Mod-4: Applications of Thermodynamics: Brief Description and working principles of Steam Power
Plant, Refrigerators and Heat pump, I.C. Engines (two-stroke and four-stroke, petrol and diesel) and
aircraft propulsion engines. Discussion of Brayton Cycle, comparison between Brayton and Rankine
cycle.
Simple Thermal Power Plant (Steam power plant)
2
Working Principle:
Process 1-2
Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated
liquid and is compressed isentropically to the
operating pressure of the boiler. The water
temperature increases somewhat during this
isentropic compression process due to slight
decrease in the specific volume of the water.
Process 2-3
Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a
superheated vapor at state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger
where the heat originating from combustion gases, is transferred to the water
essentially at constant pressure. The boiler together with the section where the
steam is superheated, is often called the steam generator. 103
Process 3-4
The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the
turbine, where it expands isentropically and
produces work by rotating the shaft connected to
an electric generator. The pressure and the
temperature of the steam drops during this
process to the values at state 4, where steam
enters the condenser .
Process 4-1
At this state, the steam is usually a saturated
liquid-vapor mixture with a high quality. Steam
is condensed at constant pressure in the
condenser which is basically a large heat
exchanger, by rejecting heat to a cooling medium
from a lake, or a river. Steam leaves the
condenser as saturated liquid and enters the
pump, completing the cycle.
104
Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
105
Refrigerators
Transfer of heat from a lower temperature medium to a high temperature one is called refrigerators
Introduction to Internal Combustion Engine
Figure1 : Engine components (four stroke)
Figure2 : Engine components (four stroke)
Figure3 : Engine components (Two stroke)
Figure4: Engine components
Internal combustion Engine Components:
I.C. Engine components shown in figure1 and figure2
are defined as follows:
• Block : Body of the engine containing cylinders, made of cast iron or
aluminum.
• Cylinder : The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the
pistons reciprocate back and forth.
• Head : The piece which closes the end of the cylinders, usually
containing part of the clearance volume of the combustion
chamber.
• Combustion chamber: The end of the cylinder between the head
and the piston face where combustion occurs.
– The size of combustion chamber continuously changes
from minimum volume when the piston is at TDC to a
maximum volume when the piston at BDC.
(TDC-Top dead centers, BDC-Bottom dead centers)
• Crankshaft : Rotating shaft through which engine work output is
supplied to external systems.
– The crankshaft is connected to the engine block with the
main bearings.
– It is rotated by the reciprocating pistons through the
connecting rods connected to the crankshaft
• Connecting rod : Rod connecting the piston with the rotating
crankshaft, usually made of steel or alloy forging in most engines
but may be aluminum in some small engines.
• Piston rings: Metal rings that fit into circumferential grooves
around the piston and form a sliding surface against the cylinder
walls.
• Bottom Dead Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the point
closest to the crankshaft. Volume of the cylinder is maximum
• Stroke : Distance traveled by the piston from one extreme position to the other
: TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC.
• Bore :It is defined as cylinder diameter or piston face diameter; piston face
diameter is same as cylinder diameter( minus small clearance).
• Swept volume/Displacement volume : Volume displaced by the piston as it
travels through one stroke.
– Swept volume is defined as stroke times bore.
– Displacement can be given for one cylinder or entire engine (one
cylinder times number of cylinders).
• Clearance volume : It is the minimum volume of the cylinder
available for the charge (air or air fuel mixture) when the piston
reaches at its outermost point (top dead center or outer dead
center) during compression stroke of the cycle.
– Minimum volume of combustion chamber with piston at
TDC.
• Compression ratio : The ratio of total volume to clearance
volume of the cylinder is the compression ratio of the engine.
– Typically compression ratio for SI engines varies form 8
to 12 and for CI engines it varies from 12 to 24
Four Stroke Cycle Animation
Spark plug
Suction Stroke
Compression
Stroke
Power Stroke
Exhaust Stroke
128
Compression Stroke
•Valves close.
•Piston moves up, ½
turn of crankshaft.
•Air/fuel mixture is
compressed.
•Fuel starts to
vaporize and heat
begins to build.
Power Stroke
•Valves remain
closed.
•Spark plug fires
igniting fuel mixture.
•Piston moves down,
½ turn of crankshaft.
•Heat is converted to
mechanical energy.
Exhaust Stroke
•Exhaust valve opens.
•Piston move up,
crankshaft makes ½
turn.
•Exhaust gases are
pushed out polluting
the atmosphere.
Ideal diesel cycle
Four strokes of CI Engine Cycle :
• Intake/Suction Stroke : The same as the intake stroke in an SI
engine with one major difference : no fuel is added to the
incoming air, refer figure 10.
• Compression Stroke : The same as in an SI engine except that
only air is compressed and compression is to higher pressures
and temperature, refer figure11.
– Late in the compression stroke fuel is injected directly
into the combustion chamber, where it mixes with very
hot air.
– This causes the fuel to evaporate and self ignite, causing
combustion to start.
» Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about
constant pressure until fuel injection is complete and the
piston has started towards BDC, refer figure12.
MAIN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO AND FOUR STROKE ENGINES
(a) For the same power output the design of two stroke engine is simple where as a four stroke
engine is complex in design for manufacturer.
(b) A two stroke engine gives on working stroke for each revolution of the crank shaft whereas a
four stroke engine gives one power stroke per two revolutions of crank shaft.
(c) Two stroke engines have suction and exhaust ports whereas four stroke engines have suction
and exhaust valves and valve mechanism.
(d) Two stroke engines lighter in weight but four stroke engines are heavier.
(e) The initial cost of two stroke engines is less than that of four stroke engines.
(f) Thermal efficiency of two stroke engines is less than that of four stroke engines.
(g) Four stroke engines are used where efficiency is important, e.g. in cars, busses, etc. Whereas
two stroke engines are used where lower cost is required in two wheelers, e.g. scooters and
motorcycles.
Intake & Compression stroke
Intake. The fuel/air mixture is first drawn into
the crankcase by the vacuum created during the
upward stroke of the piston through the reed valve.
he fuel/air mixture is first drawn into
the crankcase by the vacuum created during the
upward stroke of the piston through the reed valve.
Compression. The piston then rises, driven by
flywheel momentum, and compresses the fuel
mixture. (At the same time, another intake stroke
is happening beneath the piston).
Power & Exhaust/Transfer Stroke
Power. At the top of the stroke the
spark plug ignites the fuel mixture.
The burning fuel expands, driving
the piston downward.
Exhaust/Transfer: Toward the end of the stroke,
the piston exposes the intake port, allowing the
compressed fuel/air mixture in the crankcase to
escape around the piston into the main cylinder.
This expels the exhaust gasses out the exhaust
port, usually located on the opposite side of the
cylinder.
Comparison between Brayton and Rankine cycle
What is Rankine Cycle?
Rankine cycle is a model that predicts the performance of a steam turbine. The model is a vapour
cycle. It is an ideal model for the thermodynamic cycle that takes place in a heat engine with a
phase change. There are four major components in the Rankine cycle and we can neglect the
friction losses from any of these four components.
Figure 01: Rankine Cycle
The theory behind the Rankine cycle is used in thermal power generation plants to generate
power. The power generated through this process depends on the temperature difference between
the heat source and cold source. If the difference is considerably high, then we can extract more
power out of heat energy. Usually, the heat source used here can be either nuclear fission or
burning fossil fuels. Higher the temperature, better the source is. Meanwhile, cold sources
include cooling towers with a target water body. Cooler the temperature, better the source
is. The four phases in the Rankine cycle are as follows:
1. Process 1-2: pumping the working fluid. The fluid is at the liquid state at this stage.
Therefore, the pump requires low input energy. The pressure of the pump increases during
the process.
2. Process 2-3: The high-pressure fluid enters a boiler. The fluid undergoes heating at a constant
pressure. The heat source is applied here. Forms dry-saturated vapour.
3. Process 3-4: the dry-saturated vapour expands through a turbine. Here, power is generated.
Then the temperature and pressure decrease. Some vapour may undergo condensation as
well.
4. Process 4-1: Wet vapour enters a condenser, which forms a saturated liquid at a constant
pressure.
What is Brayton Cycle?
Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the workings of a constant-pressure heat
engine. The cycle usually runs as an open system. But, for the requirements of thermodynamic
analysis, we consider it as a closed system operation by assuming that exhaust gases are reused
during the process. The process was named after the scientist George Brayton. The idealized
model for the Brayton cycle is as follows:
The cycle contains three components. They are the compressor, mixing chamber and expander.
Brayton engines are usually in the turbine engine type.
Brayton Cycle
The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle utilized in some heat devices. Notably, it is utilized
in gas turbine engines and jet engines. The Brayton cycle pertains to condensing ambient air,
blending the atmosphere with energy, then provoking the combination, which broadens,
performing work. In many Brayton cycle engines, hot air can be regained, warming up the small
air that passes through. This boosts or increases efficiency because less fuel is compelled to
warm up the fresh air. In physics phrases, this Brayton cycle comprises adiabatic compression
and expansion and isobaric heating and chilling and authorizes boosted efficiency in some
different cycles.
Brayton Cycle Process
The Brayton Cycle Process includes or transpires in a modest gas turbine engine configuration,
the air is brought out into a compressor where a pressure build-up arises. The turbocharger
outcome airflow arrives at the combustion compartment, fuel is inoculated into the air and
eruption occurs. The heated combustion commodities arrive at the gas turbine and expand,
generating work. The task required to run the Brayton Cycle Process compressor is taken out
from the turbine’s gross work output; the sediment can be utilized as the engine’s network
production. The Brayton cycle models the progression by: 1 – 2 is the isentropic compression, 2
– 3 is the constant pressure heating, 3 – 4 is the isentropic expansion and 4 – 1 is the constant
pressure warmth dissipation.
Brayton cycles are expressed in terms of pressure-volume and temperature entropy. For this
reasonable configuration, the Brayton cycle defined pressure ratio exemplifies the elevated
distress in the cycle halved by the low pressure in the Brayton Cycle process. Thermodynamic
estimation of this cycle without considerable kinetic energy amends the thermal efficiency of the
equation.
Principle of Brayton Cycle
According to the principle of the Brayton cycle, the air is reduced in a turbo compressor. The
air is then varied with fuel and combustion under continual pressure circumstances in the
combustion chamber. The occurring hot gas is broadened through a turbine to perform work.
Most of the work generated in the turbine is utilized to jog the compressor, the rest can be
utilized to jog auxiliary equipment and develop electricity. This is the principle of the Brayton
cycle.
What is the Difference between Rankine Cycle and Brayton Cycle?
Rankine cycle is a model that describes the performance of a steam turbine, while Brayton cycle
is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the workings of a constant-pressure heat engine. The
key difference between Rankine cycle and Brayton cycle is that the Rankine cycle is a vapour
cycle, whereas the Brayton cycle is a cycle between liquid and vapour phases. Besides, another
difference between Rankine cycle and Brayton cycle is that there are four components in the
Rankine cycle while there are only three components in the Brayton cycle.
