13.

(a) When will you recommend high alumina cement in preference to low
heat cement?

Cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets, hardens, and

adheres to other materials, binding them together. The most common type is
Portland cement, a hydraulic cement that hardens when water is added. Cement is
a crucial component of concrete and mortar. It's typically a fine powder made from
ground clinker, a material produced by heating limestone and clay minerals in a kiln.

Cement can be classified into 2 large categories: hydraulic cement and non-
hydraulic cement. Hydraulic cement is that which is to be used is combined with
water to be used for its applications. It works by forming insoluble compounds that
harden by hydration. It’s primarily composed of silicates and aluminates of calcium.
Non-hydraulic cement, on the other hand, doesn’t use water but rather sets and
becomes hard due to carbonation (reaction with carbon dioxide air).

Cement can be classified based on its composition, properties, or specific use. Some
of the major classifications include:

 Portland Cement: This is the most common type used worldwide and is the
primary ingredient for concrete and mortar. Portland. Cement can be
classified into 3 types
o Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): The most common type, suitable
for a wide range of general construction purposes. It’s formed by
mixing clinker with gypsum.
o Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC); contains fly ash, pozzolana or
calcinated pozzolana mixed with gypsum
o Portland Slag Cement (PSC): a granulated slag is ground and
Portland clinker
 Rapid Hardening Cement: Contains higher proportions of calcium silicates,
which allows it to gain strength quickly.
 Sulphate-Resisting Cement: Formulated to resist attack from sulphates
present in soil or water, making it suitable for marine or sewage applications.
 Low Heat Cement: Designed to produce less heat during hydration, ideal for
mass concrete pours.
 High Alumina Cement (HAC): A type of hydraulic cement with a high content
of alumina, providing unique properties.
 White Cement: A variant of OPC with low iron oxide content, giving it a white
colour, primarily used for architectural purposes.
High Alumina Cement (HAC)

High alumina cement (HAC), also known as calcium aluminate cement (CAC), is a
hydraulic cement that contains a high percentage of alumina (>32%). It's made by
fusing limestone or chalk with bauxite (a mineral rich in aluminium). The content of
alumina is more than that of Portland cement. HAC was introduced originally by La
Farge and was initially designed for marine construction.

High Alumina Cement comprises the following;

 Alumina (Al2O3): 37-41%

 Lime (Calcium Oxide, CaO): 36-40%
 Iron Oxide (Fe2O3): 9-10%
 Silica (SiO2): 3-8%
 Titanium Dioxide (TiO2): 1.5-2%
 Magnesium Oxide (MgO): 1%
 Insoluble Residue: 1%

This composition of minerals is what makes HAC have the following properties

 Rapid setting and high early strength: HAC gains strength very quickly,
making it ideal for fast-track construction projects or emergency repairs. (3.5
hrs to 5 hrs)
 High resistance to chemical attack: It's particularly resistant to acids,
sulphates, and chlorides, making it suitable for use in aggressive chemical
environments.
 Excellent heat resistance: HAC can withstand high temperatures, which is
why it's often used in refractory concrete.
 Corrosion resistance: It protects steel reinforcement from corrosion,
especially in environments with high chloride content.
 HAC has a rate of consolidation and crystallisation, resulting in a quick rise in
strength when compared to Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). High Alumina cement
reaches considerable strength within a short timeframe, achieving a compressive
strength of 40 N/mm² after 1 day and approximately 50 N/mm² after 3 days.
 HAC doesn’t expand while it is setting.

HAC is utilised for particular, specialised purposes where its distinct characteristics
are advantageous. Its main applications include:

 Refractory concrete: Used to line industrial furnaces, chimneys, and kilns

because it can endure high temperatures.
 Chemical-resistant concrete: Employed in sewage treatment facilities,
chemical manufacturing plants, and marine constructions.
  Emergency repairs: For rapid-setting tasks such as fixing roads, airport
runways, or precast concrete items where quick strength development is
crucial.

Low Heat Cement

Low heat cement (LHC) is a type of Portland cement that is specifically

manufactured to generate a low amount of heat during the hydration process.
This is achieved by reducing the percentage of tricalcium aluminate (C 3A) and
increasing the percentage of dicalcium silicate (C2S) in its composition. Low-heat
cement possesses the following characteristics.

 Low heat of hydration: This is its main characteristic, which prevents the
formation of cracks in large concrete structures due to thermal stress.
 Slow strength development: It gains strength more slowly compared to
OPC but ultimately achieves similar final strength.
 Improved durability: The reduced heat and slower hydration lead to a more
uniform and dense concrete, which can improve long-term durability.

Low-heat cement is mainly used in situations when it's. Necessary to prevent

cracking, e.e, in large, monolithic concrete pours. It's used in:

 Mass concrete pours: For structures like large gravity dams, retaining
walls, and thick foundations where the heat generated by hydration of OPC
would lead to significant thermal cracking.
 Large rafts or footings: In massive building projects where a large volume of
concrete is placed at once.

The choice between high alumina cement and low heat cement depends entirely on
the specific requirements of the project. High Alumina Cement is recommended. For
situations when rapid strength gain, resistance to high temperatures, or chemical
attack is the primary concern. E.g.
 Used to line industrial furnaces, chimneys, and kilns
 Employed in sewage treatment facilities, chemical manufacturing plants, and
marine construction.
 Emergency repairs: For rapid-setting tasks such as fixing roads, airport
runways, or precast concrete items
(b) Describe the properties of blast furnace slag cement and sulphate resisting
cement.
Blast furnace Slag cement
This is also. Known. As Portland Slag Cement. It’s a type of hydraulic cement that
uses granulated blast furnace slag as its base/primary component. It’s formed by
blending ordinary portland cement (OPC) clinker with granulated blast furnace slag
and gypsum. The key indicators are the high percentage ranges for silica (SiO2) and
calcium oxide (CaO), and a notable percentage for alumina (Al2O3). The low
magnesium oxide content is also consistent with cement compositions.
Incorporating blast-furnace slag into this cement provides several benefits over
standard Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC):
 Low Heat of Hydration: The slag's hydration occurs at a slower rate than that
of OPC, leading to less heat production. This is essential for substantial
concrete projects like dams and thick foundations, as it minimises the
likelihood of thermal cracking.
 Enhanced Long-Term Strength: Over time, the slag interacts to produce
additional calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel, which is the principal
compound responsible for strength in cement. This results in greater ultimate
strength and durability. (Higher long-term compressive and flexural strengths)
 Improved Durability: Blast furnace slag cement is highly resistant to chemical
attacks, especially from sulphates and chlorides. This makes it suitable for
use in challenging environments, such as marine structures, sewage
treatment facilities, and concrete foundations situated in sulphate-rich soils.
 Lower Permeability: The smaller particle size and denser structure formed
through the slag reaction yield concrete that is less susceptible to water and
other harmful substances.
 It is simple to apply and complete. It improves the workability, placement, and
finish of concrete.
 It has high Alkali-Silica Reaction mitigation properties
Sulphate-resisting cement (SRC)
It’s a kind of Portland cement specifically designed and manufactured to resist and
protect concrete from sulphate attack. Sulphate attack is a frequent type of concrete
degradation that happens when concrete comes into contact with water or soil that
has elevated levels of sulphates. SRC achieves this resistance by having a
significantly lower level of tricalcium aluminate (C 3A), which minimises the formation
of sulphate salts.
SRC contains the following properties
 Superior Resistance to Sulphate Attack: This is its main function, making it
exceptionally durable in hostile environments.
 Decreased Heat of Hydration: The reduced levels of C3A(ticalcium aluminate)
and C4AF(Tetracalcium aluminoferrite) lead to a lower heat of hydration,
which helps minimise thermal cracking in large concrete structures.
 Enhanced Workability: The fine particle size of SRC can enhance the
workability of the concrete mixture. Gradual Strength Development:
 It typically gains strength more slowly compared to Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) but achieves a higher ultimate strength over time.
16. Describe briefly the classification of tar and the specifications of bitumen
as a building material.
Tar
Tar is a black viscous liquid formed from the process of destructive distillation of
organic material in the absence of air, e.g. wood, coal, peat or petroleum. This
process causes the breakdown of these organic materials, forming a complex
mixture of organic compounds.
Tar can be classified in two ways: by the source used for production and by the
application properties.
By source, tar can be classified into the following ways;
 Coal tar – this is obtained by the process of destructive distillation of coal or in
the manufacture of coal gas.
 Wood tar – produced by destructive distillation of wood
 Mineral tar - the distillation of bituminous shales obtains this.
By the process of application, tar is classified into 5 groups. This classification is
based primarily on the viscosity of the tar as well as other properties. Viscosity
increases with the grade of tar.
 RT-1: The least thick, utilised for surface painting in very cold conditions.
 RT-2: Appropriate for surface painting in regular weather.
 RT-3: Employed for surface painting, restoring coats, and top layers of light
carpets.
 RT-4: Intended for mixing in base layers. (tar macadam)
 RT-5: The thickest, used for grouting applications.
Tar has various properties; tar is typically black or dark brown in colour. It has
excellent adhesive properties, and it has good water resistance. It becomes a liquid
when heated and a semi-solid when cold. It weathers poorly and has low durability,
and it’s acidic and corrosive in nature.
Bitumen
Bitumen is primarily a petroleum product; it naturally occurs as one of the main
components of crude oil. It is a heavy, semi-solid residue resulting from the fractional
distillation of crude oil. Bitumen remains stable when exposed to light, air, or water
alone; however, their combination can cause brittleness, porosity, and an increased
risk of oxidation, leading to blisters and cracks. It begins to soften at temperatures
ranging from 30 °c to 100 °c (there is no distinct melting point), so it must be kept
away from heat sources for protection.
Bitumen, just like tar, can be classified in different ways: from the source, its grade
and from the method of production.
Classification based on consistency (grade)

Classification Basis of Common Key Applications

Type Classification Examples

Penetration Hardness 60/70, 80/100 Road Construction,

Grade (Penetration Value) Asphalt

Viscosity Resistance to Flow VG-10, VG-30, Road Construction

Grade (VG) (Viscosity) VG-40 (superior method)

Cutback Fluid with Solvent RC-70, MC- Cold weather paving, tack
Bitumen 250, SC-800 coats

Bitumen Dispersion in Water CRS-1, CMS- Surface dressing, cold

Emulsion 2, CSS-1 mixes, tack coats

Modified Polymer-Enhanced PMB (SBS), High-stress roads,

Bitumen CRMB waterproofing

Based on the source, bitumen is classified into the following ways;

 Natural bitumens – naturally occurring, however, this is rare
 Petroleum bitumens – these are products from the purification process. Rude
oil. These are classified as residual asphalts, oxidised bitumen, and cracked
and extracted bitumen.
Based on its applications, bitumen can be classified into;
 Road construction or thin bitumen
 Building bitumen or hard bitumen
Bitumen, as a compound, has specific properties that make it suitable for the
applications it is used for. Details below are some of those properties;
 Viscosity & Adhesion: It serves as a dense, adhesive binder that effectively
cements aggregates together for road construction.
 Waterproofing: Bitumen acts as a highly effective sealant, blocking water from
seeping into structures.
 Viscoelasticity: It exhibits properties of both a solid and a liquid, enabling
pavements to be adaptable and resistant to cracking due to traffic and
temperature fluctuations.
 Durability: It is resilient to ageing and chemical damage, guaranteeing long-
term effectiveness.
 Recyclability: Used asphalt containing bitumen can be recovered and
repurposed, making it an environmentally friendly option.
 Elasticity: it can deform under stress and return to its original shape. This
makes it suitable for road construction
  Thermal properties: Bitumen has excellent thermal stability and can withstand
a range of temperatures. It remains solid at lower temperatures and does not
excessively melt or flow even at higher temperatures.
 Bitumen is resistant to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. It can endure
extended exposure to sunlight without substantial deterioration or loss of
color, which makes it ideal for use in outdoor settings.
To confirm that bitumen satisfies the necessary specifications, a variety of standard
laboratory evaluations are conducted.
1. Penetration Test: This essential evaluation assesses the hardness or
softness of bitumen. A standardised needle is allowed to penetrate a bitumen
sample for 5 seconds while applying a specific load and maintaining a certain
temperature. The depth of penetration, measured in tenths of a millimetre,
establishes the grade of the bitumen. Reduced penetration values indicate a
harder bitumen, which is appropriate for warmer climates.
2. Softening Point Test: This assessment identifies the temperature at which
bitumen attains a certain level of softness. Utilising the ring and ball
apparatus, a bitumen sample confined in a brass ring is heated while a steel
ball is placed on top. The temperature at which the softened bitumen makes
contact with a plate beneath is recorded as its softening point. A higher
softening point signifies enhanced resistance to heat.
3. Viscosity Test: This evaluation gauges the flow resistance of bitumen at a
specific temperature. Viscosity is a crucial aspect in determining the
appropriate temperatures for the mixing and compacting of asphalt. Grades
with higher viscosity are more fitting for heavy traffic and elevated
temperatures.
4. Ductility Test: This examination assesses the capacity of bitumen to
elongate without fracturing. A bitumen sample is stretched at a measured
speed and temperature. The distance it can elongate before breaking signifies
its ductility. Increased ductility values indicate superior flexibility.
5. Flash and Fire Point Test: This assessment determines the temperature at
which vapours from bitumen will ignite. The flash point refers to the lowest
temperature at which a brief flash occurs, while the fire point is the
temperature at which the bitumen ignites and burns continuously. These
evaluations are crucial for ensuring safety during the handling and processing
of bitumen.
REFERENCES
Blast furnace Slag Cement, (2025), Testbook, https://testbook.com/civil-
engineering/blast-furnace-slag-cement#:~:text=It%20is%20produced%20by
%20blending,range%20of%20applications%20in%20construction.
Sulphate Resisting Cement, (2024), Testbook, https://testbook.com/civil-
engineering/sulphate-resisting-cement
High Alumina Cement, (2024), Testbook, https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/high-
alumina-cement
What is Cement?, (2023), JKC Cement, https://www.jkcement.com/blog/basics-of-
cement/what-is-cement/
Fredrick M. Lea & Thomas O. Mason, (2025) Cement, Britannica,
https://www.britannica.com/technology/cement-building-material
Sara Ahmadi & Reza Momeni (2023), Effect of Composition on the Properties of
Cementitious Tile Adhesive Compiled with EN 12004, Iranian Journal of Materials
Science and Engineering, VOL 20, DOI: 10.22068/ijmse.3391
Understanding Bitumen Specification, Tests and Properties, (n.a.), Terraroads
Equipment, https://ecoroadsgroup.com/understanding-bitumen-specifications-tests-
and-properties/
Tar, Bitumen, and Asphalt, (n.a.),
https://www.pcepurnia.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/1.-Bitumen-Paints.pdf
Bituminous Materials, (2025), Testbook,
https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/bituminous-materials#:~:text=Cutback
%20bitumen%20is%20prepared%20by,reduction%20of%20viscosity%20in
%20bitumen.
19 Differences Between Bitumen and Tar, (2025), Civil Lead,
https://www.civillead.com/difference-between-bitumen-and-tar/#:~:text=Tar%20has
%20a%20high%20viscosity,Final%20Words
Koanwarjot Singh, (n.a.), Difference between Bitumen and Tar, Civil Engineering
Portal, https://www.engineeringcivil.com/difference-between-bitumen-and-
tar.html#:~:text=Bitumen%20is%20known%20for%20its%20excellent
%20waterproofing%20properties%20and%20resistance,has%20excellent%20water
%20resistance%20properties.
Farshid Tavakoil, (2025), Yasmin Trading, https://yasmintrading.com/bitumen-tar-
pitch/#:~:text=The%20production%20of%20tar%20is,crushing%20compounds%20to
%20smaller%20ones.