Concrete Technology

CE(PC)404

Module 1 Cement
Manufacturing of cement

Steps in Cement Manufacturing

1. Raw Material Extrac on

 The main raw materials are limestone (CaCO₃), clay, sand, and shale.

 These materials are extracted from quarries and mines using blas ng or excava on.

2. Raw Material Crushing and Grinding

 The extracted materials are crushed into smaller pieces using crushers.

 They are then ground into fine powder using ball mills or ver cal roller mills.

3. Propor oning and Blending

 The raw materials are propor oned in correct ra os (e.g., limestone, clay, iron ore).

 They are mixed thoroughly to form a homogeneous raw mix.

4. Prehea ng and Precalcina on

 The raw mix is fed into preheater towers, where hot gases from the kiln heat the mix.

 This removes moisture and starts the chemical reac ons before entering the kiln.

5. Clinker Forma on (Kiln Process)

 The raw mix is fed into a rotary kiln, which operates at 1400-1500°C.

 Inside the kiln, calcina on occurs, and raw materials react to form clinker (small grey
nodules).

 Key chemical reac on: CaCO3→CaO+CO2CaCO₃ \rightarrow CaO + CO₂CaCO3

→CaO+CO2 CaO+SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3→ClinkerCaO + SiO₂ + Al₂O₃ + Fe₂O₃ \rightarrow
ClinkerCaO+SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3→Clinker

6. Cooling and Clinker Storage

 The hot clinker is rapidly cooled using air blowers or water spray to stabilize its
proper es.

 It is stored in silos before further processing.

7. Cement Grinding
  Clinker is mixed with gypsum (to control se ng me) and other addi ves (like
pozzolana or slag).

 The mixture is ground into fine powder in ball mills or ver cal roller mills.

 The final product is cement.

8. Packing and Distribu on

 The finished cement is packed in bags (50kg) or bulk and transported to customers.

Oxides composi on of cement and the calcula on of compounds

Oxide Composi on of Cement

Cement consists of several oxides that contribute to its proper es. The major oxides present
in Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) are:

Bogue Equa ons for Compound Calcula on

Using the oxide composi on, the following equa ons es mate the percentage of cement
compounds:
 1. Tricalcium Silicate (C₃S):
C3S=4.07(CaO)−7.60(SiO2)−6.72(Al2O3)−1.43(Fe2O3)−2.85(SO3)C₃S = 4.07(CaO) -
7.60(SiO₂) - 6.72(Al₂O₃) - 1.43(Fe₂O₃) - 2.85(SO₃)C3S=4.07(CaO)−7.60(SiO2)−6.72(Al2
O3)−1.43(Fe2O3)−2.85(SO3)

2. Dicalcium Silicate (C₂S): C2S=2.87(SiO2)−0.754(C3S)C₂S = 2.87(SiO₂) - 0.754(C₃S)C2

S=2.87(SiO2)−0.754(C3S)

3. Tricalcium Aluminate (C₃A): C3A=2.65(Al2O3)−1.69(Fe2O3)C₃A = 2.65(Al₂O₃) -

1.69(Fe₂O₃)C3A=2.65(Al2O3)−1.69(Fe2O3)

4. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C₄AF): C4AF=3.04(Fe2O3)C₄AF = 3.04(Fe₂O₃)C4

AF=3.04(Fe2O3)

Where:

 CaO, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, SO₃ are expressed as percentage (%) of total cement
composi on.

Heat of hydra on

The heat of hydra on is the heat released when cement reacts with water during the se ng
and hardening process. This reac on is exothermic, meaning it generates heat, which can
significantly affect the strength development and durability of concrete.

Factors Affec ng Heat of Hydra on

1. Cement Composi on – Higher C₃S and C₃A content increases heat.

2. Water-to-Cement Ra o (W/C Ra o) – Higher water reduces heat genera on.

3. Fineness of Cement – Finer cement par cles react faster, increasing heat.

4. Curing Temperature – Higher temperatures accelerate hydra on.

5. Presence of Addi ves – Fly ash or slag can reduce heat genera on.

Effects of Heat of Hydra on

 Beneficial in cold weather: Prevents concrete from freezing.

 Problema c in massive structures: Excess heat can cause cracking

Types of cement

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC):

A widely used hydraulic cement made from limestone, clay, and gypsum, used for
general construc on purposes due to its high strength and durability.
 Composi on:
 Clinker + Gypsum (3-5%)
 High in C₃S (Tricalcium Silicate) for early strength

Uses:
 General construc on, bridges, roads, buildings.
 Suitable for structures requiring high strength

Rapid Hardening Cement (RHC):

A type of cement that gains strength quickly due to finer grinding and higher C₃S
content, commonly used in road repairs and precast concrete.

Composi on:
 Higher C₃S content than OPC.
 Finer grinding for faster reac on.

Uses:
 Used in precast concrete, road repairs, bridge decks, and cold weather construc on.
 Gains strength quicker than OPC (3-day strength of OPC achieved in 1 day).

Low Heat Cement (LHC):

A cement with reduced heat of hydra on, achieved by lowering C₃A and C₃S content,
used in mass concrete structures like dams to prevent cracking.

Composi on:
 Low C₃A (<5%) and high C₂S for reduced heat of hydra on.
 Contains fly ash or pozzolanic materials.

Uses:
 Used in mass concrete structures like dams, retaining walls, and large founda ons.
 Prevents thermal cracking due to excessive heat.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC):

A blended cement containing pozzolanic materials (fly ash, volcanic ash), improving
durability, chemical resistance, and workability.

Composi on:
 OPC Clinker + 15-35% pozzolanic materials (fly ash, volcanic ash, silica fumes).
 Proper es:
 Lower heat of hydra on.
 Improved durability and resistance to sulphates & aggressive environments.

Uses:
 Used in marine structures, sewage treatment plants, bridges, and plastering.
 Eco-friendly and widely used in sustainable construc on.

Portland Slag Cement (PSC):

A cement blended with granulated blast furnace slag (25-70%), enhancing sulphate
resistance and durability, used in marine and industrial structures.

Composi on:
 OPC Clinker + 25-70% blast furnace slag (byproduct of steel manufacturing).

Proper es:
 Be er resistance to sulphates, chlorides, and alkalis than OPC.
 Low permeability and higher durability.

Uses:
 Used in marine structures, underground construc on, bridges, and coastal projects.

Sulphate Resis ng Cement (SRC):

A cement with low C₃A content, providing high resistance to sulphate a ack, suitable
for sewage treatment plants, marine structures, and founda ons in sulphate-rich
soil.

Composi on:
 Low C₃A (<5%) to resist sulphate a ack.

Proper es:
 High resistance to sulphate-rich environments (like sewage, seawater, and chemical
plants).
 Prevents expansion and cracking due to sulphate reac on.

Uses:
 Used in marine structures, founda ons in sulphate-rich soils, sewage treatment
plants, and chemical industries.
 High Alumina Cement (HAC):
A fast-se ng and heat-resistant cement made from bauxite and limestone,
commonly used in high-temperature environments like furnaces and refractory
linings.

Composi on:
 High Al₂O₃ (>35%) derived from bauxite and limestone.
 Rapid hardening due to high C₃A content.

Proper es:
 Heat-resistant and refractory (withstands high temperatures).
 Resistant to chemical a acks.

Uses:
 Used in furnaces, kilns, refractory linings, and marine structures.
 Not used in mass concrete due to strength reduc on over me.
Composi on:
 Used in furnaces, kilns, refractory linings, and marine structures.
 Not used in mass concrete due to strength reduc on over me.

Expansive Cement:
A special cement that expands slightly a er se ng, preven ng shrinkage cracks,
used in grou ng, joint sealing, and repair works.

Composi on:
 Contains CaO (free lime), C₃A, and gypsum, which cause controlled expansion.

Proper es:
 Prevents shrinkage cracks in concrete.
 Expands slightly a er se ng (useful for grou ng)..

Uses:
 Used in repair works, grou ng of machine founda ons, and sealing joints in water-
retaining structures.

White Cement:
A decora ve cement free from iron oxide, providing aesthe c appeal, used in
architectural finishes, le grouts, and ar s c concrete structures.

Composi on:
 Made from pure limestone and kaolin clay (free from iron oxide).
 Proper es:
 Higher cost than OPC due to refined raw materials.
 Aesthe c and decora ve use.

Uses:
 Used in architectural works, decora ve concrete, le grouts, and wall finishes.
 Also used in precast concrete and ar s c structures

Test on cement- fineness, consistency, ini al se ng me & final se ng me, soundness test,
strength test, specific gravity of cement, storage of cement.

Fineness Test

Defini on:
This test checks how fine or coarse the cement par cles are.

Objec ve:

 To ensure proper hydra on and strength development.

 Finer cement gives be er bonding and strength.

Common Method:

 Sieve Test (Using a 90-micron sieve, not more than 10% residue should remain).

2. Consistency Test

Defini on:
This test determines the right amount of water needed to make a paste of cement with
standard consistency.

Objec ve:

 To find out how much water (in %) is required for proper mixing.

 Helps in maintaining uniform strength.

Common Method:

 Vicat Apparatus (A plunger should penetrate 5-7mm from the bo om in 30 sec).

3. Ini al Se ng Time Test

Defini on:
The ini al se ng me is the me taken for cement to start hardening a er mixing with
water.

Objec ve:

 To ensure cement remains workable for a sufficient me before it starts se ng.

 Should not set too fast or too slow.

Standard Value:

 30 minutes (minimum) for OPC.

4. Final Se ng Time Test

Defini on:
The final se ng me is the me taken for cement to completely harden and lose plas city.

Objec ve:

 Ensures proper se ng before applying load.

 Helps in scheduling construc on work.

Standard Value:

 600 minutes (10 hours) maximum for OPC.

Common Method:

 Vicat Apparatus (Needle should not penetrate more than 0.5mm).

5. Soundness Test

Defini on:
This test checks if cement expands too much a er se ng, which can cause cracks.

Objec ve:

 To ensure stability and avoid cracks a er se ng.

 Detects excess lime or magnesia, which causes expansion.

Common Method:

 Le Chatelier Test (Expanding limit: ≤10 mm for OPC).

6. Strength Test (Compressive Strength Test)

Defini on:
This test measures the strength of hardened cement mortar a er a specific me.

Objec ve:

 Ensures cement can bear loads without breaking.

 Helps in choosing the right grade of cement.

Standard Strength Values:

 3 Days: 16 MPa

 7 Days: 22 MPa

 28 Days: 33, 43, or 53 MPa (Depending on OPC grade).

Common Method:

 Compressive Tes ng Machine (CTM) on cement-sand mortar cubes.

7. Specific Gravity Test

Defini on:
It measures the density of cement compared to water.

Objec ve:

 Ensures consistency in mix design.

 Helps in calcula ng correct material propor ons.

Standard Value:

 3.1 to 3.15 (Cement is 3.1-3.15 mes heavier than water).

Common Method:

 Le Chatelier Flask Method.

8. Storage of Cement

Defini on:
Proper storage ensures cement remains fresh and effec ve.

Objec ve:

 Prevents moisture absorp on, which causes lumps.

  Maintains strength and usability.

Storage Tips:

 Store in dry, air ght rooms.

 Keep bags on wooden pallets, not directly on the floor.

 Stack bags not more than 10 high to prevent lumping.

 Use older stock first (FIFO method).

Module 2 Aggregates
Aggregate is a granular material such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, or recycled concrete
used in construc on. It is a key ingredient in concrete and mortar, providing strength,
stability, and durability.

Types of Aggregates:

1. Fine Aggregate – Passes through a 4.75 mm sieve (e.g., sand).

2. Coarse Aggregate – Retained on a 4.75 mm sieve (e.g., gravel, crushed stone).

Func ons of Aggregates in Concrete:

 Provides bulk and strength to concrete.

 Reduces shrinkage and cracking.

 Improves workability and durability.

Classifica on of Aggregates

Based on Source

1. Natural Aggregates – Obtained from river beds, quarries, or gravel pits (e.g., sand,
gravel, crushed stone).

2. Ar ficial Aggregates – Manufactured or processed materials (e.g., fly ash

aggregates, expanded clay).

Based on Size

1. Fine Aggregates – Passes through a 4.75 mm sieve (e.g., sand).

2. Coarse Aggregates – Retained on a 4.75 mm sieve (e.g., crushed stone, gravel).

Based on Shape
 1. Rounded – Found in river beds, be er workability.

2. Angular – Crushed stone, higher strength.

3. Flaky – Thin and wide, reduces strength.

4. Elongated – Longer in one direc on, affects workability.

5. Irregular – Mixed shapes, commonly used in construc on.

Based on Density

1. Normal Weight Aggregates – 1400-2500 kg/m³ (e.g., gravel, crushed stone).

2. Lightweight Aggregates – <1400 kg/m³ (e.g., pumice, expanded clay).

3. Heavyweight Aggregates – >2500 kg/m³ (e.g., barite, magne te, used in radia on
shielding).

2. Grading of Aggregates

Grading ensures proper par cle distribu on for strength and workability. It is classified as:

1. Well-Graded Aggregate – Contains all sizes, good for dense concrete.

2. Gap-Graded Aggregate – Missing some intermediate sizes, used for decora ve

concrete.

3. Uniformly Graded Aggregate – Mostly one size, poor workability.

4. Open-Graded Aggregate – Large voids, used for permeable concrete.

Test for grading: Sieve Analysis Test (IS 383).

3. Alkali-Aggregate Reac on (AAR)

A chemical reac on between alkalies in cement and silica or carbonate in aggregates,

causing expansion and cracks.

Types:

1. Alkali-Silica Reac on (ASR) – Silica reacts with alkali, forms gel, absorbs water, and
expands.

2. Alkali-Carbonate Reac on (ACR) – Carbonate aggregates react with alkali, leading to

cracks.

Preven on:
  Use low-alkali cement.

 Use pozzolanic materials (fly ash, silica fume).

 Select non-reac ve aggregates.

4. Deleterious Substances in Aggregates

Harmful substances reduce concrete quality:

Substance Effect

Clay & Silt Reduces bonding, increases shrinkage

Organic Ma er Weakens concrete, delays se ng

Salt & Chlorides Causes corrosion in reinforcement

Mica & So Par cles Reduces strength

Coal & Lignite Causes surface staining & weakness

Test for harmful substances: Silt Content Test (max 3% for fine aggregates).

5. Physical Proper es of Aggregates

Property Defini on Importance

Measure of par cle size

Fineness Modulus Determines mix design
distribu on

Mass of aggregates per unit

Bulk Density Affects concrete weight
volume

Specific Gravity Ra o of density to water density Indicates aggregate quality

Porosity Volume of voids in aggregates Affects water absorp on

Absorp on Water absorbed by aggregates Impacts mix water content

Impact & Crushing Important for load-bearing

Resistance to impact/crushing
Strength concrete

6. Tes ng of Aggregates
1. Fineness Modulus (FM) Test

Defini on: Indicates aggregate coarseness or fineness, calculated from sieve analysis.
Formula:

FM = \frac{\text{Sum of cumula ve % retained on standard sieves}}{100}

Standard Values:

 Fine Aggregates: 2.3 - 3.1

 Coarse Aggregates: 6.5 - 8.0

2. Bulking of Sand Test

Defini on: Fine aggregates increase in volume due to moisture.

Objec ve: Prevent excess water usage in concrete.
Test: Measured using water displacement method.
Standard Value: Can be 20-30% increase in volume.

3. Specific Gravity Test

Defini on: Ra o of aggregate density to water density.

Test Method: Pycnometer bo le test.
Standard Value: 2.6 - 2.9 for good quality aggregates.

4. Sieve Analysis Test

Defini on: Determines par cle size distribu on.

Objec ve: Ensures proper grading for dense and strong concrete.
Method: Passing aggregates through standard sieves.

5. Flakiness & Elonga on Index Test

Defini on: Determines flatness (Flakiness Index) and length (Elonga on Index) of
aggregates.
Objec ve:

 Avoid flaky (thin) and elongated (long) aggregates, which reduce strength.

 Flaky and elongated par cles should be <30% of total aggregates.

7. Quality of Water for Mixing & Curing

Defini on:

Water should be clean, potable, and free from impuri es.

Harmful Impuri es in Water:

 Acids & Alkalis – Cause strength loss.

 Chlorides & Sulphates – Lead to corrosion of reinforcement.

 Organic Ma er & Oils – Reduce se ng and strength.

Use of Sea Water for Mixing Concrete

 Not recommended for reinforced concrete (RCC) due to chloride corrosion.

Can be used in plain concrete (PCC) if no fresh water is available.

 Reduces ini al strength, but may increase long-term strength.

Module 3: Proper es of fresh concrete

Fresh concrete is the newly mixed concrete that is in a plas c, workable state
before it begins to set. It can be easily molded, placed, compacted, and finished into
the desired shape.

Key Proper es of Fresh Concrete:

1. Workability – Ease of mixing, placing, and compac ng.

2. Cohesion – Ability to hold all ingredients together without segrega on.

3. Plas city – Ability to flow and take the shape of the formwork.

4. Se ng Time – The me required before it starts hardening.

Fresh concrete should be uniform, free from segrega on and bleeding, and should
not set too quickly or too slowly.

Workability of Concrete

Defini on:

Workability refers to the ease with which fresh concrete can be mixed, placed, compacted,
and finished without segrega on or loss of homogeneity.

Importance of Workability:

 Ensures proper compac on without excessive effort.

 Prevents segrega on and bleeding.

  Helps in uniform strength development.

1. Factors Affec ng Workability

Factor Effect on Workability

Water-Cement Ra o Higher water = be er workability but reduces strength.

Aggregate Size &

Rounded aggregates improve workability; angular reduce it.
Shape

Grading of Aggregates Well-graded aggregates improve workability.

Cement Content More cement increases workability but also cost.

Admixtures Plas cizers and superplas cizers enhance workability.

Longer mixing improves workability but too long may cause

Mixing Time
segrega on.

2. Segrega on and Bleeding

Segrega on:

The separa on of coarse aggregates from the cement paste due to improper handling.
Causes:

 Excessive vibra on or compac on.

 Too much water in the mix.

 Poorly graded aggregates.

Preven on:

 Use well-graded aggregates.

 Maintain proper water-cement ra o.

 Avoid excessive vibra on.

Bleeding:

The upward movement of water in fresh concrete, leaving a weak surface layer.
Causes:

 High water content.

  Poorly graded fine aggregates.

 Excessive compac on.

Preven on:

 Reduce water-cement ra o.

 Use finer cement or mineral admixtures.

 Avoid excessive vibra on.

3. Tests for Workability

1. Slump Test

Purpose: Measures consistency and workability of concrete.

Procedure:

 Fill a cone-shaped mold in 3 layers.

 Tamp each layer 25 mes.

 Li the cone and measure the slump (height reduc on).

Types of Slump:

 True Slump – Even se lement, good workability.

 Shear Slump – Slants to one side, indicates lack of cohesion.

 Collapse Slump – Completely falls, too wet mix.

Standard Values:

 High workability: Slump > 150 mm

 Medium workability: Slump 50-100 mm

 Low workability: Slump < 25 mm

2. Compac ng Factor Test

Purpose: Measures compac on level under gravity (for low-workability concrete).

Procedure:

 Fill concrete in an upper hopper and allow it to fall into a lower cylinder.

 Measure the weight of par ally compacted and fully compacted concrete.
  Formula:
Compac ngFactor=Par ally Compacted WeightFully Compacted WeightCompac ng
Factor = \frac{\text{Par ally Compacted Weight}}{\text{Fully Compacted
Weight}}Compac ngFactor=Fully Compacted WeightPar ally Compacted Weight

Standard Values:

 High workability: 0.9 – 1.0

 Medium workability: 0.85 – 0.9

 Low workability: 0.7 – 0.85

3. Vee-Bee Consistometer Test

Purpose: Measures workability in s ff concrete by recording me taken to reshape

concrete.

Procedure:

 Fill the concrete in a slump cone inside the Vee-Bee apparatus.

 Remove the cone and apply vibra on un l the concrete fully spreads.

 Measure the me (Vee-Bee me in seconds).

Standard Values:

 Very high workability: 0 – 3 sec

 Medium workability: 5 – 10 sec

 Very low workability: > 20 sec

4. Flow Table Test

Purpose: Measures flowability and consistency of high-workability concrete.

Procedure:

 Place fresh concrete on a flow table.

 Li the mold and drop the table 15 mes.

 Measure spread diameter of concrete.

 Normal range: 50-80% flow.

Summary Table of Workability Tests

Test Purpose Standard Value

Measures consistency & 25-150 mm (depends on

Slump Test
workability workability)

Compac ng Factor
Measures compac on ability 0.7 - 1.0
Test

Measures workability in s ff
Vee-Bee Test 0 - 20 sec
concrete

Flow Table Test Measures flowability 50 - 80% flow

Final Notes:

 Slump test is the most common for site work.

 Compac ng factor test is used for dry mixes.

 Vee-Bee test is best for very s ff concrete.

 Flow table test is used for high-flow concrete.

Module 4: Proper es of Hardened concrete

Hardened concrete is concrete that has set, gained strength, and achieved its final solid
form. Its proper es determine its strength, durability, and performance in structures.

1. Strength of Concrete

(a) Compressive Strength

 Defini on: The ability of concrete to resist crushing under axial load.

 Test Method: Compression Test on a Cube or Cylinder (IS 516).

 Formula: fc=PAf_c = \frac{P}{A}fc=AP where,

o fcf_cfc = Compressive strength (MPa)

o PPP = Load at failure (N)

o AAA = Area of specimen (mm²)

 Typical Value: 20-40 MPa for normal concrete.

(b) Tensile Strength

 Defini on: The ability of concrete to resist tension (pulling forces).

 Test Methods:

1. Split Tensile Test – Cylinder split under compression (IS 5816).

2. Flexural Strength Test – Beam bending test (IS 516).

 Typical Value: 1/10th of compressive strength (~2-5 MPa).

(c) Flexural Strength

 Defini on: The ability of concrete to resist bending or cracking.

 Test Method: Two-Point Loading Test on Beams (IS 516).

 Formula: fr=PLbd2f_r = \frac{PL}{bd^2}fr=bd2PL where,

o frf_rfr = Flexural strength (MPa)

o PPP = Load at failure (N)

o LLL = Span length (mm)

o b,db, db,d = Beam dimensions (mm)

 Typical Value: 3-5 MPa for normal concrete.

2. Stress-Strain Characteris cs

 Stress-Strain Curve: Shows how concrete deforms under load.

 Behavior:

o Elas c (linear) in low stress.

o Non-linear (plas c) before failure.

o Bri le Failure – No warning before breaking.

3. Modulus of Elas city (E)

 Defini on: The ra o of stress to strain in elas c (linear) range.

 Formula: E=σϵE = \frac{\sigma}{\epsilon}E=ϵσ where,

o σ\sigmaσ = Stress (MPa)

o ϵ\epsilonϵ = Strain (no unit)

  Typical Value: 20-40 GPa for normal concrete.

4. Poisson’s Ra o (ν)

 Defini on: Ra o of lateral strain to longitudinal strain.

 Formula: ν=ϵlateralϵlongitudinal\nu =
\frac{\epsilon_{\text{lateral}}}{\epsilon_{\text{longitudinal}}}ν=ϵlongitudinalϵlateral

 Typical Value: 0.15 - 0.25.

5. Creep of Concrete

 Defini on: Slow, long-term deforma on under sustained load.

 Effects:

o Causes deflec on in beams and column shortening.

o Can increase over me (even years).

 Preven on:

o Use low water-cement ra o.

o Proper curing and mix design.

6. Shrinkage of Concrete

 Defini on: Volume reduc on due to loss of moisture.

 Types:

1. Plas c Shrinkage – Before se ng, due to rapid water loss.

2. Drying Shrinkage – A er se ng, due to evapora on.

 Effects:

o Causes cracks in slabs and walls.

 Preven on:

o Curing properly to retain moisture.

o Use shrinkage-reducing admixtures.

7. Permeability of Concrete

 Defini on: The ability of concrete to allow water, air, or other substances to pass
through.

 Effects:

o Leads to reinforcement corrosion.

o Reduces durability.

 Preven on:

o Low water-cement ra o.

o Use waterproofing agents.

8. Microcracking of Concrete

 Defini on: Small internal cracks formed due to stress, shrinkage, or thermal
changes.

 Causes:

o Improper curing.

o High loads.

o Temperature varia ons.

 Effects:

o Weakens structure over me.

o Increases permeability.

 Preven on:

o Proper mix design.

o Use fiber reinforcement.

Final Notes

 Compressive strength is the most cri cal property.

 Tensile strength is much lower than compressive strength.

 Modulus of elas city affects how much concrete deforms under load.

 Shrinkage, creep, and permeability affect long-term durability.

 Module 5: Strength of concrete
Curing, Water-Cement Ra o, Gel-Space Ra o & Maturity of Concrete

1. Curing of Concrete

Defini on:
Curing is the process of maintaining moisture and temperature in freshly placed concrete to
ensure proper hydra on and strength development.

Objec ves:

 Prevent moisture loss.

 Achieve maximum strength.

 Improve durability and reduce shrinkage cracks.

Methods of Curing

Method Descrip on Suitable For

Water is stored on the surface of

Ponding Slabs, pavements
concrete

Sprinkling/Mis ng Water is sprayed at intervals Ver cal structures

Covering with wet hessian cloth,

Wet Covering Beams, columns
burlap, or sand

Applying curing compounds Areas where water curing

Membrane Curing
(wax, resin) is difficult

Steam is used to accelerate

Steam Curing Precast elements
hydra on

Curing by Covering with

Plas c prevents water loss Large concrete surfaces
Plas c Sheets

Curing Dura on:

 Minimum 7 days (for normal concrete).

 14 days or more (for high-strength concrete).

2. Water-Cement Ra o (W/C Ra o)
Defini on:
The ra o of water to cement by weight in a concrete mix.

Formula:

W/C Ra o=Weight of WaterWeight of Cement\text{W/C Ra o} = \frac{\text{Weight of

Water}}{\text{Weight of Cement}}W/C Ra o=Weight of CementWeight of Water

Effects on Concrete:

 Lower W/C ra o → High strength & durability but less workability.

 Higher W/C ra o → More workability but lower strength & more shrinkage.

W/C Ra o Effect

0.25 - 0.40 High strength, low workability

0.40 - 0.50 Balanced strength & workability

> 0.50 Weak, permeable concrete

Ideal W/C ra o for different works:

 0.45 - 0.50 (for reinforced concrete).

 0.40 - 0.45 (for high-strength concrete).

3. Gel-Space Ra o

Defini on:
The ra o of the volume of hydrated cement gel to the total volume of the space occupied
by the gel and capillary pores.

Formula:

Gel-Space Ra o=Volume of Cement GelTotal Volume (Gel + Capillary Pores)\text{Gel-Space

Ra o} = \frac{\text{Volume of Cement Gel}}{\text{Total Volume (Gel + Capillary Pores)}}Gel-
Space Ra o=Total Volume (Gel + Capillary Pores)Volume of Cement Gel

Effects:

 Higher Gel-Space Ra o → Higher strength.

 Lower Gel-Space Ra o → More pores & weaker concrete.

Strength Rela onship:

fc=k(VgVt)nf_c = k \le ( \frac{V_g}{V_t} \right)^nfc=k(VtVg)n

where,

 fcf_cfc = Compressive strength,

 VgV_gVg = Volume of gel,

 VtV_tVt = Total volume.

Typical gel-space ra os:

 0.5 → Strength ~ 15 MPa

 0.6 → Strength ~ 35 MPa

 0.7 → Strength ~ 45 MPa

4. Maturity of Concrete

Defini on:
Maturity is a measure of concrete’s strength gain over me, considering both temperature
and curing dura on.

Formula (Nurse-Saul Equa on):

M=∑(T−T0)×tM = \sum (T - T_0) \ mes tM=∑(T−T0)×t

where,

 MMM = Maturity index (°C-hours or °C-days).

 TTT = Average concrete temperature (°C).

 T0T_0T0 = Reference temperature (usually -10°C).

 t = Time in hours or days.

Importance:

 Helps in predic ng strength at early ages.

 Used for early formwork removal in cold climates.

 Improves quality control in construc on.

Final Summary:

Concept Defini on Effect on Concrete

Curing Moisture reten on for hydra on Increases strength & durability

Concept Defini on Effect on Concrete

Water-Cement Affects strength, workability, &

Ra o of water to cement
Ra o durability

Higher ra o → stronger
Gel-Space Ra o Ra o of gel volume to total space
concrete

Strength development based on me & Helps in es ma ng concrete

Maturity
temperature strength

Module 6 Admixtures
Admixtures in Concrete

1. Defini on of Admixtures

Admixtures are chemical or mineral substances added to concrete before or during mixing
to enhance its proper es, such as workability, se ng me, strength, or durability.

2. Types of Admixtures and Their Uses

Type of Admixture Purpose Examples

Plas cizers (Water Improve workability without Lignosulfonates, Hydroxylated

Reducers) increasing water content carboxylic acids

Superplas cizers (High- Greatly increase workability or Polycarboxylates, Sulfonated

Range Water Reducers) reduce water-cement ra o melamine-formaldehyde

Speed up se ng and early Calcium chloride, Sodium

Accelerators
strength gain nitrate

Delay se ng me (for hot Gypsum, Sugar, Sodium

Retarders
weather concre ng) gluconate

Introduce ny air bubbles to

Natural wood resins, Vinsol
Air-Entraining Agents improve freeze-thaw
resin
resistance

Improve strength, durability, Fly ash, Silica fume,

Pozzolanic Admixtures
and reduce heat of hydra on Metakaolin
Type of Admixture Purpose Examples

Prevent reinforcement Calcium nitrite, Sodium

Corrosion Inhibitors
corrosion benzoate

Improve adhesion between old

Bonding Admixtures Polymer latex, Epoxy resins
and new concrete

Shrinkage-Reducing Reduce drying shrinkage and Polyethylene glycol, Propylene

Admixtures cracking glycol

Sodium silicate, Calcium

Waterproofing Admixtures Reduce permeability
stearate

3. Superplas cizers

Defini on:

Superplas cizers are high-range water reducers that allow significant improvement in
workability without adding extra water.

Uses:

 Reduce water-cement ra o by 25-30% without losing workability.

 Produce high-strength concrete.

 Useful for pumping concrete and self-compac ng concrete.

Examples:

 Polycarboxylate Ether (PCE) – Most advanced, best for high-performance concrete.

 Sulfonated Naphthalene Formaldehyde (SNF) – Good for ready-mix concrete.

 Sulfonated Melamine Formaldehyde (SMF) – Used in precast elements.

4. Plas cizers (Water Reducers)

Defini on:

Plas cizers improve workability by reducing water demand by 10-15%.

Uses:

 Helps in placing and compac ng concrete easily.

 Reduces segrega on and bleeding.

  Used in moderate-strength concrete.

Examples:

 Lignosulfonates – Cheapest and commonly used.

 Hydroxycarboxylic Acids – Improve workability.

5. Bonding Admixtures

Defini on:

Bonding admixtures increase the adhesion between old and new concrete surfaces.

Uses:

 Used in repair works and concrete overlays.

 Improves durability and strength of joints.

Examples:

 Polymer Latex (Styrene-Butadiene Rubber – SBR) – Increases adhesion and

flexibility.

 Epoxy Resins – High strength bonding for structural repairs.

Final Summary:

Admixture Type Main Func on Best Used For

High workability without extra High-strength & self-compac ng

Superplas cizers
water concrete

Moderate water reduc on &

Plas cizers General concrete improvement
workability

Improves adhesion between

Bonding Admixtures Repair works & overlays
concrete layers

Accelerators Speeds up se ng me Cold weather concre ng

Retarders Delays se ng me Hot weather concre ng

Air-Entraining Agents Improves freeze-thaw resistance Roads & pavements

Shrinkage Reducers Reduces shrinkage cracks Large concrete slabs

Admixture Type Main Func on Best Used For

Waterproofing
Reduces permeability Water tanks, basements
Admixtures

Module 7 Mix Design

1. Defini on & Objec ve of Mix Design

Concrete mix design is the process of selec ng suitable materials and determining their
propor ons to achieve the required strength, durability, and workability at the lowest cost.

Objec ves:

 Achieve desired strength and durability.

 Ensure workability for proper placing and compac on.

 Minimize cost while maintaining quality.

 Reduce shrinkage, permeability, and cracking.

2. Factors Influencing Mix Propor on

Factor Effect on Mix Design

Higher grade → Lower water-cement ra o & more

Grade of Concrete
cement

Water-Cement Ra o (W/C
Lower W/C → Higher strength, less workability
Ra o)

Workability More workability → Higher slump, more water/admixture

Exposure Condi ons Severe condi ons → Need for lower W/C and durability

Maximum Size of Aggregate Larger aggregate → Less cement & lower shrinkage

Type of Cement Different cement types affect se ng & strength

Use of Admixtures Can improve strength, durability, and workability

3. Mix Design as per IS 10262:2019

IS 10262:2019 provides guidelines for mix propor oning, considering the use of admixtures
and different exposure condi ons.
Step-by-Step Mix Design Procedure

Step 1: Define Requirements

 Grade of concrete (e.g., M20, M30, M40).

 Exposure condi on (mild, moderate, severe, very severe, extreme).

 Workability required (slump value).

 Maximum aggregate size (10mm, 20mm, etc.).

 Type of cement and admixtures used.

Step 2: Selec on of Target Strength

Target Strength=fck+1.65×σ\text{Target Strength} = f_{ck} + 1.65 \ mes

\sigmaTarget Strength=fck+1.65×σ

where,

 fckf_{ck}fck = Characteris c compressive strength (MPa).

 σ\sigmaσ = Standard devia on (MPa).

Step 3: Water-Cement Ra o Selec on

 Based on exposure condi ons as per IS 456:2000.

Step 4: Selec on of Water Content

 For 20mm aggregate, standard water content = 186 kg/m³ (adjustable with
admixtures).

Step 5: Calcula on of Cement Content

Cement=Water ContentW/C Ra o\text{Cement} = \frac{\text{Water Content}}{\text{W/C

Ra o}}Cement=W/C Ra oWater Content

 Must sa sfy the minimum cement content given in IS 456:2000.

Step 6: Fine and Coarse Aggregate Propor on

 Using IS 383:2016 grading curves.

Step 7: Adjustments with Admixtures

 Superplas cizers reduce water demand by 20-30%.

 Adjust mix design accordingly.

4. Example: M30 Mix Design (Without Admixture)

Step Calcula on

Grade of
M30
Concrete

fck+1.65×5=30+8.25=38.25f_{ck} + 1.65 \ mes 5 = 30 + 8.25 = 38.25fck

Target Strength
+1.65×5=30+8.25=38.25 MPa

Water Content 186 kg/m³

W/C Ra o 0.45 (as per IS 456)

Cement Content 186/0.45=413186 / 0.45 = 413186/0.45=413 kg/m³

Fine Aggregate
35% of total aggregate volume
(FA)

Coarse Aggregate
65% of total aggregate volume
(CA)

Final Propor ons 1 : 1.7 : 2.9 (Cement : FA : CA)

5. Mix Design with Admixtures

 If superplas cizer is used, water content is reduced by 25%.

 Adjust the cement, water, and aggregate accordingly.

Final Summary

Step Key Ac on

1. Define Requirements Grade, exposure, workability

2. Find Target Strength Use formula

3. Choose W/C Ra o Based on IS 456

4. Select Water Content Based on aggregate size

5. Calculate Cement Water/W-C ra o

6. Find Aggregate Ra o As per IS 383

7. Adjust with Admixtures Reduce water accordingly

 Module 8 : Non-destruc ve test
Non-Destruc ve Tes ng (NDT) of Concrete

Non-Destruc ve Tes ng (NDT) methods evaluate the proper es of hardened concrete

without damaging the structure. These tests help in assessing the strength, durability, and
uniformity of concrete.

1. Rebound Hammer Test (Schmidt Hammer Test)

Objec ve:

 To es mate the compressive strength of concrete based on surface hardness.

Principle:

 A spring-controlled plunger impacts the concrete surface, and the rebound distance
(Rebound Number) is measured.

 Higher rebound = Higher Strength

 Lower rebound = Lower Strength

Procedure:

1. Ensure the concrete surface is clean and dry.

2. Hold the hammer perpendicular to the surface.

3. Press un l the hammer impacts and records the rebound number.

4. Take at least 10 readings and calculate the average.

5. Compare results with IS 13311 (Part 2) – 1992 standard charts.

Interpreta on of Results:

Rebound Number Concrete Strength (MPa)

< 20 Very Poor

20 - 30 Fair

30 - 40 Good

> 40 Very Good

Limita ons:

 Surface moisture, carbona on, and age affect readings.

  Measures only surface strength, not internal proper es.

2. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) Test

Objec ve:

 To assess concrete uniformity, strength, and detect cracks/voids using ultrasonic

waves.

Principle:

 A pulse of ultrasonic waves is sent through concrete, and the me taken to travel
between two probes is measured.

 Faster waves = Good quality concrete

 Slower waves = Poor quality or cracked concrete

Procedure:

1. Place the transducer and receiver on opposite sides of the concrete.

2. Apply coupling gel to ensure proper contact.

3. Transmit ultrasonic waves and measure the me of travel.

4. Calculate Pulse Velocity (V): V=LTV = \frac{L}{T}V=TL where,

o VVV = Pulse velocity (m/s)

o LLL = Distance between probes (m)

o TTT = Time taken by pulse (s)

5. Compare with IS 13311 (Part 1) – 1992 standard values.

Interpreta on of Results:

Pulse Velocity (km/s) Concrete Quality

> 4.5 Excellent

3.5 - 4.5 Good

3.0 - 3.5 Medium

< 3.0 Poor (cracks/voids may exist)

Limita ons:

 Requires proper surface contact and skilled opera on.

  Reinforcement bars can distort readings.

3. Quality Control of Concrete

Objec ve:

 To ensure consistent strength and durability of concrete in produc on and

construc on.

Methods:

1. Sampling & Tes ng:

o Concrete is sampled as per IS 1199.

o Workability tests (Slump, Compac on Factor).

o Cube strength tests (7-day & 28-day compressive strength).

2. Acceptance Criteria (IS 456:2000):

o Concrete is acceptable if:

 Average strength of 3 cubes > target strength.

 No individual cube strength is less than (f_ck - 3) MPa.

3. Frequency of Tes ng:

o At least 1 cube test per 5m³ of concrete.

o Minimum 3 cubes per batch.

Final Summary:

Key Parameter
Test Purpose IS Code
Measured

Surface strength IS 13311 (Part

Rebound Hammer Test Rebound Number
assessment 2)

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Internal defects and IS 13311 (Part

Pulse Velocity (m/s)
(UPV) quality 1)

Cube Strength Test Compressive strength Strength (MPa) IS 516

Slump Test Workability Slump (mm) IS 1199

 Module 9 : Special Concrete
Special Types of Concrete

1. Ferrocement

 Defini on: A type of thin reinforced concrete made with wire mesh and cement
mortar.

 Proper es:

o High strength-to-weight ra o.

o High durability and crack resistance.

o Can be molded into thin structures.

 Uses:

o Boats, tanks, water pipes, and prefabricated structures.

2. Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

 Defini on: Concrete reinforced with small, uniformly distributed fibers to improve
toughness.

 Types of Fibers Used:

o Steel fibers – Improve tensile and impact strength.

o Glass fibers – Reduce cracks.

o Polypropylene fibers – Reduce plas c shrinkage cracks.

o Carbon fibers – Used for high-strength applica ons.

 Uses:

o Industrial floors, pavements, earthquake-resistant structures.

3. Polymer Concrete

 Defini on: Concrete in which polymer resins (epoxy, polyester, acrylic, etc.) replace
cement as a binder.

 Proper es:

o High strength, water resistance, and chemical resistance.

o Fast se ng me.
  Uses:

o Bridge decks, airport runways, repair works.

4. Sulphur Concrete

 Defini on: Concrete where sulphur replaces cement as a binder.

 Proper es:

o High acid and corrosion resistance.

o Good waterproofing proper es.

o Can be reheated and reused.

 Uses:

o Chemical plants, marine structures, sewer pipes.

5. Self-Compac ng Concrete (SCC)

 Defini on: A highly flowable concrete that can compact itself without vibra on.

 Proper es:

o High fluidity and workability.

o Reduces labor and noise (no need for vibrators).

o Be er surface finish.

 Uses:

o Dense reinforcement structures, bridges, tunnels.

Concrete Produc on Methods

6. Ready Mix Concrete (RMC)

 Defini on: Concrete mixed in a batching plant and delivered to site in a transit
mixer.

 Types of RMC:

o Transit Mixed Concrete – Mixed during transport.

o Shrink Mixed Concrete – Par ally mixed at plant, completed at site.

 o Central Mixed Concrete – Fully mixed at plant.

 Advantages:

o Be er quality control and less wastage.

o Saves me and labor.

 Uses:

o Large-scale projects, urban construc on.

7. Batching Plant

 Defini on: A facility that produces concrete by accurately measuring ingredients

and mixing them.

 Types of Batching:

o Weight Batching (most accurate, uses scales).

o Volume Batching (less accurate, uses measuring boxes).

 Components of a Batching Plant:

o Cement silos (stores cement).

o Aggregate bins (stores sand, gravel).

o Mixers (drum or pan type).

 Advantages:

o Ensures uniform mixing and consistent quality.

Final Summary

Type of Concrete Main Feature Uses

Ferrocement Wire mesh + mortar Boats, water tanks

Fibre Reinforced Concrete Pavements, earthquake-resistant

Fibers improve toughness
(FRC) structures

Polymer resin replaces

Polymer Concrete Repair works, bridge decks
cement

Sulphur Concrete Sulphur replaces cement Chemical plants, marine structures

Type of Concrete Main Feature Uses

Self-Compac ng Concrete
No vibra on needed High-reinforcement areas
(SCC)

Ready Mix Concrete Pre-mixed concrete,

Large-scale projects
(RMC) delivered to site

Produces high-quality
Batching Plant Commercial construc on
concrete