A variable-frequency drive (VFD, or adjustable-frequency drive, adjustable-speed
drive, variable-speed drive, AC drive, micro drive, inverter drive, variable voltage variable
frequency drive, or drive) is a type of AC motor drive (system incorporating a motor) that
controls speed and torque by varying the frequency of the input electricity. Depending on
its topology, it controls the associated voltage or current variation
VFDs are used in applications ranging from small appliances to large compressors.[6] Systems
using VFDs can be more efficient than hydraulic systems, such as in systems with pumps and
damper control for fans.[7]
Since the 1980s, power electronics technology has reduced VFD cost and size and has improved
performance through advances in semiconductor switching devices, drive topologies, simulation
and control techniques, and control hardware and software.
VFDs include low- and medium-voltage AC–AC and DC–AC topologies.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) variable-frequency drive projects started in the 1960s
at Strömberg in Finland. Martti Harmoinen [fi] is regarded as the inventor of this
technology.[8][9][10] Strömberg managed to sell the idea of PWM drive to Helsinki Metro in 1973
and in 1982 the first PWM drive SAMI10 were operational.[11][12][13]
System description and operation
VFD system
A variable-frequency drive is a device used in a drive system consisting of the following three
main sub-systems: AC motor, main drive controller assembly, and drive/operator interface.[2]: 210–
211 [4]
AC motor
The AC electric motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor. Some
types of single-phase motors or synchronous motors can be advantageous in some situations, but
generally three-phase induction motors are preferred as the most economical. Motors that are
designed for fixed-speed operation are often used. Elevated-voltage stresses imposed on
induction motors that are supplied by VFDs require that such motors be designed for definite-
purpose inverter-fed duty in accordance with such requirements as Part 31 of NEMA Standard
MG-1
Controller
The VFD controller is a solid-state power electronics conversion system consisting of three
distinct sub-systems: a rectifier bridge converter, a direct current (DC) link, and an
inverter. Voltage-source inverter (VSI) drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section below) are by
far the most common type of drives. Most drives are AC–AC drives in that they convert AC line
input to AC inverter output. However, in some applications such as common DC bus
or solar applications, drives are configured as DC–AC drives. The most basic rectifier converter
for the VSI drive is configured as a three-phase, six-pulse, full-wave diode bridge. In a VSI
drive, the DC link consists of a capacitor which smooths out the converter's DC output ripple and
provides a stiff input to the inverter. This filtered DC voltage is converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC
voltage output using the inverter's active switching elements. VSI drives provide higher power
factor and lower harmonic distortion than phase-controlled current-source inverter (CSI) and
load-commutated inverter (LCI) drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section below). The drive
controller can also be configured as a phase converter having single-phase converter input and
three-phase inverter output.[15]
Controller advances have exploited dramatic increases in the voltage and current ratings and
switching frequency of solid-state power devices over the past six decades. Introduced in
1983,[16] the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) has in the past two decades come to
dominate VFDs as an inverter switching device.[17][18][19]
In variable-torque applications suited for Volts-per-Hertz (V/Hz) drive control, AC motor
characteristics require that the voltage magnitude of the inverter's output to the motor be adjusted
to match the required load torque in a linear V/Hz relationship. For example, for 460 V, 60 Hz
motors, this linear V/Hz relationship is 460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz. While suitable in wide-ranging
applications, V/Hz control is sub-optimal in high-performance applications involving low speed
or demanding, dynamic speed regulation, positioning, and reversing load requirements. Some
V/Hz control drives can also operate in quadratic V/Hz mode or can even be programmed to suit
special multi-point V/Hz paths.[20][21]
The two other drive control platforms, vector control and direct torque control (DTC), adjust the
motor voltage magnitude, angle from reference, and frequency[22] so as to precisely control the
motor's magnetic flux and mechanical torque.
Although space vector pulse-width modulation (SVPWM) is becoming increasingly
popular,[23] sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) is the most straightforward method used to vary drives'
motor voltage (or current) and frequency. With SPWM control (see Fig. 1), quasi-sinusoidal,
variable-pulse-width output is constructed from intersections of a saw-toothed carrier signal with
a modulating sinusoidal signal which is variable in operating frequency as well as in voltage (or
current).[17][24][25]
Operation of the motors above rated nameplate speed (base speed) is possible, but is limited to
conditions that do not require more power than the nameplate rating of the motor. This is
sometimes called "field weakening" and, for AC motors, means operating at less than rated V/Hz
and above rated nameplate speed. Permanent magnet synchronous motors have quite limited
field-weakening speed range due to the constant magnet flux linkage. Wound-rotor synchronous
motors and induction motors have much wider speed range. For example, a 100 HP, 460 V,
60 Hz, 1775 RPM (4-pole) induction motor supplied with 460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz), would be
limited to 60/75 = 80% torque at 125% speed (2218.75 RPM) = 100% power.[26] At higher
speeds, the induction motor torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway
torque[a] of the motor. Thus, rated power can be typically produced only up to 130–150% of the
rated nameplate speed. Wound-rotor synchronous motors can be run at even higher speeds. In
rolling mill drives, often 200–300% of the base speed is used. The mechanical strength of the
rotor limits the maximum speed of the motor.
An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller.
Basic programming of the microprocessor is provided as user-inaccessible firmware. User
programming of display, variable, and function block parameters is provided to control, protect,
and monitor the VFD, motor, and driven equipment.[17][27]
Operator interface
The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the
operating speed. The VFD may also be controlled by a programmable logic
controller through Modbus or another similar interface. Additional operator control functions
might include reversing, and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control
from an external process control signal. The operator interface often includes
an alphanumeric display or indication lights and meters to provide information about the
operation of the drive. An operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided on the
front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above. The keypad display can often be
cable-connected and mounted a short distance from the VFD controller. Most are also provided
with input and output (I/O) terminals for connecting push buttons, switches, and other operator
interface devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also often available to allow
the VFD to be configured, adjusted, monitored, and controlled using a computer.
