 o C / W
R t1 = Conduction Resistance ofr3pipe Q

r2 0.0325
Ti 200 o
C, K 2 1.1W log e = log
= = r/1 mK, Ke 1 0.025 4.5W = / mK, r1 0.025m,
= r2 0.0325m,
= = = 9.282 × 10−3 o C / W
r3 = 0.0325 + 0.0275 R2ciπ=K0.06m,
1L
h iR
2π =t14650W
4.5 ×1 /m RK,t2 h o = 11.5WR/ com 2 K, To Q
= 25o C,
Q
=Q ?,= TR1 t 2T?,
== T2 ?,=
Conduction T3 T Resistance
?, =U o ?,= UTiinsulation
of ? T3 To
i 1 2
Individual thermal resistance r3 are 0.06
log e log e
r2 0.0325 1
= R= ci Inside
= = convection resistance
= 0.579 o C / W
2π K 2 L 2π × 1.1 × 1 2π r1L × h i
1
R co = Outside convection resistance
=
1 2π × 0.025 ×11 × 4650 o
= = −3 o = 0.231 C / W
π r3 Lh o1.369
2= 2π××10
0.06 ×C1/×W
11.5
R t1 = Conduction Resistance of pipe
 Q ?,=
= T1 ?,=
T2 ?,=
T3 ?, =
U o ?,=
Ui ?
Individual thermal resistance are
98 1 Heat Transfer
= R ci Inside
= convection resistance
2π r1L × h i
1
=
2π × 0.025 × 1 × 4650
= 1.369 × 10−3 o C / W
R t1 = Conduction Resistance of pipe
r
log e 2 log e 0.0325
r1 0.025
= = = 9.28 × 10−3 o C / W
2πK1L 2π 4.5 × 1
R t 2 = Conduction Resistance of insulation
r 0.06
log e 3 log e
r2 0.0325 0.0887 o C / W
= = =
2π K 2 L 2π × 1.1 × 1
R co = Outside convection resistance
1 1
= = = 0.231 o C / W
2π r3 Lh o 2π × 0.06 × 1 × 11.5
Total thermal resistance
ΣR t = R ci + R t1 + R t 2 + R co
= 1.369 × 10−3 + 9.28 × 10−3 + 0.0887 + 0.231
0.3303 o C / W
ΣR t =
( i) Heat loss
Ti − To
Q=
ΣR t
200 − 25
= = 529.73W
0.3303
( )
ii Temperature at the interfaces
Ti − T1 200 − T1
Qci =
Q= ⇒ 529.73 =
R ci 1.369 × 10−3
T1 = 199.27 o C
T1 − T2 199.27 − T2
Q1 =
Q= ⇒ 529.73 =
R t1 9.28 × 10−3
T2 = 194.36o C
T2 − T3 194.36 − T3
Q2 =
Q= ⇒ 529.73 =
R t2 0.579
T3 = 147.37 o C
( iii) Overall heat transfer coefficient
Based on outer area
Q 529.73
=Uo =
A ( T − T ) 2π × 0.06 × 1( 200 − 25)
 Q2 =
Q= ⇒ 529.73 =
R t2 0.579
T3 = 147.37 o C
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 99
( iii) Overall heat transfer coefficient
Based on outer area
Q 529.73
= Uo =
A o ( Ti − To ) 2π × 0.06 × 1( 200 − 25)
= 8.029W / m 2 K
Based on inner area
Q 529.73
= Ui =
A i ( Ti − To ) 2π × 0.025 × 1( 200 − 25)
= 19.27W / m 2 K
8. A 6cm thick insulation is laid on a steam pipe with surface temperature of 240oC and
diameter of 30cm with a contact resistance of 0.02 oC/W. The conductivity of the material
is 0.4W/mK. Under convection conditions to air at 30oC, the convective heat transfer
coefficient reaches a value of 15W/m2K. When wind blows the coefficient of convective
heat transfer reaches a value of 75W/m2K. Determine the heat loss per m length in these
cases, Also find temperature at interfaces, the temperature gradient at the two surfaces
under free convection conditions. Plot the variation of temperature along the radius.
Data:
= m 2 K, T1 240
h o 15W / = = o
C, K 0.4W /=
mK, To 30
= o
C, R tc 0.02o C
= / W, r1 0.15m,
r2 = 0.15 + 0.06 = 0.21m
Case ( i ) : When h o = 15W / m 2 K
Heat loss / m length of the pipe Air
T1 − To i o n T1 − To To, ho
= Q = u l at
R t1 + R tc + R co log Ins r2
e
r 1
r1 1 + R tc +
=h o 15W / = 2
m K, T1 240 = o
C, 2KπK10.4W L /= 2πTro2 L ×30
mK, =h oo C, R tc 0.02o C
= / W, r1 0.15m,
r2
r2 = 0.15 + 0.06 = 0.21m 240 − 30
=
Case ( i ) : When 0.21 2
logheo = 15W / m K
0.15 + 0.02 + 1
Heat loss / m2length of
π × 0.4 × 1 the pipe 2π × 0.21 × 1 × 15
T − T T1 − To
= QQ = 1021.28W
= 1 o /m
R tc + R t + R co r
Case ( ii ) : When h o = 75W / mK log e 2
r1 1
T1 R− tcTo+ 2πKL + 2π r L × h
Q= 2 o
0.21 240 − 30
log e
= 0.15 +0.21 1
0.02 +
log
2π × 0.4 × 1e 2π × 0.211× 1 × 75
0.02 + 0.15 +
Q = 1271.15W 2π × 0.4 × 1 2π × 0.21 × 1 × 15
Q = 1021.28W / m
Case ( ii ) : When h o = 75W / mK
T1 − To
Q=
0.21
log e
0.15 + 1
0.02 +
 0.02 + 0.15 +
2π × 0.4 × 1 2π × 0.21 × 1 × 15
Q = 1021.28W / m
100 Heat Transfer
Case ( ii ) : When h o = 75W / mK
T1 − To
Q=
0.21
log e
0.15 + 1
0.02 +
2π × 0.4 × 1 2π × 0.21 × 1 × 75
Q = 1271.15W
Temperature drop in the contact resistance in case ( i )
DT DT
Q
= ⇒ 1021.28
= T 20.43o C
⇒ D=
R tc 0.02
DT =
T1 − Tinterface =
240 − Tinterface =
20.43
Tinterface = 219.57 o C
Tinterface − T2
Again, Q =
Rt
219.57 − T2
1021.28 =
0.21
log e
0.15
2π × 0.4 × 1
T2 = 82.84o C
Temperature gradient at the inner surface in case ( i )
dT
Q = − KA i
dr r = 0.15

dT
1021.28 = −0.4 × 2π × 0.15 × 1
dr
dT
= −2709o C / m
dr r = 0.15

Temperature gradient at the outside surface

dT
Q = −K Ao
dr r = 0.21

dT
1021.28 = −0.4 × 2π × 0.21 × 1
dr
dT
= −1935o C / m
dr r = 0.21

To plot temperature along the radius

Divide the wall into three parts at the interval of 0.02m so we get
=r1 0.15m,
= r11 0.17m,
= r21 0.19m,
= r2 0.21m
Temperature at r11
DT T − T11
Q
= ⇒ 1021.28
= interface
0.17 0.17
log e log e
0.15 0.15
2π × 0.4 × 1 2π × 0.4 × 1
Tinterface − T11 =
50.86
 dr r = 0.21

To plot temperature along the radius

Divide the wall into three parts at the interval of 0.02m so we get
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 101
= r1 0.15m,
= r11 0.17m,
= r21 0.19m,
= r2 0.21m
Temperature at r11
DT T − T11
Q
= ⇒ 1021.28
= interface
0.17 0.17
log e log e
0.15 0.15
2π × 0.4 × 1 2π × 0.4 × 1
Tinterface − T11 =
50.86
1 1
219.57 − T=
1 50.86 ⇒ T=
1 168.47 o C
Temperature at r21
T11 − T21 167.47 − T21
Q
= ⇒ 1021.28
=
0.19 0.19
log e log e
0.17 0.17
2π × 0.4 × 1 2π × 0.4 × 1
1 o
T2 = 122.27 C
Temperature Plot

219.57

T oC 167.47
122.27 82.84

0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21

Radius,m
9. A composite cylindrical wall is composed of two materials of thermal conductivity KA and
KB. A thin electric resistance heater for which interfacial contact resistance is negligible
separates the two materials. Liquid pumped through the inner tube is at temperature
Ti with the inside surface heat transfer coefficient hi. The outer surface of the composite
wall is exposed to an ambient at the uniform temperature To, with surface heat transfer
coefficient ho. Under steady state conditions, a uniform heat flux of qh is dissipated by the
heater.
i) Sketch the equivalent thermal circuit for the composite wall and express all thermal
resistances in terms of relevant variables.
ii) Obtain an expression that may be used to determine the temperature of heater.
VTUJan - 2006
 102 Heat Transfer

Ans: Ti, hi To, ho

Qi Qo

Heater

KB
KA
ri
r1 ro

Qi Rci RtA Qi Qo RtB Rco Qo

Qh
Thermal resistance
1 1
=R ci =
h i A i 2πr1Lh i
r1
log e
ri
R tA =
2πK A L
r0
log e
r1
R tB =
2πK B L
1 1
R co
= =
h o A o 2πro L h o
Expression to determine Temperature of heater Th
Heat generated by the heater
Q=
h Qi + Q o
Th − Ti Th − To
=But Qi = and Qo
R ci + R tA R co + R tB
Th − Ti T − To
∴ Qh
= + h
R ci + R tA R co + R tB
Th − Ti T − To
q h=
× A1 + h
R ci + R tA R co + R tB
Th − Ti Th − To
q h × 2πr1L
= +
r1 ro
log e log e
 Th − Ti T − To
∴ Qh
= + h
R ci + R tA R co + R tB
T −T T −T
One Dimensional
q hSteady
=× A1 Stateh Heat
i Conduction
+ h o 103
R ci + R tA R co + R tB
Th − Ti Th − To
q h × 2πr1L
= +
r ro
log e 1 log e
1 ri 1 r1
+ +
2πri Lh i 2π K A L 2π ro Lh o 2πK B L
Th − Ti Th − To
=qh +
r ro
r1 log e 1 r1 log e
r1 1 ri r1 1 r1
+ +
ri h i KA ro h o KB
The above expression gives the heat flux dissipated by the heater.
Th − To
ro
log e
r1 1
+
Q 2πK B L 2πro L h o
Now, o =
Qi Th − Ti
r
log e 1
1 ri
+
2πri Lh i 2πK A L
 1 1 r1 
 r h + K log e r 
Q o Th − To  i i A i 
= ×
Qi Th − Ti  1 1 r 
 + log e o 
 ro h o K B r1 
The above expression gives temperature of the heater.
10. A steam pipe with internal and external diameters 18cm and 21cm is covered with two
layers of insulation each 30mm thick with thermal conductivities of 0.18W/mK and
0.09W/mK. The difference in temperatures between inside and outside surfaces is 250oC.
Calculate the quantity of heat lost per m length of pipe if its thermal conductivity is 60W/
mK. What is the percentage error if the calculation is carried out considering the pipe as
a plane wall? VTU Jan - 2011 (06)
Data: Di = 0.18m, r1 = 0.09m, D 2 = 0.21m, r2 = 0.105m, r3 = 0.105 + 0.03 = 0.135m,
r4 = 0.135 + 0.03 = 0.165m, K1 = 60W / mK, K 2 = 0.18W / mK, K 3 = 0.09W / mK,
DT = T1 − T4 = 250o C, Q = ?, % error = ?
Case ( i ) : Heat loss in composite cylinder K
K2 3
K1
Total thermal resistance T4
r1 T1 T2 T3
ΣR t =R t1 + R t 2 + R t3
r2 r4
r r r r3
log e 2 log e 3 log e 4
r1 r2 r3
= + +
2 π K1 L 2 π K 2 L 2 π K 3 L
0.105 0.135 0.165
log e log e log e
= 0.09 + 0.105 + 0.135
2π × 60 × 1 2π × 0.18 × 1 2π × 0.09 × 1
−4
 ΣR t =
R t1 + R t 2 + R t3
r2 r r
log e
log e 3 log e 4
104 r1 r2 r3 Heat Transfer
= + +
2 π K1 L 2 π K 2 L 2 π K 3 L
0.105 0.135 0.165
log e log e log e
= 0.09 + 0.105 + 0.135
2π × 60 × 1 2π × 0.18 × 1 2π × 0.09 × 1
= 4.089 × 10−4 + 0.222 + 0.355
= 0.578o C / W
Heat lost / m length
DT 250
Q
= cyl = = 432.58W
ΣR t 0.578
Case ( ii ) : When composite cylinder is considered as a composite plane wall
Log mean area of composite wall is
A − Ai
Am = o
A
log e o
Ai
K1 K2 K3
2πL ( r4 − r1 )
=
r
log e 4
r1
2π × 1( 0.165 − 0.09 ) L1 L2 L3
= (r4 – r3)
0.165 (r2 – r1) (r3 – r2)
log e
0.09
2
A m = 0.778m
Heat lost / m length
DT
Q wall =
ΣR t
DT
=
R t1 + R t 2 + R t3
DT DT × A m
= =
L1 L2 L3 L1 L 2 L3
+ + + +
K1 A m K 2 A m K 3 A m K1 K 2 K 3
250 × 0.778
=
0.015 0.03 0.03
+ +
60 0.18 0.09
194.362
=
0.50025
Q wall = 388.53W
Qcyl − Q wall
% error
= × 100
Qcyl
432.58 − 388.53
= × 100
432.58
= 10.18%
 0.50025
Q wall = 388.53W
Q
cyl −Q
wall
One = % error Steady State ×Heat
Dimensional 100 Conduction 105
Qcyl
432.58 − 388.53
= × 100
432.58
= 10.18%
11. A pipe with outside diameter 20 mm is covered with two insulating materials. The
thickness of each insulating layer is 10 mm. The conductivity of Ist insulating layer is 6
times that of the 2nd insulating layer. Initially insulating layer is placed in the order of 1st
and 2nd layer. Then it is placed in the order of 2nd layer and 1st layer. Calculate percentage
change in heat transfer and increase or decrease. Assume a length of 1m. In both the
arrangement, there is no change in temperature.  [VTU June/July 2016]
Data : L = 1m, K1 = 6K2, K2 = K d1 = 0.02m, r1 = 0.01m, r2 = 0.01 + 0.01 = 0.02m,
r3 = 0.02 + 0.01 = 0.03m
Case (i) : Better insulator is placed inside i.e., next to the pipe
= K1 6K,= K2 K
r
log e 2 log e 0.02
r1 0.01
=R t1 =
2πK 2 L 2πKL
=K1 6K, = K2 K
0.693 0.3465
= = r2 K2 K1
2log
πKL e KLe 0.02
πlog
r1 0.01 r1
=R t1 = r3 0.03 r3
log
2πKe 2 L log 2πe KL
r2 0.02 r2
=R t 2 0.693 = 0.3465
= = 2 π K 1 L 2 π × 6KL
2πKL πKL
0.4055 0.0339
= = r3 0.03
12log
πKLe logπKL
r2 e
0.02
=R = 0.03465 0.0339 Q Q
ΣRt 2 t = 2Rπt1K+1LR t 2 2= π × 6KL +
πKL πKL
0.4055 0.0339 0.3804 Rt1 Rt2
= = =
12πKL πKL πKL
Heat 0.03465 0.0339
Σ R t = transfer
R t1 + Rratet2 = +
DT DT πKL πKL
=Q1 = = 2.628πKLDT
0.3804
ΣR t 0.3804 =
πKL πKL
Heat transfer rate
DT DT
=Q1 = = 2.628πKLDT
ΣR t 0.3804
πKL
Case (ii) : When better insulator is outside
106 Heat Transfer

r
log e 2 log e 0.02
r1 0.01 0.0578
R t1 =
= =
2πK1L 2π × 6KL πKL
r K1 K2
log e 3 log e 0.03
r2 0.02 0.2027 r1
R t2 =
= =
2πK 2 L 2πKL πKL r2
r3
0.0578 0.2027 0.2605
ΣR t = R t1 + R t 2 = + =
πKL πKL πKL
Heat transfer rate
DT DT
Q2 = = = 3.84πKLDT Q Q
ΣR t 0.2605
πKL Rt1 Rt2
Q − Q2
% changein heat transfer rate = 1
Q2
2.628πKLDT − 3.84πKLDT
=
3.84πKLDT
−0.3156 =
= −31.56%
Heat transfer rate is decreased by 31.56%, When the better insulator is placed next to the
pipe.
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 107

Problems on Spherical Wall

1. A hemispherical oven of 60cm internal radius is lagged with 10cm thick fire brick covering,
surrounded by a magnesia layer of thickness 5cm. An electric heater is placed at the
center and under steady state conditions, the inner surface of the oven is maintained at
825oC and the outside unit convective coefficient is 8.75W/m2K. Compute the heat loss
through the oven and the wattage required for the heater filament to be placed inside to
affect the same heat transfer. Also determine the temperature at a point half way through
the fire brick covering. Thermal conductivities of the insulating materials are, fire brick
= 0.315W/mK, magnesia = 0.0525W/mK, the room air temperature is 25oC.
Data: r1 = 0.6m, r2 = 0.6 + 0.1 = 0.7m, r3 = 0.7 + 0.05 = 0.075m, K1 = 0.315W / m o C,
o 2 o
=K 2 0.0525W=
/ mK, T1 825
= C, h o 8.75W / m
= C, T0 25o C
Resistance of fire brick To, ho

=
 r − r1  1
R t1  2 =
( 0.07 − 06 ) 1
× ×
 4πK1r1r2  2 4π × 0.315 × 0.7 × 0.6 2
= 0.03009o C / W r2 K2
r3 K1
Resistance of Magnesia brick r1 T1
 r − r2  1
R t 2  3 Rt1=
( 0.75
Rt2
− 0.7 ) 1
= × × Rco
Q 4πK
r1 = 0.6m, r2 = 0.6 2 r2 r3=0.7m,
+ 0.1 2 4r3π=× 0.7
0.0525 × 0.7
+ 0.05 Q/ m o C,
× 0.75 2K1 = 0.315W
= 0.075m,
=K 2 0.0525W T=1 0.7221
=/ mK,o C T1/ W825= o
C, h o 8.75W / m =2 o
C, T0 25o C T0
Resistance of fireoutside brickair( Hemisphere)

= R co  = r12 − r1  1 1 = ( 0.7 0.6) o C / W1

−0.0323
= R A = ×
h4πKo r r  2 4π4× 2 ×
π 0.75
t1
o 1 1 2 8.75 × × 0.315 × 0.7 × 0.6 2
2 2
= 0.03009o C / W
Total resistance ΣR t = R t1 + R t 2 + R co
Resistance of Magnesia
= 0.03009 brick+( 0.0323
+ 0.07221 Hemisphere)

=
 r3o −Cr/2W 1
= 0.13465
R
( 0.75 − 0.7) 1
t2  4πK r=  × ×
Heat loss from the oven 2 2 r3  2 4π × 0.0525 × 0.7 × 0.75 2
o
=T10.0722
− T0 C 825/W − 25
= Q = = 5945.3W
Resistance of outside
ΣR t air
0.13465
Temperature halfway 1 of fire brick 1
= R co = = 0.0323o C / W
Radius at mid plate A 4π × 0.75 2
h o × ofo fire8.75 brick
× living
2
r − r2 0.6 + 0.7 2
Total= r 1=
resistance Σ R = R= + R 0.65m
+ R
2 t 2 t1 t2 co

0.03009 +of0.the
= resistance
Thermal 07221 0.0323
fire+brick at its mid plane
o
= 0.13465  rC−/r1W  1 0.65 − 0.6
R t mid =  × =
Heat loss from the 4oven
π Kr r 1  2 4 π × 0.315 × 0.65 × 0.6
T1=−0.0162
T0 825 o
C /−W25
= Q = = 5945.3W
ΣR t T − 0.13465
T 825 − T
= Now Q
Temperature =
1
at halfway , of
5941.3
fire brick
R 0.0162
 1 1
=R co = = 0.0323o C / W
Ao 4π × 0.752
ho × 8.75 ×
108 2 2 Heat Transfer
Total resistance ΣR t = R t1 + R t 2 + R co
= 0.03009 + 0.07221 + 0.0323
= 0.13465o C / W
Heat loss from the oven
T1 − T0 825 − 25
= Q = = 5945.3W
ΣR t 0.13465
Temperature at halfway of fire brick
Radius at mid plane of fire brick lining
r + r2 0.6 + 0.7
= r 1= = 0.65m
2 2
Thermal resistance of the fire brick at its mid plane
 r − r1  1 0.65 − 0.6
R t mid 
= =  ×
 4πKr r1  2 4π × 0.315 × 0.65 × 0.6
= 0.0162o C / W
T −T 825 − T
Now, Q = 1 ⇒ 5945.3 =
R t mid 0.0162
T = 728.75o C
2. A 6.5m dia vertical kiln has a hemispherical dome, fabricated from a 25cm thick layer of
chrome brick which has a thermal conductivity of 1.16W/moC. The kiln dome has inside
temperature of 875oC and 20oC atmospheric air results into 11.4W/m2 oC heat transfer
coefficient between the dome and air. Estimate the outside surface temperature of the
dome and the heat loss from the kiln, Compare this heat with that would result from
a flat dome fabricated from the same material and with kiln operating under identical
temperature conditions.
6.5
Data: r1 = =3.25m, r2 =3.25 + 0.25 =3.5m, K =1.16W / m o C, h o =11.4W / m 2 o C,
2
Q
= Q ?,= T2 ?,= T1 875o C,= T0 20o C
To, ho
Case ( i ) : Heat loss from the hemispherical dome T2
Thermal resistances T r1
1
r2 − r1 1 r2
=Rt ×
4πKr1r2 2
3.5 − 3.25 1
= ×
4π × 1.16 × 3.25 × 3.5 2
= 7.54 × 10−4 o C / W
1 1
R co =
=
h o 4π r22 11.4 × 4π × 3.52
2
−3 o
= 1.138 × 10 C / W
ΣR t = R t + R co = 7.54 × 10−4 + 1.138 × 10−3
−3 o
 = 7.54 × 10 C / W
1 1
= R co =
h oState
One Dimensional Steady
2
4π r2Heat11.4 × 4π × 3.52
Conduction 109
2
−3 o
= 1.138 × 10 C / W
ΣR t = R t + R co = 7.54 × 10−4 + 1.138 × 10−3
= 1.894 × 10−3 o C / W
Heat loss from the kiln
T1 − T0 875 − 20
=Q hemi = = 451504.17W
ΣR t 1.894 × 10−3
Outside surface temperature
T1 − T2 875 − T2
Q= ⇒ 451504.17 =
Rt 7.54 × 10−4
T2 = 534.57 o C

Case ( ii ) : Heat loss from a dome with flat top

Thermal resistances
L L To, ho
=Rt =
KA πD 2
K×
4
0.25 Q
=
π × 6.52
1.16 ×
4
= 6.495 × 10−3 o C / W
1 1
=R co =
h o Ao π × 6.52 φ 6.5m
11.4 ×
4
−3 o
= 2.64 × 10 C / W
Heat loss
T1 − T0 875 − 20
= Qflat =
ΣR t 6.495 × 10−3 + 2.64 × 10−3
= 93560.26W
Reduction in heat loss
Q hemi − Qflat
= × 100
Q hemi
451504.17 − 93560.26
= × 100
451504.17
= 79.28%
3. A 600mm outer dia sphere storing liquid is provided with two insulating layers, a high
temperature insulation of conductivity 0.35W/mK and a low temperature insulation of
110 Heat Transfer

thermal conductivity 0.07W/mK. The thickness of the former is 200mm. The temperature
drop across the high temperature insulation is required to be 2.5 times that across the low
temperature insulation. What should be the thickness of the latter? VTUFeb - 2002
Data: r1 = 0.3m, r2 = 0.3 + 0.2 = 0.5m, K1 = 0.35W / mK, K 2 = 0.07W / mK,
T2 2.5 ( T2 − T3 ) , r3 −=
T1 −= r2 ?
For steady state Q
Q1 = Q 2
T1 − T2 T − T3
= 2
r2 − r1 r3 − r2 K1 K2
4πK1r1r2 4πK 2 r2 r3r1 High temperature
2.5 ( T2 − T3 ) r2 r 3T − T insulation
= 2 3
Low temperature
0.5 − 0.3 r3 − 0.5
insulation
4π × 0.35 × 0.3 × 0.5 4π × 0.07 × 0.5 × r3
r1 = 0.3m, r2 = 0.3 + 0.2
0.442r = 0.5m, K1 = 0.35W
3 Rt1 Rt2 / mK, K 2 = 0.07W / mK,
8.25 =Q Q
T1 −=T2 2.5 ( T2r3−−T30.5
) , r3 −= r2 ?
T1 T3
8.25r
For steady 3 − 4.125 =
state 0.442r3
Q 1 = Q32 = 4.125
7.808r
T −4.125
T2 T2 − T3
= r3 1 = = 0.528m
r2 −7.808
r1 r3 − r2
4πK1rof
The thickness 1r2 low4πtemperature
K 2 r2 r3 insulation is r3 − =
r2 0.528 − 0.5
2.5 ( T2 − T3 ) T2 − T3 = 0.028m
= 28mm
=
0.5 − 0.3 r3 − 0.5
4π × 0.35 × 0.3 × 0.5 4π × 0.07 × 0.5 × r3
0.442r3
8.25 =
r3 − 0.5
8.25r3 − 4.125 =
0.442r3
7.808r3 = 4.125
4.125
=r3 = 0.528m
7.808
The thickness of low temperature insulation is r3 − =
r2 0.528 − 0.5
= 0.028m
= 28mm
4. A hollow sphere of inside radius 4cm and outside radius 6cm is electrically heated at
the inner surface at a constant rate 105W/m2. At the outer surface, it dissipates heat by
convection into a fluid at temperature 100oC and a heat transfer coefficient 450W/m2K.
The thermal conductivity of the solid is 20W/mK. Calculate the inner and outer surface
temperature.
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 111

Data: r1 0.04m,
= = r2 0.06m,
= / mK, q 105 W=
K 20W= / m 2 , To 100
= o
C, h o 450W / m 2 K
= T1 ?,=T2 ?
Heat transfer rate Q
Q= q × A i
= 105 × 4π × 0.042
T2 To, ho
= 2010.6279W T1
Now, Thermal resistance are r1
r2 − r1 0.06 − 0.04 r2
= R t1 =
4π × r1r2 4π × 20 × 0.04 × 0.06
=r1 0.04m,
= r2 0.06m,
= =K 20W
0.0331.16 R=/omK, q 105 R
t1 C / W
/ m 2 , To 100
Wc0= = o
C, h o 450W / m 2 K
Q Q
T1 ?,=
= T2 ? 1
= R co = = T1 1 T0.04912
2
o
C / WT0
Heat transfer rate
h o A o 450 × 4π × 0.06 2

q × A i = q × 4πr12
Q =state
For steady
Q Q=
= 10
= 5
1×4Qπ0× 0.042
Q==2010.6
Q0 W
Now, Thermal T resistances
−T are
Q= 1 1
Rr2co− r1 0.06 − 0.04
= R t1 =
4πKr T12r2− 1004π × 20 × 0.04 × 0.06
= 2010.6 = , T2 198.8o C
0.04912= 0.033116o C / W
Again Q = Q1 1 1
= R co = T − T= T −×198.8 2
0.04912o C / W
2010.6
=o = h A o
1 450
2 × 4
1π 0.06
For steady state Rt 0.03316
o
Q
=T1 =Q=
265.47
1 Q0 C
Q = Q0
T2 − T0
Q=
R co
T2 − 100
2010.6
= = , T2 198.8o C
0.04912
Again Q = Q1
T1 − T2 T1 − 198.8
2010.6
= =
Rt 0.03316
T1 = 265.47 o C

5. A hollow spherical form is used to determine the thermal conductivity of material. The
inner diameter is 20cm and the outer diameter is 50cm. A 30W heater is placed inside
and under steady state conditions, the temperature at 15 and 20cm radii were found
112 Heat Transfer

to be 80 and 60oC. Determine the thermal conductivity of the material. Also find the
outside temperature. If the surrounding is at 30oC, determine convection heat transfer
coefficient over the surface. Plot temperature along the radius.
Data:
= r11 0.1m,
= r22 0.15m,
= r33 0.2m,
= T22 80oo C,=
r44 0.25m,= T33 60oo C,=K ?,=
T44 ?,
T00 30oo C,=
= h oo ?,=
Q 30W
Thermal conductivity of the sphere material
T2 − T3 80 − 60
=Q ⇒
= 30 T3
T4
r3 − r2 0.2 − 0.15 T2
T1
4π × r2 r3 4π × K × 0.15 × 0.2 To, ho
r1
K = 0.199W / mK
r2 r r4
Convection heat transfer coefficient 3

T3 − T4 60 − T4
= Q 30
⇒=
r4 − r3 0.25 − 0.2
4πKr3 r4 4π × 0.199 × 0.2 × 0.25
T4 = 48o C
T4 − T0 48 − 30
Now =
Q 30
⇒= 120
1 1
2
4πr4 h o 4π × 0.252 × h o
ToC
2 80
h o = 2.12W / m K
60 48
Temperature plot across the radius of sphere
T1 − T2 T1 − 80
= Q ⇒=30
r2 − r1 0.15 − 0.1
4πKr1r2 4π × 0.199 × 0.1 × 0.15 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
r, m
T1 = 120o C

6. The surface of a spherical container with 0.4m outer dia is at –195oC. Two layers of
insulation each of 2.5cm thickness is added. The thermal conductivities of the materials
are 0.004 and 0.03W/mK. The contact resistances are each 5 × 10–4 m2 oC/W. The outside
is exposed to air at 30oC with a convection coefficient of 16W/m2K. Determine the heat
gain and the temperatures at various surfaces and the drops due to the contact resistance.
Data: r1 = 0.2m, r2 = 0.225m, r3 = 0.25m, K1 = 0.004W / mK, K 2 = 0.03W / mK, T1 = −195o C
R c1 = 5 × 10−4 m 2 o C / W, h o =
R c2 = 16W / m 2 K, T0 =
30o C, T2 =
?, T3 =
?
Thermal resistance
(1) Contact resistance between sphere and I layer
5 × 10−4 5 × 10−4
R c1
= = 2
= 2
9.95 × 10−4 o C / W
4πr1 4 × π × 0.02
( 2 ) Conduction resistance for I layer
r −r 0.225 − 0.2
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 113

To, ho
Q
T3
T1 T2
r T2 K = 0.03W / mK, T = −195o C
r1 = 0.2m, r2 = 0.225m, r3 = 0.25m, 1 K1 = 0.004WT/ mK,
1
1 2 1
1
r
R c1 = 5 × 10−4 m 2 o C / W, h o =
R c2 = 16W
2
/ mr32 K, T0 =
30o C, T2 =
?, T3 =
?
Thermal resistances
(1) Contact resistance between sphere and I layer
QR 5× 10−4
Rc1 Rr1−4
5 × 10 R Rt2 Rco
Q
= c1 = 2
= 2
9.95c2× 10−4 o C / W
T1 4πr1 T 14 × π × 0.2 T T1 T3 T0
1 2 2

( 2 ) Conduction resistance for I layer

r2 − r1 0.225 − 0.2
=R t1 =
4πK1r1r2 4π × 0.004 × 0.2 × 0.225
= 11.05o C / W
( 3) Contact resis tan ce between I and II layer
5 × 10−4 5 × 10−4
R
= c2 = = 7.86 × 10−4 o C / W
4πr22 4π × 0.2252
( 4 ) Conduction resistance for II layer
r3 − r2 0.25 − 0.225
=R t2 =
4πK 2 r2 r3 4π × 0.03 × 0.225 × 0.25
= 1.179o C / W
( 5) Convection resistance at outside
1 1
R co
= = 2
=
2
0.0796o C / W
4πr3 h o 4π × 0.25 × 16
Heat gained by the sphere
T0 − T1 T0 − T1
= Q =
ΣR t R c1 + R t1 + R c2 + R t 2 + R co
30 − ( −195)
=
9.95 × 10 + 11.05 + 7.86 × 10−4 + 1.179 + 0.0796
−4

Q = 18.27W
Temperature at various surfaces and temperature drops at interfaces
Drop in First contact, T11 − T1 = Q × R c1 = 18.27 × 9.95 × 10−4 = 0.0182o C,
T11 =
−195 + 0.0182
= −194.98o C
Drop in I layer, T2 − T11 =Q × R t1 =18.27 × 11.05 =201.88o C
 Drop in First contact, T11 − T1 = Q × R c1 = 18.27 × 9.95 × 10−4 = 0.0182o C,
T11 =
−195 + 0.0182
114 Heat Transfer
= −194.98o C
Drop in I layer, T2 − T11 =Q × R t1 =18.27 × 11.05 =201.88o C
⇒ T2 = −194.98 + 201.88
= 6.99o C
Drop in the second contact, T21 − T2 =Q × R c2
= 18.27 × 7.86 × 10−4 = 0.0144o C
T21 = 7o C
6.99 + 0.0144 =
Drop in the II layer, T3 − T21 =Q × R t 2 =18.27 × 1.179 =21.55o C
= T3 21.55 + 7
T3 = 28.55o C
Drop in outer surface fluid, = T0 − T3 = Q × R co
=18.27 × 0.0796 =1.46o C
T0 = 28.55 + 1.46 = 30o C

7. A 3m inside dia spherical tank made of 20mm thick stainless steel (K = 15W/mK) is used
to store iced water at 0oC. The tank is located in a room whose temperature is 22oC.
The walls of the room are also at 22oC. The outer surface of the tank is black and heat
transfer between the outer surface of the tank and surrounding is by natural convection
and radiation. The convection heat transfer coefficient at the inner and outer surfaces
of the tank are 80 and 10W/m2K respectively. The radiation heat transfer coefficient at
the outer surface of the tank is 5.34W/m2K. Determine i) rate of heat transfer to the iced
water in the tank, ii) The amount of ice that melts during 24 hrs period. Assume latent
heat of ice as 334kJ/kg. VTU June 2008 (06)
Data: r1 =1.5m, r2 =1.5 + 0.02 =1.52m, h i =80W / m 2 K, K =15W / mK, h o =10W / m 2 K,
=T0 22o =
C, h r 5.34W / m 2 K,
= Ti 0o =
C, Q ?,=
mice ?
Thermal contact resistances
To Qconvection
1 1 T2
R ci
= = = T 4.42 × 10−4 o C / W Qradiation
h i A i 80 × 4π × 1.521
r2 − r1 1.52T−i 1.5
=Rt = = 6.98 × 10−4 o C / W
4πKr1r2 4π × 15 × 1.5 × 1.52
r1
1 r12
R
= = = 2.24 × 10−3 o C / W
co
( h c + h r ) A o (10 + 5.34 ) × 4π × 1.522
ΣΡ τ =R ci + R t1 + R co =4.42 × 10−4 + 6.98 × 10−4 + 2.24 × 10−3
= 3.38 × 10−3 o C / W
Rci Rt Rco
Heat transfer rate to the ice
TTi 0 − Ti 22 − 0T1 T2 To
= Q = = −3
6498.65W
ΣR t 3.38 × 10
mice × Lice
Now Q=
24 × 3600
mice × 334 × 103
 2 2
r11 =1.5m, r22 =1.5 + 0.02 =1.52m, h ii =80W / m 2 K, K =15W / mK, h oo =10W / m 2 K,
One Dimensional
oo Steady State Heat 22Conduction
oo 115
=T00 22 = C, h rr 5.34W / m K, = Tii 0 = C, Q ?,= mice
ice
?
Thermal contact resistances
1 1 −4 o
R cici
= = = 22 4.42 × 10−4 o C / W
h ii A ii 80 × 4π × 1.5
r22 − r11 1.52 − 1.5 −5 o
R tt
= = = 4.654 × 10−5 o C / W
4πKr11r22 4π × 15 × 1.5 × 1.52
1 1 −3 o
=
R = = 2.24 × 10−3 o C / W
( h cc + h rr ) Aoo (10 + 5.34) × 4π × 1.5222
co
co

−5 −4 −3
ΣΡ=
ττ R cici + R t1t1 + R=
co
co 4.654 × 10−5 + 6.98 × 10−4 + 2.24 × 10−3
= 2.73 × 10−−33 oo C / W
Heat transfer rate to the ice
T00 − Tii 22 − 0
= Q = = 8047.24W
ΣR tt 2.73 × 10−−33
mice
ice × L ice
Now Q= ice

24 × 3600
m ce × 334 × 1033
8047.24 = iice
24 × 3600
mice
ice = 2081.68kg Mass of ice melted

8. A hollow sphere is made up of steel having thermal conductivity of 45W/moC. It is heated

by means of coil of resistance 100Ω which carries a current of 5A. The coil is located inside
the hollow space at the centre. The outer surface area of the sphere is 0.2m2 and its mass
is 32kg. Assuming the density of the sphere material as 8g/cc, calculate the temperature
difference between the inner and outer surfaces. VTU Jan - 2010 (06)
Data:
= K 45W / m o= C, I 5A,= 2
A o 0.2m= , m 32kg,
= / cc 8000kg / m3 ,
r 8g=
R = 100Ω, T1 − T2 = ?
Heat generated by the coil
= I 2 R= 52 × 100
Q
T2
= 2500W T1
Density of shpere ri
ro
mass
r=
volume
32
8000 =
V
V= 4 × 10−3 m3
Outer surface area =A 0 =4πro2 ⇒ 0.2 =4πro2 ⇒ ro =0.1262m
Volume of shpere ( Hollow )
4
(
V = π ro3 − ri3
3
)
4
4 × 10−3 =π 0.1263 − r13 
3
Outer surface area =A 0 =4πro ⇒ 0.2 =4πro ⇒ ro =0.1262m
Volume of shpere ( Hollow )
4
116
(
V = π ro3 − ri3
3
) Heat Transfer

4
4 × 10−3 =π 0.1263 − r13 
3
ri = 0.1m
T − T2
Q= 1
ro − ri
4πKri ro
T1 − T2
2500 =
0.1262 − 0.1
8.75o C is the temperature difference between inner and the outer surfaces
T1 − T2 =

9. A hollow sphere of pure iron contains a liquid chemical mixture which releases 8000W
heat. Inside diameter of sphere is 120mm and outside diameter is 240mm. Steady state
conditions prevail and outside surface temperature of the sphere is 60oC. Determine the
temperature at a location 30mm from the outside surface of the sphere. Assume material
of sphere has a thermal conductivity of 75W/mK and heat release by the chemical mixture
is constant. VTU June 2008 (98)
Data:
= Q 8000W,
= d1 0.12m,
= r1 0.06m,
= d 2 0.24m,
= r2 0.12m,
= T2 60
= o
C, K 75W / mK,
r = 0.12 − 0.03 = 0.09m, T at 30mm from outside surface = ?
Temperature of the sphere at 30mm from Q its outer surface
T − T2 T − 60
Q= ⇒ 8000=
r2 − r 0.12 − 0.09
4πKr2 r 4π × 75 × 0.12 × 0.09
0.03m

r
T = 83.57 o C r1 T1 T
T2
o
=Q 8000W,= d1 0.12m,
= r1 0.06m,
= r2 r0.12m,
2
= d 2 0.24m,
= T2 60
= C, K 75W / mK,
r1 = 0.06m, r = 0.12 − 0.03 = 0.9m, T at 30mm from outside surface = ?
Temperature of the sphere at 30mm from its outer surface
T − T2 T − 60
Q= ⇒ 8000=
r2 − r 0.12 − 0.09
4πKr2 r 4π × 75 × 0.12 × 0.09
T = 83.57 o C
10. A spherical thin walled metallic container is used to store N2 at –196oC. The container
has diameter of 0.5m and is covered with an evacuated reflective insulation composed
of silica powder. The insulation is 25mm thick and its outer layer is exposed to air at
27oC. The convective heat transfer coefficient on outer surface is 20W/m2 oC. Latent heat
of evaporation of N2 is 2 × 105 J/kg. Density of N2 = 804kg/m3, K for silica powder =
0.0017W/moC. Find out the rate of heat transfer and rate of N2 boil off.
One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction 117

Data: T1 = 0.5
−196o C, T0 = 27 o C, r1 = 0.25m, r2 =
= 0.25 + 0.025 =0.275m, h o = 20W / m 2o C,
2
h fg N 2 = 2 × 105 J / kg, rN2 =804kg / m3 , K = 0.0017W / m o C, Q = ?, m N2 = ?
( i) Heat transfer rate
Air
T0 − T 27 − ( −196)
=Q = T , ho
r2 − r1 1 0.275o− 0.25 1
+ +
4πKr1r2 h o 4πr2 Q4π ×T0.0017
2
1
× 0.25 × 0.275 4π × 0.2752 × 20
Q = 13.1W
r1
( ii) Rate at which N 2 boils Insulation
r2
0.5
T1 = m o × h
−196N2C, Tfg0 N= = Q
o
2 27 C, r = =0.25m, r2 = 0.25 + 0.025 = 20W / m 2o C,
0.275m, h o =
1
2
m N2 ×5 2 × 105 = 13.1 Spherical container
h fg N 2 =2 × 10 J / kg, r N2 =804kg / m 2 , K =0.0017W / m o C, Q =?, m N2 =?
−5
m N2 = 6.55 × 10 kg / s = 0.2358kg / h
( i ) Heat transfer rate
T0 − T 27 − ( −196 )
=Q =
r2 − r1 1 0.275 − 0.25 1
+ +
4πKr1r2 h o 4πr22
4π × 0.0017 × 0.25 × 0.275 4π × 0.2752 × 20
Q = 13.1W
( ii ) Rate at which N 2 boils
m N2 × h fg N 2 =
Q
m N2 × 2 × 105 =13.1
6.55 × 10−5 kg / s =
m N2 = 0.2358kg / h
118 Heat Transfer

ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION

WITH HEAT GENERATION
Steady state heat conduction with heat generation can be found in
i. Fuel rods of nuclear reactor ii. Electrical conductors
iii. Chemical and combustion processes iv. Drying and setting of concrete
The analysis of steady state heat conduction with heat generation involves the design of ther-
mal systems temperature distribution with in the medium and the rate of hear conduction to the
surroundings.
1.14 ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH
PLANE WALL WITH HEAT GENERATION
Consider a plane wall as shown in fig.
Let L = Thickness of the plane wall.
K = Uniform thermal conductivity
T1 & T2 = Temperature maintained at wall surfaces.
Consider an element of thickness dx at a distance x from the origin '0'.
Let Gelement = Heat generated by the element T Plane wall
Heat conducted into element
dT
Q x = − KA dT
Q x = − KA dx
dx Tmax
Heat generated in the element
Heat generated in the element
G element Heat generated / m33 × Volume of element
G element Heat generated / m × Volume of element T1 T2
= q G × A dx
= q G × A dx Qx Q(x+Dx)
Heat conducted out of the element at x + dx
Heat conducted out of the element at x + dx
Q Gelement
Q x += Q x + Q xx dx
Q x +=dx
dx Q x + dx dx
dx
Energy balance gives 0 x L/2 x
Energy balance gives dx
Q x + G element = Q x + dx L
Q x + G element = Q x + dx
d
Q x + q G × A dx = Q x + d Q x dx
Q x + q G × A dx = Q x + dx Q x dx
dx
d  dT 
q G × A dx = d  − KA dT  dx
q G × A dx = dx  − KA dx  dx
dx  dx 
d 22 T
q G = − K d T2
q G = − K dx 2
dx
d 22 T qG
d T2 = − q G
dx 2 = − K
dx K
d 22 T q G
d T2 + q G = 0 ... (1)
dx 2 + K = 0 ... (1)
dx K
Integrating equation (1)
Integrating equation (1)
dT q
dT = − q GG x + C1
dx = − K x + C1
dx K
 d2T q
2
= − G
dx K
d T qsteady
2
One dimensional 119
2
+ G = 0 state
... (heat
1) conduction with heat generation
dx K
Integrating equation (1)
dT q
= − G x + C1
dx K
Again integrating
q x2
T=
− G + C1x + C2 ... ( 2 )
K 2
Case (i) : Both the surfaces have same temperature
Applying boundary conditions
at x = 0 we get T = T1 = Tw
at x = L we get T = T2 = Tw
Substituting above boundary conditions in equation (2)
Tw = 0 + 0 + C2 ⇒ C2 = Tw
−q G L2
and T=
w + C1L + C2
K 2
q L2
= − G + C1L + Tw T(x)
K 2
q L2
C1L = Tw + G − Tw Tw Tw
K 2 qa
q L2
or C1 = G
K 2L
q
or C1 = G L
2K
L/2 L/2
Substituting C1 ,C2 in equation ( 2 )
L
q x 2 qG
T=− G + L.x + Tw
K 2 2K
q
T= G ( L − x ) x + Tw .... ( 3)
2K
The above equation gives temperature distribution through plane wall with heat generation.
Location of maximum temperature
Differentiating equation (3) equating it to zero
dT q G
= ( L − 2x =) 0
dx 2K
qG
Since ≠ 0, we take
2x
L − 2x = 0
L
or x=
2
i.e., Maximum temperature is located at mid plane :
Temperature distribution through the wall is parabolic and symmetrical about the mid plane.
 120 Heat Transfer

Heat transfer rate

dT
We have Q = − KA
dx
d q 
= − KA  G ( L − x ) x + Tw 
dx  2K 
qG
= − KA ( L − 2x ) + 0
2K
q
= Q KA G ( 2x − L )
2K
at x 0=
= or x L
AL
Q= qG
2
When both thesurfaces are considered , then
AL
Q= 2 × qG
2
Q = ALq G

Case (ii) : Both the surface have different temperature

We have
q x2
T= − G + C1x + C2 ... (1)
K 2
Applying boundary conditions T(x)
= at x 0=we get T T1 T1
=at x L=
we get T T2 qG T2
Substituting above boundary conditionsin equation (1)
T1 = 0 + 0 + C2 i.e.,C2 = T1
−q G L2
T=
2 + C1L + T1
K 2 L
q L2
C1L = T2 − T1 + G
K 2
 T2 − T1  q G L
=C1  +
 L  K 2
Substituting C1 and C2 in equation (1)
q x 2  ( T2 − T1 ) q G 
T= − G + + L  x + T1
K 2  L 2K 
q q x2 x
= G Lx − G + ( T2 − T1 ) + T1
2K 2K L
q (T − T ) 
T  G ( L − x ) + 2 1  x + T1
=
 2K L 
 One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 121

Heat transfer rate

We have
dT
Q = − KA
dx
dT q q T −T
But = + G L − G 2x + 2 1
dx 2K 2K L
q L q x T − T 
∴ Q =− KA  G − G + 2 1 
 2K K L 
at x = 0
q L T −T 
Q x = 0 =− KA  G − 0 + 2 1 
 2K L 
q AL KA ( T2 − T1 )
= − G −
2 L

=Q x = 0 KA
=
( T1 − T2 ) q G AL
L 2
q L q L T − T  T − T q L
Qx =L =
− KA  G − G + 2 1  =− KA  2 1 − G 
 2K K L   L 2K 
Case (iii) Plane wall with insulated and convective boundaries
T

T(x)

T∞
h

Q
Insulated
boundary

x
L

Consider a plane wall with insulated and convective boundary conditions as shown in fig.
For a plane wall, we have
q x2
T= − G + C1x + C2 ... (1)
K 2
Applying boundary condition
( i ) at x 0=
= we get Q 0 ( Insulated surface )
dT
i.e., Q=
− KA 0
=
dx x = 0
dT
or =0
dx x =0
 Applying boundary condition
( i ) at x 0=
= we get Q 0 ( Insulated surface )
122 dT Heat Transfer
i.e.,
Q=
− KA 0
=
dx x =0

dT
or =0
dx x =0

( ii ) at x = L we get
dT
− KA ( Tx
=hA= L − T∞ )
dx x =L

dT
−K ( Tx
=h= L − T∞ )
dx x =L

Substituting first boundary condition in equation (1)

dT  q G 2x 
i.e., =− + C1 + 0  =0
dx  K 2  x =0
or C1 = 0
Again, we have
dT q 2x
= − G + C1 + 0
dx K 2
dT q x
or = − G + C1
dx K
dT q L
=− G +0
dx x = L K
dT qG L
= − ... ( 2 )
dx x =L K
at x = L equation (1) become
q L2
Tx = L =− G + C1L + C2
2K
q L2
=− G + 0 + C2
2K
−q G L2
=Tx = L + C2 ... ( 3)
2K
Substituting equation ( 2 ) & ( 3) in second boundary condition
 −q G L   −q G L2  
−K  =  h   + C2  − T∞ 
 K   2K  
2
 qG L  qG L
 h  2K + C2 − T∞
=
 
q L2 q L
or C2 = G + G + T∞
2K K
Substituting C1 &C2 in eqn (1)
−q G 2 q L2 q L
=T x + 0 + G + G + T∞
2K 2K h
qG 2 q L
T
=
2K
( L − x 2 ) + G + T∞
h
 2K K
Substituting C1 &C2 in eqn (1)
2
−q Gsteady
One dimensional q G L conduction
q L 123
= T x 2 + 0state
+ heat + G + T with heat generation
∞
2K 2K h
qG 2 q L
=T
2K
( L − x 2 ) + G + T∞
h
Heat transfer rate
dT d  qG 2 q L 
Q=
− KA
dx
− KA
= 
dT  2K
( L − x 2 ) + G + T∞ 
h 
q
= − KA G ( −2x )
2K
Q = q G Ax
Case (iv) : Plane wall exposed to convection heat flow on both sides

h1
T∞ h,T∞

Q Q
qa

L/2 L/2

O
x
L

Consider a plane wall with same convection boundary conditions on both sides
We have
q x2
T= − G + C1x = C2 ... (1)
2K
Applying boundary conditions
dT
(1)=
at x 0,= 0 (Symmetry about the axis )
dx
( 2 ) at x = L 2 we get
 dT   
− KA   hA T L − T∞ 
=
 dx  x = L  x= 2 
2

Applying first boundary condition to equation (1)

dT −q G 2x
= + C1 + 0
dx 2K
dT
=0 + C1 =0
dx x = 0
i.e., C1 = 0
Using second boundary condition
 dT −q G 2x
= + C1 + 0
dx 2K
dT
124 =0 + C1 =0 Heat Transfer
dx x = 0
i.e., C1 = 0
Using second boundary condition
 
 q x 
2
 q x  
− KA  − G + C1  = hA   − G + C1x + C2  − T∞ 
 K x= L
  2K x= L 
2 2

  q L  
2
 q L 
− K  − G + 0 = h   − G + 0 + C2  − T∞ 
 2K    8K  
qG L q L2
= − G + C2 − T∞
2h 8K
2
q L q L
C2 = G + G + T∞
8K 2h
Substituting C1 and C2 in equation (1)
qG x 2 q L2 q L
T =− + 0 × x + G + G + T∞
2K 8K 2h
qG  L 2
2 qG L
T
=  −x + + T∞
2K  4  2h
For maximum temperature, x = 0
q G L2 q G L
Tmax = + + T∞
8K 2h
Heat transfer rate
dT
Q = − KA
dx
d  q  L2  q L 
= − KA  G  − x 2  + G + T∞ 
dx  2K  4  2h 
q 
=− KA  G ( −2x ) + 0 + 0 
 2K 
KAq G 2x
=Q = q G Ax
2K
1.15 ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH
CYLINDER WITH HEAT GENERATION
Consider a cylindrical rod in which 1 - d radial conduction is taking place.
Let R = Radius of the rod
L = Length of the rod
K = Thermal conductivity
qG = Uniform heat generation
Consider an element at a radius r and thickness dr.
One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 125

Heat conducted into the element

dT
dT − K 2 πrL dT dT
Q
Q rr =
= − KA
− KA dr = = − K 2 πrL dr Tw
dr dr
Heat generated in the element
Heat generated in the element
G
G element == qq G ×
× 22π
πrL × dr
rL × dr
R r
element G dr
Heat
Heat conducted
conducted out out ofof the
the element
element
dd
Q
Q rr ++=
=
dr
dr
Q + dr (( Q
Q rr + Q rr )) dr
dr
dr
By
By energy
energy balancing
balancing
Q
Qr + +G G element =
= Q
Q r + dr
r element r + dr
dd L
Q
Q rr + +G G element
element =+
=+ Q rr dr (( Q
Q Q rr )) dr
dr
dr
dd
G
G element =
= (( Q
Q rr )) dr
dr
element dr
dr
dd  dT
qq G × 2πrL dr=  K2πrL dT  dr
G × 2πrL dr = dr  − − K2πrL dr  dr
dr  dr 
dd 22 T
qq G × 2πrL × dr =−2πrLK T2 × dr
G × 2πrL × dr =−2πrLK dr 2 × dr
dr
dd 22 T
T2 = − q G q G

dr = −K
dr 2 K
dd  dT q
 r. dT  = − q GG r
or
or dT r.
 dr  = − K r ... ((11))
...
dT  dr  K
Integrating equation
Integrating equation 1 ( 1
())
dT
dT = qq G rr 22
r.
r. dr = −
− KG 2 + +C C11
dr K 2
dT
dT = qq G rr C C11
= −
− G +
+
dr
dr K
K 22 rr
Again integrating
Again integrating
qq G rr 22
T
T= = −
− KG × ×4 + +CC11 log
log ee rr =
C
C22
= ... (( 22 ))
...
K 4
Applying
Applying boundary
boundary conditions
conditions
at
at r = R , we get
r = R , we get TT==T Tww
dT
dT
=
= at
at rr 0,
0,=
=we
we get
get dr 00
dr
126 Heat Transfer

Substituting
Substituting above
above conditionsin equation (( 22 ))
conditionsin equation
dT
dT= −qq GG rr + C
− C11 0
dr= K 2 + r=
= 0
dr K 2 r
at
at rr =
= 00
C
C1 0
00 +
+ r1 = = 0
r
C
C1 == 00
1
qq G rr 22
and
and T
Tww = = −
− KG 4 + +CC11 log
log ee rr +
+CC22
K 4
qq G R 2
2
= − G R + 0 + C2
=− K 4 + 0 + C2
K 4
qq G R 2
2
C= T + G R
C= 2
2 Tw + K 4
w
K 4
Substituting
Substituting C1 &C2 in
C 1 &C 2 equation (( 22 ))
in equation
qq G rr 22
qq G R
R2
2
T =− + 0
T =− K 4 + 0 + Tww + K 4
G + T + G

K 4 K 4
qq G
G R 2 − r 2 
2 2
T
T== T
Tww ++ 4K  R − r 
4K
Temperature
Temperature di distribution
stribution in in cylindrical
cylindrical wallis
wallis parabolic
parabolic
For Hollow
For Hollow cylindercylinder
Heat transfer rate through solid cylinder
Boundary
Boundary conditions are
We have conditions are
=
= T
T dT T
T= = 1 at
at rr rr11
Q = − KA  1
= T
T drT T= 2at r rr2
= = 2 atr = Rr 2
Substituting
Substituting above above d  conditionsin qG
conditionsin equation
2 equation

= − K2πRL 2
qq u rr1 dT   T w +
4K
( R − r2 ) 
T
2
r = R
T11 =
= −
− ku 41 + + cc11 log log 22 rr11 ++ cc 22
k 4  qG 
= − Kq 2πrRL
q u r2
2
2  4K ( −2r )r = R 
T  
T22 =
= −
− ku 42 + + cc11 log log ee rr22 +
+ cc 22
k 4  qG 
= 2πΚRL qq u  2 ×22R 
T −T
T11 − T=
=2 u (( rr4K
2 −
2 r1 ) +c1 [ log e r1 − log 2 r2 ]
2 − r1 ) + c1 [ log e r1 − log 2 r2 ]
2
2 4k
4k q
= 4πΚR 2 L G
4K
Q = πR 2 Lq G
One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 127

1.16 ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A

SPHERE WITH HEAT GENERATION
qG Tw

r
R
dr

Consider the dimensional radial steady state heat conduction through a sphere.
Let R = Radius of sphere
K = Thermal conductivity
qG = heat generation per unit volume
Tw = Sphere surface temperature
Consider an element at r of thickness dr
Heat conducted into the element
dT dT
Qr = − KA = − K 4πr 2
dr dr
Heat generated in the element
G eleemnt = q G × A × dr = q G 4πr 2 .dr
Heat conducted out of the element
d
= Q r + ( Q r ) dr
Q r fdr
dr
Balancing the energies
Q r + G element = Q r tdr
d
Q r + q G × 4πr 2 dr= Q r + ( Qr ) dr
dr
d 2 dT 
q G 4πr 2 dr =  − K4πr  dr
dr  dr 
1 d  2 dT  q G
r + = 0
r 2 dr  dr  K
1  2 d2T dT  q
r + 2r  + G = 0
r2  dr
2
dr  K
d 2 T 2 dT q G
+ + = 0
dr 2 r dr K
d 2 T dT dT q G r
r. 2 + + + =0
dr dr dr K
dT  dT  dT q G r
r + + 0
=
dr  dr  dr K
Integrating
 1  2d T dT  q
r + 2r  + G = 0
r2  dr
2
dr  K
128 d 2 T 2 dT q G Heat Transfer
+ + = 0
dr 2 r dr K
d 2 T dT dT q G r
r. 2 + + + =0
dr dr dr K
dT  dT  dT q G r
r + + 0
=
dr  dr  dr K
Integrating
dT q r2
r +T+ G =C1
dr K 2
d q r2
( rT ) + G = C1
dr K 2
Integrating again
q r2 q r3
T= − u + rT + u = c1r + c 2
6k k 6
Applying boundary conditions
Integrating dT
= at ragain
0=we get 0
qG r3 dr
rT=+ at r= CR1=
rwe
+ Cget
2 T Tw
K 6
q r 2 aboveCconditionsin equation (1)
Substituting
T= − G + C1 + 2 .... (1)
6KdT r
=0
Applyingdrboundary
r =0 conditions
c2 = 0 dT
= at r 0= we get 0
q u R 3 dr
and RTrw +R=
at = c1R
= kwe get
6 T Tw
Substituting aboveqconditionsin equation (1)
c=1 Tw + u R 2
dT 6k
=0
dr rc=10 &c 2 in eqn (1)
Substituting
C 2 = q0u r 3  q 
rT + . =  Tw + u R 2  r
k q 6R  3 6k 
and RTw + G = C1R
q 6T + q u R 2 2
T + u rK2 = w
6k q G 2 6k
C= Tw + R
1
qu
T= Tw + 6K ( R 2
− r 2 ) ... ( 2 )
Substituting C1 &C2 in eqn (1)
6k
qG R 2 q 0
T+ + Tw + G R 2 +
6K 6K r
q
T= Tw + G ( R 2 − r 2 ) ... ( 2 )
6K
This is the temperature distribution equation for a sphere which is parabolic in nature.
One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 129

Heat transfer rate

We have
 dT 
Q = − KA  
 dr  r = R
d  q 
= − K4πR 2 Tw + G ( R 2 − r 2 ) 
dr  6K  r =R
q 
= − K4πR 2  G ( −2r ) 
 6K  r =R
q
= K4πR 2 × G R
3K
4 3
Q= πR q G
3
130 Heat Transfer

Problems on steady state heat conduction with heat generation

1. The rate of heat generation in a slab of thickness 160 mm(K=180W/moC) is
1.2×106W/m3. If the temperature of each of the surface of solid is 120o C, determine
i. The temperature at the mid and quarter planes
ii. The heat flow rate and temperature gradients the mid and quarter planes.

Tmax

120oC 120oC

L = 160 mm

Data : L = 0.16m, K = 180 W/mo C, qG = 1.2 x 106 W/m3 , Tw = 120o C, Tmid = ?, Tquarter = ?
Qmid = ?, Qquarter = ?
Temperature at mid and quarter planes :
Temperature distribution at any location for slab is given by
q
T= G ( L − x ) x + Tw
2K
L
at mid plane x =
2
q  LL
∴ Tmic= G  L −  + Tw
2K  22
q G L2 1.2 × 106 0.162
= + T=
w × = 141.33o C
+ 120
2K 4 2 × 180 4
L
At quarter plane x =
4
q  LL
Tquarter = G  L −  + Tw
2K  44
q G 3L2 1.2 × 106 3 × 0.162
Tquarter = × + Tw = × + 120 = 136o C
2K 16 2 × 180 16
Heat flow rate :
at mid plane
0.16
Q x = L = q G Ax= 1.2 × 106 × 1 × = 96000 W / m 2
( 2) 2
(
at quarter plane x = L )
4
0.16
Q x = L = 1.2 × 106 × 1 × = 48000 W / m 2
( 4) 4
 0.16
Q x = L = q G Ax= 1.2 × 106 × 1 × = 96000 W / m 2
( 2) 2
( 4)
One dimensional steady stateLheat conduction with heat generation
at quarter plane x =
131

0.16
Q x = L = 1.2 × 106 × 1 × = 48000 W / m 2
( 4) 4
Temperature gradients
dT
Q = − KA
dx
at x = L
2
 dT 
96000 =−180 × 1 ×  
 dx  x = L 2
 dT 
  = −533.3o C / m
 dx  x = L 2
at x = L
4
 dT 
48000 =−180 × 1 ×  
 dx  x = L 4
 dT  o
  L = −266.67 C
 dx x =
4

2. The temperature on the two surfaces of a 25 mm thick steel plate of K = 48 W/mK

having uniform volumetric heat generation of 30 x 106 W/m3 are 180o C and 120o C.
Neglecting the end effects, determine the following
i. Temperature distribution across the plate
ii. The value and position of the maximum temperature
iii. Flow of heat from each surface of the plate
Data : L = 0.025 m, T1 = 180o C, K = 48W/mK, T2 = 120o C, qG = 30 x 106 W/m3 , T(x) = ?, Tmax
= ?, xmax = ?, Q1 = ?, Q2 = ?.

T(x)
T1
Q1 Q2
T2

x
L

i. Temperature distribution across the plate :

We have
132 Heat Transfer

q T − T    30 × 106 120 − 180  

T  G ( L − x ) +  2 1  x  +=
= T1  ( 0.025 − x ) +    x + 180
 2K  L    2 × 48  0.025  
= [ 7812.5 − 312500x − 2400] x + 180
T =+ 180 5412.5x − 312500 x 2
It is the required temperature distribution equation
ii. Maximum temperature and its position
For maximum, Temperature,
dT
=0
dx
d
dT
(180 + 5412.5x − 312500x 2 ) =
0

5412.5 − 2 × 312500 x = 0
x max= x= 0.00866m or 8.66 mm
180 + 5412.5 × 0.00866 − 312500 × 0.008662 =
Tmax = 203.44o C
iii. Heat flow from each surface
Heat flow rate from first surface (x = 0)
KA ( T − T2 ) q G AL 48 × 1(180 − 120 ) 30 × 106 × 1 × 0.025
Q1 = 1 − = − = −259800 W / m 2
L 2 0.025 2
-ve sign indicates that the heat flow at left face opposite to that of x direction.
Heat flow from second surface (x = L)
Q2 =
( T − T ) K Aq G L
− KA 2 1 +
L 2k

=
( T − T ) Aq G L
− KA 2 1 +
L 2K
(120 − 180 ) + 1× 30 × 106 × 0.025 =
=−48 × 1 490200 W / m 2
0.025 2
3. A plane wave wall of thickness 0.1m and thermal conductivity 25 W/mK having
uniform volumetric heat generation 0.3 MW/m3 is insulated on one side while the other
side is exposed to a fluid at 92o C. The convection heat transfer coefficient between plane
wall and fluid is 500 W/m2 K. Determine the maximum temperature in the plane wall.
Data : L =
0.1m, K = 0.3 × 106 W / m 2 ,T∞ =
25 W / mK,q G = 92o C, h =
500 W / m 2 K,Tmax =
?
For plane with insulated side and convection environment, we have
qG 2 q L
T
=
2K
( L − x 2 ) + G + T∞
h
For maximum temperature
dT d  qG 2 qG L 
= 0 i.e.,
dx 
dT  2K
( L − x 2 ) +=
h
+ T∞  0

q G × 2x
− +0+0= 0
2K
One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 133

Tmax
T(x)

L= 0.1m, K = 25 W / mK,q G = 0.3 × 106 W / m 2 ,T∞ =

92o C, h = 500 W / m 2 K,Tmax =
?
For plane with insulated side and convection environment, weThave
∞
,h
qG 2 q L
T
=
2K
( L − x 2 ) + G + T∞
Insulate
h
For maximum temperature
dT d  qG 2 qG L  x
= 0 i.e.,
dx 
dT  2K
( L − x 2 ) +=
h
L+ T∞  0

q × 2x
− G +0+0= 0
2K
q x
− G = 0
K
or x =0
qG 2 q L
∴ T=
max
2K
( L − 0 ) + G + T∞
h
6
0.3 × 10 0.3 × 106 × 0.1
=
2 × 25
( 0.12 − 0 ) +
500
+ 92

Tmax = 212o C
4. Heat is generated at an interface between two slabs one is of steel (K=47W/mK) having
10cm thickness and other is of brass (K = 82 W/mK) 6 cm thick. The outer surface
temperature of steel and brass are maintained at 100oC and 50oC respectively. Calculate
the heat flux through the outer surface of brass slab and interface temperature assuming
that the contact between two slabs is perfect and the heat generation is 175 x 103 W/m2.
Data
= : K1 47 W /= mK, L1 0.1m,
= K 2 82 W /= mK, L 2 0.06
= m,T1 100 = o
C,T2 50o C
175 × 103 W / m 2 , q 2 =
qG = ?,Ti =
?
We have
q G= q1 + q 2
T1
= K1
[Ti − T1 ] + K
 Ti − T2  Steel Brass
2   K1 K2
L1  L2 
 T − 100  2  Ti − 50  T2
175
= × 103 47  i  + 8  0.06 
 0.1    L1 L2
Ti = 158o C
K 2 [ Ti − T2 ] 82 (158 − 50 )
q2
= = = 147.7 × 103 W / m 2
L2 0.06
134 Heat Transfer

5. An amount of bread in the form of a rectangular block, 25 mm thick is roasted in a

micro wave heating system. The centre temperature of the bread block is 100o C when
surrounding temperature is 30oC. The heat transfer co-efficient between the bread
block and air is 15 W/m2K. The thermal conductivity of bread can be taken as 1 W/mK.
Calculate microwave heating capacity during steady state operation.
Ans.

Tmax
h,T∞ h,T∞

qG

x
L/2 L/2
L

L = 0.025 m,Tmax = 100o C, T∞ = 30o C, h = 15 W/m2 K, qG = ?, K = 1 W/mK

For plane wall with convection heat transfer on both sides.
q G  L2 2 qG L
T
=  −x + + T∞
2K  4  2h
For max.temperature, x = 0
q G L2 q G L
∴ Tmax = + + T∞
8K 2h
q × 0.0252 q G × 0.025
100 = G + + 30
8 ×1 2 × 15
q G = 76800 w / m3
6. A rectangular copper bar 80 mm x 6 mm in cross section (K = 370 W/m2K) is insulated
at top, bottom and left faces. It is observed that when a current of 8000A is passed
through the conductor, the bare face has a constant temperature of 50o C. If the resistivity
of copper is 2 x 10-8 Wm. Calculate
i. The maximum temperature in bar and its location
ii. Temperature at the centre of the bar.
Data : L = 0.006m, T2 = 50o C, K = 370 W/mK, I = 8000 A,S = 2 x 10-8 Wm
Temperature distribution through a plane wall with uniform heat generation
q
T= − G x 2 + C1x + C2 ... (1)
2K
Applying boundary conditions
dT
( i )=
at x 0,= 0 ( Insulated boundary condition )
dx
 q
T= − G x 2 + C1x + C2 ... (1)
One dimensional2K steady state heat conduction with heat generation 135
Applying boundary conditions
dT
( i )=
at x 0,= 0 ( Insulated boundary condition )
dx
d  qG 2 
− x + C1x + C2  = 0
dx  2K 
q G 2x
+ C1 = 0
2K
at x = 0
T2
0+C = 1 0or C=1 0
( ii ) at=
x L,T
= T2
∴ Equation (1) become Insulated
boundary
q G L2 x
T2 =− + 0 + C2 O
2K L
q G L2
C=
2 T1 +
2K
Substituting C1 and C2 in eqn (1)
qG 2 q L2
T =− x + 0 + T2 + G
2K 2K
qG 2
T
=  L − x 2  + T2 ... ( 2 )
2K 
Heat generation rate Q= VI= IR × I
2  SL 
= I= R I2  
 AC 
A C Cross − sectionalarea
=
Heat generation rate / unit volume
 rL 
I2   2 2

qG =
Q  AC  =  1  × S =  8000  −8 6 3
= A    × 2 × 10 = 5.55 × 10 W / m
V AC L  C  0.08 × 0.006 
Maximum temperature at x = 0
qG ( 2 5.55 × 106 [
T=
max L − 0 ) += T2 0.0062 − 0] +=
50 50.27 o C
2K 2 × 376
Temperature at the centre of the bar
L 0.006
i.e., at x= = = 0.003m
2 2
5.55 × 106 [
=Tmid 0.0062 −=0.0032 ] + 50 50.2o C
2 × 376
136 Heat Transfer

6. Two large steel plates at temperature of 150o C and 100o C are separated by a copper
rod (K = 390 W/mK) 300 mm long and 25 mm in diameter. The rod is welded to each
plate. The rod is insulated on its lateral surface so heat can only flow axially. The current
flows through the rod, generating heat energy at the rate of 150 W. Find the maximum
temperature in the rod and heat flux at ends of the rod.
Copper rod Insulated
Steel plate

Steel plate

T1 T2

L = 300 mm
o o
=T1 150= C,T2 100= C, L 0.3m,d
= 0.025m,
= K 390 m /=
mK,Q 150 W,T
= max ?
q1 ?,q
= = 2 ?
Q 150 150
q= = = = 1.018 × 106 W / m3
V π d 2 L π × 0.0252 × 0.3
G

4 4
For specified temperature boundary conditions, we have
q (T − T ) 
T  G [ L − x ] + 2 1  x + T1
=
 2K L 
For maximum temperature
dT
=0
dx
d  qG T −T   
  Lx − x 2  +  2 1  x  + T1  =
0
dx   2K  L   
qG T −T
[ L − 2x ] + 2 1 = 0
2K L
1.018 × 106 100 − 150
[0.3 − 2x ] + = 0
2 × 390 0.3
391.54 − 2610.26x − 166.67 = 0
=x x=
max 0.0896
= m 89.58mm
q  T − T 
Tmax=  G [ L − x max ] +  2 1   x max + T1
 2K  L 
1.018 × 10 6
100 − 150  
= [0.3 − 0.0896] +    0.0896 + 150
 2 × 390  0.3  
Tmax = 159.67 o C
One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 137

Heat flux at ends of the rod

At left end
 dT    qG T −T 
q x =0 =
−K   = −K  ( L − 2x ) + 2 1  
 dx  x = 0   2K L  x = 0
1.018 × 106 100 − 150 
=390  ( 0.3 − 0 ) + =−87698.7 W / m 2
 2 × 390 0.3 
At right end
 dT   1.018 × 106  (100 − 150 ) 
q x = L =− K   =−
 390  ( 0.3 − 2 × 0.3) + 
 dx  x = 2   2 × 390  0.3 
2
= +217822.1W / m
7. An electric current of 40000A flows along a flat plate 15mm thick and 120 mm wide.
The temperature of one surface of the plate is maintained at 100oC and that of other
is 120oC. Find the temperature distribution in the plate and the value and location of
maximum temperature. Also calculate the total amount of heat generated per m depth
of the plate and the heat flow rate from each surface of the plate. The resistivity of steel
is 12 x 10-6 Wm and K = 45 W/mK.

T2

T1

x
L

I =40000A, L =0.015m, b =0.12m,T1 =100o C,T2 =120o C,S =12 × 10−6 Ωm

= H 1,T (=
K 45 W / mK,= x ) ?, X=
max ?,T=
max ?,q
= G ?,q
= 1 ?,q
= 2 ?
For specified temperature boundary conditions

T (=
q (T − T ) 
x )  G ( L − x ) + 2 1  x + T1 ... (1)
 2K L 
Maximum temperature and its location
For maximum temperature
dT
=0
dx
d  q  T − T  
i.e.,   G ( L − x ) +  2 1   x + T1  =
0
dx   2K  2  
 dT
dT = 0
138 Heat Transfer
dx = 0
dx
dd   qq G  T2 − T1    0
i.e., G ( L − x ) +  T2 − T1   x + T  =
i.e., dx   2K ( L − x ) +  2   x + T11  = 0
dx   2K  2   
qq G T2 − T1
G ( L − 2x ) + T2 − T1 = 00
2k ( L − 2x ) + L =
2k L
But
But Heat
Heat generated
generated
2 2  SL
SL 
G
=
=G II=
2R
= R II 2  A 
 A cc 
 SL 
II 22  SL  2
 
A  II  × S
2
G
G=  
A cc =
qq=
=
G
G V = A L =  A  × S
V A cc L  A cc 
2 2
 I 2  40000  2
=  I  × ×=
=S  40000  ×
S
−8
× 12 × 10=
−8 5.926 × 1077 W / m33
=  b XL   0.12 × 0.15  12 × 10= 5.926 × 10 W / m
 b XL   0.12 × 0.15 
5.926 × 10 7
7
∴ 5.926 × 10 (( 0.015 − 22 × xx max )) +
((120
120 − 100 )) =
− 100 00
∴ 22 × 0.015 − × + =
× 45 0.015
max
45 0.015
xx max 0.00851m
=
= = 8.51mm
=
0.00851m 8.51mm
max
Maximum
Maximum temperatureis
temperatureis
 5.926 × 1077  100 − 120  
=Tmax  5.926 × 10 (( 0.015
T 0.015 −
− 0.00851 +  100 − 120   =
0.00851)) + 0.00831 + 120 147.7 oo C
=
= max  2 × 45  0.015   0.00831 + 120 147.7 C
 2 × 45  0.015  
Total heat generated per m depth of plate
G = q G × V = q G × A c × H = 5.926 × 107 × ( 0.015 × 0.12 ) × 1 = 106668 W
Heat transfer rates :
From left face
 dT 
Q x = 0 = − KA  
 dx  x = 0
where A = b × H = 0.12 × 1 = 0.12 m 2
dT q T − T1  5.926 × 107 100 − 120
=  G ( L − 2x ) + 2 =
 ( 0.015 − 0 ) + = 8543.33 o C / m
dx x = 0  2K L  x =0 2 × 45 0.015
Q x =0 =−45 × 0.12 × 8543.33 =−46134 W
Heat transfer from right face
 dT 
Q x = L = − KA  
 dx  x = L
 dT  5.926 × 10 7
(100 − 120 ) =−11226.67 o C / m
  = [0.015 − 2 × 0.015] +
 dx  x = L 2 × 45 0.015
Q x = L =−45 × 0.12 × ( −11226.67 ) =60624 W
One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 139

8. Heat generation rate in a plane wall insulated at its left face and maintained at a
uniform temperature is given by qG (x) = qG e-gx W/m3 . Where qG and g are constant and
x is measured from left face.
Develop an expression for temperature distribution in the plane wall and deduce the
expression for temperature of the insulated surface.
For plane wall, we have
d2T qG ( x )
+ = 0
dx 2 K
d2T qG ( x )
−
dx 2 K
d T −q G e − γx
2
=
dx 2 K
Integrating w.r.t x
dT q e − γx  1 
= − G   + C1
dx K  −γ 
Integrating again
q G  e − γx 
(x)
T=   + C1x + C2 ... (1)
Kγ  −γ 
Applying boundary conditions
dT
at x 0,= 0 [ Insulated ]
( i )=
dx
q e − γ×0  1 
i.e., 0 =− G  −  + C1
K  γ
qG
C1 = +
Kγ
( ii ) at=x L,T
= T2
q G  e − γL  q G
T2
=  + L + C2
Kγ  −γ  Kγ
q  e − γL 
C2 = T2 + G  + L
Kγ  γ 
Substituting C1 and C2 in eqn (1)
q G  e − γx  q G q  e − γL 
T(x)
=  + x + T2 + G  + L
Kγ  −γ  Kγ Kγ  γ 
q G − γL qG
T= (x) e − 1 + [L + x ]
Kγ  Kγ
Temperature at insulated surface
i.e., x = 0
q G − γL q
T=( x =0)
e − 1 + u [ L + 0]

Kγ Kγ
 qG  e  qG q e 
T(x)
=  + x + T2 + G  + L
Kγ  −γ  Kγ Kγ  γ 
q q
T= ( x ) G e− γL − 1 + G [ L + x ]
140 Heat Transfer
Kγ Kγ
Temperature at insulated surface
i.e., x = 0
q G − γL q
T=( x =0) e − 1 + u [ L + 0]
Kγ Kγ
q G − γL q L
T=( x =0)
e − 1 + G
Kγ Kγ
9. A large 3cm thick steel plate of K = 15.1 W/mK is generating heat uniformly at the
rate of 5 x 106 W/m3. Its both surfaces are exposed to convection to an ambient at 30o
C with a heat transfer co-efficient of 600 W/m2 K. Calculate the position of lowest and
highest temperatures and their values.

Tmax
h,T∞ h,T∞

qG

L/2

Data. K = 15.1W/mK, L = 0.03m, qu = 5 x 106 W/m3 , T∞ = 30o C, h = 600 W/m2K,

xmax = ?, xmin = ?, Tmax = ?, Tmin = ?
For plane wall
q x2
T(x) = − G + C1x + C2
2K
dT −q u x
Also= + C1
dx K
Applying boundary conditions
dT
( i )=
At x 0,= 0
dx
qG
i.e.,0 = − × 0 + C1 ⇒ C1 =0
K
L dT  
( ii ) at x == 0.015, − K = h  T L − T∞ 
2 dx  x= 2 
 q x   q x 2

− K  − G + C1  = h  − G + C1x + C2 
 K x= L  2K x= L
2 2

 5 × 10 × 0.015
6
  5 × 10 × 0.0152
6

−15.1  − + 0=
 600 − + 0 + C2 
 15.1   2 × 15.1 
  L ∞ 
2 dx  x=
2 
 qG x   qG x 2 
− K − + C
 Ksteady1 state
One dimensional
= h
heat − + Cwith
conduction 1x + C 2  generation
heat 141
 x= L
2
 2K x= L
2

 5 × 106 × 0.015   5 × 106 × 0.0152 

−15.1  − + 0=
 600 − + 0 + C2 
 15.1   2 × 15.1 
o
C2 = 192.23 C
−q G x 2 −q G x 2 −5 × 106 × x 2
∴T ( x ) = + 0 × x + 192.25 = + 192.25 = + 192.25
2K 2K 2 × 15.1
T(x) = −165562.9 x 2 + 192.25
Position of maximum temperature and its value
For Maximum temperature
dT
= 0 ⇒ 2x ( −165562.9x ) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 ( at the middle of the plate )
dx
Tmax =−165562.9 × 0 + 192.25 =192.25 o C
Position of minimum temperature and its value
L
Minimum temperature occurs at x= = 0.015W
2
2
∴ Tmin =−165562.9 × 0.015 + 192.25 =155o C
10. In a thick infinite slab of thickness 20cm, the temperature of the fluid on one side is
30oC and 20oC on other side. The heat transfer co-efficient on the hot side is 20W/m2K
and on the cold side is 40W/m2 K. The conductivity of slab material is 20W/mK. The
heat generated in the slab at a uniform rate of 5 kW/m3.
i. Derive an expression for temperature distribution in the slab
ii. Find the maximum temperature in the slab and its location
iii. Find the temperature at the centre of the slab and its two surface.
iv. Compute the heat transferred from each surface.

h1,T∞1 h2,T∞2

K
qG

x
L = 0.2m

L = 0.2m, K = 20 W/mK, T∞1 = 20o , h1 = 20 W/m2K, T∞2= 30oC, h2 = 40 W/m2K,

qG = 5 x 103 W/m3, T(x) = ? , Tmax = ?, xmax = ?, Tmid = ?, T1 = ?, T2 = ?, Q1 = ?, Q2 = ?
We have
142 Heat Transfer

d2T qG
+ = 0
dx 2 K
d2T q
2
= − G
dx K
Integrating
dT q
=− G x + C1
dx K
Integrating again
−q G x 2
T ( x=
) + C1x + C 2 ... (1)
2K
Applying boundary conditions
dT
( i ) at x =
0, h1 ( T∞ − Tx =
0)=
−K
dx x =0

  −q x 2

h1 T∞1 −  G + C1x + C 2   = −KC1
  2K   x =0
h1 T∞1 − [ 0 + 0 + C2 ] =−KC1
h1 ( T∞1 − C2 ) =
− KC1
KC1
C2
= + T∞1
h1  dT 
( ii ) at x = L, − K   =− [Tx L T∞ 2 ]
h 2=
dx  x = L
 dT
( ii ) at x = L, − K   =− h [ Tx L T∞ 2 ]
2 2=
− K  −q G L  dx x =qLG L 
 + C1  =−  + C1L + C2 − T∞ 2 
−hK 2   −qKG L   q2K GL
2

 + C 1 =−
 2
+ C1L + C2 − T∞ 2 
h K  Kq L   q2K L KC1
− 2  − G + C1  = − G + C1L + + T∞1 − T∞ 2
hK2  qKL 
 2K
q L 2 h
KC1 1
−  − G + C1  = − G + 2C1L + + T∞1 − T∞ 2
h2 K K K   q a L 2Kq G L h1
C1  + + L = + + T∞ 2 − T∞1
 hK1 hK2  qha 2L q2k GL
2
C1  + + L = + + T∞ 2 − T∞1
 20
h1 h20   h5000 ×2k0.2 5000 × 0.22
C1  + 2
+=0.2  2
+ + 20 − 30
 20
20 40 20  500040× 0.2 5000 2 ××400.22
C1  + +=0.2 + + 20 − 30
1.7C 1 = 25
 20 40+ 5 − 10 40 2 × 40
C1 = 111.76
1.7C = 25 + 5 − 10
C 20 × 11.76
C12 = 11.76
= + 30 41.76
=
20 ×20
11.76
C2
= + 30 41.76
=
20 C1 &C2 in eqn (1)
Substituting
q xC2 &C2 in eqn (1)
Substituting −5 × 103 × x 2
T(x) = − u 1 + 11.76x + 41.76 = + 11.76x + 41.76
q2kx 2
−5 210
× × 20
3
× x 2
T(x) = − u 2+ 11.76x + 41.76 = + 11.76x + 41.76
T(x) = −125x
2k + 11.76x + 41.76 2 × 20
T(x) =
−125x 2 + 11.76x + 41.76
One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 143

Maximum temperature and its location

dT
=0
dx
−2 × 125x + 11.76 + 0 =0
=x 0.04704m
= 47.04 mm
−125 × 0.047042 + 11.76 × 0.04704 + 41.76 =
Tmax = 42.036o C
Temperature at faces of the slab
at left face x = 0
∴ T1 =−125 × 0 + 11.76 × 0 + 41.76 =41.76o C
at right face x = L
−125 × 0.32 + 11.76 × 0.3 + 41.76 =
T2 = 39.11o C
Temperature at centre x = L
2
2
 0.3  0.3
Tmid = −125 ×   + 11.76 × 41.636o C
+ 41.76 =
 2  2
Heat transfer rates at faces
dT
Q= − KA = − KA ( −250x + 11.76 )
dx
at=x 0,Q
= Q1
Q1 =− KA ( 0 + 11.76 ) =20 × 1 × 11.76 =−235.2 W / m 2
at
= x L,Q
= Q2
− KA [ −250 × L + 11.76] =
Q2 = −20 × 1[ −250 × 0.3 + 11.76] =
764.8 W / m 2

11. A nuclear reactor (K = 24.4 W/mK) has a flat plate fuel element 10mm thick. The rate
of heat generation in the fuel element is 40 kW/kg of uranium. The element is cladded in
each face with aluminium (K = 206 W/mK) plate 2mm thick. Calculate the temperature
i. At the outer surface of aluminium plate
ii. At the interface of uranium and aluminium plates
iii. At the centre of the fuel element. Assume that the aluminium plats are exposed to
a coolant at 120oC with heat transfer co-efficient of 25000 W/m2K. Take density of
uranium as 18900 kg/m3.

h, T∞ h, T∞
Fuel ele-
ment
Al Al

LAl L LAl
144 Heat Transfer

=K f 24.4 W
= / mK, L 0.01m,
= K Al 200 W=
/ mK, L Al 0.002 m
q G = 40 × 103 W / kg of fuel, rf = 18900 kg / m3 , h= 25000 W / m 2 K, T∞ = 120o C
Heat generated / m3
q G =40 × 103 × 18900 =7.56 × 108 W / m3
Heat generation in the element willflow on both sides of the plate causing symmetry.
Heat generation rate / m 2 in the half of plate
Lf 0.01
Q = qG × = 7.56 × 108 × = 3.78 × 106 W / m 2
2 2
Q= hA ( Ts − T∞ ) ⇒ 3.78 × 106= 25000 × 1( Ts − 120 )
Ts = 271.2o C
Temperature at theinterface of fuelelement and aluminium
Ti − Ts T − 271.2
=Q ⇒ 3.78 × 106 = i
L AL 0.002
K Al A Al 206 × 1
T1 = 307.9o C
Temperature at centre of fuel plate :
2
Temperature q xdistribution equation
T(x) = − G 2 + C1x + C2
q G2K
x
T(x) = − + C1x + C2
dT q G2K
x
dT = −q x + C1
dx = − GK + C1
dx
Applying K boundary conditions
Applying boundary conditions
dT
((ii=))atatxx 0=
= 0= 0 ( symmeteric
) )
dT
dx 0 ( symmeteric
dx
qqGG ××00 =
=++CC1 1 0 0or=or=
C1C1 0 0
KK
( iiii))atat=x LL2== 0.005m,T
x= 0.005m,T
= =T= T= 307.9
i307.9
o o
C C
2 i

2
qqGG××0.005
0.005+2 0 + C
T =
Tii =− 2K− + 0 +2 C2
2Kf f
7.56 × 108 ×8 0.0052 2
307.9 =− 7.56 × 10 × 0.005 + C2
307.9 = − 2 × 24.4 + C2
o
2 × 24.4
C2 = 695.2 oC
C2 = 695.2 C
7.56 × 108 x 2
∴T ( x ) =− 7.56 × 108 x+2 0 + 695.2
∴T ( x ) = − 2 × 24.4 + 0 + 695.2
T(x) = −15.49 ×210
× 24.4
6 2
x + 695.2
T (xx=)0=
at −15.49 × 106 x 2 + 695.2
atmaxx ==
T 00 + 695.2 =
695.2o C
Tmax = 695.2o C
0 + 695.2 =
One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 145

12. A plane wall is composite of two materials A and B. The wall of material A has a
uniform heat generation of 2.5 x 106 w/m3. Its thermal conducting is 110 W/mK and it is
60mm thick. The wall of material B has no heat generation and its thermal conductivity
is 150W / mK and its thickness is 20mm. The inner surface of material A is well insulated,
while the outer surface of material B is cooled by water stream at 30oC with convection
co-efficient of 1000 W/m2K. For steady state condition
i. Sketch the temperature distribution in the composite wall
ii. Determine the temperature of insulated surface of A and cooled surface of B.
Data : qGA = 2.5 x 106 W/m2, KA = 110 W/m2 K, LA = 0.06 m, qGB = 0, KB = 150 W/mK
LB = 0.02m, T∞ = 30o C, h = 1000 W/m2 K
Temperature distribution in material A
q x2
TA ( x ) =− GA + C1x + C2
2K A
A B
Applying boundary condition for plate A
dT qG = 0 T∞
= at x 0,= 0 ( insulated ) qG KB h
dx
= A ,TA ( x )
at x L= T2 KA
Temperature distribution in material Bis
TB (=
x ) C3 x + C 4 Insulated
boundary
Heat flux in material A
q = 2.5 × 106 × 0.06 = 150 × 103 W / m 2 LA LB x
=q h ( T3 − T∞ )
1000 ( T3 − 30 )
150 × 103 =
T3 = 180o C
K B ( T2 − T3 )
Again q =
LB
150 × ( T2 − 180 )
150 × 103 =
0.02
o
T2 = 200 C
Temperature distribution through material
q x2
TA ( x ) =
− GA + C1x + C2
2K A
dT
at x 0,= 0
=
dx
 q 2x 
i.e.,  − GA + C1 + 0  =
0
 2KA 
∴ C1 = 0
at x L=
= A T T2

q GA L B
T2
= + 0 + C2
2KA
 dx
 q 2x 
i.e.,  − GA + C1 + 0  =
0
146  2KA  Heat Transfer
∴ C1 = 0
at x L=
= A T T2

q GA L B
T2
= + 0 + C2
2KA
q L2 2.5 × 106 × 0.062
C2 =
T2 + GA A =+ 200 240.9
=
2K A 2 × 110
q GA x 2 2.5 × 106 × x 2
∴ TA ( x ) =− + 0 + 240.9 =− + 240.9
2K A 2 × 110
TA ( x ) 11363.64 x 2 + 240.9
=
Inner surface of material A at x = 0
=T1 11363.64 × 0 + 240.9
T1 = 240.9o C
13. A plane wall is a composite of three materials A, B, C. The wall material A has a heat
generation at the rate of 2 x 106 W/m3. The thermal conductivities of A, B, C are 190,150
and 50 W/mK, while their thickness is 50, 30 and 15 mm. The inner surface of material
A is erll isulated, while outer surface of material C is cooled by water at 50o C and h =
2000 W/m2K
i. Sketch the temperature distribution in the composite under steady state conditions.
ii. Determine the temperature of insulated surface and cooled surface.

A B C

h, T∞

Insulated
boundary

L1 L2 L3

Data : qGA = 2 x 106 W/m3 , K1 = 190 W/mK, K2 = 150 W/mK, K3 = 50 W/mK

L1 = 0.05 m, L2 = 0.03m, L3 = 0.015 m, T∞ = 50o C, h = 2000 W/m2K
Temperature distribution in material A
q x2
TA ( x ) =
− GA + C1x + C2
2A
Temperature distribution in material B
TB (=
x ) C3 x + C 4
Temperature distribution through materialC
TC (=
x ) C5 x + C 6
Heat flux in wall A
q= 2 106 × 0.05 =
q GA × L A =× 1 × 105 W / m 2
 TB (=
x ) C3 x + C 4
Temperature distribution through materialC
One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 147
TC (=
x ) C5 x + C 6
Heat flux in wall A
q= 2 106 × 0.05 =
q GA × L A =× 1 × 105 W / m 2
Now
= q h ( T4 − T∞ )
1 × 10
= 5
2000 ( T4 − 50 )
T4 = 100o C
For B &C
T22 − T44 T22 − 100
=q 1 × 1055
⇒=
L 22 L33 0.03 0.015
+ +
K 22 K 33 150 50
T22 = 150oo C
For wall A boundary conditions are
dT
at x 0=
= , 0 ( Insulated )
dx
22
q GA
GA x + C + 0 = 0
11
2A
0 + C11 + 0 = 0 ⇒ C11 = 0
at =
x L= 11 0.05,T= T=22 150oo C
−2 × 1066 × ( 0.05 )2
2

=150 + 0.005 + C 22
2 × 190
C 22 = 163.15oo C
Temperature distribution in wall A
2 × 1066 x 22
TAA ( x )
= + 163.15
2 × 190
TAA ( x ) 5263.15x 22 + 163.15
=
Temperature at theimulated face
i.e.,at x = 0
T( xx == 00) = 163.15oo C
( )

14. The steady state temperature distribution in a 0.3m thick plane wall is given by T(x) =
600 + 2500x – 12000x2. Where T is in oC and x is in m measured from left surface of the
wall. The thermal conductivity of the wall material is 23.5 W/mK.
(a) What are the surface temperature and average temperature of wall?
(b) Calculate the maximum temperature in the wall and its location
(c) Calculate the heat fluxes at its surface.
(d) What is the volumetric rate of heat generation?
148 Heat Transfer

T1 T(x)
qG
KA
T2

0 x
L = 0.3m

Data : T(x) = 600 + 2500x – 12000x2, K = 23.5 W/mK, L = 0.3m, T1 = ?, T2 = ?

Tmax = ?, xmax = ?, q1 = ?, q2 = ? qG = ?
T(x) = 600 + 2500x – 12000x2
Applying boundary condition
(i) at x = 0, T(x) = T1
\ T1 = 600 + 2500 × 0 – 12000 × 0 = 600oC
(i) at x = L = 0.3m, T(x) = T2
\ T2 = 600 + 2500 × 0.3 – 12000 × 0.32 = 270oC
Average temperature of the wall
1 L
Tavg = ∫0 T ( x ) dx
L
1 0.3
=
0.3 ∫0
( 600 + 2500x − 12000x 2 ) dx
0.3
1  2500x 2 x3 
= 600x + − 12000 × 
0.3  2 3 0
1  2500
=
0.3 
600 ( 0.3 − 0 ) +
2
( 0.32 − 0 ) − 12000
3
( 0.3
= 3 
− 0 )  615 o C

Maximum temperature and its location
dT
We have, =0
dx
i.e., 2500 − 2 × 12000x =0
24000x = 2500
= x 0.104m
= x max
Maximum temperature
Tmax =600 + 2500 × 0.104 − 12000 × 0.1042 =730.2o C
Heat fluxes
dT
q= −K − K ( 2500 − 24000x )
=
dx
at
= x 0,=q q1
− K ( 2500 − 24000 × 0 ) =
q1 = −58750 W / m 2
−23.5 × 2500 =
at=
x = L 0.3m,
= q q
 Tmax =600 + 2500 × 0.104 − 12000 × 0.104 =730.2 C
Heat fluxes
dT
One dimensional 149
q= − K steady
=− Kstate heat
( 2500 conduction
− 24000x ) with heat generation
dx
at
= x 0,=q q1
− K ( 2500 − 24000 × 0 ) =
q1 = −58750 W / m 2
−23.5 × 2500 =
at=
x = L 0.3m,
= q q2
−23.5 [ 2500 − 24000 × 0.3] =
∴q2 = 110450 W / m 2
Volumetric heat rate of heat generation
q G = q1 + q 2 = 58750 + 110450 =169200 W / m 2
15. A 2kW resistance heater wire (K = 15 W/mK) has its diameter 4mm and length 0.5m
is used to boil water. If the outer surface of the wire is 105oC, calculate the outer line
temperature of wire.
Q = 2 kW, K = 15 W/mK, d = 4 x 10-3 m, L = 0.5 m, Tw = 105oC, Tc = ?
3 3
Q
Q= 22 × × 10
10= 3 22 ×
× 10
103 9 3
qq=
=
u = π = π = 0.318
= × 10
0.318 × 109 WW // m
m3
u V
V π dd 2 L 2 π × ( 4 × 10−3 ) × 0.5
−3 2
2

44 L 44 × 4 × 10 × 0.5
Temperature
Temperature distribution
distribution through
through solidsolid cylinder
cylinder with
with specified
specified surface
surface temperature
temperature
qq G
G R 2 − r 2 
2 2
T
T= = T
Tww +
+ 4K  R − r 
4K
at
at centre
centre rr == 00
9
0.318
0.318 × × 10
109 0.00222 − 0 
T
Tc =
c = 105 +
105 + 4 × 15 0.002 − 0 
4 × 15
o
T = 126.2
T = 126.2 C
c
oC
c

16. A solid cylinder, 100 mm in diameter generating heat at a uniform rate

7 x 106 W/m3. The thermal conductivity of solid is 190 W/mK and its surface
temperature is maintained at 100oC. Calculate
i. Temperature at the centre of the cylinder
ii. Temperature at the distance 25 mm from the centre
iii. Temperature gradient at 25mm radius
iv. Heat flux at the surface.
d= 100 mm = 0.1m, q G = 7 × 106 W / m3 , K = 100o C, Te =
190 w / mK, Tw = ?,Tr = 0.025 =
?
dT
= ?,q = ?
dr r = 0.025
r =R Tw
For solid cylinder R
q
T= Tw + G  R 2 − r 2  ... (1)
4K
Temperature at the centre of cylinder i.e., at r = 0
qG 7 × 106
( 0.05) = 123o C
2
Tc = Tw +  R 2 − 0  = 100 +
4K 4 × 190
Temperature at r = 0.025m,
7 × 106
Tr =+
100 0.052 − 0.0252  =
117.27 o C
4 × 190
Temperature gradient at r = 0.025m
 Temperature at the centre of cylinder i.e., at r = 0
qG 7 × 106
( 0.05) = 123o C
2
Tc = Tw +  R 2 − 0  = 100 +
150 4K 4 × 190 Heat Transfer
Temperature at r = 0.025m,
7 × 106
Tr =+
100 0.052 − 0.0252  =
117.27 o C
4 × 190 
Temperature gradient at r = 0.025m
Differentiating equation (1)
dT 2q r
= − G
dr 4K
dT −2 × 7 × 106 × 0.025
= = −460.5o C / m
dr r = 0.025 4 × 190
Heat flux at outer surface :
dT 2q r
= − G
dr 4K
at r = R
dT 2 × 7 × 106 × 0.05
= = −921.05o C / m
dr 4 × 190
dT
Heat flux q r − R =− K =−190 × ( −921.05 ) =175 × 103 W / m 2
dr r = R

17. In a nuclear reactor 5 cm diameter cylindrical uranium rod cooled by water from
outside, serves as the fuel. Heat is generated uniformly in the rod at a rate of 7 x 107 W/
m3 . Thermal conductivity of the rod is 29.5 W/mK. If the outer surface temperature of
the rod is 150oC, calculate the temperature at centre.
Data : d = 0.05 m,7 K = 329.5 W/mK,o Tw = 150oC, TC = ?,
q = 7 × 10 W / m , T = 150 C, T = ?
qGG = 7×107 W/m3, TW =w 150oC, TC = c?
For a solid cylinder, R
Temperature distribution Tw
q
T= Tw + G  R 2 − r 2 
4K
Temperature at centre of rod
i.e.,at r = 0
qG 2 7 × 107 × 0.0252
Tc =+
Tw R =
150 + 520.76o C
=
4K 4 × 29.5
18. A long rod of radius 50 cm with thermal conductivity of 10W/mK contains radioactive
material which generates heat uniformly with in the cylinder at a rate of 0.3 x 105 W/
m3. The rod is cooled by convection from its cylindrical surface at T∞ = 50oC with a heat
transfer co-efficient of 60W/m2K. Determine the temperature at the centre and outer
surface of the cylindrical rod.
Data : R = 0.5 m, K = 10 W/mK, qG = 0.3 x 105 W/m3, T∞ = 50o C, h = 60 W/m2K
Temperature distribution through a solid cylinder is
One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 151

q
T= − G r 2 + C1log e r + C2 ... (1)
4K
dT q r C
Also =− G + 1
dr 2K r
Applying boundary conditions
T∞ h
dT R
i.e.,at
=r 0,= 0
dr
q × 0 C1 Tw
0= − a +
2k r
 dT 
at r = R, − K   = [Tr R − T∞ ]
h=
 dr r =R
 q R   q R2 
−K  − G + 0 = h  − G + 0 × log e r + C2 − T∞ 
 2K   4K 
2
qG R q R
= − G − T∞ + C2
2h 4K
q R 2 qG R
C2 = G + + T∞
4K 4K
Substituting C1 &C2 in eqn (1)
qG r 2 q R 2 qG R
T =− +0+ G + + T∞
4K 4K 2h
qG q R
T
=  R 2 − r 2  + G + T∞
4K 2h
Temperature at centre of the cylinder
at r = 0, we get
qG q R
Tc
=  R 2 − 0  + G + T∞
4K 2h
5
0.3 × 10 0.3 × 105
Tc
= × 0.52 + + 50
4 × 10 2 × 60
Tc = 362.5o C
Temperature at the outer surface :
i.e., r = R, we get
qu q R
T=w
 R 2 − R 2  + G + T∞
4K 2h
q R 0.3 × 105 × 0.5
Tw = G + T∞ = + 50
2h 2 × 60
Tw = 175o C
152 Heat Transfer

19. A nichrome wire having resistivity of 110 mWcm is to be used as heating element.
The wire diameter is 2 mm and other design features are current = 25 A. Ambient
temperature = 20o C, K = 17.5 W/mK, h = 46.5 W/m2K
Calculate the heat loss from one metre long heater and also the temperature at the
surface and centre of nichrome wire.
Data : d = 2 × 10−3 m, S = 110 × 10−6 Ωcm = 110 × 10−8 Ωm, I = 25A, K = 17.5 W / mK
2 o
=h 46.5 W / m= K, T∞ 20
= C, L 1m
SL 110 × 10−8 × 1
R
= = = 0.35 Ω T∞ h
A c π × 2 × 10−3 2
4
( ) R
Total heat generated
Tw
Q= G= I 2 R= 252 × 0.3218.83W
Heat generated / m3
G 218.83
q= = = 69.6 × 106 W / m3
V π × 2 × 10−3 2 × 1
G

4
( )
Temperature distribution with convection boundary condition
qG q R
T
=  R 2 − r 2  + G + T∞
4K 2h
at centre,
=r 0and = T Te
69.66 × 106  69.66 × 106
(1 × 10−3 ) − 0  +
2
=Tc × 10−3 + 20 770o C
× 1=
4 × 17.5   2 × 46.15
Temperature at thesurfacei.e.,at r = R
qG q R 69.66 × 106
Tw =  R 2 − R 2  + G + T∞ =0 + + 20 =769o C
4K 2h 2 × 46.5
20. A thin hollow stainless steel tube with inner diameter 7.6 mm and outer diameter 8
mm is heated with a current 250A intensity. The outer surface of the tube is insulated
and all the heat generated in the tube wall is transferred through its inner surface.
The specific resistance and thermal conductivity of steel are 85mWcm and 18.6 W/mK
respectively. Calculate
i. Volumetric rate of heat generation in the tube
ii. Temperature drop across the wall.

r1 Insulated

r2
Steel
One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 153

d1 = 3.8 × 10−3 m, d 2 =
7.6 mm, r1 = 4 × 10−3 m, I =
8mm, r2 = 85 × 10−8 Ωm
250 A, S =
=K 18.6 W / mK,=
q G ?,=
dT ?
Heat generation
SL 2 SL 2502 × 8.5 × 10−8 × L
G =I 2 R =I 2 × =I × = =10.84 × 103 L W / m
Ac π π
4
( d 22 − d12 ) 4 0.0082 − 0.00762 
The volumetric heat generation rate
G 10.84 × 103 L
q= = = 2.211 × 109 W / m3
G
V π
0.0082 − 0.00762  × L
4
The temperature distribution in the tube
q r2
T= − G + C1 log e r + C2
4K
Applying boundary conditions
dT
( i=
) at r r22= , 0 ( Insulated )
dr
 dT  =− q GG 2r + C11 + 0 =0
 dr  4K r
  rr == rr22
q G r2 C1
− G2+ 1=
= 0
2K r22

q GG r222 2.211 × 10 × ( 4 × 10 )
22
2 99 −33
−

C11 = + = 951
=
2K 2 × 18.6
( ii ) at=r r11= T T11
q G r122
T11 =− G 1 + 951 × log ee r11 + C22
4K
2
q G r12
C22 = G 1 − 951× log ee r + T11
4k
2.211 × 1099 × ( 3.8 × 10−−33 )
22

− 951 × log ee ( 3.8 × 10−3 ) + T11

−3
C22 =
4 × 18.6
=
C22 5728.8 + T11
∴ Temperature distribution become
q G r 22
T= − G + 951C11log ee r + 5728.8 + T11
4K
9 2
2.211 × 109 r 2 6 2
= − −29.718 × 106 r 2 + 951 × log ee r + T11
+ 957 c11log ee r + 5728.8 + T11 =
4 × 18.6
Temperature drop across wall :
 154 Heat Transfer

Temperature at outer surface (r = r2) is T2

T2 =−29.718 × 106 r22 + 951log e r2 + T1
−29.718 × 106 × ( 4 × 10−3 ) + 951 × log e ( 4 × 10−3 ) + T1
2
=
or T2 −=
T1 2.40=
o
C Temperature drop
21. A long hollow cylinder has inner and outer radii as 5cm and 15cm respectively. It
generates the heat at the rate of 1kW/m3. The thermal conductivity of cylinder material
is 0.5 W/mK. If the maximum temperature occurs at radius of 10 cm and temperature
of outer surface is 50oC find
i. Temperature at inner surface
ii. Maximum temperature in the cylinder.
Data
=
= : r1r1 0.05m,
0.05m,
== r2r2 0.15m,
0.15m,
== rmax 0.1m,
rmax 0.1m,
== qqGG 1000
1000W
W=
=
3
/ /mm3 , , KK 0.5
0.5W
W/ /mK
mK
=
= 50oo=
TT22 50 C, TT11 ?,?,
=
C, = = TTmax
max ??

Temperaturedistribution
Temperature distributionininthe
thecylinder
cylinder T2
T1
22
qq Grr r1
TT= = −− G ++CC11log loge err++CC22
4K
4K
dTdT qq Grr CC r2
= = −− G ++
dr
dr 2K2K rr
Applying
Applying boundary boundaryconditions
conditions
dT
dT
(=
= (ii))atatrr rmax
r== ,,
max 00
dr
dr
dTdT 1000 1000××0.1 0.1 CC11
= = −− ++ ==00
drdr 22××0.5
0.5 0.1 0.1
C
C11= 10 = 10
((iiii))atatr=r= r2r=2= 0.15m,T
0.15m,T 50ooCC
== 50
0.1522
1000××0.15
1000
50
50 = =−− 10××log
++10 loge e0.15
0.15++CC22
44××0.5
0.5
CC22==80.22
80.22
2
−−qqGGrr2
∴
∴
==TT 10loge err++80.22
++10log 80.22
4K
4K
1000××rr22
1000
T
T= =
−− 10loge err++80.22
++10log 80.22
44××0.50.5
TT== 500r22++10log
−−500r 10loge err++80.22
80.22
at
=
at
= rr r1r= ,T TT11
=
1,T

TT11=
=
−−500 0.0522++10log
500××0.05 10loge e0.05
0.05++80.22
80.22=
=49ooCC
49
Max temperature
One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation 155

2
Tmax =
−500 × rmax + 10log e rmax + 80.22
−500 × 0.12 + 10log e 0.05 + 80.22
=
Tmax = 52.2o C
22. A solid sphere of 10 cm in diameter generates heat at a uniform rate of 5 x 106 W/m3.
The outer surface of the sphere is exposed to an ambient at 50oC with heat transfer co-
efficient of 400 W/m2K. Calculate
i. The maximum temperature in solid and its location
ii. Temperature at the radius of 3 cm.
Data : KK= =39.0W
39.0 W/ /mK,
mK, dd== 0.1m, RR=
0.1m, = 0.05m, qqGG =
0.05m, 1066W
55××10
= W/ /mm22, , TT∞∞ =
=50ooCC
50
=
=hh 400 W/ /mm22K,
400W K, T=Tmax
=max ?? = rmax ?,?, =
=
rmax TTr r 3cm
= 3cm
== ??
Temperaturedistribution
Temperature distributionthrough
throughsphereis
sphereis
2
qq rr2 CC
TT= = −− GG ++CC11++ 22
6K6K rr
Applyingboundary
Applying boundaryconditio
conditio T∞ h
R
dTdT
((i= )atatrr 0,0,=
i)= = 00
dr
dr
dT
dT qq 2r
2r  CC 
i.e., =
i.e., =−− GG ++00++−− 2222==00
drdr 6K
6K  rr 
dTdT
==00++00++CC22==00
drdr r =r =00
CC22==00
((iiii))atatrr==RRwe
weget
get
dT
dT
−−KK  = = [[TTr R−−TT∞∞]]
hh=
dr r =r =RR =r R
dr
−−qq 22RR CC22 −−qqGGRR22 CC 
−−KK×× GG = =
−− 22
hh ++CC11++ 22
 6K 6K  RR  6K 6K RR 

K  qG R   −q G R 2 
 =
 − 0  + C1 + 0  − T∞
h  3K   6K 
R  qG R  qG R
C1
= + + T∞
h  3K  3K
−q G r 2 K  q G R  q G R 2 0
∴
= T +   + + T∞ +
6K h  3K  6K r
qG q R
T
=
6K
( R 2 − r 2 ) + G + T∞
3h
Temperature at the centre
i.e.,at r = 0
qG q R 2 × 106 × 0.052 2 × 106 × 0.05
Tc
=
6K
( R 2 − 0 ) + G +=
3h
T∞
6 × 20
+
3 × 100
400o C
+ 25 =
 −q G r Kq R q R 0
∴
= T +  G + G + T∞ +
6K h  3K  6K r
qG q R
156
=T
6K
( R 2 − r 2 ) + G + T∞
3h
Heat Transfer

Temperature at the centre

i.e.,at r = 0
qG qG R 2 × 106 × 0.052 2 × 106 × 0.05
Tc
=
6K
( R 2
− 0 ) +
3h
+=T∞
6 × 20
+
3 × 100
400o C
+ 25 =

Temperature at thesurface
i.e., at r = R
q q R 2 × 106 × 0.05
Tr R = G  R 2 − R 2  + G + T∞ =0 + + 25 =358.33o C
6K 3h 3 × 100
Steady state heat conduction with variable thermal conductivity 157

STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION WITH VARIABLE

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
1.17 INTRODUCTION
In many applications the thermal conductivity of a solid may vary with temperature rapidly. In
such cases, the temperature difference become so large. For most of the materials, the dependence
of thermal conductivity on temperature is almost linear.
i.e., K = Ko(1 + αT)
Where K = Thermal conductivity of the material at a given temperature
Ko = Thermal conductivity of the material at zero degree temperature
α = Constant, whose value depends on the type of material. It may be positive or
negative depending upon whether thermal conductivity increases or decreases.
1.18 STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION WITH VARIABLE THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY THROUGH A SLAB / PLANE WALL
Consider a plane wall or slab of thickness 'L' as shown in figure. Let T1 and T2 are temperature
at its boundaries
Let the thermal conductivity vary with temperature according to the relation
K = Ko(1 + αT) ---(1)
For variable thermal conductivity, the 1-D conduction equation become
¶ æç ¶T ö÷ ¶T Q
ççèK ÷÷ + q G = rc T1
¶x ¶x ø ¶t
For steady state and without heat generation, the above equation become
d æç dT ö÷ K = f (T)
çK ÷ = 0 T2
dx çè dx ÷ø
From Fourier's equation, we have
L
dT
Q = -KA
dx
Substituting equation (1) in the above expression
dT
Q = -K o (1 +aT ) A
dx
or Q.dx = -K o A (1 +aT ) dT --- (2)
Integrating between the limits 0 to L and T1 to T2
158 Heat Transfer

L T2

Q ò dx = -K o A ò (1 +aT )dT
0 T1
T
L é aT 2 ùú
2

Q [ x ]0 = -K o A êT +
ê 2 úû T
ë 1

é æ aT 2 aT 2 öù
QL = -K o A êê(T2 - T1 ) + çç 2 - 1 ÷÷÷úú
çè 2 2 ÷øû
ë
a
= -K o A (T2 - T1 ) + [(T2 - T1 )(T2 + T1 ) ]
2
é a ù
= -K o A (T2 - T1 ) ê1 + (T2 + T1 )ú
êë 2 úû
= -K m A (T2 - T1 )
= K m A (T1 - T2 )
Where K m = Mean thermal conductivity
é a ù
= K o ê1 + (T1 + T2 )ú
êë 2 úû
(T - T2 )
Now Q = KmA 1
L

Temperature variation in terms of Heat transfer rate

If T is the temperature of the slab at a distance x from the origin, then equation (2) is integrated
between 0 to x and T1 to T
x T

Q ò dx = -K o A ò (1 +aT )dT
0 T1

é a ù
Q [ x ] = -K o A ê(T - T1 ) + (T 2 - T12 )ú
êë 2 úû
é a ù
Qx = K o A ê(T1 - T ) + (T12 - T 2 )ú
êë 2 úû
Qx a
= (T1 - T ) + (T12 - T 2 )
KoA 2
Qx 2T - 2T +aT12 -aT 2
= 1
KoA 2
2Qx
= 2T1 - 2T +aT12 -aT 2
KoA
Steady state heat conduction with variable thermal conductivity 159

Dividing both sides by a

2Qx 2T 2T
= 1- + T12 - T 2
K o Aa a a
2T1 1 1 2T
= + T12 + 2 - 2 - - T2
a a a a
æ1 2T ö æ1 2T ö
= çç 2 + 1 + T12 ÷÷÷ - çç 2 + + T 2 ÷÷÷
çè a a ø èaç a ø
2 2
2Qx æ1 ö æ1 ö
= çç + T12 ÷÷÷ - çç + T 2 ÷÷÷
K o Aa çè a ø èç a ø
2 2
æ1 ö æ1 ö 2Qx
çèçç + Tø÷÷÷ = èççç + T1 ø÷÷÷ -
a a K o Aa
2
1 æ1 ö 2Qx
+T = ççèç + T1 ø÷÷÷ -
a a K o Aa
2
1 æ1 ö 2Qx
T =- + ççèç + T1 ø÷÷÷ -
a a K o Aa

1.19 HOLLOW CYLINDER

K = f (T)

T1 T2
r1
r2
L

Consider a hollow cylinder of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 as shown in figure. Let T1 and T2
are temperatures at inner and outer surfaces of the cylinder.
Let the thermal conductivity vary with temperature according to the relation
K = Ko (1 + αT) ––––––––(1)
Where Ko = Thermal conductivity at zero temperature
1–D conduction equation with variable conductivity in cylindrical co-ordinates is
160 Heat Transfer

1 ¶ æç 2 ¶T ö÷ ¶T
2 ççèr K ÷÷ + q G = rC
r ¶r ¶r ø ¶t
For steady state and without heat generation, the above equation become
1 d  dT 
 rK =0
r dr  dr 
dT
From Fourier 's equation, we have Q = -KA
dr
Substituting equation (1) in the above expression, we get
dT
Q = -K o (1 +aT ) A
dr
dT
Q = -K o (1 +aT ) 2prL
dr
dr
Q = -K o 2pL (1 +aT ) dT ---(2)
r
Integrating between r1 and r2 , T1 and T2
r22 T2
dr
2

Qò =- 2pK o L ò (1 +aT ) dT
r11 r T 1
1

2 T22 T
r22 é aT ùú
Q [log e r ]r1 = -2pK o L ê T +
ê
1
ë 2 úû T
1
1

r é a ù
Q log e 2 =- 2pK o L ê(T2 - T1 ) + (T2 2 - T12 )ú
r1 êë 2 úû
- 2pK o L (T2 - T1 ) é a ù
Q= ê1 + (T2 + T1 )ú
r êë 2 úû
log e 2
r1
2pK m L (T1 - T2 )
Q=
r
log e 2
r1
Where K m = Mean thermal conductivity
é a ù
= K o ê1 + (T1 + T2 )ú
êë 2 úû
= K o [1 +aTm ]
T1 + T2
Tm = = Mean Temperature
2
Steady state heat conduction with variable thermal conductivity 161

Temperature variation in terms of Heat transfer rate

If T is the temperature of the cylinder at a radius r, from the centre, then equation (2) is
integrated from r1 to r and T1 to T.
r T
Q Qdr T dr
r

1 +a-T()1dT
+aT ) dT
Kro L òò r òT
i.e. = -(=
2pK o L2òp
r r1T 1
1 1
T
é r aTéê 2 ù aT 2 ùú
T
Q Q r
[log e r ][log
=- e rê]T + - ê T ú+
=
2pK o L2pK o L r1 ê r1
ë 2ë úû T 2 úû T1
1

Q Q é é a 2 2ù 2 ù
[2plog e r ][=log ] =--T1ê()T+-aT(1T) +
-e ê(rT 2
- T( T)ú - T1 )úú
2pK o L K o L êë êë 2 2 1 úû û
r r
Q log e Q log e
r1 r1 a )+ a 2 2
= (T1 -=T()T+1 - T T12 - T(T 1 -T )
2

2pK o L2pK o L 2
( 2 )
2 2
2T - 2T2T+a
1 - 2T
T12 +a
-aT T12 -aT
= 1 =
2 2
Dividing
Dividing by a onby a on
both both sides
sides
r r
2 Q log2e Q log e
r1 2Tr11 = 2T 1 2 +1 1 -2T1 - 2T - T2
+ T12 ++ T
1 2
= 1- 2- 2- T
2 pK L2apK o La
o
a a a 2
aa aa
2 a
æ 2T æç 2T 1 ö÷ æç 2T
1 ö2 +æç 2T 1Tö÷2 + 1 ÷ö
+ççT12 ++ T21÷÷÷ -
1
= çç 1 = ÷+- T
ç 2
++ ÷ 2÷
èç a è a a ø çèçaa ø÷ çè a a 2 ÷ø a ÷ø
2

2 2
æ1 æö12 æ 1 ÷ö æö21 ö
= çç +=T1ççç÷÷÷ -+ççT1 ÷÷+-Tçç÷÷ + T÷÷÷
çè a èøa çè aø è÷øa ç ø
r log r
Q
æ ö
2
æ Q log
ö
2 e
æ1 ç ö 1 æ 1÷ çö÷1
2 2
÷
e
r r1
çç + Tçç÷ =+ççT÷÷ +=T1çç÷ -
÷ + T1 ÷÷ - 1
èç a è÷øa èç aø èø÷a pK ø LapK o La
o

r log r
Q
æö1 Q log
2
ö r e
1 1 æ1 ç ÷
2
e
r1
+ çT = ÷ + T
+ T = ç + T1çç÷÷ - 1 ÷÷ - 1
a a çè a èøa pK ø LapK o La
o

r log r
Q
æö1 Q log
2
ö÷ r e
æ1
2 e
r1
, T =- 1
T+= -çç 1 + ç ÷ + T
+ T1çç÷÷ - 1 ÷÷ - 1

a çèa
a èøa pK ø LapK o La
o
162 Heat Transfer

1.20 HOLLOW SPHERE

Consider a hollow sphere of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 as shown in figure. Let T1 and
T2 are inner and outer surface temperatures

K = f (T)

r1 T1 T2

r2

Let the thermal conductivity vary with temperature according to the relation
K = Ko (1 + αT)––––––(1)
Where Ko = Thermal conductivity at zero temperature.
1-D conduction equation with variable thermal conductivity in spherical co-ordinates is
1 ¶ æç 2 ¶T ö÷ ¶T
2 ççèr K ÷÷ + q G = rc
r ¶r ¶r ø ¶t
For steady state and without heat generation, the above equation become
1 d æç 2 dT ÷ö
çr K ÷÷ø = 0
r 2 dr çè dr
From Fourier equation, We have
dT
Q = -KA
dr
dT
Q = -K4pr 2
dr
Substituting equation (1) in the above expression
dT
Q = -4pK o (1 +aT ) r 2
dr
Q dr
= -(1 +aT ) dT ---(2)
4pK o r 2
Integrating between r1 to r2 and T1 to T2
r2 T2
Q dr
ò = -(1 +aT ) dT
4pK o r1
r 2 òT
1
Steady state heat conduction with variable thermal conductivity 163

r T
Q é 1ù 2 é aT 2 ùú
2

ê
ê- ú = - T +
4pK o êë r úû r1 ê 2 úû T
ë 1

Q ééê 11ù r2 1 ùú é é aT 2 ù T2 a ù
Q
ê - ú += -=ê T-+ê(T2 -ú T1 ) + (T2 2 - T12 )ú
-
44pK o êë rr2ú r1 úû ê êë 2 ú
pK 2 úû
o ë û r1 ë û T1
æ a ö
Q éêé 1 1ù ùú é a ù 4´pK o (T1 - T2 )çç1 + (T1 + T2 )÷÷÷
Q - r2 - +r1 = - ê(T2 - T é 1 ) +a (T2 - Tù 1 )ú
2 2
èç 2 ø
4pK o êëê- r2 r1úú úû= (T1ëê - T2 ) êê1 + 2(T1 - T2 )úú Þûú Q = r2 - r1
4pK o ë r1 ´ r2 û ë 2 û
Q éê r2 - r1 ùú é a ù r1 r2
= (T1 - T2 ) ê1 + (T1 + T2 )ú
4pK o ëê r1 ´ r2 úû4pK r r (T êë- T 2) úû
m 1 2 1 2
Q= æ ra ö
4pK o (T1 - T2 )rçç21- + 1 (T1 + T2 )÷÷÷
çè 2 ø
Where
Q = K m = Mean thermal conductivity
r2 - r1
é a ù
= K o ê1 + r1 r2 (T1 + T2 )ú
êë 2 úû
4pK m r1r2 (T1 - T2 )
Q = K o [1 +aTm ]
r2 - r1
Where Tm = Mean Temperature
Where K m = Mean thermal conductivity
T +T
= 1 é 2a ù
= K o2ê1 + (T1 + T2 )ú
êë 2 úû
= K o [1 +aTm ]
Where Tm = Mean Temperature
T1 + T2
=
2
Temperature variation in terms of Heat transfer rate
If T is the temperature of the sphere at a radius 'r' from the centre, then equation (2) is integrated
from r1 to r and T1 to T
r T
Q dr
ò = -(1 +aT ) dT
4pK o r1
r 2 òT
1

T
Q Qé 1 ù 1  r éê  aaTT 2ùú  T
r 2
ê- −ú = - =−T+ T+
4πoKêë o r úû r1r  r êë 
4pK
1
2 2 úû T
1 T1

Q Qéê 1 1 1 ùú1  é  aa 2 ù
- −+ + =-  =−ê(T( T-−TT
4πoKê o r r r1 úr1  êë 
1 )+
1)
+ (T ( − TT1122))ú
T -
4pK ë û 22 úû

Q Qéê r1r − r1r ùú = ( T1 − T ) +aa ( T122 − T 22 )

4πKê- - = (T1 - T ) 2(T1 - T )
4pK o rr1 × rr  ú 2
o ë 1 û
2T − 2T + aT 2 − aT 2
 r T
Q  1  aT 2 
164 − =
−  T +  Heat Transfer
4πK o  r  r1  2 T
1

Q  1 1  a 2 2 
 − +  =− ( T − T1 ) + ( T − T1 ) 
4πK o  r r1   2 
Q  r − r1  a 2
 = ( T1 − T ) + ( T1 − T )
2

4πK o  r1 × r  2
2T1 − 2T + aT12 − aT 2
=
2
Dividing both sides by a
2Q (r - r1 ) 2T1 2T 1 1
= - + T12 - T 2 + 2 - 2
4pK o r1ra a a a a
2T1 1 1 2T
= + T12 + 2 - 2 - - T2
a a a a
æ 2T1 1 ö æ 1 2T ö
= çç + T12 + 2 ÷÷÷ - çç 2 + + T 2 ÷÷÷
çè a a ø çè a a ø
2 2
æ1 ö æ1 ö
= çç + T1 ÷÷÷ - çç + T÷÷÷
çè a ø èa ç ø
2 2
çç + T÷÷ = çç 1 + T1 ÷÷ - (
æ1 ö æ ö Q r - r1 )
çè a ÷ø èç a ø÷ 2pK o r1ra
2
çç + T1 ÷÷ - (
1 æ1 ö Q r - r1 )
+T =
a çè a ø÷ 2pK o r1ra
2
çç + T1 ÷÷ - (
1 æ1 ö Q r - r1 )
T =- + ÷ø 2pK r ra
a çè a
o 1
Steady state heat conduction with variable thermal conductivity 165

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A wall thickness L is made up of material whose thermal conductivity varies with the
temperature as K = KoT2. Find the expression for steady state heat conduction through
the wall per unit area if two surfaces are maintained at T1 and T2. If Q is the product
of temperature difference and mean thermal conductivity divided by L, at what
temperature must this conductivity be calculated so that such equation gives the right
result?
Data: K = KoT2
From Fourier 's equation
dT
Q = -KA
dx
dT T1 K = KoT2 T2
= -K o T 2 [ A = 1m 2
dx
or Qdx = -K o T 2 dT
o
Integrating between the limits 0 to L, and T1 to T2 L
L T2

Q ò dx = -K o ò T 2 dT
0 T1
T
L é T3 ù 2
Q [ x ]0 = -K o ê ú
ê3ú
ë û T1
é T 3 - T13 ù
QL =- K o ê 2 ú
ê 3 ú
ë û
é T13 - T23 ù
= Ko ê ú
ê 3 ú
ë û
K é T 3 - T23 úù
or Q = o ê 1 ---(1)
3 êë L úû
Also, from the data
(T - T2 )
Q = Km 1 ---(2)
L
Comparing (1) & (2)
Ko é 3 3ù
ê T1 - T2 ú = K m (T1 - T2 )
3 ê L ú L
ë û
Ko æ T12 + T1T2 + T2 2 ö÷ (T1 - T2 )
(T1 - T2 ) çç ÷÷ = K m
3 çè L ø÷ L
Ko 2
Km =
3
( T1 + T1T2 + T2 2 )
2
 3 êë
ú m
û L L
Ko æ T 2 + T1T2 + T2 2 ÷ö (T1 - T2 )
166 (T1 - T2 ) çç 1 ÷÷ = Km Heat Transfer
3 çè L ø÷ L
Ko 2
Km =
3
(T1 + T1T2 + T22 )
= K o Tm 2
T12 + T1T2 + T2 2
Where Tm =
3
At this temperature conductivity should be calculated
2. A wall of steam boiler furnace is made of layers of fire clay of thickness 12.5cm (K1 =
0.28+0.00023T W/moC) and red brick of 50cm (K2 = 0.7 W/moC) where T is in oC. The
inside surface temperature of fire clay is 1100oC and outside red brick wall temperature is
50oC. Calculate the amount of heat loss/m2­area of the furnace wall and the temperature
at the interface.
Data: K1 = 0.28+0.00023T, L1 = 0.125m, L2 = 0.5m, K2 = 0.7 W/moC
T1 = 1100o­C A = 1m2­ T3 = 50o­C Q = ? T2 = ?

For fire clay layer

dT
Q = -K1A
dx T1 T2 T3
dT
Q = -[0.28 + 0.00023T ]´1´
dx Fire clay Red Brick
or Q dx =-[0.28 + 0.00023T ] dT (1) (2)
Integrating between 0 to L1 and T1 to T2
L1 T2

Q ò dx = ò -[0.28 + 0.00023T ]
12.5 cm 50 cm
0 T1

é æ T 2 - T12 ö÷ù
QL1 = - êê 0.28 (T2 - T1 ) + 0.00023çç 2 ÷÷ú
ë
çè 2 ø÷úû
2´ 0.28 (T1 - T2 ) + 0.00023(T12 - T2 2 )
Q= ---(1)
2L1
Now, for red clay
T2 - T3 (T - T3 )
Q= = K2 2 ---(2)
L2 L2
K 2A
Equating, (1) & (2)
2´ 0.28 (T1 - T2 ) + 0.00023(T12 - T2 2 ) (T2 - T3 ) K 2
=
2´ L1 L2
2´ 0.28 (1100 - T2 ) + 0.00023(1100 - T2 2 2
) (T2 - 50)´0.7
=
 Equating, (1) & (2)
2´ 0.28 (T1 - T2 ) + 0.00023(T12 - T2 2 ) (T2 - T3 ) K 2
=
Steady state heat conduction with variable thermal conductivity 167
2´ L1 L2
2´ 0.28 (1100 - T2 ) + 0.00023(11002 - T2 2 ) (T2 - 50)´0.7
=
2´ 0.125 0.5
2
616 - 0.56T2 + 278.3 - 0.00023T2 = 0.35T2 -17.5
0.00023T2 2 + 0.91T2 - 911.8 = 0
T2 2 + 3956.5T2 - 3.96´106 = 0
-3956.5 ± 3956.52 - 4´1´(-3.96´106 )
T2 =
2´1
o
T2 = 827.7 C
T2 - T1 827.7 - 50
Now Q = =
L2 0.5
K2 0.7
Q = 1088.81W / m 2
3. A metal piece of 50cm length has a cross section corresponding to a circle of 10cm radius
and included angle 60o. Its ends are maintained at temperature 130oC and 30oC and
the thermal conductivity of material has a linear variation with temperature in oC,
K = (0.116 – 1.16 × 10-5T) kW/moC. Find the heat flow through the metallic piece. Assume
unidirectional heat conduction neglecting any variation in temperature in θ and r
directions.
Data: r = 0.1m L = 0.5m θ = 60o T1 = 130oC T2 = 30o
K = (0.116 - 1.16 × 10-5 T) kW/moC Q=?
Area perpendicular to the heat flow
T2
1 0.12 p
A = r 2q = ´
2 2 3
-3 2
= 5.24´10 m T1
dT
Now Q = -KA
dx
dT r
= -A(0.116 -1.16´10-5 T) 60o
dx L
-5
Q´ dx = -A(0.116 -1.16´10 T)dT
Integrating between 0 to L and T1 to T2
L T2

Q ò dx = -A ò (0.116 -1.16´10-5 T)dT

0 T1
T
L é T2 ù
2

Q [ x ]0 = -A ê 0.116T -1.16´10-5 ú
ê 2 úû T
ë 1

é æ 2 2 öù
-5 ç T2 - T1 ÷ú
ê
 ê 2 úû T
ë 1

L T2

ò ò
Q dx = -A (0.116 -1.16´10-5 T)dT
168 Heat Transfer
0 T1

é æ T 2 - T12 ö÷ù
QL =- A êê 0.116 (T2 - T1 ) -1.16´10-5 çç 2 ÷÷ú
çè 2 ø ÷ú
ë û
A (T1 - T2 ) é æ T + T2 ö÷ù
Q= ê 0.116 -1.16´10-5 çç 1 ÷ú
L êë èç 2 ø÷úû
(130 - 30) éê æ130 + 30 ö÷ù
= 5.24´10-3 ´ 0.116 -1.16´10-5 çç ÷ú
0.5 êë çè 2 ø÷úû
Q = 0.121kW
4. A truncated cone like solid has 1 – D heat flow along the axis. The area at any section x is
p 2
given by A = x and end faces are at x1 = 0.075m and x2 = 0.225m measured from apex.
4
The thermal conductivity of material varies as K = 0.5 (1 + 5 × 10-3T) W/mK. The smaller
end is maintained at 300oC and the other end is at 50oC. Determine the heat flow.
p 2
Data:- A = x , K = 0.5(1 + 5 ×10-3T), T1 = 300o­C, T2 = 50oC, Q = ?
4
T2 = 50oC

T1 = 300oC
Q
O
x1 = 0.075m

x2 = 0.225m

From Fourier's equation

dT
Q = -KA
dx
p dT
= -0.5 (1 + 5´10-3 T)´ x 2
4 dx
4Q dx
2
= -0.5 (1 + 5´10-3 T) dT
p x
Integrating between x1 & x 2 , T1 & T2
x2 T2
4Q dx
= -0.5ò (1 + 5´10-3 T) dT
p òx x 2 T
1 1

x2 T
4Q é 1 ù é -3 T
2ù 2
ê
ê- ú = -0.5 T + 5´10 ú
p êë x úû x1 ê 2 ú
ë ûT 1

4Q éê 1 1 ùú é æ T 2 - T12 ö÷ù
- = -0.5 ê(T2 - T1 ) + 5´10-3 çç 2 ÷÷ú
 p x1
x T1

x2 T
4Q é 1 ù é T 2 ùú
2

Steady stateêheat
- úconduction ê T +variable
= -0.5with 5´10-3thermal conductivity 169
p êë x úû x1 ê 2 úû T
ë 1

4Q éê 1 1 ùú é æ 2 2 öù
-3 ç T2 - T1 ÷ú
- ê
= -0.5 ê(T2 - T1 ) + 5´10 ç ÷÷
p êë x1 x 2 úû çè 2 ø÷ú
ë û
4Q éê 1 1 ùú é æ 2 2 öù
-3 ç T1 - T2 ÷ú
- ê
= +0.5 ê(T1 - T2 ) + 5´10 ç ÷÷
p êë x1 x 2 úû ë
çè 2 ø÷úû
4Q é 1 1 ù é æ 2 2 öù
-3 ç 300 - 50 ÷ú
ê - ê
ú = 0.5 (300 - 50) + 5´10 ç ÷
p êë 0.075 0.225 úû ê
ë
çè 2 ø÷÷ûú
Q = 20.70W
5. Derive an expression for the heat flow rate through a hollow sphere of inside radius
r1 and outside radius r2, whose internal and external temperatures are T1 and T2. The
thermal conductivity of the sphere material has a quadratic variation with temperature
K = Ko(1 + αT + βT2)
Data: K = Ko(1 + αT + βT2)
From Fourier's equation
dT
Q = -KA
dr
dT
= -K o (1 +aT + bT 2 )´ 4pr 2
dr
dr
Q´ 2
= -4pK o (1 +aT + bT 2 ) dT
r
Integrating between r1 & r2 , T1 & T2
r2 T2
dr
Qò 2
= -4pK o ò (1 +aT + bT 2 ) dT
r1
r T 1

r2 T
é 1ù é aT 2 bT 3 ùú
2

Q ê- ú = -4pK o ê T + +
êë r úû r1 ê 2 3 úû T
ë 1

ér -r ù é a b ù
Q ê 2 1 ú = -4pK o ê(T2 - T1 ) + (T2 2 - T12 ) + (T23 - T13 )ú
ê r1 ´ r2 ú êë 2 3 úû
ë û
é a b ù
= 4pK o ê(T1 - T2 ) + (T12 - T2 2 ) + (T13 - T23 )ú
êë 2 3 úû
4pK o r1 r2 (T1 - T2 ) é a b ù
Q= ê1 + (T1 + T2 ) + (T12 + T2 2 + T1T2 )ú
r2 - r1 êë 2 3 úû
r1 r2
= 4pK m (T1 - T2 )
r2 - r1
é a b ù
Where K m = K o ê1 + (T1 + T2 ) + (T12 + T2 2 + T1T2 )ú
êë 2 3 úû
 Q= ê1 + (T1 + T2 ) + (T1 + T2 + T1T2 )ú
r2 - r1 êë 2 3 úû
r r
= 4pK m 1 2 (T1 - T2 )
170 Heat Transfer
r2 - r1
é a b ù
Where K m = K o ê1 + (T1 + T2 ) + (T12 + T2 2 + T1T2 )ú
ëê 2 3 ûú
6. Find the steady state heat flux through infinite composite slab made up of two materials
of 5 & 10cm thick with thermal conductivities K1 = 0.05(1 + 0.008T) and K2 = 0.04
(1 + 0.0075T) W/moC.
The inside and outside temperature are 600 and 30oC.
0.05 (1 + 0.008T ) , K 2 =
Data: K1 = 0.04 (1 + 0.0075T )
o o
=T1 600
= C, T3 30
= C, L1 0.05m,
= L 2 0.1m
For steady state Q=
1 Q=
2 Q T1
From Fourier 's equation (2)
(1)
for slab (1) , we have T2
dT T3
Q = − K1 A
dx L1
Q dx =− A × 0.05 (1 + 0.008T ) dT 0 L2
5cm 10cm
Q dx =−1 × 0.05 (1 + 0.008T ) dT L1 L2
Intergrating above equation between 0 & L1 , T1 & T2 , we get
L1 T2

−0.05 ∫ (1 + 0.008T ) dT
Q ∫ dx =
0 T1
T2
 T2 
QL1 =
−0.05 T + 0.008 × 
 2 T
1

QL
=

0.05 ( T1 − T2 ) + 0.008
( T12 − T22 ) 

1
 2 

= 0.05 ( T1 − T2 ) 1 + 0.008 1
( T + T2 ) 

 2 
  T1 + T2  
1 + 0.008  2  
 
=Q 0.05 ( T1 − T2 )  − − − (1)
L1
For slab ( 2 )
dT
Q = −K 2 A
dx
Q dx =−A × 0.04 (1 + 0.0075T ) dT
=−1 × 0.04 (1 + 0.0075T ) dT
Integrating between L1 & L 2 ,T2 & T3
L2 T3

−0.04 ∫ (1 + 0.0075T ) dT
Q ∫ dx =
L1 T2

2 2
 Q = −K 2 A
dx
Q dx =−A × 0.04 (1 + 0.0075T ) dT
Steady state heat conduction with variable thermal conductivity 171
=−1 × 0.04 (1 + 0.0075T ) dT
L,2 ,T
Integrating between L1 & L T22 &
& TT3
L2
L T3

−0.04 ∫ (1 + 0.0075T ) dT
Q ∫ dx =
L1 T2

Q [ L 2 −=

L1 ] 0.04 ( T2 − T3 ) + 0.0075 ×
( T22 − T32 ) 

 2 

T3 ) 11 ++ 0.0075
(( TT2 ++ TT3 )) 
0.04 (( T
0.04 T2 −−T
3)
0.0075 ×
× 2 2 3 
 
2
2
Q
Q LL2 −−LL1
−−
− − (( 22))
−−
1
Equating (1 ) &
() ( )
Equating 1 & 2 ( 2 )
 (T + T ) 
0.04 ( T2 − T3 )1 + 0.0075( T22 + T33) 
0.04 ( 2 3 ) 
T − T 1 + 0.0075
0.05 ((T11 − T22 )) 1 + 0.008 ((T11 + T22 )) =
0.05 T − T  T +T  2 
 2 
L1 1 + 0.008 2  = L 2 − L1
L1  2  L − L1
 ( T + 30 ) 
0.04 ( T2 − 30 )1 + 0.0075( T22 + 30) 
0.05 ( 600 − T2 )  ( 600 + T )  0.04 ( T2 − 30) 1 + 0.0075 22 
0.05 ( 600 − T2 ) 1 + 0.008 ( 600 + T22 )  =  
0.05 1 + 0.008 2  = 0.1 − 0.05
0.05  2  0.15 − 0.05
After Simplification, we get
After Simplification, we get
T2 = 496.85oo C
T2 = 496.85 C
Heat flow through the slab
Heat flow through the slab
0.05 ( T − T )  (T + T ) 
=Q 0.05 ( T11 − T22 ) 1 + 0.008 ( T11 + T22 ) 
=Q L 1 + 0.008 2 
L11  2 
0.05 ( 600 − 486.85 )  ( 600 + 496.85 ) 
0.05 ( 600 − 486.85) 1 + 0.008 ( 600 + 496.85) 
0.05 1 + 0.008 2 
0.05  2 
2
=Q 555.8 W × / m 2
Q = 555.8 W × /m
7. The thermal conductivity of an insulating material used over a 20cm diameter pipe
carrying hot fluid varies as K = 0.065 (1 + 50 × 10–4T) where T is in oC, K is in W/moC.
The pipe surface is at 250oC and temperature at the outside of insulation is 60oC. If the
thickness of insulation is 6cm, determine, (a) heat flow from the hot fluid, (b) temperature
at mid thickness of insulation.
Data: r1 = 0.1m, r2 = 0.1 + 0.06 = 0.16m, T1 = 250oC, T2 = 60oC, K = 0.065 (1 + 50 × 10–4T), T = ?
(1) Heat flow from hot fluid
 a 
For cylinders K m = K o 1 + ( T1 + T3 ) 
 2 
  T + T2    −4  250 + 60  
K m 0.065 1 + 50 × 10−4  1
= =   0.065 1 + 50 × 10  
  2    2 
= 0.08 W / m o C
2πK L T − T
  
For cylinders K m = K o 1 + ( T1 + T3 ) 
 2 
  T + T2    −4  250 + 60  
K m 0.065 1 + 50 × 10−4  1
=
172 =   0.065 1 + 50 × 10   Heat Transfer
  2    2 
o
= 0.08 W / m C Pipe
2πK m L ( T1 − T2 )
Heat transfer rate Q = T2
log e r2 / r1 Insulation
T1
2π × 0.08 × 1( 250 − 60 )
= 203W / m r2 = 10cm
0.16
log e
0.10 r2 = 16cm
Temperature at the mid plane ( rm = 0.13m )
  250 − T  
K m 0.065 1 + 50 × 10−4 
= 
  2 
  250 + T  
2πK m L ( T1 − T )
2π × 0.065 1 + 50 × 10−4    × 1( 250 − T )
  2 
=Q = ⇒ 203
rm 0.13
log e log e
r1 0.1
7.5 × 10−4 T 2 + T − 166.3 =
0
−1 ± 12 − 4 × 7.5 × 10−4 ( −166.3)
T= = 149.53o C
2 × 7.5 × 10−4
8. The thermal conductivity of a certain material varies according to the relation
K = Ko(1 + αT2), where α is constant, Ko is thermal conductivity at some reference
temperature and T is the temperature. Derive an expression for heat loss from hollow
cylinder made up of this material with inner radius 'a' and outer radius 'b'.
VTU Jan - 2008
Data: K = Ko(1 + αT ), r1 = a, r2 = b.
2

From Fourier 's equation

dT
Q = − KA
dr
dT
Q=
− K 2πrL
dr
dr
Q×
r
(
= −2πL  K o 1 + aT 2  dT )
(
= −2πK o L 1 + aT 2 dT )
Integrating the above exp ression between the limits r1 & r2 and T1 & T2
r2 T
dr 2

Q∫ = −2πK o L ∫ 1 + aT 2 dT
r
( )
r1 T1
T2
r  aT 3 
Q log e 2 =−2πK o L  T +
r1  3  T
1

 a 
= 2πK o L ( T1 − T2 ) + T13 − T23 
 3 
( )
 a 2 2 
 Q∫
r
(
= −2πK o L ∫ 1 + aT dT )
r1 T1
T2
r  aT 3 
Q logheat
Steady state e
2
=−2πK o L with
conduction  T +variable
 thermal conductivity 173
r1  3 T
1

 a 
= 2πK o L ( T1 − T2 ) + T13 − T23 
 3 
( )
 a 
=π
 3
(
2 LK o 1 + T12 + T22 + T1T2  ( T1 − T2 )

)
2πK m L ( T1 − T2 )
=
 a 
Where, K m= K o 1 + T12 + T22 + T1T2 
 3 
( )
2πK L ( T1 − T2 )
∴Q = m
r
log e 2
r1
at r1 a=
= & r2 b, we get
2πK m L ( T1 − T2 )
Q=
b
log e
a
9. Find the expression for steady state heat flow in a plane wall for which thermal
conductivity varies according to K = Koe–x/L, Ko is the constant and L is the wall thickness.
The temperatures on two sides of the wall are T1 and T2.  VTU June - 2008
Data: K = Koe –x/L
Q=?
From Fourier 's equation
dT
Q = − KA
dx
dT
Q = − K o e− x / L A
dx
dx
Q. − x / L = − K o A.dT
e
Integrating between 0 to L and T1 to T2
L T
dx 2

Q∫ = − K o A ∫ dT
0
e− x / L T1
L
 
 ex / L 
= − K o A [ T ]T2
T
Q
1  1
 
 L 0
K o A ( T1 − T2 )
L
Q  Le
= x/L

0

 K o A ( T1 − T2 )
Q  Le L/ L − Le0 =  e= 2.72 
1

− 1] K o A ( T1 − T2 )
QL [ 2.72=
K o A ( T1 − T2 )
Q=
1.72L
 Q  Le
= x/L

0
K o A ( T1 − T2 )

 K o A ( T1 − T2 )
Q  Le L/ L − Le0 =  e= 2.72 
1

174 Heat Transfer

− 1] K o A ( T1 − T2 )
QL [ 2.72=
K o A ( T1 − T2 )
Q=
1.72L
10. Prove that the steady state heat transfer through the wall of a spherical container is
given by Q = 4πr1r2 Km (T1 – T2) / (r2–r1) where Km = (K1 + K2)/2 and
 T − T1 
K =K1 + ( K 2 − K1 )  
 T2 − T1 
K −K
Data: Let CK= + 2K −1K  T − T1 
K= 1 T( −2T 1 ) 
2 1
 T2 − T1 
∴ K = K1K+ C−(KT − T1 )
Let C = 2 1
dT
Now Q = T−2KA
− T1
∴ K = K + C Tdr− T
1 ( 1 )
dT
C ( T − T1 )  4πr 2
= −  K1 +dT
Now Q = − KA dr
dr dr
Q × 2 = −4π  K1 + C ( T − T1 )  dT2 dT
r = −  K1 + C ( T − T1 )  4πr
dr
dr
Q × 2 = −4π  K1 + C ( T − T1 )  dT
r
Intergrating between r1 & r2 and T1 & T2 , we get
r2 T
dr 2

Q∫
r1
r2
=−4 π ∫ K1 + C ( T − T1 ) dT
T1

r T2
 1
2
 T2 
Q  −  =−4π  K1T + C − C T1T 
 r  r1  2  T1
r −r   C 
Q  2 1  =π 4  K1 ( T1 − T2 ) + ( T12 − T22 ) − C ( T1 − T2 ) T1 
 r1r2   2 
4πr1r2 ( T1 − T2 )
=Q  2K1 + C ( T1 + T2 ) − 2CT1 
( 2 1)
2 r −r
4πr1r2 ( T1 − T2 )
=  2K1 + C ( T2 − T1 ) 
2 ( r2 − r1 ) 
4πr1r2 ( T1 − T2 )   K 2 − K1  
=  2K1 +   ( T2 − T1 ) 
2 ( r2 − r1 )   T2 − T1  
4πr1r2 ( T1 − T2 )( K1 + K 2 )
=
2 ( r2 − r1 )
4πr1r2 . K m ( T1 − T2 )
Q=
r2 − r1
K1 + K 2
Where K m =
2
 1 2 1 2 1 2
=
2 ( r2 − r1 )

Steady state
4πr r . K
Q = heat1 2conduction
m 1 2 (T
with
−T )
variable thermal conductivity 175
r2 − r1
K1 + K 2
Where K m =
2
11. For a material with variable thermal conductivity show that
2
1 1  Qx
T=− +  + T1  −
a a  K o Aa
Ans. Refer the derivation of Temperature distribution in plane wall.
12. A steel pipe of 220mm OD is carrying steam at 280oC. It is insulated with a material
K = 0.06 (1 + 0.0018T) where K is in W/mK. The thickness of insulation is 50mm and the
outer surface temperature is 50oC. Determine the heat flow per m length of the pipe and
the temperature at the mid thickness of the pipe. VTU July - 2009 (06)
Data: K = 0.06 (1 + 0.0018T)
0.22
=
= rr1 0.22 =
= 0.11mm
0.11mm
1 22
rr2 = 0.11 + 0.05 = 0.16m T1
2 = 0.11 + 0.05 = 0.16m r1 T2
o o
=
= T
T11 280 280
=
= o C, T
C, T22 50 C50 oC
r2
Q
Q =
= ?
? ,
, T
T at
at
Q = ?, T at mid plane ? mid
mid plane?
plane?
From
From Fourier
Fourier 's 's equation
equation
dT
dT
Q
Q == − − KA
KA dr
dr
dT
dT
Q
Q= =− −K 0.06 ((11 +
K oo 0.06 0.0018T ))  22π
+ 0.0018T πrL
rL dr
dr
dr
dr
Q
Q× × r =− =−22π πLL× 0.06 ((11 +
× 0.06 0.0018T )) dT
+ 0.0018T dT
r
Integrating
Integrating between between rr11 & & rr22 ,, T
T11 &
&TT22
r2 T2
r2 dr T2
dr
Q ∫∫ r =−
Q =−22π πLL× 0.06 ∫∫ ((11 +
× 0.06 0.0018T
+ 0.00 18T )) dT
dT
r1 r T1
r1 T1

rr2  (( TT1122 −− TT2222 )) 

Q × log ee r = 2πL × 0.06 (( T11 − T22 )) + 0.0018
Q × log 2 = 2 π L × 0.06  T − T + 0.0018
22 
r11  
 
=Q
22π L ( T − T )  ( T + T
πL ( T11 − T22 ) 1 + 0.0018 ( T11 + T22 )  0.06) 
=Q rr2 1 + 0.0018  0.06
log  22 
log e r
e 2
r11
Q
22πK L (
πK mm L ( T T11 − −TT22 ))
Q== rr2
log
log ee r2
r1 1

Where K =

1 + 0.0018
(( TT11 ++ TT22 ))  0.06

Where K m= 1 + 0.0018
m  0.06
 22 
 (( 280
280 + 50 ))  × 0.06
+ 50
=
= 11 +
+ 0.018
0.018  × 0.06
 log e 2
r1

Where K m= 1 + 0.0018 1
176
( T + T2 )  0.06 Heat Transfer

 2 
 ( 280 + 50 )  × 0.06
= 1 + 0.018 
 2 
= 0.078W / mK
2π × 0.078 × 1( 280 − 50 )
Q=
0.16
log e
0.11
Q = 300.83W / m
Temperature at
Temperature at mid
mid of
of the
the insulation
insulation
r +r
Radius at
Radius at mid
mid thickness
thickness rrm = = r11 + r22
m 22
0.11 + 0.16
= 0.11
= =
=
+ 0.16 0.135m
0.135m
22

Now QQ 2=
2π
πK L (( T
K mm L T1 − Tm )
−T
m ) Where, Tm
Now = 1
rrm , Where, Tm Temperature
Temperatureatatmid
midthickness
thickness
log
log e r
e m
r1 1

Where, =K 0.06

1 + 0.0018
(( TT1 ++ TTm )) 
Where, =K m 0.06 1 + 0.0018 1 2 m 
m 
 2 
 ( 280 + T ) 
= 0.06 1 + 0.0018 ( 280 + Tmm ) 
= 0.06 1 + 0.0018 2 
 2
 
= 0.06 + 9.0 × 10−−415( 280 + Tm ) × 0.06
= 0.06 + 5.4 × 10 ( 280 + Tm )
K
= 0.07512 + 5.4 × 10−−55Tm
K
= m
m 0.07512 + 5.4 × 10 Tm
2π ( 0.07512 + 5.4 × 10−−55Tm ) × 1( 280 − Tm )
(
Now Q = 2π 0.07512 + 5.4 × 10 Tm × 1( 280 − Tm )
Now Q =
)
0.135
log e 0.135
log e 0.11
0.11
( 0.472 + 3.393 × 10−−44Tm ) ( 280 − Tm )
(
300.83 = 0.472 + 3.393 × 10 Tm ( 280 − Tm ))
300.83 = 0.2048
0.2048 −4 2
61.61== 132.16
61.61 132.16 − − 0.472T
0.472Tm + + 0.95
0.95 − − 3.393
3.393××10 10−4TTm 2
m m
−4 2
3.393 ××10
3.393 10−4T Tmm 2 ++ 0.472T
0.472Tmm −− 71.5 00
71.5 =
=
2
Tm2 +
T + 139.11T
1391.1Tm − − 21072.79
210727.96= =0 0
m m

((1391.1
1391) −2 −4 ×41××1( − ))
2

T −1391.1
− 1391.1 ±
± ) ( −21.72.79
210727.96
Tmm =
= 22××11
o
T = 137.83
Tmm = 137.83 C
C o
Steady state heat conduction with variable thermal conductivity 177

13. The following data refer to wall of an industrial furnace.

Temperature of gases in the furnace = 1700oC
Temperature of air outside the furnace = 35oC
Combined convective and radiative heat transfer coefficient of the furnace gases
= 50W/m2K
Heat transfer coefficient of surrounding air = 10W/m2K.
The inner wall of the furnace is made of refractory bricks (K = 0.28 (1 + 0.000833T) W/moC)
250mm thick and it is followed by diatomaceous brick layer, (K = 0.113(1 + 0.000206T)
W/moC). Calculate the thickness of diatomaceous brick layer, so that heat loss to
surrounding air should not exceed 900W/m2.
Data: Ti = 1700oC, To = 35oC, hi = 50W/m2K, ho = 10W/m2K, L1 = 0.25m, L2 = ?
K1 = 0.28(1 + 0.000833T) W/moC, K2 = 0.113(1 + 0.000206T) W/moC, Q = 900W/m2
For slab (1)
dT
Q=
− K1 A ×
dx T1 (1)
dT (2)
Q 0.28 (1 + 0.000833T ) × 1 ×
= Ti, hi
dx
T2
= 0.28 (1 + 0.000833T ) dT
Q × dx To, ho
Integrating between 0 to L1 & T1 to T2 , we get
K m ( T1 − T2 ) T3
Q − − − (1)
L1
L1 L2
Where=

K m1 0.28 1 + 0.000833 1
( T + T2 ) 

 2 
Similarly for slab ( 2 ) , we get
K m2 ( T2 − T3 )
Q − − − ( 2)
L2
 ( T + T3 ) 
Where K m2 = 0.113 1 + 0.000206 2 
 2 
Also
= Q h i A ( Ti − T1 )
50 × 1(1700 − T1 )
900 =
T1 = 1682o C
and Q h o A ( T3 − To )
=
10 × 1( T3 − 35 )
900 =
T3 = 125o C
From equation (1)

900 = K m1
( T1 − T2 )
L1
 ( T + T2 )   T1 − T2 
900 0.28 1 + 0.000833 1
=  
 and Q h o A ( T3 − To )
=
900 = 10 × 1( T3 − 35 )
178 Heat Transfer
T3 = 125o C
From equation (1)

900 = K m1
( T1 − T2 )
L1
 ( T + T2 )   T1 − T2 
900 0.28 1 + 0.000833 1
=  
 2   L1 

900 0.28 1 + 0.000833
=
(1682 + T2 )  1682 − T2 
 
 2   0.25 
Simplifying, we get
0.0004165T22 + T2 − 2056.76 =
0
or T2 = 1325.25o C

Now K m2 =0.133 1 + 0.000206 ×
(1325.25 + 125) 

 2 
o
= 0.130W / m C
From equation ( 2 )

900 0.130 ×
=
(1325.25 − 125)
L2
L 2 = 0.1735m
Steady state heat conduction with variable thermal conductivity 179

Review Questions and Practice Problems

1. Briefly explain the driving force behind the heat transfer.
2. Explain the modes of heat transfer with their corresponding basic equations.
3. Explain
i) Convective heat transfer coefficient
ii) Radiation heat transfer coefficient
iii) Combined heat transfer coefficient
iv) Thermal conductivity
v) Thermal diffusively.
4. State the assumptions and derive the general three dimensional conduction equation is
Cartesian coordinates.
5. With sketches, write down the mathematical representation of three commonly used boundary
condition.
6. Explain
i) Thermal contact resistance
ii) Overall heat transfer coefficient.
7. With a neat sketch, write down the 3 - dimensional conduction equation in cylindrical and
spherical coordinates.
8. Derive an expression for the temperature distribution and the rate of heat transfer for a hollow
cylinder.
9. Derive an expression for the temperature distribution and heat transfer rate for a hollow sphere.
10. The inner surface at r = a and outer surface at r = b of a hollow cylinder is maintained at
uniform temperature T1 ant T2 respectively. The thermal conductivity of material K is constant.
Develop an expression for 1 - D steady state temperature distribution T(r) in the cylinder in
the form
r
log e  
T( r ) − T1
= a
T1 − T2 a
log e  
b
11. A mild steel tank of wall thickness 10mm contains water at 90oC. The thermal conductivity of
mild steel is 50W/moC and the heat transfer coefficients for the inside and outside of the tank
are 2500 and 11W/m2 oC, calculate
i) The rate of heat loss per m2 of the tank surface area
ii) The temperature of the outside surface of the tank.
[Ans: i) 820W/m2, ii) 89.6oC]
12. A furnace wall consist of 200mm of refractory fire clay brick, 100mm kaolin brick and 6mm
of steel plate. The fire side of the refractory is at 1150oC and the temperature at the outside
surface of the wall is 30oC. An accurate heat balance over the furnace shows the heat loss from
180 Heat Transfer

the wall to be 300W/m2. It is known that there may be thin layer of air between the layers of
brick and steel. To how many millimeters of kaolin are these air layers equivalent? The thermal
conductivities are as follows.
Krefectory fire clay = 1.7W/moC, Kkaolin = 0.17W/moC, Ksteel = 17W/moC.
[Ans: 514mm]
13. A furnace wall consists of 12.5cm wide refectory brick and 12.5cm wide insulating fire brick
separated by an air gap. The outside wall is covered with 1.2cm thick plaster. The inner surface
wall is at 1100oC and room temperature is 25oC. Calculate the rate at which heat is lost/m2 area
of wall surface.
Take, ho = 17W/m2 oC, Rair = 0.16oC/W, Krefactory = 1.6W/moC, Kinsulation = 0.3W/moC,
Kplaster = 0.14W/moC
Also calculate the temperature of outside wall temperature.
[Ans: 1338.7W/m2, 103.7oC]
14. Heat is conducted through a tapered circular rod of 200mm length. The ends A and
B having diameters 50mm and 25mm are maintained at 27oC and 227oC respectively,
K(rod material) = 40W/moC find
i) Heat conducted through the rod
ii) Temperature at mid point of the rod.
Assume there is no temperature gradient at a particular cross-section and there is no heat
transfer through the peripheral surface.
[Ans: i) 3927W, ii) 93.7oC]
15. A steam main 250mm in diameter and 225m long is covered with 50mm of high
temperature insulation (K = 0.095W/moC) and 40mm of low temperature insulation
(K = 0.06W/moC). The inner and outer surface temperature are 400oC and 50oC calculate
i) The total heat loss per hour
ii) The total heat loss per m2 of outer surface
iii) The heat loss per m2 of the pipe surface
iv) The temperature between the two layers of insulation Neglect heat conduction through pipe
material.
[Ans: i) 265114kJ/h, ii) 873.5kJ/h, iii) 1502.5kJ.h, iv) 215oC]
16. A steel pipe of 100mm bore and 7mm wall thickness carrying steam at 260oC, is insulated with
40mm of an insulated high temperature diatomaceous earth covering. This covering is in turn
insulated with 60mm of asbestos felt. The atmospheric temperature is 15oC. If the heat transfer
coefficients for the inside and outside surfaces are 550 and 15W/m2 oC respectively and the
thermal conductivities of steel, diatomaceous earth and asbestos felt are 50, 10.09 and 0.07W/
moC respectively, calculate.
i) The rate at which heat is lost by steam per m length of the pipe.
ii) The temperature of the outside surface.
[Ans: i) 116W, ii) 22.8oC]
Steady state heat conduction with variable thermal conductivity 181

17. A steam pipe of 160mm outside diameter and 5mm thick (K = 58W/mK) is covered with
first layer of insulating material 30mm thick (K = 0.17W/mK) and second layer of insulating
material 50mm thick (K = 0.093W/mK). The temperature of steam passing through the pipe
is 300oC and ambient air temperature surrounding the pipe is 30oC. Taking inner and outer
heat transfer coefficients 30 and 5.8W/m2 oC respectively find the heat lost per m length of
pipe.
[Ans: 216W/m]
18. Calculate the rate at which heat is being lost to the surrounding per unit length of insulated
steam pipe having the following dimensions and specifications.
di = 3cm, do = 3.4cm for the pipe
Thickness of insulation = 1cm
hi = 10W/m2 oC, ho = 10W/m2 oC
Kpipe = 15W/moC, Kinsulation = 0.5W/moC
ts (steam) = 100oC, to (air) = 25oC
[Ans: 41.6W/m]
19. A steam pipe having 20mm outer diameter is to be covered with two layers of insulation each
having a thickness of 10mm. The average thermal conductivity of one material is five times
that of the other. Assuming that the inner and outer surface temperature of the composite
insulation are fixed, show that the heat transfer will be reduced 29,9% when a better insulating
material is next to the pipe than when it is away from the pipe.
20. A spherical shaped vessel of 1.2m diameter is 100mm thick. Find the rate of heat leakage, if
the temperature difference betweent inner and outer surfaces is 200oC. Thermal conductivity
of material is 0.3kJ/mhoC.
[Ans: 2262kJ/h]
21. A hollow sphere (K = 15W/m C), with an outside diameter of 8cm and a thickness of 2cm
o

is covered with an insulation material (K = 0.2W/moC) 2cm thick. Inside the sphere energy
is generated at a rate of 3 × 105W/m3. The temperature of the interface between the outer
surface of the sphere and the insulation is measured to be 300oC Calculate the outside surface
temperature of the insulation material.
[Ans: 266.7oC]
22. Consider a steel sphere (K = 10W/mK) has an inside radius of 5cm and an outside radius
of 10cm. The outer surface is to be maintained with fiber glass insulation (K = 0.05W/moC)
to reduce the heat flow rate through the sphere by 50%. Determine the thickness of the fiber
glass.
[Ans: 0.05cm]
Problems on Mathematical Formulations.
23. Energy is generated at a constant rate of goW/m2 in a copper rod of radius R by passage of
an electric current. The heat dissipation is by convection at boundary surface at r = R into an
ambient air at temperature T∞ with the heat transfer coefficient h. Develop the mathematical
formulation for steady state conditions.
182 Heat Transfer

24. A tomato with diameter D and thermal conductivity K, initially at uniform temperature is
suddenly dropped into boiling water at To with very large convection coefficient. Develop a
mathematical formulation of the problem for determining temperature distribution with in the
tomato.
25. A long rectangular copper bar of thickness L is maintained at a temperature To at its lower
surface throughout the bar. Suddenly an electric current is passed through the bar and its
upper surface is exposed to an air stream at T∞, with convection coefficient h, while its bottom
surface continues to be maintained at To. Obtain differential heat conduction equation and
write initial a boundary condition in order to obtain the temperature distribution as a function
of position and time.
 Module – 2
CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
It is known that the addition of insulation on a surface actually reduce the heat loss. In a plane
wall, the addition of insulation will not affect the surface area of heat transfer and always increases
the total thermal resistance in the path of heat flow without affecting the convection resistance.
For cylindrical and spherical surfaces, the addition of insulation increases the outside surface
area and hence increases the rate of heat transfer. The heal loss increases upto certain value of
outside radius beyond that heat transfer decreases.
"The thickness upto which heat flow increases and after which heat flow decreases is termed
as critical thickness of insulation".

ro = Outer radius
re = Critical radius
Q

ro < rc re ro > re
2.1.1 Critical thickness of insulation for a cylinder surface
Consider a cylinder with an insulation as shown in figure
Let ri = Inside radius of insulation
ro = outside radius of insulation

To, ho
T1 T
ri 2

ro

L
n
In sulatio
184 Heat Transfer

K = Thermal conductivity of insulating material

T1 = Inside surface temperature of insulation
To = Ambient Temperature
ho = Heat transfer coefficient on the outside surface
Heat loss through the insulated cylinder
T1 − To
Q=
r
log e o
ri 1
+
2pKL 2pro Lh o
For maximum heat transfer
dQ
=0
dro
 r 
log e o
d  ri 1 
i.e.,  + = 0
dro  2pKL 2pro Lh o 
 

 
1  1 1 1  1
 × + − 0
=
2pKL  o ri  2pLh o  r02 
r
 ri 
1 1
=
2pKLro 2pLh o r02
1 1
=
K h o ro
K
ro= = rc= Critical radius of insulation
ho
Critical thickness of insulation = ro − ri = rc − ri
K
= − ri
ho
2.1.2 Critical thickness of Insulation for a spherical surface.
Consider a hollow sphere with insulation as shown in figure
Let ri = Inside radius of insulation To, ho
ro = outside radius of insulation T2
T1
T1 = Inside surface temperature of insulation ri
T0 = Ambient temperature ro
Heat loss through the sphere ere
Sph
T1 − T0
Q= Insulation
ro − ri 1
+
4pK ri ro 4p r02 h 0
For maximum heat transfer
 Heat loss through the sphere
T1 − T0
Q=
ro − rof
Critical Thickness 1
i Insulation 185
+
4pK ri ro 4p r02 h 0
For maximum heat transfer
dQ
=0 or
dro
d  ro − ri 1 
 + =0
dro  4p Kro ri 4p r02 h 0 
d  ro ri 1 
 − + =0
dro  4p Kro ri 4pKro r0 4p r02 h 0 
d  1 1 1 
 − + =0
dro  4pK ri 4pK ro 4p r02 h 0 
1  1 1  2
0− − 2  + −  = 0
4pK  r0  4ph o  r03 
1 2
=
4pK p0 4p h o p30
2

2K
ro= = rc= Critical radius of insulation
ho
Critical thickness of insulation
= ro − ri = rc − ri
2K
= − ri
ho
 186 Heat Transfer

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A tube having outside diameter 2cm is maintained at a uniform temperature T1 and is
covered with an insulation (K1 = 0.2 W/mK) to reduce heat loss. Heat is disputed from
the outer surface of insulation by convection with h = 15W/m2K into the ambient air at
To. Determine the critical thickness of insulation. Calculate the ratio of heat loss from
the tube with insulation to that of without insulation for, i) The thickness of insulation
equal to critical thickness, ii) The thickness of insulation 2cm thicker than the critical
thickness.
Data: = 0.02 Q with
ri = 0.01m, K = 0.2W / mK, h= o 15W / m 2 K, ro − =
ri ?, = ?
2 Q without
Critical radius of insulation of cylinder
K 0.20
rc= ro= = = 0.0133m
ho 15
( i ) Critical thickness of insulation= rc − ri
= 0.0133 − 0.01= 0.0033m
( ii ) Heat loss with insulation
T1 − T0 2pro Lh o ( T1 − T0 )
=Q with =
r ro h o r
log e o log e o + 1
ri 1 K ri
+
2pKL 2pro Lh o
Heat loss from the tube without insulation
T1 − T0
Q without = =2pri Lh o ( T1 − T0 )
1
2pri Lh o
Ratio of heat losses
2p ro L h o ( T1 − T0 )
ro h o r
log e o + 1
Q with K ri
=
Q without 2p ri L h o ( T1 − T0 )
 
r  1 
= o 
ri  ro h o ro
log e + 1 
 K ri 
−1
Q with r  rh r 
= o 1 + o o log e o  − − − (1)
Q without ri  K ri 
K
( iii ) If ro= rc= then equation (1) becomes
ho
−1
Q with r  K ho r 
= c 1 + log e c 
Q r h K r
 i log e +1
 K ri 
−1
Q r  rh ro 
Critical Thickness
= of
with o
1 + o o log e
Insulation  − − − (1) 187
Q without ri  K ri 
K
( iii) If ro= rc= then equation (1) becomes
ho
−1
Q with r  K ho r 
= c 1 + log e c 
Q without ri  h o K ri 
−1
r  r 
= c 1 + log e c 
ri  ri 
−1
0.0133  0.0133 
= 1 + log e
0.01  0.01 
Q with
= 1.035 Thus, heat loss is increased by 3.5%.
Q without
( iv) If ro =+
rc 0.02 =
0.0033 + 0.02
= 0.0233m
Then equation (1) becomes
−1
Q with r  rh r 
= o 1 + o o log e o 
Q without ri  K ri 
−1
0.0233  0.0233 0.0233 
= 1+ × 15log e
0.01  0.2 0.01 
= 0.83
i.e., Insulation of 2.33 cm thickness reduces the heat loss by 17%.
2. An electrical wire of 1mm diameter is covered with 2mm thick layer of plastic insulation
(K = 0.5 W/mK). Air surrounding the wire is at 25oC and h = 10W/m2K. The wire
temperature is 100oC and it is not affected by the presence of insulation. Estimate the rate
of heat dissipation from the wire per unit length with and without insulation. Find the
radius of insulation when the rate of heat dissipation is maximum. What is the maximum
value of this heat dissipation?
1 × 10−3
Data: ri = = 0.5 × 10−3 m, ro = ( 0.5 + 2 ) × 10−3 = 2.5 × 10−3 m, K = 0.5W / mK
2
o
= To 25= C, T1 100o= C, h o 10W / m 2 K,= Q with ?, Q= without ?,=
Q max ?
( i ) Heat transfer rate per unit length with insulation
T1 − T0
Q with =
ro
log e
ri 1
+
2pKL 2pro h o L

=
(100 − 25)
−3
2.5 × 10
log e
0.05 × 10−3 + 1
2p × 0.5 × 1 2p × 2.5 × 10−3 × 10 × 1
Q with = 10.9W / m
 T1 − T0
Q with =
r
log e o
ri 1
188 + Heat Transfer
2pKL 2pro h o L

=
(100 − 25)
−3
2.5 × 10
log e
0.05 × 10−3 + 1
2p × 0.5 × 1 2p × 2.5 × 10−3 × 10 × 1
Q with = 10.9W / m
( ii) Heat transfer without insulation
Q without = 2p ri h o L ( T1 − T0 )
= 2p × 0.5 × 10−3 × 10.0 × 1(100 − 25)
Q without = 2.36W / m
Q with 10.9
= = 4.62
Q without 2.36
Adding insulation increases the rate of heat transfer by a factor of 4.62
( ii) Maximum heat transfer
K
For maximum heat transfer ro= rc=
ho
0.5
= = 0.05m
10
T1 − T0
Now Q max =
rc
log e
ri 1
+
2pKL 2p rc Lh o

=
(100 − 25)
0.05
log e
0.5 × 10−3 + 1
2p × 0.5 × 1 2p × 0.05 × 1 × 10
Q max = 42.07W / m
3. A steam pipe 10cm 1D and 11cm OD is covered with an insulating material (K = 1W/mK).
The steam temperature and the ambient temperatures are 200 and 20C respectively.
If the convective heat transfer coefficient between the insulation surface and air is
8W/m2K, find the critical radius of insulation. For this value of rc, calculate the heat loss
per m of pipe and the outer surface temperature. Neglect the resistance of pipe material.
0.1 0.11
Data:= ri = 0.05m,= ro = 0.55m,= K 1W / mK, = T1 200o C, = T0 20o C,
2 2
=h o 8W / m 2 K,=rc ?,=Q ?,= T2 ?
K
( i ) Critical radius of insulation rc =
ho
1.0
= = 0.125m = rc
8.0
( ii ) Heat loss / m length of pipe
 2 2
h o 8W / m 2 K,=
= rc ?,=
Q ?,=
T2 ?
K
Critical(Thickness
i ) Criticalofradius of insulation rc =
Insulation 189
ho
1.0
= = 0.125m = rc
8.0
( ii ) Heat loss / m length of pipe To, ho
T1 − T0 T2
Q= T1
ro ri
log e
ri 1 ro
+
2pKL 2prc h o L
200 − 20
=
0.125
log e
0.05 + 1
2p × 1 × 1 2p × 0.125 × 8 × 1
Q = 620W / m
( iii ) Outer surface Temperature
T2 − T0
Q=
1
2p rc h o L
T2 − 20
620 =
1
2p × 0.125 × 8 × 1
T2 = 118.72o C

4. An electric conductor of copper with a diameter of 1mm is covered with a plastic

insulation of thickness 1mm. The temperature of its surrounding is 20oC. Find the
maximum current carried by the conductor such that no part of plastic is above 80oC.
The following data can be made use of, Kcopper = 400W/mK, Kplastic = 0.5W/mK, h = 8W/
m2K, S = 3 × 10–8Ωm.
Data: Kcopper = 400W/mK, Kplastic = 0.5W/mK, ho = 8W/m2K, S = 3 × 10–8Ωm.
1 × 10−3
ri = = 0.5 × 10−3 m, ro = ( 0.5 + 1) × 10−3 = 1.5 × 10−3 m
2
The electrical resistance / m length of wire
S 3 × 10−8
R
= = = 3.81Ω
A p × ( 0.5 × 10−3 )2

Now heat generated in the wire

Q= I 2 R= I 2 × 3.81 − − − (1)
T1 − T0
But, Q =
r
log e
ri 1
+
2pKL 2pr0 hL
80 − 20
= −3
1.5 × 10
log
0.5 × 10−3 1
 T1 − T0
But, Q =
r
log e
ri 1
190 + Heat Transfer
2pKL 2pr0 hL
80 − 20
= −3
1.5 × 10
log
0.5 × 10−3 + 1
2p × 0.5 × 1 2p × 1.5 × 10−3 × 8 × 1
Q = 4.41W
From equation (1)
4.41= I 2 × 3.81
I = 1.074A
The minimum safe current limit is 1.074A for the plastic temperature not to exceed 80o C.
K plastic 0.5
The critical radius
= rc =
ho 8
rc = 0.062m
5. A wire of 6.5mm diameter at a temperature of 60oC is to be insulated by a material having
K = 0.174W/moC. Convective heat transfer coefficient is 8.722 W/m2 oC. The ambient
temperature is 20oC. What is the minimum thickness of insulation and heat loss per m
length? Also find percentage increase in heat dissipation. VTU Jan 2010(06)
−3
6.5 × 10
Data: ri = 3.25 10−3 m, T1 =
=× 60o C, K =0.174W / m o C, h o =
8.722W / m 2o C, To =
20o C
2
Critical thickness of insulation
= ?,= Q ?,= L 1m, % increase in heat dissipation
= ?
( i) Critical thickness of insulation
Critical radius of insulation
K 0.174 To, ho
rc =
=
h o 8.722 T2
T1
= 0.01995m
= 19.95mm ri
Critical thickness of insulation
= ro − ri = rc − ri = 0.01995 − 3.25 × 10−3 ro
= 0.0167m
= 16.7mm
( ii) Heat loss per m length
Case ( i) : With insulation
T1 − T0
Q with =
rc
log e
ri 1
+
2pKL 2prc h o L
60 − 20
=
0.01995
log e
0.00325 + 1
2p × 0.174 × 1 2p × 0.01995 × 8.72 × 1
Q with = 15.537W / m
Case ( ii) : Without insulation
T1 − T0 60 − 20
 60 − 20
=
0.01995
log e
Critical Thickness of0.00325
Insulation 1 191
+
2p × 0.174 × 1 2p × 0.01995 × 8.72 × 1
Q with = 15.537W / m
Case ( ii) : Without insulation
T1 − T0 60 − 20
Q without
= =
1 1
2pri h o L 2p × 0.00325 × 8.722 × 1
Q without = 7.124W / m
% increase in heat dissipation
Q with − Q without 15.537 − 7.124
= = × 100 ×100 = 118.09%
Q without 7.124
6. A 10mm diameter cable is to be laid in an atmosphere of 20oC (ho = 8.5W/m2 oC). The
surface temperature of the cable is likely to be 65oC. Discuss the effect of insulating the
cable with rubber having thermal conductivity of 0.15W/mK. VTU Jan 2010(02)
−3
10 × 10
Data: ri = = 5 × 10−3 m, T1 =65o C, T0 =
20o C, K =
0.15W / mK, h o =8.5W / m 2 o C
2
For cable, critical radius of insulation
K 0.15
rc =
= = 0.01828m = 18.23mm
ho 8.5
rc is greater than ri
∴ Critical thickness of insulation =
18.23 − 5
= 13.23mm
Rubber insulation upto a thickness of 13.23mm will be effective in heat dissipation
The max imum heat dissipation
T1 − T0
Q max =
r
log e c
ri 1
+
2pKL 2prc h o L
65 − 20
= −3
18.23 × 10
log e
5 × 10−3 + 1
2p × 0.15 × 1 2p × 18.23 × 10−3 × 8.5 × 1
Q max = 19.1W / m
7. A steam pipe is 75mm external diameter and 30m long. It conveys 1000kg/h of steam
at a pressure 2MN/m2. The steam enters the pipe with a dryness fraction of 0.98 and
leaves the other end with a minimum dryness fraction 0.96. This is to be accomplished by
suitably lagging the pipe (K = 0.19W/mK). Assuming that the temperature drop across
the steam pipe is negligible, determine the minimum thickness of the lagging required to
meet the necessary conditions, Take the outside surface temperature of lagging as 27oC.
Properties of steam at 2MN/m2 are hfg = 1888.6kJ/kg, ts = 212.4oC. VTU Dec 2011(02)
192 Heat Transfer

0.075
Data:
= ri = 0.0375m, = L 30m, =m 1000kg =/ h 0.278kg /= s, p 2MN / m= 2
, x1 0.98
2
x=
2 0.96, K= 0.19W / mK, T=
0 27 o C, T=
i T=
1 212.4o C, h fg= 1888.6 × 103 J / kg
Heat transfer through the pipe
=Q m ( H1 − H 2 )
H=
1 Initial enthalpy of steam
= h f + x1h fg
H 2 = Finial enthalpy of steam
= h f + x 2 h fg
[ It is assumed pressure constant during the flow of steam through the pipe]
∴Q =m  h f + x1h fg − h f − x 2 h fg 
= m [ x1 − x 2 ] h fg
= 0.278 [ 0.98 − 0.96] × 1888.6 × 103
Q = 10500.62W
For minimum thickness of lagging
T1 − T0
Q=
r
log e c
ri 1
+
2pKL 2prc h o L
K
But rc =
ho
T1 − T0
∴Q =
K
log e
ri h o 1
+
2pKL K
2p × h o L
ho
212.4 − 27
10500 =
 0.19 
log e 
 0.0375 × h o  1
+
2p × 0.19 × 30 2p × 0.19 × 30
6639.95
10500 =
5.067
log e +1
ho
5.067
log e +1=0.6324
ho
5.067
log e = −0.368
ho
log e 5.067 − log e h o =
−0.368
− log e h o = − 1.9907
2
 5.067
log e +1=0.6324
ho
Criticallog 5.067of Insulation
Thickness 193
e = −0.368
ho
log e 5.067 − log e h o =
−0.368
− log e h o = − 1.9907
h o = 7.32W / m 2 K
Critical radius of insulation or minimum thickness of insulation
K 0.19
rc =
= = 0.0259m = 25.95mm
h o 7.32
8. It is desired to increase the heat dissipation over the surface of an electronic device of
spherical shape of 5mm radius exposed to convection with h = 10W/m2K by encasing it
in the transparent spherical sheath of K = 0.04W/mK. Determine the diameter of the
sheath for maximum heat flow. For a temperature drop of 120oC from the device surface,
determine the heat flow for bare and sheathed device.  VTU June 2011(06)
−3 2 o
Data: ri = 5 × 10 m, h = 10W / m K, K = 0.04W / mK, rc = ?, ∆T = T1 − T0 = 120 C
= Q bare ?,= Qsheath ?
Critical radius of insulation for sphere.
2K 2 × 0.04
rc =
= = 0.008m = 8mm
ho 10
Diameter of sheath for maximum heat flow = 2 × rc = 2 × 8 = 16mm
Heat flow from bare sphere
T1 − T0 120
Q bare
= =
1 1
4pri h o 4p × 0.0052 × 10
2

= 0.377W
Heat flow from sheath sphere
T1 − T0
Qsheath =
rc − ri 1
+
4pKri rc 4prc2 h o
120
=
0.008 − 0.005 1
+
4p × 0.04 × 0.005 × 0.008 4p × 0.0082 × 10
= 0.439W
Q bare 0.377
= = 0.85087
Qsheath 0.439
About 15% increase
9. A copper pipe carrying refrigerant at –20oC is 10mm in OD and is exposed to convection
at 50W/m2K to air at 25oC. It is proposed to apply insulation of conductivity 0.5W/mK.
Determine the thickness beyond which heat gain will be reduced. Calculate the heat
gain for 2.5mm, 5.0mm and 7.5mm thickness for 1m length. The convection coefficient
remains constant.
194 Heat Transfer

Data: T1 =
−20o C, T0 ==
25o C, ri 5 × 10−3 m, h =
50W / m 2 K, K =
0.5W / mK
Critical radius of insulation
K 0.5
rc = = 0.01m
=
h o 50
Thickness of insulation upto which heat flow increases
= ro − ri = 0.01 − 0.005 = 0.005m
= 5mm
Heat flow at different thickness of insulation
For bare pipe
T0 − T1 25 − ( −20 )
Q bare
= = = 70.69W / m
1 1
2pri h o L 2p × 0.005 × 50 × 1
For 2.5mm thickness ro =0.005 + 0.0025 =0.0075m
T0 − T1
Q=
r
log e o
ri 1
+
2pKL 2pro h o L
25 − ( −20 )
=
0.0075
log e
0.005 + 1
2p × 0.5 × 1 2p × 0.075 × 50 × 1
= 81.3W / m
For 5mm thickness ro= rc= 0.01m
25 − ( −20 )
Q=
0.01
log e
0.005 + 1
2p × 0.5 × 1 2p × 0.01 × 50 × 1
= 83.49W / m
For 7.5mm thickness ro =0.005 + 0.0075 =0.0125m
25 − ( 20 )
Q=
0.0125
log e
0.005 + 1
2p × 0.5 × 1 2p × 0.0125 × 50 × 1
= 82.38W / m
10. A refrigerant suction line having outer diameter 30mm is required to be thermally
insulated. The outside air film coefficient of heat transfer is 12W/m2 oC. The thermal
conductivity of insulation is 0.3W/moC.
 Critical Thickness of Insulation 195

i) Determine whether the insulation will be effective.

ii) Estimate the maximum value of thermal conductivity of insulating material to reduce
heat transfer
iii) Determine the thickness of cork insulation to reduce the heat transfer to 22% if
thermal conductivity of cork is 0.038W/moC.
0.03
Data:
= ri = 0.015m,= h o 12W / m 2o C, K=
insu 0.3W / m o C, K=
cork 0.038W / m o C
2
( i) Critical radius of insulation
K insu 0.3
rc
= = = 0.025m
ho 12
Since rc > ri , heat transfer will increase by adding insulation and thus it is effective
( ii) For insulation to be effective
ri ≥ rc
K insu
i.e., 0.015 ≥
ho
= 0.18W / m o C
K insu= 0.015 × 12
( iii) Thickness of cork insulation
Qcork
We have, = 0.22
Q base
T1 − T0 ∆T
=Qcork =
ro ro
log e log e
ri 1 0.015 + 1
+
2pKL 2pro h o L 2p × 0.038 × 1 2pro × 12 × 1
∆T ∆T
Q base
= =
1 1
2p ri h o L 2p × 0.015 × 12 × 1
Q base 1.1309∆T
=
Qcork ∆T
= = 0.22
Q base ro
log
0.015 + 1
2p × 0.038 2p × ro × 12
1.1309 ∆T
Solving by trial and error
ro = 0.036m
Thickness of cork insulation
= 0.036 − 0.015 = 0.021m = 21mm
196 Heat Transfer

11. A uniform sheathing of plastic insulation (K = 0.18 W/moC) is applied to an electric cable
of 8mm diameter. The convective heat transfer coefficient is 12.5W/m2oC and a surface
temperature of 45oC was observed when the cable was directly exposed to ambient air at
20oC. Determine
i) The thickness of insulation to keep the wire as cool as possible.
ii) The surface temperature of insulated cable if the intensity of current flowing through
the conductor remains unchanged.
0.008
Data:
= ri = 0.004m, = K 0.18W / m o C,
= h o 12.5W / m 2o C,
= T0 20o=C, T1 45o C
2
( i) Thickness of insulation.
To keep the wire as cool as possible, the required condition is to find out its critical
radius of insulation
K 0.18
i.e.,=
re = = 0.0144m
h o 12.5
Thickness of insulation = 0.0144 − 0.004 = 0.0104m
= 10.4mm
( ii) Surface temperature of insulated cable
For sheathed cable, heat flow / m
T1 − T0
Q=
ro
log e
ri 1
+
2p KL 2p ro h o L
45 − 20
=
0.0144
log e
0.004 + 1
2p × 0.18 × 1 2p × 0.0144 × 12.5 × 1
= 12.39W / m
For steady state
Q = Qconv
T2 − T0
12.39 =
1
2pro h o L
T2 − 20
12.39 =
1
2p × 0.0144 × 12.5 × 1
T2 = 30.96o C
 Critical Thickness of Insulation 197

12. A small electric heating application uses 1.82 mm diameter wire with 0.71 mm think
insulation. K (insulation) = 0.118 W/m-K, and h0 = 34.1 W/m2-K. Determine the critical
thickness of insulation for this case and change in heat transfer rate if critical thickness
was used. Assume the temperature difference between surface of wire and surrounding
air remain unchanged. VTU June/July 2015
Data:
d=
i 1.82 × 10 −3 m,d =
0 1.82 × 10 −3 + 2 × 0.71 × 10 −=
3
3.24 × 10 −3 m
=h 0 34.1W
= / m 2 K, K 0.118W
= / mK, t c ?
Qinsulation
T0, h0 =?
Qcritical thickness

ri
r0

Critical thickness of insulation :

K
Critical radius of insulation rc =
h0
0.118
= = 3.46 × 10 −3 m
34.1
Critical thickness of insulation
1.82 × 10 −3
t c = rc − ri = 3.46 × 10 −3 −
2
= 2.55 × 10 −3 m
Change in heat transfer rate
∆T
Qcritical =
rc
log
ri 1
+
2pkL 2prc Lh 0
∆T
= −3
3.46 × 10
−3
log e 1.82 × 10
2 1
+
2p × 0.118 × 1 2p × 3.46 × 10 −3 × 1 × 34.1
2p∆T
=
19.8
∆T
Qinsulation =
r
log e 0
ri 1
+
2pΚL 2p × r0 L
 log e 1.82 × 10
2 1
+
2p × 0.118 × 1 2p × 3.46 × 10 −3 × 1 × 34.1
198 2p∆T Heat Transfer
=
19.8
∆T
Qinsulation =
r0
log e
ri 1
+
2pΚL 2p × r0 L
∆T
= −3
3.24 × 10
2 1
log e −3
+
1.82 × 10 3.24 × 10 −3
2p × × 1 × 34.1
2 2
2p∆T
=
22.99
Qcritical − Qinsulation
%increase
= × 100
Qinsulation
2p∆Τ 2p∆T
−
= 19.8 22.99
= × 100 16.1%
2p∆T
22.9