Unit 1: Introduction

1) Define Construction Work. [2078]

 It is defined as the means of realization of infrastructure development. In the field of Civil Engineering, construction is the
process that consists of building or assembling of infrastructure. It comprises of:
 Survey, design and drawing
 Estimate of quantity and cost
 Construction management
 Agreement between contractor, client and consultant
 Detailed working drawing
 Specification of works and construction materials

2) Principles and Design of Construction Work.

 The basic principle of design and construction includes:
 Functionality:- The structure built should be functional or it should be appropriate to give the intended services.
 Stability:- The structure should resist the various loads it is supposed to bear. It should be stable for long period at least its
design period.
 Durability:- The materials of each component of the structure need to be resistant to the wear and tear. It should last long.
 Cost:- The design and construction of the structures should be as economical as practical. Minimizing the cost is very
important task. Designing and constructing within the available budget is also very important.
 Environmental Impacts:- The projects that include construction of both small and large scale need to have Initial
Environmental Examination (IEE) and also Environment Impact Assessment (EIA). The construction works should avoid (if
not minimize) any adverse effect on the environment.

Unit 2: Construction Materials

1) What do you mean by Construction Materials
 The materials we use for construction purpose is known as construction material. The construction materials may be used
for providing strength, hardness, durability and duty.

2) Properties of Construction Materials

 Physical properties  Constituent properties
 Chemical properties  Thermal properties

3) Types of Construction Materials. [2078, 2079]

 The different types of construction materials are
 Brick  Cement
 Stone  Steel
 Aggregate  timber
4) What do you mean by Brick.
 Brick are made by molding the tomered clay to suitable shape and size. It is in plastic condition, dried in sun and burnt
either in clean or clamp.
5) Characteristics/properties of Brick.
 They should have uniform texture.
 They are uniformally burnt with deep red color.
 Metallic sound should come when two bricks are struck against each other.

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 They should not absorb water 15% of its dry weight when in cold water up to 24 hour.
 Gushing strength should not be less than 10.5 N/mm2 and 7N/mm2 for first and second class brick respectively.

6) Composition of good brick.

 The composition of good brick are
i) Silica (50% - 60%)
 It retains shape, imparts durability prevents shrinkage and warping. Excess of silica makes the brick brittle and weak.
ii) Alumina (20% - 30%)
 It absorb water and render the clay plastic. Excess of Alumina causes crack.
iii) Lime (10%)
 It reduces shrinkage. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and lose its shape.
iv) Alkalies (<10%)
 It causes quick setting. Excess of alkalies cause efflorescence.
v) Iron Oxide (<10%)
 It gives the color to the brick. Excess of iron oxide makes the colour dark blue.
vi) Magnesia (1%)
 It reduce the warping. Excess of magnesia effect the color and makes yellow.

7) Classification of brick.
 The bricks used in construction are classified as:
i) First Class Bricks: These bricks are of standard shape and size. They are burnt in kilns. They fulfill all desirable
properties of bricks.
ii) Second Class Bricks: These bricks are ground molded and burnt in kilns. The edges may not be sharp and uniform. The
surface may be somewhat rough. Such bricks are commonly used for the construction of walls which are going to be
plastered.
iii) Third Class Bricks: These bricks are ground molded and burnt in clamps. Their edges are somewhat distorted. They
produce dull sound when struck together. They are used for temporary and unimportant structures.
iv) Fourth Class Bricks: These are the over burnt bricks. They are dark in color. The shape is irregular. They are used as
aggregates for concrete in foundations, floors and roads.

8) Use of brick.
 Bricks are used in the following civil works:
 As building blocks.
 For lining of ovens, furnaces and chimneys.
 For protecting steel columns from fire.
 As aggregates in providing water proofing to R.C.C. roofs.
 For pavers for footpaths and cycle tracks.
 For lining sewer lines.

9) What do you mean by Stone.

 Stone is a ‘naturally available building material’ which has been used from the early age of civilization. It is available in the
form of rocks, which is cut to required size and shape and used as building block. It has been used to construct small
residential buildings to large palaces and temples all over the world.

10) Characteristics of Stone. [2079]

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 Structure: The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or Unstratified. Structured stones should be easily dressed
and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult to dress. They are preferred for the foundation
works.
 Texture: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are used for carving. Such
stones are usually strong and durable.
 Density: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Hence stones with specific gravity less than 2.4 are
considered unsuitable for buildings.
 Appearance: A stone with uniform and attractive color is durable, if grains are compact. Marble and granite get very good
appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face works in buildings.

11) Types of Stone(Rocks)

 Stones used for civil engineering works may be classified in the following three ways:
A) Geological :- It is also classified by 3 types
i) Igneous Rocks (Basait, trap, diorite)
ii) Sedimentary Rock (Limestone, Sand, Stone etc)
iii) Metamorphic Rock (Quartz, marble, slate etc)
B) Physical:- It is also classified by 3 types
i) Stratified rocks:- These are rocks are having layered structure. They possess planes of stratification or cleavage.
They can be easily split along these planes. Sand stones, lime stones, slate etc. are the examples of this class of
stones.
ii) Unstratified rocks:- These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and compact grains. They cannot be
split in to thin slab. Granite, trap, marble etc. are the examples of this type of rocks.
iii) Foliated Rocks:- : These rocks have tendency to split along a definite direction. The direction need not be parallel
to each other as in case of stratified rocks. This type of structure is very common in case of metamorphic rocks.
C) Chemical:- It is also three types are
i) Siliceous rocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable. Examples of such rocks are
granite, trap, sand stones etc.
ii) Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These stones are hard and durable but
they are britle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterites are examples of this type of rocks.
iii) Calcareous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate. Limestone is a calcareous rock of
sedimentary origin while marble is a calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.

12) Use of Stone

 Stones are used in the following civil engineering constructions:
 Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
 Stones are used for flooring.
 Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.
 Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished marbles and granite are commonly
used for face works.
 Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.
 Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining walls.
 Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed with tar they form finishing
coat.

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13) What do you mean by Aggregate
 Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone that, along with water and Portland cement,
are an essential ingredient in concrete. For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of
absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of concrete.

14) Characteristics of Aggregate.

 The characteristics of Aggregate are
 Grading  Skid resistance
 Durability and soundness  Strength
 Particle shape and surface texture  Hardness
 Absorption and surface moisture  Provides warkability

15) Types of Aggregate.

 There are two types of aggregates
i) Coarse Aggregates:- The aggregates which is retained more than 50% an I.S sieve no. 4.75mm is known as coarse
aggregates.
ii) Fine Aggregates:- The aggregates which is retained less than 50% an I.S sieve no. 4.75mm is known as fine
aggregates.

16) Properties of Aggregate.

 The properties of Aggregates are
 Mineralogical composition  Porosity
 Surface texture and grain shape  Resistance to abrasion
 Dustiness  Asphalt absorption capacity

17) Uses of Aggregate.

 The uses of Aggregates are
 To provide drainage  To provide hard surface
 To fill voids  Railway ballast
 Protect the pipe

18) What do you mean by Cement.

 Cement is a commonly used binding material in the construction. The cement is obtained by burning a mixture of
calcareous (calcium) and argillaceous (clay) material at a very high temperature and then grinding the clinker so produced
to a fine powder. It was first produced by a mason Joseph Aspdin in England in 1924. He patented it as Portland cement.

19) Types of Cement.

 The different types of cement are
i) White Cement: The cement when made free from coloring oxides of iron, manganese and chlorium results into white
cement. In the manufacture of this cement, the oil fuel is used instead of coal for burning. White cement is used for
the floor finishes, plastering, ornamental works etc. In swimming pools white cement is used to replace glazed tiles. It
is used for fixing marbles and glazed tiles.
ii) Colored Cement: The cements of desired colors are produced by intimately mixing pigments with ordinary cement.
The chlorium oxide gives green color. Cobalt produces blue color. Iron oxides with different proportion produce brown,
red or yellow color. Addition of manganese dioxide gives black or brown colored cement. These cements are used for
giving finishing touches to floors, walls, window sills, roofs etc.

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iii) Quick Seting Cement: Quick seting cement is produced by reducing the percentage of gypsum and adding a small
amount of aluminum sulphate during the manufacture of cement. Finer grinding also adds to quick seting property.
This cement starts seting within 5 minutes atier adding water and becomes hard mass within 30 minutes. This cement
is used to lay concrete under static or slowly running water.
iv) Rapid Hardening Cement: This cement can be produced by increasing lime content and burning at high temperature
while manufacturing cement. Grinding to very fine is also necessary. Though the initial and final seting time of this
cement is the same as that of Portland cement, it gains strength in early days. This property helps in earlier removal of
form works and speed in construction activity.
v) Low Heat Cement: In mass concrete works like construction of dams, heat produced due to hydration of cement will
not get dispersed easily. This may give rise to cracks. Hence in such constructions it is preferable to use low heat
cement. This cement contains low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and higher percentage (46%) of
dicalcium silicate (C2S).
vi) Pozzulana Cement: Pozzulana is a volcanic power found in Italy. It can be processed from shales and certain types of
clay also. In this cement Pozzulana material is 10 to 30 per cent. It can resist action of sulphate. It releases less heat
during seting. It imparts higher Civil Construction School of Geomatics Sabin Bajracharya 10 degree of water tightness.
Its tensile strength is high but compressive strength is low. It is used for mass concrete works. It is also used in sewage
line works.
vii) Expanding Cement: This cement expands as it sets. This property is achieved by adding expanding medium like sulpho
aluminate and a stabilizing agent to ordinary cement. This is used for filling the cracks in concrete structures.
viii) High Alumina Cement: It is manufactured by calcining a mixture of lime and bauxite. It is more resistant to sulphate
and acid atack. It develops almost full strength within 24 hours of adding water. It is used for under water works.
ix) Blast Furnace Cement: In the manufacture of pig iron, slag comes out as a waste product. By grinding clinkers of
cement with about 60 to 65 per cent of slag, this cement is produced. The properties of this cement are more or less
same as ordinary cement, but it is cheap, since it utilize waste product. This cement is durable but it gains the strength
slowly and hence needs longer period of curing.
20) Characteristics of Cement.
 It should be free from lumps.
 When rubbed with figure and thumb, it should feel like smooth powder.
 It feels cool after inserting hand in bag of cement.
 It should be easy to work.

21) Test of Cement.

 The test of cement are
 Fineness test  Compressive test
 Consistency test  Tensile test
 Soundness test  Loss of ignition test
 Setting test
22) Ingredients used in Cement.
 The Ingredients used in Cement are
i) Lime(CaO) = (60-50)%
ii) Silica(SiO2) =(17-25)%
iii) Alumina(Al2O3) = (3-8)%
iv) Ferrous Oxide(Fe2O3) = (0.5-6)%

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 v) Magnesium(MgO) =(0.5-4)%
vi) Sulphur trioxide(SiO3) = (1-2)%
vii) Soda and potash Na2O, k2O) = (0.5-1)%

23) Uses of Cements

 Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures.
 Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing.
 Cement concrete is used for the construction of various structures like buildings, bridges. Water tanks, etc.
 Cement is used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone posts, piles etc.
 For manufacturing cement pipes, garden seats, dust bins, flower pots etc. cement is commonly used.
 It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths, courts for various sports etc.

24) What do you mean by Steel.

 Steel is an alloy where iron is the main component. The iron in the steel project it from getting rust. Steel is the most
suitable building material and it is classified on the basic of carbon content and iron content.

25) Types of Steel.

 There are two types of steel are
i) Mild Steel Bars:- Mild steel bars are used for tensile stress of RCC (Reinforced cement concrete) slab beams etc. in
reinforced cement concrete work. These steel bars are plain in surface and are round sections of diameter from 6 to 50
mm. These rods are manufactured in long lengths and can be cut quickly and be bent easily without damage.
ii) Deformed Steel Bars:- Deformed bars are rods of steels provided with deformation on the surface of bar, these bars
minimize slippage in concrete and increases the bond between the two materials. Deformed bars have more tensile
stresses than that of mild steel plain bars. In addition the strength of bonds of deformed bars calculated should be 40
to 80 % higher than that of plain round bars of same nominal size.

26) Properties of Steel.

 The properties of Steel are
 Hardness  Fatigue strength
 Toughness  Corrosion
 Tensile strength  Plasticity
 Yield strength  Malleability
 Elongation  creep

27) What do you mean by Timber.

 Timber denotes wood which is suitable for building or carpentry and for various engineering and other purposes. Timber
and its characteristics depend upon the kind of tree it is obtained from:
 Soft woods – includes firs, pines, spruce and other coniferous trees
 Hard woods – includes Sal, teak mahogany, laurel, etc.

28) Properties/Characteristics of Timber.

 The properties of Timber are
 Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and of shining appearance.

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  Color: A color should preferably be dark.
 Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects such as knots, flaws, shakes etc.
 Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of resisting the action of fungi, insects, chemicals, physical
agencies, and mechanical agencies.
 Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when load causing its deformation is removed.
 Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire.
 Hardness: A good timber should be hard.

29) What do you mean by Sand.

 Sand is an unconsolidated granular material consisting of mineral or rock fragments between 6.3µm (0.0625mm) and 2mm
in diameter. Finer material is referred to as silt (particles smaller than 0.0625mm down to 0.004mm), coarser material as
gravel (particles ranging from 2mm up to 64 mm). Sand is usually produced by the chemical or mechanical breakdown of
older source rocks, but may also be formed by the direct chemical precipitation of grains or by biological processes.

30) Types of Sand.

 Based on natural sources from which sand is obtained, sand is classified as:
i) Pit Sand
 This sand is obtained by forming pits in soils.
 It is excavated from a depth of about 1 – 2 m from the ground level.
 This sand is found as deposits in soil and it consists of sharp angular grains, which are free from salts.
 It serves as an excellent material for mortar or concrete work.
 Pit sand must be made free from clay and other organic materials before it can be used in mortar.
ii) River Sand
 This sand is widely used for all purposes.
 It is obtained from the banks or beds of rivers and it consists of fine rounded grains.
 The presence of fine rounded grains is due to mutual atrition/abrasion under the action of water current.
 The river sand is available in clean conditions.
 The river sand is almost white in color
 Based on the grain size distribution, sand is classified as:
i) Fine sand: The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 1.5875 mm is known as fine sand. Fine sand is
mainly used for plastering. Civil Construction School of Geomatics Sabin Bajracharya 13
ii) Coarse sand: The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 3.175 mm is known as coarse sand. It is generally
used for masonry work.
iii) Gravelly sand: The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 7.62 mm is known as gravelly sand. It is
generally used for concrete work.

31) Properties of Good Sand.

 It should be clean and coarse.
 It should be free from any organic or vegetable mater; usually 3-4 per cent clay is permited.
 It should be chemically inert (inactive).
 It should contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains.
 It should not contain salts which atract moisture from the atmosphere.
 It should be strong and durable.

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 It should be clean and free from coatings of clay and silt.

32) Uses of Sand in Construction Work.

 Brickworks: Finest modulus of fine sand with grain size between 1.2 to 1.5 mm. Sand gives uniform texture to the bricks.
 Plastering works: Finest modulus of fine sand with grain size not less than 1.5 mm. It is usually mixed with cement in the
ratio of 1:3 or 1:4.
 Concrete works: It helps in the adjustment of strength of concrete by variation of its proportion with cement.

Unit 3: Building Construction

1) What do you mean by Building Construction.
 Every family needs a building to reside. Apart from residential purposes buildings are required for educational,
institutional, business, assembly and for industrial purposes. Buildings are required for the storage of materials also.

2) Basic Requirement of a Building.

 The planning and construction of a building should be aimed at fulfilling the following requirements:
 Strength and stability  Protection against termite attack
 Dimensional stability  Durability
 Resistance to dampness  Security against burglary
 Resistance to fire  Lighting and ventilation
 Heat insulation  Comforts and convenience
 Sound insulation  Economy

3) Elements of Building.
 There are two elements of Building are
i) Foundation:- Foundation is the most important part of the building. Building activity starts with digging the ground for
foundation and then building it. It is the lower most part of the building. It transfers the load of the building to the
ground. Its main functions and requirements are:
 Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.
 To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not move.
 It prevents the building from overturning due to lateral forces.
 It gives level surface for the construction of super structure.
ii) Superstructure:- The portion above the ground level and below the ground floor level is known as plinth. The portion
above the ground floor level is known as super structure. It includes walls, columns, beams, floors, roofs, doors,
windows, lintels, staircases etc.

4) Types of Foundation.
 There are two types of foundation are
i) Shallow foundation:- foundation whose width is greater than ist depth. It transmit structural lack to soil strata at small
depth. It is location just below the lowest part of wall or column which it support. There are also five types:
a) Strip footing:- it is provided for load bearing wall hence they are also referred as wall footing strip footing has its
length much greater than its width(L>>B).

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 b) Isolated/Spread footing:- It is provided to support an individual column. It may be circular, square, or rectangular
slab of uniform thickness.
c) Combined footing:- It support two or more column in the row when the areas required for individual footing are
very near to each other.
d) Strap/Contilever footing:- A strap footing compromises two or more footing connected by a beam called strap.
e) Mat/Raft footing::- It is a large slab supporting a number of column and wall under the entire structure or a large
part od structure. They are useful in reducing the differential settlement or non-homogenous soil or where there is
large variation in load on individual columns.
ii) Deep foundation:- if the depth of the footing is greater than its width the foundation is known as deep foundation.
When the soil at or near the ground surface is not capable of supporting a structure, deep foundation is required to
transfer the load to the deeper strate. Therefore, deep foundation is used when the surface soil is unsuitable for
shallow foundation. They are also three types:
a) Pile foundation:- They are the underground structure the support at building. They are typically used in situation
where the top layer of the soil is weale of unable to hold the weight of building
b) Pier foundation:- It is a series of vertical pillar or piles that transfer building load to the soil.
c) Well/caisson foundation:- A caisson is a hallow water tight box or chamber, which is sunk through the ground for
laying foundation under water.

5) Requirement of Ideal foundation.

 Foundation must be safe against shear strength failure or soil rupture.
 The settlement of foundation(soil) should be within permissible limit.
 Relative cost of foundation and super structure should not be so high.
 Depth of foundation should be such that its performance is not adversely affected by other factor.

6) Functions of Foundation.
 Reduction of load intensity.  Safety against underming
 Even distribution of load  Provides leveled and hard surface over which super
 Lateral stability to square structure structure can be built.

7) Causes of Foundation Failure.

 Differential settlement of structure  Results of sub-soil exploration faulty
 Differential settlement of sub-soil  Escaping of soil from parent location below foundation.
 Seismic effect

8) Criteria for selection of depth of Foundation.

 Load applied from structure to the foundation.  Types of soil and depth of layers in each case of layered
 Bearing capacity of soil. soil.
 Depth of water level below the ground level.  Depth of adjacent foundation.

9) Types of loading for foundation.

 The types of loading for foundation are
i) Dead load iv) Snow load
ii) Live load v) Wind load
iii) Impact load vi) Earthquake load
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 vii) Earth pressure load ix) Thermal forces
viii) Ice thrust

10) Types of Superstructure

 On the basis of load transfer, there are two types of superstructure
i) Load Bearing Structures:- In this type of structure the load on the structure is transferred vertically downward through
walls. Loads from roof and floors get transferred to wall and then wall has to transfer these loads as well as self-
weight. Such constructions are used in residential buildings where dimension of rooms is less. Residential buildings up
to ground + 2 floors can be built economically with such structures.
ii) Framed Structures: In this type of structures a frame work of columns, beams and floors are built first. Then walls are
built to portion the living area. The walls are subjected to self- weight only. This type of super structures are required
when number of stories in a building is more and also when larger areas are to be covered free from walls.

11) Comparison between Load Bearing and Framed Structure.

Load Bearing Structure Framed Structure
1 Cost is less Cost is more
2 Suitable up to three stories Suitable for any number of stories
3 Walls are thicker and hence floor area is reduced. Walls are thinner and hence more floor area available
for use.
4 Slow construction Speedy construction
5 Not possible to alter the position of walls, after the Position of walls may be changed, whenever
construction. necessary.
6 Resistance to earthquake is poor Resistance to earthquake forces is good.

12) What do you mean by Wall.

 Wall is a vertical load bearing member, the length of which exceeds four times the thickness. Wall is one of the most
essential component of building. The function of wall is to divide the space of building to make it more functionable and
useful.

13) Types of Wall.

 There are two types of wall are
i) Load bearing wall:- The wall which are designed to carry the super imposed load in addition to their own weight load
in addition to their own weight is called load bearing wall.
ii) Non-load bearing wall:- The wall which are designed to carry self load only.

14) What do you mean by Flooring.

 Floor is a permanent covering of a floor or for the work of installing floor covering. The purpose of flooring is to provide a
level surface. Capable of supporting the occupant of building equipment etc. It provides comfort, durability, safety and
decoration.

15) Types of flooring.

i) Brick flooring iv) Terrazzo flooring
ii) Flag stone flooring v) Mosaic
iii) Concrete flooring vi) Marble flooring

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 vii) Timber flooring ix) Linoleum flooring
viii) Rubber flooring

16) Materials used in flooring.

 The materials used in flooring are
i) Mud and mooran vi) Mosaic
ii) Terrazzo vii) Brick
iii) Concrete viii) Flag stone
iv) Tiles ix) Marble
v) Plastic x) asphalt

17) What do you mean by Roofing.

 Roofing is defined as the process of covering the top of the building, serving to protect against rain, snow, sunlight, wind
and extreme of temperature.

18) Types of roofing.

 The types of roofing are
i) Gable roof vi) Shect roof
ii) Hip roof vii) Butterfly roof
iii) Dutch roof viii) Gambrel roof
iv) Mansard roof ix) Darmer roof
v) Flat roof x) M-shaped roof

19) Materials used in roofing.

 Corrugated roofing sheet  Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride roofing sheet
 Aluminium roofing sheet  Plastic roofing sheet
 Asbestos cement sheet  Bitumen roofing sheet
 Polycarbonate roofing sheet  Galvanished iron roofing sheet
 Fiber reinforced plastic roofing sheet  Bamboo roofing sheet

20) What do you mean by Door (Entry/Exit).

 It is an open able barrier secured in a well opening. A door consist about door frame and shutter.

21) Types of door.

 There are different types are
i) Battened and lodged door v) Framed and paneled door
ii) Battened, ledged and braced vi) Glozed or sash door
iii) Battened, ledged and framed door vii) Flush door
iv) Battened, ledged viii) Wire gauged door

22) What do you mean by Window.

 It is defined as the opening provided in wall to admit light and air in the room and to give a view of outside.

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23) Types of window.
 There are different types of window are
i) Bay window v) Double hung window
ii) Casement window vi) Fixed window
iii) Clear storey vii) Goble window
iv) Dormer window viii) Metal window

24) What do you mean by Stones Masonry.

 Masonry means construction of buildings using building blocks like stone, bricks, concrete blocks etc. Masonry is used for
the construction of foundation, plinth, walls and columns. Mortar is the binding material for the building blocks.

25) Specification of stone masonry.

 The mortar is used in work shall have strength of not less 5N/mm2 or 7.5N/mm2 of 28 days specified. Mortar shall be fluid,
mixed thoroughly and then poured in the joints.
 All stratified stone passessing bedding planes shall be laid with a natural bed as nearly as possible at right angle to the
direction of load. The natural bed shall be radial for use in aech rings.
 Drensing of stone shall be done before they are laid.
 Total height of masonry shall be used uniformly.
 Curing shall be done for 3-4 weeks.

26) Types of Stone Masonry.

 Mainly there are two types of stone masonry:
i) Rubble Masonry:- In this type of constructions, stones of irregular sizes and shapes are used. To remove sharp shapes
they may be hammered. The rubble masonry may be coursed or uncoursed. In uncoursed rubble masonry the wall is
brought to level at every 300 mm to 500 mm. The mortar consumed in these constructions is more. Course rubble
masonry is used for the construction of public and residential buildings. Uncoursed rubble masonry is used for the
construction of foundations, compound walls, garages, labor quarters etc. A skilled mason may arrange the facing
stones in polygonal shapes to improve the aesthetic of the wall.
ii) Ashlar Masonry:- In this type of masonry stones are dressed to get suitable shapes and sizes. The height of the stones
varies from 250 mm to 300 mm. The length should not exceed three times the height. The dressing of the stone need
not be very accurate on all sides. Usually good dressing is made on facing side. In such construction mortar
consumption is less compared to rubble masonry.

27) What do you mean by Brick Masonry.

 Brick masonry is built with bricks bonded together with mortar. For temporary sheds mud mortar may be used but for all
permanent buildings lime or cement mortars are used.

28) Specification of brick masonry.

 All the brick shall be made from clean and good soil.
 The size of brick must 19*9*9 cm.
 The brick should be well burnt and should have reddish colour.
 The brick should have rectangular faces with parallel size and right angles edges.
 The brick should not absorb water more than 20% of its dry . wt where immersed in water.

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29) Types of brick masonry.
 The various types of bonds generally used in brick masonry are
i) Stretcher Bond:- A stretcher is the longer face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In the brick of size 230 mm × 110
mm × 55 mm, 230 mm × 55 mm face is the stretcher. In stretcher bond masonry all the bricks are arranged in stretcher
courses as shown in Fig. However care should be taken to break vertical joints. This type of construction is useful for
the construction half brick thick partition wall.
ii) Header Bond:- A header is the shorter face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In a standard brick it is 110 mm × 55
mm face. In header bond brick masonry all the bricks are arranged in the header courses as shown in Fig. This type of
bond is useful for the construction of one brick thick walls.
iii) English Bond:- In this alternate courses consist of headers and stretchers. This is considered to be the strongest bond.
Hence it is commonly used bond for the walls of all thicknesses. To break continuity of vertical joints a brick is cut
lengthwise into two halves and used in the beginning and end of a wall after first header. This is called queen closer
iv) Flemish Bond:- In this type of bond each course comprises of alternate header and stretcher. Alternate courses start
with stretcher and header. To break the vertical joints queen closers are required, if a course starts with header. Every
header is centrally supported on the stretcher below it.

30) Advantages and Disadvantages of Brick Masonry over Stone Masonry.

 Advantages:
 Since shape and size of bricks are uniform, it does not need skilled labor for the construction.
 Bricks are light in weight and hence handling them is easy.
 It is possible to use all types of mortar in brick masonry. For unimportant buildings even mud mortar can be used.
 Thinner walls can be constructed with bricks but it is not so with stones.
 It is easy to form openings for doors and windows.
 Dead load of brick masonry is less.

 Disadvantages:
 Strength of brick masonry is less than that of stone masonry.
 Durability of brick masonry is less.
 Brick masonry needs plastering and plastered surface needs color washing. Stone masonry doesn’t need them and
hence maintenance cost is more in brick masonry.
 Brick masonry absorbs water and there are possibilities of dampness. There is no such problem in stone masonry.

31) What do you mean by Cement Concrete.

 Plain concrete, commonly known as concrete, is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate
and water. This can be easily molded to desired shape and size before it loses plasticity and hardens. Plain concrete is
strong in compression but very weak in tension. The tensile property is introduced in concrete by inducting different
materials and this attempt has given rise to RCC.

32) Factors affecting strength of concrete.

 Water/Cement ration(inversly proportion)  Aggregates cement ratio
 Cement/Water(directly proportion)  Size of aggregate
 Mix proportional  Shape of aggregate
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 Grade of aggregate  Curing of aggregate

33) What do you mean by Plain Cement Concrete (PCC).

 It is the combination of cement water and sand without steel. It is laid on the soil surface to avoid direct contact of
reinforcement of concrete with water(soil).
Proportion Nature of Work
1 1:1:2 For foundation, footings for steel columns and concreting under water.
2 1:1 1/2 :3 Water tanks, shells and folded plates, for other water retaining structures.
3 1:2:4 Commonly used for reinforced concrete works like beams, slabs, tunnel
4 1:3:6 Piers, abutments, concrete walls, sill of windows, floors.
5 1:4:8 Mass concretes like dam, foundation course for walls, for making concrete blocks.

34) What do you mean by Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC).

 Concrete is good in resisting compression but is very weak in resisting tension. Hence reinforcement is provided in the
concrete wherever tensile stress is expected. The best reinforcement is steel, since tensile strength of steel is quite high
and the bond between steel and concrete is good.

35) Properties of RCC

 It should be capable of resisting expected tensile, compressive, bending and shear forces.
 It should not show excessive deflection and spoil serviceability requirement.
 There should be proper cover to the reinforcement, so that the corrosion is prevented.
 The hair cracks developed should be within the permissible limit.
 It is a good fire resistant material.
 When it is fresh, it can be molded to any desired shape and size.
 Durability is very good.
 R.C.C. structure can be designed to take any load

36) Uses of RCC

 R.C.C. is used as a structural element; the common structural elements in a building where R.C.C. is used are Footings,
Columns, Beams and lintels.
 R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage structures like Water tanks, Dams, etc.
 It is used for the construction of big structures like Buildings, Bridges, Retaining walls, under water structures.
 It is used for paving Roads, Airports.

37) What do you mean by Formwork.

 Formwork is a temporary structure designed to contain fresh fluid concrete, including all supporting structures, used to
shape and support the concrete until it attains sufficient strength to carry its own weight. It should be capable of carrying
all imposed dead and live loads apart from its own weight. Formwork has been in use since the beginning of concrete
construction. New materials such as steel, plastics and fiberglass are used in formwork. Greater attention is being given to
the design, fabrication, erection and dismantling of formwork.

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38) Materials for formwork
 Formwork can be made out of a large variety of materials. The material most commonly being used to date is timber.
However, due to the depleting forest reserves and increasing cost of timber the use of alternate materials such as plywood
and steel has become prominent.
Timber is required for practically all jobs of formwork. The timber being used for formwork must satisfy the
following requirements:
 It should be durable and treatable.
 It should have sufficient strength characteristics.
 It should be light weight and well-seasoned without warping.
 It should hold nails well.

39) What do you mean by Plastering.

 Applying mortar coats on the surfaces of walls, columns, ceiling etc. to get smooth finish is termed as plastering. Mortar
used for plastering may be lime mortar, cement mortar or lime cement mortar. Lime mortar used shall have fat lime to
sand ratio of 1: 3 or 1: 4 Cement mortar of 1: 4 or 1: 6 mix is very commonly used for plastering, richer mix being used for
outer walls.

40) Objectives of plastering

 To conceal defective workmanship.
 To give smooth surface to avoid catching of dust.
 To give good look.
 To protect the wall from rain water and other atmospheric agencies.
 To protect surfaces against vermin, insects.

41) Requirement of good plaster

 It should adhere to the background easily.
 It should be hard and durable.
 It should prevent penetration by moisture.
 It should be cheap.

42) What do you mean by Pointing.

 Instead of plastering entire surface of the masonry, special mortar finishing work is done to the exposed joints. This is
called pointing. It consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 mm to 20 mm and filling it with richer mortar mixes. In case
of cement mortar pointing mix used is 1: 3.

43) Constituents of Paint

 The essential constituents of paints are:
i) Base iv) Drier
ii) Vehicle v) Thinner
iii) Pigment

44) Properties of an Ideal Paint

 It should be possible to apply easily and freely.
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 It should dry in reasonable time.
 It should form hard and durable surface.
 It should not be harmful to the health of workers.
 It should not be easily affected by atmosphere.
 It should possess attractive and pleasing appearance.

45) Comparison between plastering and pointing

Plastering Pointing
1 It is applied to entire surface. It is provided only at exposed joints.
2 It provides smooth surface. It does not provide smooth surface.
3 It conceals defective workmanship in the masonry It is used to expose beauty of well-built masonry work.
construction.
4 It provides a base for applying white/ color washing White washing or color washing are ruled out.

Unit 4: Road Construction

1) What do you mean by Road Construction.
 Development of a country depends on the connectivity of various places with adequate road network. Roads are the major
channel of transportation for carrying goods and passengers. They play a significant role in improving the socio-economic
standards of a region.

2) Define Highway.
 The transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural. Development of any country. The main
transport systems are highways, railways, waterways and airways.

3) Historical Development of Road.

 The first made of transport was by foot. The human pathways would have been developed for the specific purpose leading
to camp sites, food, streams for drinking water etc. the next major made of transport was the use of animal for
transporting both men and materials. Since these loaded animals required more horizontal and vertical clearance than the
walking man, track ways emerged. The invention of wheel Mesopotamian civilization led to development of animal draw
vehicle then it become necessary for that the road surface should be capable of carruing greater loads. Thus road with
hard surfaces emerged.
Traces of such road were obtained from ancient civilization dated as old as 3500 BC. The earliest authentic record of
road was found by Assyria empire constructed at 1900 BC.

4) Classification of Road.
 Administrative classification
i) National highways (80):- National Highways are main highways connecting East to West and North to South of the
Nation. The roads connecting national highways to Regional headquarters shall be classified as national highways.
These serve directly the greatest portion of the longer distance travel provides consistently higher level of service

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 in terms of travel speeds, and bear the inter-community mobility (regional interest). These roads shall be the main
arterial routes passing through the Civil Construction School of Geomatics Sabin Bajracharya 35 length and breadth
of the country as a whole. They are designated by leter “H” followed by a two-digit number.
ii) Feeder Roads(209):- Feeder roads are important roads of localized nature. These serve the community's wide
interest and connect District headquarters and /or Zonal headquarters, Major economic centers, Tourism centers
to National Highways or other feeder roads to National highways. are designated by later “F” followed by 3-digit
number.
iii) District Road:- District Roads are important roads within a district serving areas of production and markets, and
connecting with each other or with the main highways. This class of roads consisting of all roads not defined as
national Highways or feeder and city roads serve primarily by providing access to abutting land carrying litle or no
through movement.
iv) Urban Road:- Urban Roads are the roads serving within the urban municipalities. These include roads within the
urban limits except for the above classes, passing through the city. These provide access to abutting residential,
business or industrial properties.

5) Technical/Function classification of Road.

 Technical/Function classification of Road are
Class Average Daily Traffic(ADT) Design Speed
I 20,000 PCU or more in 20 years prespective period 120 Km ph (plain terrain)
II 5,000 – 20,000 PCU 100 Km ph
III 2000 – 5000 PCU 80 Km ph
IV Less than 2000 PCU 60 km ph

6) Basic requirement of ideal alignment/Road.

 Basic requirement of ideal alignment/Road are
i) Short iii) Safe
ii) Easy iv) economy

7) Factors affecting the selection of Alignment

 Factors affecting the selection of alignment are listed below;
 Volume of traffic expected to use road
 Obligatory points to be touched or/ and not to be touched by the road
 Topographical features of the area where road has to traverse
 Geometrical standards to be adopted
 Canal, river or railway crossings
 Landslides/floods in the area
 Geological conditions
 Availability of construction materials in the area
 Existing right of way
 Avoidance of road passing through a town or village
 Political and other consideration

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8) What do you mean by Road Geometry.
 Road geometrics are the elements of a road visible to road users. These elements are the basis that provides optimum
efficiency in traffic operation with maximum safety. Geometrics can be broadly classified into the following headings;
i) Cross section elements
ii) Sight distance characteristics
iii) Horizontal and vertical alignments

9) Explain the Horizontal Alignment.

 When the highway change its direction in horizontal plane, a horizontal curve has to provide to bring about that change is
known as horizontal curve.
 Reasons for providing horizontal curves are
 Providing access to particular locating
 Due to abligatory points.
 For speed control
 Elements of horizontal alignments
 Horizontal curve length and radius
 Transition curve
 Sight distance across the road

10) Explain the Vertical Alignment.

 It is the elevation or profile or the centre of road. The vertical alignment consist grades of vertical curves and it influences
the vehicle speed, acceleration stopping distance, sight distance and compart in the vehicle movements at high speed.
 Vertical curves:- When two different or contrary gradients are met in an alignment of road, they are connected by a
curve in vertical plane. Such curves are known as vertical curves. These curves are introduced to secure safety and
adequate visibility together with comfort to the passengers.
 Gradient:- Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal. While aligning
a highway, the gradient is decided for designing the vertical curve. Usually steep gradients are avoided as far as
possible because of the difficulty to climb and increase in the construction cost.

11) Explain the cross sectional element.

 There elements of cross section are
a) Camber:- Camber is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off
rain water from road surface. The objectives of providing camber are:
 Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads.
 Sub-grade protection by proper drainage quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety.
b) Super Elevation:- to reduce the tendency of vertical to topple or skid the outer edge of the road pavement is raised
with respect to inner edge. This lateral inclination of road is known as super elevation. It depends on:
 Speed of vehicle an the curve
 Radius of horizontal curve
 Lateral friction resistance between vehicle’s tire’s and road.
c) Carriageway:- The metallic strip of road meant for vehicular movement is called carriage way. Width of the carriage
way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of lanes
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 d) Shoulders:- Shoulders are strips provided on both sides of the carriage way. They are provided along the road edge
and are intended for accommodation of stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral
support for base and surface courses.
e) Formation width:- Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or carriage way
including separators and shoulders. This does not include the extra land in formation/cutting.

12) Explain the Sight Distance Characteristics.

 The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very much on the visibility of the road ahead of the driver.
Thus the geometric design of the road should be done such that any obstruction on the road length could be visible to the
driver from some distance ahead. This distance is said to be the sight distance.
Types of sight distance
i) Stopping sight distance:- Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any
spot having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without collision
with any other obstruction.
ii) Overtaking sight distance:- Overtaking sight distance (OSD) is the minimum distance open to the vision of the
driver of a vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the traffic in the opposite direction.
The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured along the center line of the road over which a
driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface.

13) The factors that affect the Overtaking sight distance

 Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle coming in the opposite direction. Civil
Construction School of Geomatics Sabin Bajracharya 39
 Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed
 Skill and reaction time of the driver
 Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
 Gradient of the road

14) What do you mean by Road Pavement.

 Pavement is the actual travel surface especially made durable and serviceable to withstand the traffic load commuting
upon it. Pavement grants friction for the vehicles thus providing comfort to the driver and transfers the traffic load from
the upper surface to the natural soil.

15) Explain the different layer of road pavement.

 The layer of road pavement are
i) Sub-grade: The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the layers
above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be compacted to the desirable density,
near the optimum moisture content.
ii) Base course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course and it
provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage. It may be composed of crushed
stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.
iii) Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary functions
are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the

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 pavement structure. If the base course is open graded, then the sub-base course with more fines can serve as filler
between sub-grade and the base course.
iv) Wearing course/Surface course:- Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally
contains superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete (AC).

16) Structures
A) Bridge:- Bridge are used in run off drainage system where, special design are made almost in every case span>6m. the
RCC and pre-stressed constructed bridge are commonly constructed in these days.
B) Culvert:- When a small stream crosses a road with linear waterways less than about 6m, the cross-drainage structure
provided is called culvert. Its types are i) pipe culvert ii) slab culvert iii) arch culvert iv) box culvert
C) Retaining wall
 They are the most important structure in hill road construction to provide adequate stability to the road way and to the
slop.
 Retaining wall are constructed on the valley side of the road way and also on the cut hill side to prevent landslide to
prevent landslide toward the roadway.
 Retaining structures are constructed for following situations
 Valley side surface gets saturated in mansoon.
 Places where under cutting by a stream or other water sources.
 To achieve roadway width, where cutting into hill is not economical or has to be restricted due to any reasons.
 In valley point where water flows over the road.
 Types of retaining wall
i) Gravity wall v) Buttersed wall
ii) Semi gravity wall vi) Crib wall
iii) Cantilever wall vii) Reinforced soil wall
iv) Counterfort wall
D) Breast wall:- It is defined as the wall built to prevent the soil on the natural slope embankment from sliding down the
slope from the harsh weather effect i.e landslide, erosion. This wall stand off to protect a freshly cut or old surface of
natural hill faces. It also prevents slides of unreliable soil.
Uses of breast wall
 It is used at the sides of road to retain the face of natural bank of earth.
 It is used to retain natural earth at the bank of rivers.
Advantages of breast wall
 It prevents the soil on a natural slope of embankment from sliding down due to effect of weather.
 It can also be used in hydraulic structure.
 It is economical.
 Local materials and manpower can be utilized.

Unit 5: Irrigation System

1) What do you mean by Irrigation System.
 Irrigation is the method in which a controlled amount of water is supplied to plants at regular intervals for agriculture. It is
used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and re vegetation of disturbed soils in dry

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 areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. Irrigation is the controlled application of water to croplands. Irrigation has
two primary objectives:
 To supply the essential moisture for plant growth
 To leach or dilute salts from the soil.

2) Purposes of Irrigation
 Providing insurance against short duration droughts  Reducing the temperature during hot spells
 Reducing the hazard of frost (increase the temperature  Washing or diluting salts in the soil
of the plant)
 Promoting the function of some micro organisms

3) Objectives of irrigation
 To supply Water Partially or Totally for Crop Need  To improve Groundwater storage
 To Cool both the Soil and the Plant  To Facilitate continuous cropping
 To Leach Excess Salts  To Enhance Fertilizer Application

4) Benefits of Irrigation
 Increase in Crop Yield  Economic development
 Protection from famine  Domestic and industrial water supply
 Elimination of mixed cropping

5) Advantages of Irrigation
 Increase in the food production.  Mixed cropping.
 Protect against drough. (dry)  Ground water table
 Revenue generation.  Employment

6) Types of Irrigation
 Irrigation may be broadly classified into two types:
i) Surface Irrigation:- Surface irrigation is defined as the group of application techniques where water is applied and
distributed over the soil surface by gravity. It is by far the most common form of irrigation throughout the world and
has been practiced in many areas virtually unchanged for thousands of years. Surface Irrigation is further classified
into:
a) Flow or Gravity Irrigation
b) Lift Irrigation
ii) Sub-surface Irrigation :- Groundwater is generally a more dependable source of irrigation than surface water and is
free from seeds and plant organisms. The first cost of installation is however, high. The best water bearing stratum or
aquifer is coarse gravel free from sand but such formations are rare to find. In sub surface irrigation, the underground
water nourishes the plant roots by capillarity. It may be divided into the following two types:
a) Natural sub surface irrigation:- leakage water from channels, etc., goes underground, and during passage through
the sub soil, it may irrigate crops, spread on lower lands, by capillarity. Sometimes, leakage causes the water table
to rise up, which helps in irrigation of crops by capillarity.

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 b) Artificial sub surface irrigation:- when a system of open jointed drains is artificially laid below the soil, so as to
supply water to the crops by capillarity, then it is known as artificial sub surface irrigation. It is a very costly process
and hence, adopted on a very small scale

7) Compare between Lift Irrigation Gravity Irrigation

Lift irrigation Gravity flow irrigation
1 Costly means of irrigation Cheapest means of irrigation
2 Less silt in water Silt in water has manorial value
3 Working dependent on operation of machinery Lifting equipment is not involved
4 Higher water rates Lowest water rates
5 Liti irrigation is a complex system and by and large costly. Simple and economical system of irrigation.

8) Components of small scale irrigation system.

 The components of small scale irrigation are
i) Main Canal
 Canals having discharge greater than 10 cumecs are called as main canals.
 A main canal carries discharge directly from river.
 It carries large amount of water and cannot be used for direct irrigation.
 Main canal supplies water to the branch canals.
ii) Branch Canal
 Canals having discharge in the range of 5-10 cumecs are called as branch canals.
 These are the branches of main canal in either direction at regular intervals.
 Branch canals also do not carry out direct irrigation but sometimes direct outlets are provided.
 Branch canals are actually the feeders for major and minor distributaries.
iii) Major Distributaries
 Canals in which discharge varies from 0.25-5 cumecs are called as major distributaries. These take off water from branch
canals. Sometimes they may get supply from main canal but their discharge is less than branch canal. These are irrigation
channels because they supply water to the field directly through outlets.
iv) Minor Distributaries
 Canals in which discharge is less than 0.25 cumecs are called as minor distributaries.
 These take off from major distributary or sometimes may get supply from branch canal.
 They also provide water to the courses through outlets provided along with them.
 The discharge in minor distributaries is less than in the major distributaries.
v) Water course of field channels
 These are the small channels which ultimately feed water to the irrigation fields.
 Depending upon the extent of irrigation, a field channel may take off from a major distributary or minor.
 Sometimes, it may even take off water from the branch canal for the field situated very near to the branch canal.

9) Water Distribution
 When there is abundant supply of water, continuous flow distribution is observed. Water flows continuously in all channels
of the system and farmers apply water to their fields at any time they want. In some places, saachos are used to distribute

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 water by continuous flow. A saacho is a weir that the farmers install in the canal with two or more rectangular openings for
the water to flow through.

10) Water Distribution Management

 Water distribution management is the practice which includes the integrated approach of intake, conveyance, regulation,
maintenance, distribution, allocation, application and use of the proper amount of irrigation water required to obtain the
maximum crop yield.

11) Water Distribution Management System

 Irrigation systems in Nepal can be broadly categorized into two groups according to the responsibility for their
management. One is Farmer-managed Irrigation Systems (FMIS) and the other is Government-managed Irrigation Systems
(GMIS), which consists of agency-managed or agency-assisted irrigation system. Farmers are responsible for all
management activity in water distribution in the former. Public servant specialized in management takes care of irrigation
system with varying levels of farmer participation in GMIS.
 Farmer Managed Irrigation System (FMIS):- In FMIS, groups of farmers collectively manage the system from the
water source to the fields. Design, construction, operation and maintenance for the canal are carried out by the
groups of farmers. The government assistance is not involved.
 Government Managed Irrigation System (GMIS):- In GMIS, design, construction, operation and maintenance of
the canal are carried out by the government. Farmers are not involved in these activities.

Unit 6: River Training Works

1) Define the River Training. [2079]
 A define on of river training can be as follows: "all engineering works constructed in a river which are required to guide
and confirm the flow to the river channel and to regulate the river bed configure on for effective and safe movement of
floods and river sediment".
 It is the process adopted on the river to direct and guide the river flow, to train and regulate the bed or to increase the law
water depth.

2) Importance/Objectives/Purpose of River Training.

 To provide a safe passage to pass flood without overflowing its banks and thus to prevent flooding of the adjoining areas.
 To prevent the river from changing its course and eroding the adjoining land.
 To prevent the erosion of banks and hence improve the alignment by stabilizing the river channel
 To keep the river transports the bed load and suspended load efficiently.
 To provide the minimum desired depth of flow required for navigation.
 To detect the river flow away from a bank or to attract the river flow towards a bank.
 Effective disposal of sediments load.

3) Classification of River Training.

 There are three classification of River Training Work are
i) High river training works

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 It is undertaken with the primary purpose of flood control. It is done to quick disposal of maximum floods and to protect
adjoining land against damage due to floods. It aims to provide sufficient river cross section for safe passage of maximum
flood.
ii) Low river training works
 It is done to provide sufficient water depth for navigation during low flow period. Generally, spurs are constructed to
contract the width of the channel and hence to increase the depth.
iii) Mean water training works
 It is undertaken with the primary purpose of providing efficient disposal if sediment load and bed load and thus to
preserve the channel in good shape. It is the most important training of the 3 types.

4) Method/Types of River Training (Work). [2078, 2079]

 The Methods of Training Works are
i) Bandalling:- It is an impervious system of river training. In which frame work of bamboos driven in the river bed and
set 0.6 m apart. Horizontal toes supported by strut placed at every 1.20 m.
ii) Cut-off:- If the meander is cut by a straight reaches then, it is called cut-off. It decreases the length of river.
iii) Dredging:- It is the increasing depth of river channel by removing silt that built up over years.
iv) Groynes or Spurs:- They are the structure constructed traverse to the river flow and extend from bank into river up to
a limit. There are five types:
a) Repelling d) Dehenys
b) Deflecting e) Hockey
c) Attracting
v) Guide Bank:- It is provided to guide the river near a structure so as to confine it in a reasonable width. It is also known
as bell bunds.
vi) Marginal Band (Embankment):- An embankment constructed along the river at a short distance from the margine with
the object of preventing inundation of the area behind the embankment etc. it is constructed roughly parallel to the
river. It is also called dykes or levees.
vii) Pitching of Bank:- It is the application of hard materials like stone gabion etc on the bank.
viii) Revetment or rock riprap:- It is the laying of dry stone masonry to protect slope from water energy.

Unit 7: Water Supply System

1) What do you mean by Water Supply System.
 Water Supply System is the system that brings water from source to the human settlement for people to use for domestic
purpose. Main function of water supply system is to provide user with water in good quality and quantity all-round the
year.

2) Types of Water Supply System.

 Water Supply System can be classified:
A) On the basis of water sources
i) Surface Water Supply System:- This system utilizes water from river, stream, pond or lakes.
ii) Ground water supply system:- This system utilizes water underground natural water reserves.
B) On the basis of energy required for water to flow
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 i) Gravity Flow Water Supply System:- This system is feasible when water sources in a higher altitude than that of
human settlement. The water flows due to gravity. Such system is very common in hilly regions of Nepal. Most of
the schemes in rural areas of Nepal are gravity flow water systems.
ii) Pumping Water Supply System:- Where water source lies in low altitude and water is required to be lifted up to
supply to the human settlement, pumping is required. Pumping is needed to lift both surface water and ground
water.
iii) Combined Water Supply System:- In this system, water flows due to gravity and pumps. Water supply schemes
that lifts ground water to the elevated water tanks, then let this stored water to be distributed to users through
gravity is an example of this system.
C) On the basis of types of human settlement where water is supplied
i) Rural Water Supply System:- This system is for the benefit of people of rural areas.
ii) Urban Water Supply System:- This system is the water supply system in urban areas.
D) On the basis of Reliability
i) Continuous System:- Water in a continuous system is available whenever the faucet is opened. Since water is
continuously available, it is a more desirable, because service is available all the time. Since the distribution, line is
always under pressure, the possibility of contamination by negative suction in the pipeline in a continuous system
does not exist.
ii) Intermitent System:- In this system, water is supplied to the consumers only during some fixed hours of the day.
Many schemes in Nepal are presently being operated intermitently even though they were originally designed to
function continuously. The possible reasons: source dried, faucets in the stand post are not properly maintained
leading to wastage.

3) Sources of Water.
 The sources of Water are
i) Surface Water Sources:- Rivers, Streams, Lakes, Rainwater Harvesting, Fog/Dew Harvesting, and Snow Harvesting
ii) Ground Water Sources:- Spring, Dug Well (Open Well), Shallow Well, and Tube Well

4) The compression between Surface Water Sources and Ground Water Sources are
Surface Water Source Ground Water Source
1 The quality of water varies according to the season; The quality remains constant throughout the year.
usually turbid and contaminated with suspended or Basically clear.
colloidal particles.
2 Temperature is variable due to weather/climate. Very negligible variance in temperature.
3 Possibility of contamination due to human activities is Less chances of contamination.
very high.
4 The discharge of most of the steam is dependent on The seasonal variation in ground water level is very low.
the climate/weather.

5) What do you mean by Discharge.

 Discharge is the measure of flow of water. It is the volume rate of water flow, which is transported through a given cross-
sectional area. Its unit is cumec i.e. m3 /sec. It is also measured in lt/sec, cm3/sec, etc. In simplest concept, discharge
means outflow and is used as a measure of the rate at which a volume of water passes a given point.

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6) Measurement of Discharge of the Source
 The source measurement or the finding out of its discharge can be done by one of two methods.
a) Velocity – Area Method
 This method involves measuring the area of cross-section of the river at a selected section is called gauging site and
measuring the velocity of flow through the cross-sectional area and these are multiplied to get discharge.
 The average velocity in these sub-sections is measured by a current meter or by a float.
 The formula is: Q = v x A
Where,
 Q is the flow
 v is the velocity
 A is the average depth of water multiplied by stream width
Procedure: -
 First, measure the distance to be travelled by a floating object like piece of wood in the stream and measure the time
taken by the object to flow along the distance travelled by the floating object. Take the average of 3 readings and divide by
the time to obtain velocity ‘v’ in m/sec.
 Second, make several depth measurements across the stream width to find the Area of Section, A.

b) Bucket and Watch Method

 This is an easy and exact method for measuring discharge upto 5 lt/s per each measuring pipe installed.
 The method for measuring flow is generally well adopted to small flows. It is very simple to set up and conduct requires no
special equipment and given good results. The necessary equipment to perform this test are a bucket of known volume
(generally 20 litter) a 1m long PVC pipe and ordinary wrist watch with a second hand.
Procedure: -
 One or more pipes, depending on the quantity, are fitted into a temporary earth dam so that all the water passes
through the pipes.
 The flow from one pipe should not exceed a quantity which fills a bucket in less than 4 to 5 seconds.\
 Calculate the volume of the bucket if it is not a graduated one.
 Gauge the flow of each pipe three times and enter the results into the records.
 Calculate the quantity in lt/sec.

7) Layout of Distribution System

 The distribution is the network pipeline that convey water to the consumers in the community. The layout of distribution
system depend on the layout of road in the community.
 There are four system of layout of distribution system. they are:-
a) Dead End System
 This method is adopted in town or cities which have developed haphazard manner without proper planning. This system is
also commonly used in rural water supply of Nepal. The pipe laying is simple and easy hence it is cheap and economical.
b) Grid Iron System
 In this system, the mains, sub-mains and branches are interconnected forming loops and water can be made circulate
through the whole of distribution system. this is improvement after dead end system. there is minimum head loss and
incase of damage or repair in any section, smaller are is only affected. It requires longer length of pipes.
c) Ring and Circular System

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 An area to be served is fixed and then main is laid around that area. This sun-mains are taken from the mains and are run
on inside the area to be served. This system is used for cities with planned roads.
 Each cities is divided into square and rectangular block.
 Branches, sub-mains are laid along inner roads.
d) Radial System
 In this system the area to be served is dividing into smaller zones and each zone is supplied with the distribution reservoir
and water is supplied radially towards the distribution zone. It supplies water with high pressure and low head loss. It is
just the reverse of ring or circular system. During actual practice, only a single way of layout is not possible so a
combination of layouts is used.

8) Components of Water Supply System

 The Components of Water Supply System are:
a) Intakes:- Intakes are the structures used for collecting water from the surface sources and conveying it further to the
transmission main (pipeline). The functioning of water supply scheme largely depends on the intake.
Criteria for Selecting Intake Sites
 Site should be so selected that it may admit water even under worst river flow condition or under lowest possible water
level.
 Site should be as near to the treatment work as possible.
 Site should be far away from human settlement.
 Stream intake should be constructed where suitable hydrological conditions of the stream are found (discharge, velocity,
depth, etc.)
 The intake should be so located that good foundation conditions are available and the possibility of scouring is less.

b) Break Pressure Tanks (BPT):- At any structure where water is permitted to discharge into the atmosphere, the hydrostatic
pressure is reduced to zero. A small tank specifically built to break the hydrostatic pressure in the pipeline is called Break
Pressure Tank. The limit is specified because most float valve can satisfactorily withstand up to 60m head.
The following points should be considered while locating a BPT:
 In the distribution line whenever the static head exceeds 60m even if pipe with a pressure rating of 10kg/cm2 is
used.
 Replacement of an air valve by a BPT at high points, if the design permits.

c) Distribution Chamber (DC):- A distribution chamber is used to proportionally divide inlet flow. Outlet pipe size and proper
orientation (horizontal) allow the flow to be distributed at an approximate ratio regardless of variation in the inlet flow. In
some cases the proper pipe combination can control the flow accurately enough to eliminate the need for globe valves.

d) Stand post (Tap):- The stand post is central and most frequently used component of a water scheme. A stand post will be
more than just a physical structure and may become important landmark in the community.
Number of people (max) = 100 per stand post
Horizontal walking distance = 150 m (exceptional 250 m )
Vertical walking distance = 50 m (exceptional 80 m)

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e) Transmission Main:- A pipe that feeds a storage tank continuously for 24 hours from a source (Intake to Storage Tank or
Storage Tank to Another Storage Tank) is called Transmission Main. Some points to be taken into consideration in the
choice of pipe alignment are:-
 The available head
 The distance from source to the service area
 Nature of soil and its stability with regard to landslide
 Nature of the terrain – steep slopes, rocky terrain
 Nature and type of river crossings
 Easily accessible

f) Distribution Pipeline:- Distribution pipelines are used to supply water to various consumers. Pipes of different diameters
and lengths constitute a distribution network. Distribution pipe sizes are determined by the tap flow rate. Points to be
considered while selecting the alignment of distribution line:-
 Avoid geologically unstable sections
 Alignment along the side of an existing footpath, even if it would increase the pipe length
 Pipeline gradient should be uniform for long stretch. Sudden changes in pipeline alignment in the horizontal or
vertical directions should be avoided.

g) Valve Chamber:- The chamber in which one or more valve are located is called a valve chamber.

h) Reservoir tank:- It is a tank or basin which is used to store water. There are two types of reservoir tanks are:
i. Clean water reservoir:- It stores water after treatment has been done and is used for water supply purpose.
ii. Service reservoir:- It stores water that is used for fire fighting purpose.

9) Define Pipe.
 Under gravity system the pipe mainly used is HDPE. The joint provided in HDOE pipe is butt welding. Water pipe is any pipe
or tube designed to transport treated drinking water/potable water to consumers/building.

10) Types of Pipes used in Water Supply System.

 They can be divided into three main categories:
a) Metallic pipes:- Include steel pipes, galvanized iron pipes and cast iron pipes.
b) Cement pipes:- Include concrete cement pipes.
c) Plastic pipes:- Include High density polyethylene (HDPE), plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes.
 They differ according to sizes:-
a) Large diameter main pipes, which supply entire towns
b) Smaller branch lines that supply a street or group of buildings
c) Small diameter pipes located within individual buildings

11) Pipe and Joints used in pipeline.

a) Cost iron pipe = Spigot and socket joint, thread joint, flanged joint.
b) Steel pipe:- Welding and riveting joint.
c) Concrete pipe:- Collar joint.
d) AC pipe:- collar and simplex joint

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 e) Copper pipe:- Screwed joint
f) Lead pipe:- Wiped joint
g) Galvanished iron pipe:- Socket screwed joint
h) Plastic pipe:- Solvent joint
i) HDPE pipe:- Butt welding
j) Where chances of settlement:- Flexible joint

12) Tools and Equipment used in Plumbing work.

 Any fixture, piping, appliances, equipment or materials used at to be used in connection with a plumbing system is known
as plumbing equipment.
 Different types of plumbing tools are
i. Pipe cutter:- Pipe cutter is one of the most common type of plumbing tool that is used to cut water, sanitary, or sewer
pipes. Generally, Solid type, Hook Type, and chain type pipe cutters are mostly used.
ii. Pipe wrench:- Pipe wrench is a fitting plumbing tool that is used to loosening or tightening the connections of pipes,
joints, nuts, etc. It is also used to hold the pipe and turn around it for tightening or loosening purposes.
iii. Pipe vice:- Pipe vice is a holding Plumbing tool that is used to hold the pipe for carrying out cutting, threading,
assembly, disassembly, etc. purposes.
iv. Hack saw:- Hacksaw is a cutting plumbing tool that is used to cut the plastic pipes, steel hollow roads, steel thin sheets,
angles, etc. Hacksaw includes the handle, frame, blade and adjustable wing screw.
v. Pipe bending machine:- Pipe bending machine is used to turn or bend the pipes at various angles as per requirement.
The hand-operated pipe bending machine is used to bend small sizes pipes while the hydraulic pipe bending machine
was used to bend large size pipes.
vi. Water pump pliers:- Water pump pliers or pipe pliers is one of the most essential home plumbing tools that is used to
cut pipes, wires, tightening or loosening the various parts, etc. Different shape and sizes pliers are available in market.
vii. Threading dies:- Threading dies are used to create threads on pipes to join them with another one to make a strong
joint connection. It was used to make threads on plastic pipes as well as steel pipes.
viii. Chain wrench:- Chain wrench is holding plumbing tools that are used to hold and open or close the large dia pipes.
Chain wrench includes the chain and toott which helps to hold and rotate the pipes.
ix. Set of common ring spanner:- The spanners are the fitting plumbing tool that is used to loosening or tightening the
standard size nuts and bolts.
x. Plumb bob:- Plumb Bob is the most common tool in construction and house drainage works. Plumb Bob is used to
check the vertical alignment of any members or pipes.

13) What is Ferro Cement Technology.

 Ferro cement is a type of thin wall reinforced concrete commonly constructed of hydraulic cement mortar reinforced with
closely spaced layers of continuous and relatively small wire mesh. Ferro cement is a composite materials made up of
mortar and light wire steel mesh. It is highly versatile form of reinforced concrete. The mesh is formed into the shape of
structure in thin sections and should mesh uniformly throughout the cross section. Materials used in ferro cement are
cement, sand, water and wire meshes.

14) Application of Ferro Cement Technology.

 The Application of Ferro Cement Technology are:
i. Water and retaining structure iii. Space structures of large sizes
ii. Building components iv. Bridges, dams
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 v. Boats vi. Treatment plant for water and sewage.

15) Properties of Ferro Cement Technology.

 Properties of Ferro Cement Technology are:
i. High strength v. Low cost
ii. Durability vi. Ease of construction
iii. Fire resistance vii. Eco-friendly
iv. Corrosion resistance viii. Low weight and long life time

Unit 8: Estimation
1) What do you mean by an Estimate.
 The estimate gives the probable cost of work. It is a record of computation of quantities of materials and items of work
required and expenditure likely to be in curred in the construction of building, record, dam etc. It is determined by
theoretical calculations based on plans, drawings and current rates. It also gives the idea of time required to complete the
work. The data required for estimate are drawing specification and rates.

2) Objective of Estimate.
 The objective of Estimate are:
I) To find the probable cost of work.
II) To find the quantity of various material and labour required.
III) To have an idea about the time of completion of work.
IV) To help in controlling of the expenditure during execution.
V) To help checking the work done by contractors.
VI) To help in fixation of standard rent, sale price of flats and valuation of properties.

3) Explain the types of Estimate.

 The types of Estimate are”
I) Preliminary Estimation:- The main function of preliminary estimate is to find the financial position for approval which is
prepared on the basis of similar work. The detail drawing is not necessary for rough estimate.
II) Plinth Area Estimate:- This is also known as square method. It is prepared on the basis of plinth area of a building by
plinth area rate relevant in the region. It is less accurate. (Note: Plinth Area = Carpet Area)
III) Cube Rate Estimate:- It is prepared on the basis of cubical contents of the proposed building to be constructed. It is more
accurate than plinth area estimate.
IV) Detailed or Item rate estimate:- It is prepared on the basis of plan and section of the structure. It is the most accurate
estimate and is mostly used.
V) Revised Estimate:- It is a detailed estimate and is prepared a fresh, when the original sanctioned detail estimate exceeds
by 5% more or expenditure exceeds by 10% either due to rates being found insufficient a due to some other reasons.
VI) Annual repair and maintenance Estimate:- The estimate prepared to keep the structure in proper condition with the
provision of repair and maintenance is known as annual repair and maintenance estimate. It should not be more than 1.5%
of capital cost of work.

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VII) Approximate Quantity Method Estimate:- It is very rough estimate. The total wall length of the structure is measured and
this length is multiplied by rate per running meter which gives the cost of building.
VIII)Complete Estimate:- It includes the cost of construction, cost of land, the expenses towards the surveying preparing plans
and estimate, legal assistance, registration of document, payment of taxes and service charges is complete estimate.

4) Explain the methods of Building Estimate.

 The methods of Building Estimate are:
a) Separate/Individual Wall Method:- In this method for long walls running in the longitudinal direction. i.e out-to-out and
for short wall/cross wall internal length of the walls running in the cross direction, i.e in-to-in is calculated. The quantity is
calculated by multiplying the length by breadth and height.
b) Centre Line Method:- In this method, total of center lines of wall (short and long) are summed and the quantity is
calculated by multiplying in length by breadth and height. Centre line method is specially adopted for estimating irregular
building.
c) Crossing Method:- In this method, the overall perimeter of the building is calculated first and to this four times the
thickness at wall is subtracted to obtain in the centerline length. And the length is multiplied by the breadth and height of
respective item and we get total quantity. This method is principally similar to center line method but differs in process of
calculation of finding center line length.

5) Method of Measurement
 IS (Indian Standard) 1200:1982 (part-V) specifies that while doing measurements (not for precise items), the dimension
shall be measured to the nearest 0.01m.
 While calculating quantity of masonry work no deduction shall be done for following items.
I. Opening of less than 0.1m2.
II. Beaning of floors and roof slad
III. Horn of doors and window frame
 While calculating plastering and pointing work, no deduction shall be done following.
I. Opening of less than 0.5m2.
II. Opening of area 0.5m2 to 3m2 one face only.
 No deduction is made for the volume occupied by reinforcement in concrete.
 The quantity of arc masonry work is calculated by the relation mean length of arc*breadth of wall*thickness of wall.

6) Explain the Rate Analysis.

 The determination of rate per unit of a particular items of work, from the cost of labours and the miscellaneous petty
expenses require for its completion is known as analysis of rate. A reasonable profits and overhead usually 15% for the
constructor is also included in the analysis of rate. Rate of the materials are usually taken as the rate delivered at the site
of work and include the first cost, cost of transport, taxes, etc. In international project water charge of 1.5% is also
considered. The materials rate are different for different districts decided by construction material rate fixation committee
under the chairmanship of CDO.

7) Explain the Detailed Estimate.

 It is drown up where there is more in formation available or the scope of the project is batter known. It included incredibly
detailed information on quantities, costs and rates-in fact, all items necessary to complete the work. This method of
estimating is the most accurate method. The quantities of each items of works are calculated from complete set drawings.
The abstract of estimated cost is prepared by multiplying the quantities of each of the above items by the rate of the
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 completion of that item. The rate of various items of work can be obtained from the schedule of rate, prepared by
government. The detailed estimate is accompanied by following documents.
I. A comprehensive report of the proposed work.
II. Detailed specification of various items of work.
III. General specification of work.
IV. Detailed working drawings.
V. Calculation and design of components part of work.
VI. Analysis of rate for the items of work not included in the schedule of rates.

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