Liquid Penetrant at Level 2

CONTENTS

1. PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE TEST (PT).............................................................97

1.1. General description of the method........................................................................97

1.2. Properties of liquid penetrants..............................................................................97
1.2.1. Viscosity...................................................................................................97
1.2.2. Surface tension.........................................................................................98
1.2.3. Angle of contact between liquid and solid...............................................99
1.2.4. Capillarity.................................................................................................99
1.3. Behaviour of liquid penetrants............................................................................100
1.3.1. Wettability..............................................................................................100
1.3.2. Penetrability............................................................................................100
1.3.3. Washability.............................................................................................101
1.3.4. Retention and bleeding...........................................................................101
1.3.5. Influence of surface state of the sample, the
contamination and temperature..............................................................101
1.4. Solutions and dispersions....................................................................................102
1.4.1. Solvents..................................................................................................102
1.4.2. Dispersive agents....................................................................................102
1.4.3. Emulsifiers..............................................................................................102
1.5. Mechanism of development................................................................................103
1.5.1. Granulometry of powders.......................................................................103
1.5.2. Types and phenomena of fine powder aggregation................................103
1.5.3. Suspension of powders in liquids...........................................................104
1.6. Luminous and ultravoilet spectrum....................................................................105
1.6.1. Colour & fluorescence............................................................................105
1.6.2. Colours...................................................................................................105
1.6.3. Absorption of light.................................................................................106
1.6.4. Beer's law...............................................................................................106
1.6.5. Fluorescent pigments..............................................................................106
1.7. Basic formulation of penetrating liquids with oily and
non oily base.......................................................................................................106
1.7.1. Additives and conditioners.....................................................................106
1.8. Removers used in the process.............................................................................107
1.8.1. Basic formulation and properties............................................................107
1.8.2. Emulsifiers..............................................................................................107
1.8.3. Lipophilic and hydrophilic agents..........................................................107

2. PROCESSING (PT).......................................................................................................109

2.1. Reparation of the work-pieces, treatment, identification and

protection of the areas not to be examined.........................................................109
2.1.1. Treatment................................................................................................109
2.1.2. Identification...........................................................................................109
2.2. Cleaning prior to inspection................................................................................110
2.2.1. Various techniques applicable................................................................110
2.2.2. Conditions and limitations of the
different cleaning techniques..................................................................111
2.2.3. Comparison of the effectiveness of the different techniques

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 in relation to the surface state of the specimen......................................112
2.3. Conditions and requirements for the different drying stages.............................112
2.3.1. Use of cold and hot air...........................................................................112
2.3.2. Temperature and time.............................................................................112
2.4. Inspection process...............................................................................................113
2.4.1. Application of penetrating agent............................................................113
2.4.2. Removal of excess penetrating agent.....................................................116
2.4.3. Conditions for the application of lipophilic and
hydrophilic emulsifiers...........................................................................119
2.4.4. Application of the developer..................................................................119
2.5. Observation of indications..................................................................................122
2.5.1. Lighting conditions for coloured liquids and
UV radiation for fluorescent liquids.......................................................122
2.5.2. Sequence and time of observation..........................................................122
2.5.3. Interpretation of the findings and identification of the
type of defects........................................................................................122
2.5.4. Spurious or non-relevant indications......................................................125
2.6. Recording of findings.........................................................................................126
2.6.1. Test report forms....................................................................................126
2.6.2. Localization schemes.............................................................................126
2.6.3. Transfer of findings................................................................................126
2.6.4. Photographic techniques.........................................................................126
2.6.5. Writing reports.......................................................................................127
2.7. Testing techniques for detection of leaks by means of liquid penetrants...........128
3. TEST EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS (PT)............................................................129
3.1. Evaluation of the materials used in the test........................................................129
3.1.1. Penetrating agents...................................................................................129
3.1.2. Removers................................................................................................135
3.1.3. Emulsifiers..............................................................................................136
3.1.4. Developers..............................................................................................136
3.2. Cleaning equipment............................................................................................141
3.2.1. Degreasing vapour..................................................................................141
3.2.2. Ultrasonic cleaning.................................................................................142
3.3. Compressed air equipment.................................................................................143
3.3.1. Air filters................................................................................................143
3.3.2. Supply of cold and hot air......................................................................143
3.3.3. Compressed air pistols............................................................................143
3.3.4. Electrostatic pulverizers.........................................................................144
3.3.5. Aerosoles................................................................................................145
3.4. Stationary installations for processing by immersion.........................................145
3.4.1. Stations...................................................................................................145
3.4.2. Auxiliary equipment...............................................................................149
3.4.3. Automatic installations...........................................................................150
3.5. Light sources and light meters............................................................................152
3.5.1. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation sources (black light) and
meters for measuring UV radiation intensity.........................................152
3.5.2. Measurement of ultraviolet radiation intensity.......................................154
3.5.3. Checking the efficiency of ultraviolet lamps.........................................155
3.5.4. Cabinets for observation of fluorescent penetrating liquids...................155
3.6. Standardized work pieces for evaluating processes and
qualifying procedures.........................................................................................156
 3.6.1. Comparator test blocks...........................................................................156
3.6.2. Non-standardized test pieces for checking penetrability........................158
3.6.3. Equipment for checking fluorescence efficiency of
UV lamps................................................................................................158

4. CODES, STANDARDS, PROCEDURES AND SAFETY (PT)..................................161

4.1. Standards applicable to liquid penetrant testing.................................................161
4.1.1. Test methods...........................................................................................161
4.1.2. Materials for the test...............................................................................162
4.1.3. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Code..................162
4.2. Test specifications and procedures.....................................................................164
4.2.1. Interpretation..........................................................................................165
4.2.2. Formulation of instructions for the test..................................................165
4.3. National standards for liquid penetrant testing and testing personnel................169
4.4. Quality control of the test and procedure for its administration.........................170
4.4.1. Quality assurance requirements..............................................................170
4.5. Problems of industrial safety in the use of chemical and
inflammable products.........................................................................................170
4.5.1. Personnel hazards and safety with vapour degreasing...........................171
4.5.2. Personnel hazards and safety with solvent cleaning..............................171
4.5.3. Personnel hazards and safety precautions with acid cleaning................171
4.5.4. Personnel hazards and safety precautions with
salt bath descaling...................................................................................171
4.5.5. Applicable safety standards....................................................................172
4.5.6. Safety conditions required for the use of UV light................................172
4.5.7. Drafting of safety instructions for the personnel involved.....................173
4.5.8. Safety factors applicable to the test........................................................174
4.5.9. Problems of industrial safety in the use of chemical and
inflammable products.............................................................................174

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1. PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE TEST (PT)

1.1. General description of the method

Penetrant inspection consists essentially of the following sequence of operations:

(1) The surface of components to be inspected is prepared by cleaning, creating a clean dry
surface.
(2) Penetrant is applied to the prepared surface to be inspected.
(3) A period of time is allowed for it to enter any discontinuity open to that surface.
(4) The excess penetrant is removed in such a manner that will ensure retention of penetrant
inside of the discontinuity.
(5) A developer agent is applied to draw the penetrant liquid from the discontinuities out to the
surface and thereby give an enhanced indication of such discontinuities.
(6) The discontinuities are then visually examined and assessed under appropriate viewing
conditions.
(7) The part is then cleaned and, as necessary, a corrosion preventative is applied.

Fig 2.1: Mechanism of penetrant flaw detection.

1.2. Properties of liquid penetrants

1.2.1. Viscosity

Liquids have the ability to flow because molecules of the liquid can slide over each other.
The resistance of liquid to its flow is called viscosity Figure 2.2. In other words, viscosity of a
liquid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow.

The resistance to flow is because of the internal friction among the layers of molecules.
Liquids which flow very slowly like honey or glycerine, have high viscosities as compared to
ether and water having low viscosities.
 Figure 2.2: Viscosity of a liquid. The velocity of flow of liquid nearer to the sides of tube is
less than the velocity of flow in the centre of tube.

If a liquid flowing in a tube is considered as made up of a series of layers, the layer of the liquid
in contact with the walls of the tube remains stationary. The layer in the centre of the tube has
highest velocity. Each layer exerts a drag on the next layer and causes resistance to flow. High
viscosity penetrants have a disadvantage of a slower rate of penetration; conversely too-low
viscosity penetrants can drain away too rapidly and have a tendency to drain out of shallow
defects.

The Newton's law of viscous flow.

F = S dv/dr. (1)
The proportionality constant is the co-efficient of viscosity which is defined as the force
required per unit area to maintain a unit difference of velocity between the two adjacent layers
which are a unit distance apart. The dimensions of are (mass) (length)–1 (time)–1. The SI unit is
kg. m–1 s–1. The C.G.S. unit called the poise (p) is equal to 1/10th of SI unit of viscosity.

The reciprocal of co-efficient of viscosity is called Fluidity and it is given by the symbol 
(Phi).

Fluidity = 1/ (2)

Fluidity is a measure of the ease with which a liquid can flow.

Now in case of liquid penetrants viscosity does have an important practical consideration in
their choice. It is an important factor in determining the speed with which a penetrant will enter
the defect. Fluidity is the reciprocal of viscosity and thus a viscous penetrant will penetrate or
emerge more slowly than a less viscous one. If on the other hand the viscosity is too low, the
excess penetrant on the surface of the penetrant will drain away too quickly and not leave a pool
of penetrant to act as a reservoir to top up the defect as penetration takes place. Furthermore the
‘thin’ penetrants can also be more easily washed out of defects during cleaning.

1.2.2. Surface tension

Surface tension in a liquid is an example of cohesive force, where the molecules are
attracted to like molecules. The cohesive force tends to bind them together, having affinity for
each other. Two examples are water and mercury. When either of these liquids is spilled, they
tend to form spherical shapes, the cohesive force binding them together by surface tension.

Surface tension is one of the two most important properties which determines whether a
liquid makes a good penetrant but is not in itself the controlling factor. The term surface tension
can be described as force per unit length on an imaginary line drawn on the surface of a liquid.
The formation of penetrant indication on development is a reverse capillary action. The rise of

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liquid in capillary tubes when dipped in it is due to surface tension and its wetting ability. The
value of surface tension can be calculated by the formula:

T = g r/2 (h + r/3) (3)

Where:
g = acceleration due to gravity = 980 cm/sec2
= density of the liquid (gram/cm3)
h = height of liquid rise in capillary tube
r = radius of the capillary tube (cm)
T = surface tension (dynes/cm).

The surface tension of the liquids is affected by change in temperature, density of liquid and
nature of surface in contact. With rise in temperature surface tension of a liquid decreases. At a
temperature close to the critical temperature, the surface tension becomes very small as the
greater thermal agitation reduces the attractive forces which are pulling the molecules inward.
Generally, a high surface tension is desirable, but water which although has a high surface tension
in its pure form is not a good penetrant due to its poor wetting ability. The wetting ability can
however be improved by adding a wetting agent which reduces the contact angle drastically, and
even though surface tension is also reduced the resulting combination can make water a good
penetrant.

1.2.3. Angle of contact between liquid and solid

Angle of contact refer to Figure 2.3 determines the wetting ability of the liquid. It is defined
as the angle made between the surface of the liquid and the point of contact as the liquid
advanced along the surface. The magnitude of contact angle determines the penetrativeness of
fluids. Liquids with high contact angle make them poor penetrants.

Water though has a high surface tension but due to high contact angle is a poor penetrant.
The contact angle between a liquid and surface varies widely with the material, surface
roughness, cleanliness, etc. of the surface under test.

1.2.4. Capillarity

The mechanism of entry and coming out of fine discontinuities is due to capillary forces.
The capillary pressure is a function of the surface tension of the liquid and its ability to wet the
surface of the tube. A liquid will rise to a considerable extent if the upper end of the tube is open
and to a lesser extent if the upper end is closed. It would seem that a sealed tube is similar to a
fine crack, and that some air will be trapped. For a given penetrant and crack-like defect the
pressure developed may be expressed by the formula:

P = 2T cos /w (4)

Where:
T = surface tension
= contact angle between the liquid and crack surface
w = width of the crack.

It is evident from the above relation that larger values of surface tension and smaller contact
angles or crack widths, will increase this pressure. It is also possible at these pressures that the
entrapped air may in time dissolve into the penetrant and diffuse out to surface to escape. It has
been shown that a good penetrant can enter an opening 5 micro inches wide (127 m).
 Figure 2.3: Wetting ability, a function of contact angle.

1.3. Behaviour of liquid penetrants

1.3.1. Wettability

Wetting ability has an important effect on overall performance of the penetrant. A penetrant
that has good wetting properties will spread completely over the surface of the treated part. On
the other hand, a liquid of poor wetting characteristics will pull back on itself, leaving areas of the
test surface completely devoid of penetrant. When this occurs, defects which may be present in
the uncovered areas will not be shown since there is no indicating material available to enter
them. Wetting ability refers to the angle of contact with the surface, e.g. water is an excellent
solvent, with a very high surface tension. However, the addition of a surfactant can decrease the
contact angle, improving its penetrating properties while still maintaining its solvent properties.

1.3.2. Penetrability
A good penetrant is the one which has a high penetrativeness. Parameters such as viscosity
and wetting ability have an influence on the liquid to be a good or bad penetrant. Low viscosity
materials run off parts more rapidly and may not remain on the test surface long enough to permit
complete penetration. On the other hand, high-viscosity materials may be dragged out in such
quantity as to be non-economical in use.

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1.3.3. Washability
An important requirement for a good penetrant is its suitable removability from the surface
of the part after the penetration into defects has taken place. This implies that the penetrant must
be soluble in the solvent, remover, or in water to achieve this. Removal performance is very
important since surplus penetrant must be removed from the surface of the part or the entire part
will have a high background/fluorescence. This will greatly reduce the contrast between the
defect indication and the rest of the surface area. On the other hand, if the penetrant can be
removed too easily, it will be washed out of the defects. This will cause greatly reduced flaw
detection sensitivity capability, particularly for the shallower discontinuities.

1.3.4. Retention and bleeding

A penetrant should posses the ability to penetrate readily into fine and relatively coarse
openings and resist cleaning out of them. Similarly, it should have tendency to spread or bleed out
of discontinuities on development. The process of bleeding can be described as to be a reverse
capillary action. The developer acts as blotter helping the penetrant sitting in fine surface-open
discontinuities to come up to the surface to form an indication. The rate and extent of the action
associated with capillary depends upon such factors as forces of cohesion and adhesion, surface
tension and viscosity. Liquid penetrants in non-destructive testing should have low surface
tension and high capillarity.

1.3.5. Influence of surface state of the sample, the contamination and temperature
The principle of all penetrant processes is that the penetrant must enter the surface openings
of discontinuities if it is later to identify them. Therefore unless the part is clean and free from
foreign materials that may cover the discontinuities, or perhaps later confuse the indications,
reliable inspection cannot be made. Scale and rust as contaminations have to be got rid of from
the surface of the test part. They tend to cover defects or may cause confusing indications by
trapping and holding penetrant on the surface of the part. For soft materials, the methods such as
shot blasting, sandblasting, emery cloth, wire brushing or metal scraping are not recommended as
they may cover the defects by peening or cold working the surface. Solid contamination such as
carbon, varnish, paints, and similar materials should be removed by vapour blast, chemical dip
and other acceptable methods. Oil and grease on surface should also be completely removed from
the test part as many oils are somewhat fluorescent and are also good penetrants. They can thus
fill the discontinuities and also produce false indications due to fluorescence under black light.
Acids and chromates should also not be left on the surface of the test parts or within the
surface discontinuities because these chemicals adversely affect some penetrants. It is essential
that the parts pre-cleaned for inspection should be thoroughly dry. Any liquid residue will hinder
the entrance of the penetrant. Drying may be accomplished by drying the parts in drying ovens
with infrared lamps, forced hot air, or exposure to ambient temperature. Parts’ temperature should
not exceed 125ºF (52ºC) prior to the application of the penetrant. The requirement of inspection
to be carried out within 16ºC–52ºC is mainly because of the following facts:
(a) In case of fluorescent dyes, their fluorescence is reduced by heat. Resistance to heat is
therefore, of greater importance. This is so, as loss of fluorescence mean loss of sensitivity
to fine or any defect.
(b) In situations where colour contrast penetrant with red dye are shipped or stored at 0ºF or
low, there may occur possibility of the separation of the dye out of solution. This may
reduce the brilliance of the penetrant due to loss of dye content. If this occurs then warming
of the can up to (70ºF or above) and agitation can help in re-dissolving the dye.
(c) At higher temperatures the volatile constituents of the carrier fluid may evaporate
significantly, thus there can be no fluid left to make the tracer dye get into the defects as its
carrier.

1.4. Solutions and dispersions

1.4.1. Solvents

The primary purpose of the solvent removers is removal of excess (non-water-soluble)

liquid penetrant prior to application of the developer. Solvent removers are often used also for
pre-cleaning and for post-cleaning of test objects to remove penetrant processing residues.

Solvents are also used as carrier fluid for colour and fluorescent type tracer dyes of the
penetrant. In such penetrants, dyes are selected to be soluble in the solvent used as their carrier
fluid. Such penetrants are thus easily removable from the surface of the test part during the
removal process of excess penetrant by the particular solvent used as a cleaner. Usually such
cleaners are organic compounds.

The high sensitivity visible dye penetrants contain maximum amount of dark red dye
suspended in the vehicle without precipitation. Similarly, the sensitivity of fluorescent penetrant
is influenced by the dye concentration and colour shade. It is thus essential for the carrier or
vehicle to dissolve the dye and be its solvent.

1.4.2. Dispersive agents

The liquids used in the penetrant making should also possess the ability to distribute the dye
evenly and completely over the surface to be inspected and carry it to the defects present on the
test surface. This ability is in addition to the above mentioned characteristic of the penetrant
which should be of strong wetting ability to be a strong dispersive agent. The carrier material with
good wetting ability will help spread the penetrant evenly and smoothly over the surface even in
the presence of surface contamination.

1.4.3. Emulsifiers

Emulsifier is a liquid that combines with an oily penetrant to make the penetrant water
washable. In penetrants which are water-washable, this emulsifier is already incorporated into
them. If washing of parts becomes noticeably difficult, the emulsifier should immediately be
checked. The most possible cause of deterioration of emulsifier is its contamination with water.
The loss of effectiveness in removing excessive penetrant is generally accompanied by a change
in appearance or physical properties. The low-tolerance (water-tolerance) materials generally
become viscous or gel completely. The high tolerance emulsifiers may become cloudy or show a
tendency to thicken. The emulsifiers are essentially of two types such as oil based (lipophilic) and
water-based (hydrophilic).

Lipophilic emulsifier

Lipophilic emulsifiers have three basic properties that must be balanced to assure the
proper washing characteristics. The emulsifier must diffuse or interact with the penetrant oil at a
somewhat slow rate to allow for handling time during processing and to provide time so that the
washing of a range of surface roughness’ can be controlled. The three properties of emulsifiers
that control the washing characteristics are (1) activity, (2) viscosity, and (3) water tolerance.
These properties must be factored against the characteristics of the oil base of the penetrant. If the
penetrant vehicle is highly insoluble in water, a more active emulsifier is needed. A highly active

10
emulsifier with a low viscosity can be adjusted by blending with a more viscous emulsifier to
provide the desired washing characteristics.
Emulsifier activity is defined as the rate that the emulsifier interacts with the penetrant
sufficiently in order to be removed with water. The interaction is related to the ability of the
emulsifier to act as a solvent for the oil of the penetrant. Viscosity and activity of the emulsifier
are interrelated. A more viscous emulsifier will diffuse into a penetrant at a slower rate.
Balancing the activity with the viscosity provides the control necessary to meet a prescribed
emulsifier dwell time. The viscosity can range from 10 to 100 centistokes. The higher the
viscosity, the more emulsifier is used due to drag-out on the parts during processing. If a lower
viscosity emulsifier can be used to produce the desired results, it will be more economical.
Water tolerance is another property of emulsifiers. In practice, the emulsifier tank is
normally situated near the wash station. If water is accidentally splashed or sprayed into the
emulsifier, the emulsifier takes on a cloudy appearance. A common specification requirement is
that emulsifiers must tolerate the addition of up to 5% of water. Some will tolerate up to 15–20%
of water. The addition of water will reduce the activity of the emulsifier. However, water reduces
the viscosity of the emulsifier and thereby increases its activity.

Hydrophilic emulsifier

Hydrophilic emulsifiers used in penetrant testing are essentially surface-active agents

(surfactants) or detergents. The word "hydrophilic" means water-loving or water-soluble.
Hydrophilics have an infinite water tolerance. In practice, the emulsifier is supplied as a
concentrate and is mixed with tap water to the desired dilution.

1.5. Mechanism of development

The primary purpose of a developer is to form an indication detectable to the unaided eye
from penetrant being held in a surface discontinuity. The developer has four basic functions:
(a) Drawing out a sufficient amount of penetrant from the discontinuity to form an indication;
(b) Expanding the width of the indication enough to make it visible;
(c) Increasing the brightness of a fluorescent dye above its bulk brightness; and
(d) Increasing the film thickness of the indication to exceed the dye’s thin film threshold in
order to make it detectable.

1.5.1. Granulometry of powders

The developer action appears to be a combination of solvency effect, absorption and

adsorption (adsorption implies collection by adhesion to a surface). Absorption refers to
assimilation of liquid into the bulk of an absorbent material. The developer powder exerts a
combination of adsorptive-absorptive effects on penetrant residues, drawing entrapped penetrants
to the test surface. As the penetrant disperses in the developer powder, it forms test indications
that can be readily observed by the inspector.

1.5.2. Types and phenomena of fine powder aggregation

In the case of non-aqueous wet and film type developers, solvent action has been shown to
play a part in promoting the withdrawal action and enhancing the penetrant indication. As regards
their nature, the first powders to be used were simply chalk or talc. Later as the action of
developers and their desired characteristics were understood, these developers were found to be
unsatisfactory. Recently much lighter amorphous silica powders are used and they are in many
ways superior. Today the best dry powder developers are the combination of powders carefully
selected to give all the characteristics in a developer.

Dry powders were the type first to be used with fluorescent penetrants. Today the powders
are still very widely used with fluorescent methods, though they have little application with
colour contrast penetrants. As regards their nature, the first powders to be used were simply chalk
or talc. Later as the action of developers and their desired characteristics were understood, these
developers were found to be not satisfactory. Recently much lighter amorphous silica powders are
used and they are in many ways superior. Today the best dry powder developers are the
combination of powders carefully selected to give all the characteristics in a developer. For safe
and effective performance dry powder should be:
(1) Transparent to ultraviolet and fluorescent radiation.
(2) White or essentially colourless.
(3) Uniform in particle size.
(4) Low in bulk density.
(5) High in refractive index.
(6) Chemically inert.
(7) Non-toxic; free from sulphur and halogen contamination.
(8) In some cases hydrophobic (water repellent).

1.5.3. Suspension of powders in liquids

Two types of aqueous wet developers are in common use in penetrant inspection. The first
consists of insoluble developer particles suspendible in water, while the second contains a
developer that is actually soluble in water. Aqueous wet developers usually contain wetting
agents and corrosion inhibitors to minimize attack on test objects and penetrant processing
equipment. The solvent based developers are generally used in connection with visible dye
penetrants.

Aqueous wet developers are normally supplied as dry powders to be suspended or dissolved
in water, depending on the type of the wet developer. They differ from dry and other non-aqueous
developers in that the developer is applied directly after washing and before drying of the test
parts. A typical aqueous suspendible developer is composed of the following constituents:
(1) Inert insoluble pigment.
(2) Dispersing agent.
(3) Wetting agent.
(4) Corrosion inhibitors.
The developer particles are inert, insoluble, transparent pigments such as metallic oxides,
insoluble carbonates, and selected clays. Dispersing agents are required to avoid particle lumping
together. The wetting agents act to provide good wetting properties. They also aid in post removal
of the dried developer, at the time of post cleaning.

Solvent-suspendible developers are composed of a dispersion of selective developer

particles in a volatile solvent system which also acts as a solvent for the penetrant within the
defect, thus enhancing the flaw detection capability. The characteristics desired are in general like
those of the aqueous wet developers.

12
 Dispersants which are essentially dispersive agents, and surfactants, are employed to ensure
uniform developer particle distribution within the developer suspension These chemicals also
serve to reduce the developer particle to make lump by collecting many powder particles within
themselves. The solvent suspendible developers, when used properly are the most sensitive
developers available today.

1.6. Luminous and ultravoilet spectrum

For viewing the developed penetrant indications of colour dye liquids the inspection area
should be luminous and posses a certain intensity. The luminous intensity is described as the
amount of light emitted for a second in unit solid angle by a point source in a given direction. The
SI unit (System International Units) of luminous intensity is the ‘candela’. The term is restricted
to a point source. The unit candela is the new international unit replacing the old unit for
luminous intensity the candle power. The candela is defined as the luminous intensity, in per-
surface of 1/600 000 square metre of a black body at a temperature of freezing platinum under a
pressure of 101325 N m–2. Black light is essential to the viewing of indications with fluorescent
penetrants. Typical value of wavelength of black light radiations employed is 3650 A. The
visible light which is a form of electromagnetic spectrum constitute the other wave lengths as in
the Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Spectrum of light through the visible, "black light" and ultraviolet wave lengths.

1.6.1. Colour and fluorescence

Fluorescence phenomena is a form of luminescence in which certain substances (e.g.

cadmium sulphate, barium platinocyanid, paraffin oil, fluorescent solutions) are capable of
absorbing light of one wavelength (i.e. colour, when in the visible region of the spectrum) and in
its place emitting light of another wavelength or colour. Unlike phosphorescence, the phenomena
ceases immediately after the source of light is cut off. Dyes commonly in use in fluorescent
penetrants give off light when irradiated by black light in the yellow-green or green-blue portion
of the visible spectrum

1.6.2. Colours

Colour is the visual sensation resulting from the impact of light of a particular wavelength
on the cones of the retina of eye. Light has three characteristics hue, which is determined by its
wavelength, saturation, the extent to which a colour departs from white and luminosity, a measure
of its brightness (for a light or other emitting source). If the source is a pigment, dye etc. that
reflects rather than emits light this characteristic is called lightness.

1.6.3. Absorption of light

The observation of indications arising due to discontinuities for fluorescent penetrants is

due to absorption of light. The phenomenon of fluorescence occurs when fluorescent penetrants
absorb light of typical wavelength and emit light of other wave length of visible colour. Use of
black light is made to observe such indications which glow as greenish yellow.

1.6.4. Beer's law

If two solutions of the same coloured compounds are made in the same solvent one of
which, say, is twice the concentration of other, the absorption of light due to a given thickness of
the first solution should be equal to that of twice the thickness of the second. Mathematically, this
may be expressed:

I 1 c 1 = I 2 c2 (5)

When the intensity of light passing through the two solutions is constant and if the intensity
and wave length of light incident upon each solution is the same.

1.6.5. Fluorescent pigments

Fluorescent dyes are selected for high fluorescence and permanence under ultraviolet light.
Fluorescent pigments used as tracer in liquid carrier of the penetrant make it more sensitive than
to visible dye penetrant for minute indications such as cracks or pinholes. The indications
appearing because of surface open discontinuities fluorescence under black light.

1.7. Basic formulation of penetrating liquids with oily and non oily base

1.7.1. Additives and conditioners

The penetrants for use in the water-washable process are not simple dye solutions but rather
complicated formulations of a number of ingredients. These include penetrating oils, dyes,
emulsifying agents and stabilizing agents. The constituents are added or incorporated into such
proportions so as to give a penetrant with high penetrativeness, dye solubility, ease of washing
and stability of dye i.e. it does not separate itself under wide variations in temperatures and other
operating conditions.
In visible dye penetrants, there is a dye, usually red, used as tracer in the carrier or vehicle
fluid. In the case of fluorescent penetrants, there is added a brilliant fluorescent dye into the
carrier fluid. The carrier fluid can be oily base or non oily. Water washable penetrants contain an
emulsifier so that they are self emulsifiable or water washable. In addition they also contain
dispersive agents and corrosion inhibitors. The function of dispersive agents is to help in
distributing the dye evenly and completely over the surface to be inspected and carry it to any
surface open defects. This ability is in addition to the characteristic of retaining the dye in
solution or suspension. In case of post emulsifiable and solvent removable penetrants, there is no
emulsifier incorporated into them. These are designed to be insoluble in water and cannot be
removed with water rinsing alone. They are designed to be selectively removed from the surface
of a part by the use of a separate emulsifier, which makes the excess surface penetrant water
washable after a given proper emulsification time. In case of solvent removable penetrants, the
excess surface penetrant is removed by the use of a lint free cloth moistened with solvent.

14
1.8. Removers used in the process

1.8.1. Basic formulation and properties

The removers are required in the following three stages of the penetrant processes:
(a) Pre-cleaning.
(b) Removal of excess penetrant.
(c) Post cleaning (following penetrant inspection).

Removal of light oil or grease on the surface of the test piece is usually carried out by
treatments such as degreasing, emulsion cleaning, solvent wiping or alkaline cleaners. The
removers used in dye penetrant processes are organic solvents, which include, aliphatic petroleum
or chlorinated hydrocarbons (similar to those used in vapour degreasing), or blends of two or
more solvents. Aliphatic petroleums include such familiar fluids as kerosene, naphtha, mineral
spirits and stoddard solvent. Other solvents include alcohols, ketones, benzol, toluol, 1, 1, 1, –
trichloroethane, glycol and other as well as unsaturated chlorinated hydrocarbons such as
trichloroethylene.

1.8.2. Emulsifiers

The use of emulsifiers is made in case of post-emulsifiable penetrant process to make the
excess surface penetrant water-washable. The proper control of emulsification time is critical as
can minimize the chances of over-washing and thereby increasing the sensitivity and reliability
for the detection of shallow discontinuities. The test conditions which influence the selection of
emulsification time are as under:
(a) Penetrant and emulsifier being used.
(b) Type of surface condition.
(c) Performance desired.
(d) Type of rinse used.

1.8.3. Lipophilic and hydrophilic agents

The lipophilic or oil base emulsifiers were the early type of emulsifiers to be used in the
post emulsification of the penetrant. These emulsifiers being oil base dissolve readily and diffuse
into oily penetrant at a some what uniform rate. They are used as supplied by the manufacturers.
Figure 2.5 shows the basic action of the lipophilic emulsifiers during the removal of surface
penetrant.

A red dye is incorporated in the emulsifier fluorescing pink under black light so that when
washing a part under black light it is easy to follow the progress of removal of both emulsifier and
penetrant. The most recent development is that of water-based or hydrophilic emulsifier. It is
usually made of non-inonic surfactant concentrates. This type of emulsifier is dry powder or
concentrated liquid, and must be dissolved or diluted in water before use. The desirable
concentration depends upon the method by which the emulsifier must be applied to the test parts.
Hydrophilic emulsifiers when applied by spraying, function by their detergent and scrubbing
action.
 Penetration Add Emulsifier Solution and diffusion begins

Diffusion proceeds Rinsing Clean surface

Figure 2.5: Mechanism of action of lipophilic emulsifier.

Immerse in Diffusion and

Penetration aqueous remover emulsification
solution begins

Agitation and emulsification Rinsing Clean surface

Figure 2.6: Mechanism of action of hydrophilic emulsifier.

16
2. PROCESSING (PT)

2.1. Reparation of the work-pieces, treatment, identification and protection of the

areas not to be examined

2.1.1. Treatment

The success of any penetrant inspection procedure is greatly dependent upon the surface
and the discontinuity being free of any contaminant that might interfere with the penetrant
process. The contaminants can result in failure of penetrant to (a) wet the test object surface, (b)
enter into discontinuities, and (c) bleed out of discontinuities. All parts or areas of parts to be
inspected must be clean and dry before the penetrant is applied. By the word 'clean' we mean that
the area under test be free of any rust, scale, welding flux, spatter, grease, paint, oily films, dirt,
etc. The treatment processes involved for removing such contamination should be carefully
chosen and adopted. Residues from cleaning processes can adversely react with the penetrant and
reduce its sensitivity and performance greatly. Acids and chromate’s, in particular, greatly reduce
the sensitivity of fluorescent penetrants.

2.1.2. Identification

The materials to be inspected by dye penetrant inspection method can be identified and
classified as to be metallic (ferrous and/or non-ferrous), non-metallic such as plastics, ceramics
and glass. Among metallic materials they can be further recognized or categorized to be as-
forged, as-rolled, as-welded and as-cast.

The materials to be inspected are further identified keeping in view their initial procedural
requirements such as:

(a) The material shapes or sizes to be examined, and extent of examination.

(b) Type (number or letter designation if available) of each penetrant, remover, emulsifier and
developer.

(c) Processing details for pre–examination cleaning and drying, including the cleaning
materials used and minimum time allowed.

(d) Processing details for applying penetrant; the length of time that the penetrant will remain
on the surface and temperature of surface and penetrant.

(e) Processing details for removing excess penetrant and for drying the surface before applying
the developer.

(f) Processing details for applying the developer and length of development time before
interpretation.

(g) Processing details for post–examination cleaning.

The areas not to be examined should be protected from the penetrant processing materials.
2.2. Cleaning prior to inspection

2.2.1. Various techniques applicable

Solvents

There are a variety of solvent cleaners that can be effectively utilized to dissolve such soils
as grease, oily films, waxes and sealants, paints and in general organic matter. These solvents
should be residue free, especially when used as a hand wipe solvent or as a dip tank degreasing
solvent. Solvent cleaners are not recommended for removal of rust, scale, welding flux, spatter
and in general inorganic soils. In solvent cleaning, test objects are immersed and soaked in tanks
of common organic liquid solvents. Organic solvents are normally used at or near room
temperature. Oil, grease and loose metal chips are removed from metal surfaces, with or without
agitation. After solvent cleaning the parts are dried at room temperature or by external heat. Since
contamination removed from test parts is retained in the solvent, both cleaning efficiency and the
final cleanliness of the test objects can decrease with continual use. Nearly all metals and alloys
can be cleaned in common solvents unless acid or alkaline contamination is introduced into the
solvents. Solvent cleaning is often used in combination with separate acid or alkaline cleaning
procedures for removal of complex soils. Common organic solvents include aliphatic petroleum
or chlorinated hydrocarbon or blends of two or more solvents. Aliphatic petroleum’s include such
familiar fluids such as kerosene, naphtha, mineral spirits and stoddard solvent. Other solvents
include alcohol’s (ethanol, methanol or isopropanol), ketones benzol, toluol, 1, 1, 1,–
trichloroethene, glycol ethers as well as unsaturated chlorinated hydrocarbon such as
trichloroethylene.

Vapour degreasing

Vapour degreasing is a preferred method of removing oil or grease type soils from the
surface of the parts and from open discontinuities. It will not remove inorganic-type soils (dirt,
corrosion, salts etc.) and may not remove resinous soils (plastic-coatings, varnish, paint, etc.).
Because of the short contact time, degreasing may not completely clean out, deep discontinuities
and a subsequent solvent soak is recommended.

Since vapour degreasing usually employs a chlorinated solvent, the aerospace and nuclear
industries have become concerned about the effects of vapour degreasing on titanium, austenitic,
stainless steels and other chloride–sensitive alloys. Some specifications forbid use of vapour
degreasing method of cleaning for such materials.

The hot vapours of a chlorinated solvent such as 1, 1, 1-trichloroethane (which is less toxic
than tri-chloroethylene or perchloroethylene) are used to remove oils, greases, or waxes from
metallic test objects in preparation for penetrant inspection. An open steel tank contains the
heated liquid solvent which boils and generates the solvent vapour. This vapour condenses upon
the relatively cool metal surfaces of parts placed in the vapour zone above the heated tank. Some
vapour degreaser units provide means also for immersing the test objects in the warm or boiling
solvent or for spraying clean solvent upon the parts.

The preferred solvent is 1, 1, 1-trichloroethane (methyl chloroform) which boils at 72.2ºC

(167ºF). During vapour degreasing, the contaminated solvent condensate drips back into the
heated tank, carrying contaminants into the bath. During evaporation, only clean solvent vapours
are produced, so that test parts are given adequate final rinsing in clean vapour. The test objects
come out of the vapour degreasing operation both clean and dry, but warm. After adequate
cooling, they are ready for application of the liquid penetrant if no other forms of contamination
exist.
 Detergent solutions

Detergent cleaning may be used to clean almost any specimen. They can be
alkaline, neutral, or acidic in nature, but must be non-corrosive to the item being inspected. The
cleaning properties of the detergent solutions facilitate complete removal of soils and
contamination from the surface and void areas, thus preparing them to absorb the penetrant.
Cleaning time should be on an average 10 to 15 minutes at 170 to 200F (77 to 93C) with
moderate agitation, using concentrations (normally 6 to 8 0z/gal. or 45 to 60 kg/m 3) as
recommended by the manufacturer of the compound.

Solutions having a chemical action (acid and alkali removers, etc.)

Alkaline cleaners are non-flammable water solutions containing specially selected

detergents for wetting, penetrating, emulsifying and saponifying various types of soils. Hot
alkaline solutions are used for rust removal and descaling to remove oxide scale which can mask
surface discontinuities. Parts cleaned by alkaline cleaning process must be completely free of
cleaner and thoroughly dried by heat prior to the penetrant inspection process. Inhibited acid
solutions (pickling solutions) are routinely used for descaling part surfaces. Acid solutions
etchants are also used routinely to remove the smeared metal that peens over surface
discontinuities. Etched parts and materials must be rinsed completely free of etchants, the surface
neutralized and thoroughly dried by heat prior to the application of penetrants. While making use
of alkaline cleaners, paint removers (solvent type) and acids, the parts must be rinsed thoroughly
and dried before application of penetrants. Some cleaning solvents are flammable and can be
toxic too, observe all safety precautions in their use.

Ultrasonic cleaning

Ultrasonic cleaning method adds ultrasonic agitation to solvent or detergent cleaning to

improve cleaning efficiency and decrease cleaning time. It should be used with water and
detergent if the soil to be removed is inorganic (rust, dirt, salts, corrosion products etc.) and with
organic solvents if the soil to be removed is organic (grease and oily films etc.). After ultrasonic
cleaning the parts should be heated to remove the cleaning fluid, then cooled to at least 125F
(52C).

Mechanical means (grinding, sand blasting, brushing, etc.)

Metal loose scale removing processes such as filing, grinding, brushing, sand blasting etc.
are often used to remove such soils as carbon, rust, scale and foundry adhering sands, as well as to
deburr or produce a desired cosmetic effect on the part. These processes may decrease the
effectiveness of the penetrant examination by smearing or peening over metal surfaces and filling
discontinuities open to the surface, especially for soft metals such as aluminium, titanium,
magnesium and beryllium alloy. Generally, abrasive methods are used on surfaces that are file
hard. However, such techniques must minimize plastic metal flow to avoid covering defects at the
surfaces. If it is suspected that discontinuity openings may have been closed, some method such
as etching should be used to reopen the imperfection prior to testing.

2.2.2. Conditions and limitations of the different cleaning techniques

The conditions or the choice of a suitable cleaning method is based on such factors as:

(a) Type of contaminant to be removed since no one method removes all contaminants equally
well.
(b) Effect of cleaning method on the parts.
(c) Practicality of the cleaning method for the part (for example, a large part cannot be put into
a small degreaser or ultrasonic cleaner).
(d) Specific cleaning requirements of the purchaser.

The cleaning processes have to be carefully chosen, as no harm to the sample can be
tolerated. Detergents can be alkaline or acidic in nature and as such should be employed for
metals which do not show a strong reaction to acids and alkalis. Similarly abrasive blasting may
be used only to the extent that the surface does not become peened to a degree that could seal a
defect or contaminate the opening with abrasive residue. Use of steel wire brushes either flat or
rotary are not used on non-ferrous metals. Vapour degreasing is the preferred method of final
precleaning. An exception to vapour degreasing is titanium where chlorinated solvents are
prohibited. The final pre-cleaning of titanium parts is with stoddard or dry-cleaning type solvent
followed by oven drying at 52C (125F).

2.2.3. Comparison of the effectiveness of the different techniques in relation to the surface
state of the specimen

The cleaning effectiveness of respective methods for precleaning of the surface for liquid
penetrant testing has been summarized in a tabular form as given in Table 3.1.

2.3. Conditions and requirements for the different drying stages

Drying of the parts before any penetrants process is necessary for the following
reasons:

 Water traces present within leaks or discontinuities will minimize or prevent the
penetrants’ entry into leaks or surface defects.
 The parts are also to be dried for the applicability of a particular process, for example,
the part is dried after the removal of excess penetrant and prior to the application of dry
or non-aqueous wet developer. When water-based wet developer is used, the specimen
is dried after the developer has been applied.

2.3.1. Use of cold and hot air

Parts can be dried by using a hot air recirculating oven, a hot air blast, or by exposing to
ambient temperature. Drying is best done in a thermostatically controlled recirculating hot air
dryer.

2.3.2. Temperature and time

The temperature in the dryer is normally maintained between 150 oF and 225oF (66oC and
107 C) for most applications. Parts’ temperature should not exceed 125 oF (52oC). The time for
o

drying of parts in the drying oven should not be excessive enough to destroy the sample. Drying
time is determined by the size and composition of the specimen, and visual observation usually
fixes the length of the drying cycle. Excessive heat or too long a drying time tends to bake the
penetrant out of discontinuities.
TABLE 3.1: COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES IN
RELATION TO THE SURFACE STATE OF THE SPECIMEN

Sr. no. Type of Respective methods in order Remarks

contaminants of their preference
1. Soluble Vapour degreasing. Hot Since vapour degreasing process usually
contaminants such tank alkaline cleaning. employs chlorinated solvents, their effects on
as mineral oils. Steam cleaning. Solvent metals like titanium, austenitic stainless steels
emulsion cleaning. Water and other chlorine sensitive alloys are of
emulsion cleaning. Solvent concern in aerospace and nuclear industry. Hot
washing. alkaline cleaning can be corrosive to metals
such as aluminium alloys and sensitized
austenitic steels.
2. Scale, Rust, It is necessary to rinse the parts thoroughly
Corrosion products Alkaline or acid type after the use of acid or alkaline cleaning
and Oxides. removal procedures. Wire procedures. Acids or alkaline residues can act
brushing vapour or sand to reduce penetrant dye fluorescence and
blasting. reduce the penetrant indications. High speed
Electrocleaning. rotary brushes should be avoided since they can
smear surface of the metal over defects.
3. Carbon varnish, or Mechanical processes that peen or smear
other tightly held surface material may act to close openings
soil. Solvent type carbon remover. into discontinuities so that penetrant
Alkaline type carbon remover. indications cannot be formed. Such abrasive
Wire brushing. Vapour or sand methods often require a subsequent acid
blasting. etching treatment to reopen the
discontinuities.
4. Paint coatings Solvent type paint removers.
Factors which influence paint removal include:
Alkaline type paint removers.
Surface preparation prior to painting. Type of
Wire brushing. Vapour or
paint. Number of coats of paint. Age or cure of
sand blasting.
paint finish. Type of paint remover used.
Nature of the substrate.
5. Surface roughness. Abrasive polishing.
Surface roughness reduces ease of rinsing
Electro-polishing.
and increases difficulty of hand wiping. Rinse
Strong acids or
with fresh water. Use neutralizing rinse, fresh
alkalis.
water rinse and dry.

2.4. Inspection process

2.4.1. Application of penetrating agent

Application techniques

It does not matter how penetrant is applied to surfaces, provided that it covers the entire surface to
be inspected. Methods which an be used include immersion, flow-on, electrostatic spray, aerosol
spray, conventional spray, brush-on, wipe-on or application as a fog. Small parts are quite often
placed in a suitable basket and dipped into a tank of penetrant. On larger parts and with
complex geometries, penetrant can be applied effectively by brushing or spraying. Both
conventional and electrostatic spray guns are effective means of applying liquid penetrant to
the test part. Figure 3.1 (a), (b).

Temperature

The temperature of the test part surface should be between 16C to 52C.
 When it is not practically possible to make a liquid penetrant examination within the
temperature range 16 to 52C (60 to 125oF), the examination procedure at the proposed
temperature requires further qualification. This shall be accomplished by producing quench
cracks in an aluminium block.

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.1: Penetrant application (a) by spray can, and (b) by brushing.
 Penetration time

A broad guide to correct time is contained in Table 3.2. The specimen size, composition,
nature of discontinuities sought and the temperature of the test area, all affect penetration time
which is also called dwell time or residence time.

TABLE 3.2: TYPICAL MINIMUM PENETRATION TIMES

Material Form Type of discontinuity Water- Post- Solvent

washable emulsified removed
penetration penetration penetration
time* time* time*
Castings Porosity 5 to 15 Min 5 Min** 3 Min
Cold shuts 5 to 15 5 ** 3
Extrusions Laps NR*** 10 7
Aluminium and Forgings
Lack of fusion 30 5 3
Welds Porosity 30 5 3
Cracks 30 10 5
All Fatigue cracks NR*** 30 5
Porosity 15 5** 3
Castings Cold shuts 15 5** 3
Extrusions Laps NR*** 10 7
Magnesium and Forgings
Lack of fusion 30 10 5
Welds Porosity 30 10 5
Cracks 30 10 5
All Fatigue cracks NR*** 30 7
Porosity 30 10** 5
Castings Cold shuts 30 10** 7
Extrusions Laps NR*** 10 7
Steel and Forgings
Lack of fusion 60 20 7
Welds Porosity 60 20 7
Cracks 30 20 7
All Fatigue cracks NR*** 30 10
Porosity 10 5** 3
Castings Cold shuts 10 5** 3
Brass and Extrusions Laps NR*** 10 7
Bronze and Forgings
Lack of fusion 15 10 3
Brazed Parts Porosity 15 10 3
All Cracks 30 10 3
Plastics All Cracks 5 to 30 5 5
Glass All Cracks 5 to 30 5 5
Carbide- Lack of fusion 30 5 3
tipped Porosity 30 5 3
Tools
Cracks 30 20 5
Titanium and
High Temp. All NR*** 20 to 30 15
Alloys
Stress or inter-granular
All Metals All corrosion NR*** 240 240

* For parts having a temperature of 60o to 125oF (16o to 52oC)

** Precision castings only
*** NR – Not Recommended.
2.4.2. Removal of excess penetrating agent

Various methods of removal depending on type of penetrant

(a) Water-dispersable

Due to ease of post-cleaning, water-base penetrants, both visible and fluorescent, that use
water as the thinner instead of a hydrocarbon have been accepted for LOX (liquid oxygen) related
apparatus inspection. Water-base penetrants, if their water content is sufficiently high, are found
to be LOX insensitive when subjected to the impact test.

The success with water base penetrants under LOX usage condition is attributed to the ease
of removal of residues, both surface and flaw entrapped. This residue will be primarily a water
soluble surface active agent, a detergent in itself, which facilitates post cleaning (the most critical
step in the process when LOX usage is involved). Post cleaning is simplified if the water-base
penetrant is of the self-developing fluorescent types. Since there is no "remover" (other than
water) and no developer, the post-cleaning operation involves only penetrant residue. Usually the
residue of the water-soluble penetrant dissolves more readily when the water-base cleaner
includes an additive such as a volatile glycol ether or light alcohol to lower the residue's viscosity.
In addition to being water soluble, the residue of the water-base penetrant, once its water content
has evaporated, also readily dissolves in chlorinated solvent cleaners such as perchloethylene.

(b) Water-soluble penetrants

For water washable penetrants, the excess penetrants can be removed directly from the part
with water washing by using manual, semi-automatic, automatic wide fan shaped water spray or
immersion equipment. Water pressure should be kept constant and not exceed 50 psi (345 kPa).
Generally a coarse spray is recommended. The temperature of water for effective cleaning should
be within a minimum of 60 oF to 90oF (16oC to 32oC). The duration of the rinsing cycle should not
be excessive enough to cause over-washing. For fluorescent penetrant, the rinsing operation
should be monitored under black light.

Care must be exercised in rinsing to avoid over-washing or the removal of the penetrant from the
discontinuities. Excess spraying time or excess spray pressure, as well as complete immersion of
parts in rinse water, may cause removal of penetrant from discontinuities and should be avoided.
This is in particular for wide and shallow defects where the chances of removal of penetrant out
of such defects are more Figure 3.2.

(c) Solvent soluble penetrants

The volatile organic solvents used for penetrant removal are the most aggressive reagents
used for this purpose, consequently great care must be taken in their use. When solvent removers
are used in manual systems, they must only be applied by the wipe method. The excess penetrant
is to be cleaned off, by using wipes of clean lint free material, repeating the operation until most
traces of penetrant have been removed. Then lightly moisten with solvent a lint-free cloth and
wipe the surface until all remaining traces of excess penetrant have been removed. On rough
surfaces it may be necessary to apply cleaner to the rag or towelling prior to wiping part surfaces.
Flushing the surface with solvent following the application of penetrant and prior to developing is
prohibited Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.2: Angled coarse warm water spray for removal of excess water-washable penetrant.

Figure 3.3: Cleaning of excess penetrant by solvent damped cloth.

(d) Post-emulsifiable penetrants

Post emulsifiable penetrants are not directly water-washable and they require the use of an
emulsifier (oil or water base). After the required penetration time the excess penetrant on the part
is emulsified by dipping, flooding, or spraying the parts with the required emulsifier. Application
of emulsifier with brush is not acceptable. Effective rinsing of the emulsified penetrant can be
accomplished in the maximum as for directly water-washable penetrant. The length of the time
that the emulsifier is allowed to remain on the part and in contact with penetrant called the
emulsification time is dependent on the type of emulsifier (fast acting, slow acting, oil base or
water) and the surface condition of the part. In general the emulsification time is from few
seconds to several minutes depending on the activity of the emulsifier, surface of the part and the
type of discontinuities sought. The average emulsification time should be about 30 seconds.
Figure 3.4 (a)–(f) explains various steps for a post-emulsifiable process.
(a) Penetrant seeps into discontinuity. (b) Emulsifier is applied to penetrant.

(c) Surface penetrant is emulsified. (d) Water spray removes emulsified penetrant.

(e) Developer draws penetrant from (f) Depending on type penetrant, indication is
discontinuity. viewed under visible light or black light.

Figure 3.4: Post-emulsification process.

2.4.3. Conditions for the application of lipophilic and hydrophilic emulsifiers

Application of lipophilic emulsifier

The most common method of application of lipophilic emulsifying agent is by immersion

followed by drainage. Spray application followed by drainage has also been used successfully.
Brush application of lipophilic emulsifier is forbidden, since this will cause loss of penetrant from
discontinuity sites. Flowing on of a lipophilic emulsifier is not recommended since the contact
time for this process is very critical and it is not possible to cover any but small components
rapidly enough to ensure uniform processing. It is essential that complex-shaped components are
rotated during the drainage stage so that the various surfaces receive similar processing.

Specific contact times for lipophilic emulsifier should be established for each application
and are extremely important. Those values can vary between 60 and 180 seconds depending on
the actual emulsifying agent, the penetrant in use and the surface state of the components.
Lipophilic emulsifiers are used undiluted at temperatures between 15 oC and 25oC.

Application of hydrophilic emusifier

Application of such emulsifier is by immersion in an aqueous solution. The normal

concentration is within the range 2.5 to 20% v/v. Specifications vary as to whether agitation is
forbidden, allowed or required. If agitation is used, it should be mechanical rather than by use of
compressed air, since compressed air can cause heavy foaming and may not be clean and may
introduce contaminants. Maximum contact times are given in specification as being
approximately 2–4 minutes, depending on application.

Hydrophilic emulsifier (detergent) solutions can also be applied by spray or as foam. The
concentration of the solutions tends to be much lower (up to 2.5% v/v maximum) when these
methods of application are used. Once conditions have been established, they should be strictly
observed in practice.

Drying

The drying requirements are the same as discussed in Section 3.3.

Requirements and precautions in the removal stage

(a) Care should be exercised to minimize the chances of over-washing and over emulsification.

(b) When using solvent cleaner, flushing with solvent is prohibited.

(c) Cloth used for cleaning should be lint free.

(d) The coarse water spray is recommended. The water spray pressure should be kept constant
and not be more than 50 PSI. The temperature of water for effective cleaning should be
within a minimum of 60 to 90oF (16 to 32oC).

2.4.4. Application of the developer

General

Some penetrants provide sufficient discontinuity indications without a developer. They are
self-developing. But generally, when maximum sensitivity is desired, a developer is required. The
developer assists in the detection of penetrant retained in discontinuities by aiding in the capillary
bleed-out process (the developer acts as a blotting agent), and by accentuating the presence of
penetrant in a discontinuity. Developer accentuates the presence of a discontinuity because it
causes the penetrant from the discontinuity to spread out over a greater area. It also serves as a
colour contrast background for the visible dye used in the visible dye processes and for the
fluorescent material used in the fluorescent processes. Developer is available in both dry and
liquid forms and the selection of developer is in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendation for the type of penetrant used. When a dry or non-aqueous wet developer is
used, the specimen must be completely dry before the developer is applied. When a water-based
wet developer is used, it is applied immediately after penetrant removal is accomplished and prior
to the drying operation.

Dry developer

Dry developer, being a loose, fluffy talcose powder with high absorbent properties, is
applied to a specimen by dusting, blowing, or dipping the specimen. The application is usually
accomplished in a booth with a blower or fan arrangement that removes loose powder from the
atmosphere. No preparation of the powder is necessary and the only requirement is that it be
evenly distributed over the test surface, which must be completely dry Figure 3.5.

Nonaqueous wet developer

Non-aqueous wet developer is a suspension of absorptive white powder in a solvent

vehicle. It is usually applied by spraying from a pressurized spray can or other spraying device
such as a paint spray gun Figure 3.6. When used in bulk form, care must be exercised to keep the
powder thoroughly mixed in the specimen without soaking the test surface. When properly mixed
and applied, non-aqueous wet developer is the most sensitive of all the developers in detecting
fine discontinuities.

Water-based wet developer

Water-based wet developer may be either a suspension of absorptive white powder in

water, or a water-soluble absorptive white powder mixed with water. The suspension type
requires mild agitation prior to and during use to keep the powder particles in suspension; the
water-soluble developer does not. The water-soluble powder, once mixed with the water, remains
in solution. After excess penetrant is removed from the specimen, and while it is still wet, wet
developer is applied by either dip (immersion), flow-on, or spray techniques. These fast and
effective methods of application, combined with the time saved by applying developer to the wet
specimen, make water-based wet developer well suited for use in rapid, production line testing.
Wet developer is applied so as to form a smooth, even coating, and particular care is taken to
avoid concentrations of developer in dished or hollowed areas of the specimen. Such
concentrations of developer mask penetrant indications and are to be avoided.

Previous treatment of the developer

The developers to be used are maintained and stored with care to keep their performance
satisfactory. Dry developers require little care however they should be watched not to be badly
contaminated with foreign matter. If insufficiently dried parts are continually placed in dry
developer, lumps or balls of dry developer can form which will eventually ruin the effectiveness
of developer. Slight contamination can also occur when lumps of penetrant soaked developer fall
from heavy indications or poorly washed parts. When fluorescent penetrants are being used,
developers should also be checked with black light periodically to ensure that developer tanks
have not become contaminated with fluorescent material.
 Figure 3.5: Application of dry developer by dipping method.

Figure 3.6: Application of developer by spraying method.

The other type of developers, for example, aqueous wet developers are prepared by mixing
dry developer, powders or liquid concentrates with water in the proportions recommended by the
manufacturer. The proper consistency of aqueous wet developer suspensions must be maintained
by replacing water lost through evaporation or powder lost through dragout. The solvent
suspendible developers exist in two types namely:

(i) Non-aqueous plastic (lacquer) developers.

(ii) Non-aqueous solvent suspendible developers.

 Plastic or resin developers are characterized by their inherent ability to produce a high
resolved penetrant indication in a strippable plastic film which can be stored as a permanent
record if so desired. Chemically, the plastic film developers are composed of a variety of organic
polymers of varying molecular weights, dispersed or dissolved in selective solvents. Functionally,
plastic — solvent developers act by dissolving penetrant from the flaw into the amorphous plastic
film where it is fixed when all of the solvent is evaporated. To avoid masking fine defects, a fine
coating of white lacquer is applied first and then plastic film developer is applied by spraying in
very thin light passes.

Most of the developers used with portable penetrant inspection kits are of the non-aqueous
solvent type. These developers are in the form of. pressurized cans and contain the necessary
developer powder suspended in a volatile liquid medium. These cans should be thoroughly
agitated before use to ensure the proper suspension of developer in solvent when applied to test
parts.

2.5. Observation of indications

2.5.1. Lighting conditions for coloured liquids and UV radiation for fluorescent liquids

Visible penetrant indications can be inspected in either natural or artificial white light.
According to ASME Code (Section V) the recommended minimum light intensity for visible dye
indication to be inspected is 32.5 foot candles. Similarly for the inspection of fluorescent
indications to be made under black light source, the allowed value of ambient white light is a
maximum of 3 foot candles for critical inspection. It is recommended that the operator be in the
darkened area for at least 5 minutes prior to inspection so that his eyes adopt to dark viewing.

For viewing fluorescent penetrant indications under black light, lamp intensity should be a
minimum of 800 watt/cm2 on the surface of the part. There is not a constant factor that relates
milliwatt/cm2 to the candela/cm2.

2.5.2. Sequence and time of observation

The length of time the developer should remain on the part prior to inspection should not be
less than 7 minutes. Developing time begins as soon as the dry developer is applied and as soon as
the wet (aqueous and non-aqueous) developer is dry (i.e. the solvent carrier have evaporated to
dryness). If bleed out does not alter the inspection results, development period of over 30 minutes
are permitted.

2.5.3. Interpretation of the findings and identification of the type of defects

By interpretation we mean to assess the cause of an indication or the evaluation of the

significance of discontinuities from the stand point of whether they are detrimental defects or
inconsequential blemishes. Penetrant indications provide the experienced operator with
qualitative data on which to base a decision in all obvious cases. He must know the kind of flaw
and its approximate magnitude before attempting to solve the problem of estimating probable
damage to the part. If fluorescent penetrant is used and the examination is made under black light
(ultraviolet), sound areas appear as a deep violet-blue, while discontinuities glow with a brilliant
yellow-green light. If dye penetrant is used, the examination is made in ordinary white light, the
developer forms a white back-ground and the defects are visible by a red colour indication.
 Relevant indications

Relevant indications are those caused by discontinuities. The interpretation of an indication

as relevant is a matter in observing the indication, eliminating the possibility of its being a false
indication and then further determining that it is relevant.

A true indication immediately becomes subject to interpretation of the type of discontinuity

and evaluation on the basis of the relevant acceptance standard or engineering decision based on
the effect of the indicated discontinuity on the service life of the specimen. Definite appraisals
require knowledge of the processes used in fabricating or in the case of a component in service,
knowledge of its operation and the stresses to which it has been subjected.

Figure 3.7: Relevant indications.

Discontinuity indications vary widely in appearance but for each indication two
interpretative questions must be answered. What type of discontinuity causes the indication?
What is the extent of the discontinuity as evidenced by the extent of the indication? Relevant
indications fall into five categories; continuous line, intermittent line, rounded, small dots, and
diffused or weak.

Figure 3.8: Continuous line.

 Continuous line

Continuous line indications are caused by cracks, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration,
forging laps, scratches or die marks. Cracks usually appear as jagged lines and forging laps as
smooth, wavy lines. Scratches and die marks appear in a variety of linear patterns but are readily
recognizable when all penetrant traces are removed. Seams provide a continuous line that differs
from a crack in that the line is straight rather than jagged.

Intermittent line

The same discontinuities that cause continuous line indications may, under different
circumstances, cause intermittent line indications. When an article is worked by grinding peening,
forging or machining for example; portions of the discontinuities in the surface of the article may
be closed by the metal-working process, When this occurs, the discontinuities will appear as
intermittent lines. Very light cracks yield similar signs.

Figure 3.9: Intermittent line.

Figure 3.10: Round indications.

 Round

Round indications usually are caused by porosity. The porosity may be the result of gas
holes or pin holes. Deep cracks may also appear as round indications since they trap a large
amount of penetrant that spreads when the developer is applied.

Small dots

Small dot indications result from fine openings such as pin holes, or may be the result of
coarse grain in a cast alloy.

Diffused or weak indications

Diffused or weak indications are particularly difficult to interpret. When they appear, the
workpiece is to be thoroughly cleaned and re-tested. While weak diffused indications may be
caused by surface porosity, they are more often the result of insufficient early cleaning incomplete
penetrant removal or too thick a layer of developer.

2.5.4. Spurious or non-relevant indications

False indications

False indications are those which are not associated with a discontinuity of any sort. The
most common source of false indications is poor washing of water-washable and post-
emulsifiable penetrant. When using fluorescent penetrant, the use of black light during the
washing process is very important.

The operator can easily tell whether a good rinse is obtained by noting whether patches of
fluorescence remain on the specimen. Care must be taken so that no outside contamination occur.

Typical sources of contamination are:

(1) Penetrant on hands-off operator.

(2) Contamination of wet or dry developer.
(3) Penetrant rubbing from an indication on one specimen to the surface of another specimen.
(4) Penetrant spots on the inspection table.
(5) Lint or threads.

Non-relevant indications

As well as the truly false indications there is a category of non-relevant indications which
testing personnel can recognize. These are true indications in the sense that they are caused by
surface design and therefore not flaws. Most of such non-relevant indications are easy to
recognize since they are related directly to some feature of the assembly that accounts for their
presence. They include those that appear on articles that are press-fitted, keyed, splined, riveted or
spot welded and those appearing on castings as a result of loosely adherent scale or a rough
surface due to burned-in sand. Such non-relevant indications must be carefully noted, since they
may interfere with correct interpretation.
 Figure 3.11: False indications.

2.6. Recording of findings

2.6.1. Test report forms

The test report forms should contain the necessary information on the type of chemicals
used and the methods employed. The indication observed have to be categorized as linear or
rounded. Linear indications are those in which the length is more than three times the width.
Rounded indications on the other hand are those in which the length is equal or less than three
times the width. The recording of indications as relevant should be made for those arising from
unacceptable mechanical discontinuities. Only indications with major dimension greater than
1/16 inch (1.6 mm) are considered as relevant. The test report form should also indicate the
location of defects.

2.6.2. Localization schemes

For welds the location of defect is determined by two co-ordinates L and W. L is the
distance from certain mark of weld. W is measured from the weld centre line. The different sides
of the weld are identified by letters A and B. The location of the defect is measured from the
centre of the defect. The orientation of the defect is reported in relation to the weld. A defect shall
be recognized as longitudinal if it is parallel to the weld and transverse if perpendicular to the
weld. Figure 3.12 illustrates the scheme for localization of the defects.

2.6.3. Transfer of findings

For maintaining a record for later reference or presentation in a report the respective
indications can be transferred into sketch forms, photographs and diagrams. Such diagrams
should illustrate the location, direction and areas of discontinuities. Recording of such indications
for report writing purposes are through a transparent cellulose tape transfer method.

2.6.4. Photographic techniques

Liquid penetrant indications observed using visible dye or fluorescent dye can easily be
photographed. For fluorescent penetrant indications use of black light filters has to be made. The
3.6.4. Photographic techniques

Liquid penetrant indications observed using visible dye or fluorescent dye can easily be
photographed. For fluorescent penetrant indications use of black light filters has to be made. The
specimen test area is under black light which help pronouncing the indication through their
fluorescence. A typical photographic arrangement for this purpose is shown in Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.12: Location of defects in welded job.

3.6.5. Writing reports

The inspection report should contain complete information detailing the size, number and
location, of indications as well as interpretation of the defect type. To assist in determining the
acceptability of a component when working documents do not give acceptance criteria, it is
necessary to know the position of the imperfections with respect to the most highly stressed areas.
Sketches should be used to illustrate the location, direction and frequency of defects.

2.7. Testing techniques for detection of leaks by means of liquid penetrants

Testing for leaks is a distinctly separate application where penetrant inspection is very
successful. Any thin walled casting, weld, or tank which must be leak proof in its final assembly
may be inspected for leaks at any stage in its manufacture. The essential procedure of testing is to
apply or coat one side of the assembly with penetrant and time is allowed for the penetrant to
draw through the leaks by capillary forces. Any fine leak will show as a bright colour spot on the
outer surface. Increased contrast is obtained by applying developer to this opposite face after the
elapse of penetration time. The leak detected can be repaired before assembly or the part rejected
before it has been expensively machined.

Penetration time depends on the nature of the leak and thickness of section. Coarse porosity
in the path provides little capillary force and will slow up penetration by a considerable factor.
Normal penetration rate is very rapid. The process works extremely well through thin sections
such as welded sheet metal but rapidly drops in efficiency through sections over 1/4 inch unless
penetrant is applied under pressure.
 It is important that the leaks must be free of foreign material. It is important that no water
test be tried before using penetrant as the water will plug all the fine passages. Even pressure tests
with high moisture content may markedly reduce later penetration by penetrant.

Figure 3.13: Diagram of set-up for black light photography.

 3. TEST EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS (PT)

3.1. Evaluation of the materials used in the test

The reliability of any penetrant test is determined in large part by the condition of the
materials used. Even the best procedures are worthless if test materials are faulty. Quality control
of incoming penetrant processing materials, as well as quality control of in-use inspection
materials on a periodic basis, is essential to a reliable penetrant inspection programme. Many
simple tests are available whose use could ensure that liquid penetrants do meet the applicable
quality standards, as they are received from their manufacturer. The overall performance
capabilities are evaluated to check the following common properties.

(1) Visual appearance.

(2) Viscosity.
(3) Specific gravity.
(4) Thin film penetrant brightness or colour.
(5) Sensitivity shown on penetrant comparators or reference panels.
(6) Emulsifier tolerance for penetrant contamination.
(7) Ease of washability of excess penetrant.
(8) Infrared spectrophotometric analysis.
(9) Water tolerance of penetrants and emulsifiers.
(10) Wetting ability.
(11) Bulk density for developers, or apparent gravity for suspensions of wet developers.
(12) Flash or fire points.
(13) Capillary rise.
(14) Sulphur and halogen content.
(15) Liquid oxygen (LOX) impact sensitivity.
Since many of the tests used in the control of penetrant materials are comparison tests in
which “used” materials are compared with “new” materials, control samples are taken at the time
the materials are received from the supplier. These samples are kept in sealed containers and
stored where they are not subject to deterioration from heat, light, or evaporation.

3.1.1. Penetrating agents

Characteristic properties

Viscosity

There are a number of methods for comparing the viscosity of two materials such as a ball
setting test or tests using instruments specifically designed for measuring viscosity. Such
instruments are called viscometers. Water can radically change the viscosity of water-washable
penetrants, depending on their water tolerance. Solvents or oils can increase or decrease the
viscosity of penetrants.

The change in viscosity affects the speed of washing characteristics. The increase in
penetrant viscosity will increase dragout on test parts, slow penetration into discontinuities, and
change the wash characteristics.

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 Density/Specific gravity

Specific gravity is a comparison of the density of a penetrant with the density of distilled
water at 4oC. This is a characteristic which has no direct influence on the penetrating properties of
a liquid. Most commercial penetrants have specific gravity less than one. This is because the
principal constituents of penetrants are organic liquids of naturally low specific gravity. Some of
the non flammable colour contrast type penetrants have a relatively high specific gravity. One
advantage of a specific gravity of less than one is that water which may get into a tank of
penetrant during use will drop to the bottom of the tank and not tend to interfere with the proper
functioning of the penetrant.

Surface tension

Surface tension of the liquid penetrant, resists capillary flow into a crack. Any liquid
contamination affects the penetrability of the penetrant by modifying its surface tension. Since
water has a much greater surface tension than most oil base penetrants, water contamination will
result in an increased surface tension and a reduced infiltration capacity and test sensitivity.

It is difficult to measure surface tension by any simple test; however, it is closely related to
the contact angle and wettability, as discussed in Section 2. There are two tests that can be used to
compare the wettability of a penetrant: (a) a drop test on a flat surface and (b) a capillary test
using capillary tubes.

a) The drop method

The liquid is allowed to drop through a capillary orifice. The size of the drop is governed by
the surface tension of the liquid. The instrument used is called stalagnometer. It is a pipette with a
capillary tube at lower end as shown in Figure 4.1. The tube is thoroughly cleaned and the liquid
is sucked up to the mark A. The drops are counted for the liquid between marks A and B.

The surface tension of the liquid is measured by using the relation:

T1 = (1 n2 / 2 n1) T2 (4.1)

Where n1 and n2 are the number of drops formed for volume of liquids between A and B.

Figure 4.1: A stalagnometer.

 b) The capillary rise method

Surface tension enables a liquid to rise up in a capillary tube. This phenomenon can be used
for its measurement. When a clean capillary tube of radius r is dipped into a liquid in a beaker, the
liquid will rise up the capillary to a height h, till the force due to surface tension which pulls the
liquid upwards is counter balanced by the force of gravity pulling it downward. The surface
tension T of the liquid with density is given by the formula:

T = 1/2 ( h + r/3) gr (4.2)

Ignition point

A satisfactory commercial penetrant should have a high flash point. Flash point and fire
point should not be confused. Flash point of a liquid is defined as that temperature at which
sufficient combustible vapour, under standard conditions, is given off to form an explosive
mixture with the air immediately over the liquid when a flame is present. Fire point a higher
temperature is the point at which the liquid will take fire and continue to burn if a flame is
introduced into the vapour cloud over the liquid surface.

Flash points of volatile liquids are usually measured in an apparatus called the “tag” closed
cup, or in a similar one called the Pensky-Martens closed cup. Closed cup flash points are lower
than open cup flash points, since the former apparatus prevents stray air currents from blowing
vapours away, and instead collects them in a closed chamber. Usually the tag closed cup test is
used up to 175oF (80oC), while the Cleveland Open Cup Test is used above 175oF.

In the Tag closed test the liquid is placed in a brass container or cup heated electrically or
by a gas flame at a specified rate. The cup is covered, the cover supporting a fixture which holds
the thermometer with bulb in the liquid and supports the small test flame. At intervals, by moving
a lever, a window in the cover is opened and the test flame brought to the opening. The
temperature is recorded when this application of the flame ignites the vapour in the cup.

A penetrant with a low flash point may give off enough vapour when it gets warm, to
"flash", over the surface with explosive force if a flame is brought near it and penetrants do get
warm, from mere ambient heat in the shop or from immersion of hot parts fresh from a vapour
degreaser. Low flash point liquids almost invariably have a low fire or ignition point and so
constitute a definite fire hazard.

The flash point of a liquid affects the conditions under which it may be shipped in interstate
commerce. Liquids with flash points lower than 80F open cup (which corresponds usually to
60F to 70F closed cup) are classed as flammable, require a special red label, and must be
shipped in small quantities by railway express or air freight . If the flash point is lower the
restrictions are stiffer. Table 4.1 illustrates flash point values of some liquids. Many industrial and
government specifications now limit the flash point of a desirable penetrant. It is considered that,
under the average conditions of industrial use a penetrant with a closed cup flash point of 130°F
or over is not a very serious fire hazard.

Halogen and sulphur content

When using penetrant inspection materials on austenitic stainless steels and titanium alloys
total chlorine fluorine contents and for nickel base alloys sulphur contents shall be considered.
Even though penetrants and processing materials are removed following inspection, residues may
be retained in crevices, joints and blind holes or other inaccessible areas. With inadequate
cleaning, such residues may react detrimentally with the alloy surface after the components are

131
placed in service. The continued incidence of stress-corrosion cracking in austenitic stainless
steels has focused the attention on the halogens and sulphur content in liquid penetrant materials
used for non-destructive testing. ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code limits the presence of the sulphur and chlorine contents to 1%. The same
has to be determined/ analysed in accordance with the methods described in standards ASTM
D129 and D808.

TABLE 4.1: FLASH POINTS OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS.

Material Flash Point Material Flash Point F-closed Cup

F- closed
Cup
Ethyl Ether –49° Stoddard Solvent 100°

Carbon Disulphide –22° Cellosolve 104°

Acetone 0° Cyelohexanol 154

Ethyl Acetate 24° Ethylene Glycol 232°

Naphtha 30° Di-butyl phthalate 315°

Toluene 40° Glycerine 320°

Methyl Alcohol 54° SAE-10-Lub-Oil 450° (open cup)

Ethyl Alcohol 57° Chloroform Non-flammable

Turpentine 95°

Colour

Visible dye penetrants contain red dye as tracer to give optimum contrast for high
sensitivity inspection. This gives a red indication against the white background of the developer.
The red visible dyes are stable, inert pigments; their concentration in the penetrant influences the
total sensitivity. The dye concentration can be compared with a standard sample by using a light
transmission comparison.

Fluorescence

Inspection with fluorescent penetrants is highly sensitive. In such penetrants the tracer is of
or coated with fluorescent material. The fluorescent material absorbs the black light and re-emits
the absorbed energy as visible light in the yellow green region of the visible light spectrum.

Fluorescent dyes have a number of properties that, if changed, can reduce the fluorescent
brightness and, thus, the overall sensitivity. Contamination and exposure to sunlight or black light
can cause the following conditions:

 Loss of initial brightness.

 Loss of brightness after drying.
 Increase in fading rate when exposed to black light.
 Behaviour Drop

expansion

One of the necessary condition for a penetrant liquid to enter into fine discontinuities is to
wet the test surface and thus disperse evenly on it. Now for liquids of non-wetting type, the
contact angle exceeding 90°, the high surface tension of the liquid contracts the liquid droplet into
a ball with minimum area of contact with the solid surface. For liquids where contact angle is
very large (near 170°), the liquid does not spread. On the contrary contact angles for most liquid
penetrants and liquid leak tracer is very close to 0°.

Now for a liquid to spread over a solid surface, the spreading coefficient, SSL is given by the
equation 4.3. Figure 4.2 illustrates the schematic diagram of liquid drop on an ideally smooth,
clean surface at equilibrium showing contact angle.

SSL = SG - (L + SL) (N/m) (4.3)

Where:

SSL is the spreading coefficient of liquid on solid.

L is the surface energy of the liquid - gas interface.
SL is surface energy of the solid - liquid interface.
SG is the surface energy of the solid - gas interface.
SI units for each of the above parameters are N/m (dyne/cm in cgs system).

A necessary, but not sufficient, condition for spreading of the liquid on the solid surface
requires that the surface energy of the solid — gas interface, SG exceed the surface energy of the
solid - liquid interface, SL as indicated by the inequality.

Spreading condition, SG > SL (4.4)

Figure 4.2: Schematic diagram of liquid drop on an ideally smooth, clean surface, at
equilibrium, showing contact angle θ. With poor wetting, liquid drop has large contact angle
θ, while with better wetting, liquid drop has smaller contact angle θ.

133
 Washability

One of the requirements for a good penetrant is its washability. It should be soluble in water
or a solvent or should become water washable through emulsification action. To achieve
maximum contrast between indications and background, excess surface penetrant must be readily
removable. In the water washability test, the washability performance of the penetrant being
tested is compared to that of the reference penetrant. The penetrants are applied to separate test
panels. After normal dwell and draining periods, and emulsification (if applicable), the penetrants
are washed from the panels using a uniform water spray. If washing is found to be difficult, or
retention of background dye is noticeably different from that of the reference penetrant, the
penetrant is discarded.

Corrosion

Liquid penetrants are also incorporated with corrosion inhibitors among other additives.
This is done so as to prevent the deterioration of the metal by their chemical or electrochemical
reaction with its environment. Control of residues percentages and of halogen contents is of
special importance in selection of a particular penetrant for a specific job.

Preservation

Proper maintenance is more difficult with liquid penetrants that are used in the open tanks
where parts are dipped into them than when sprayed from storage cans. When expended as used
particularly in the small portable kits, liquid penetrants are subject to very little contamination or
degradation. There are also temperature limitations applicable to liquid penetrants. Test
temperatures may vary widely with inspection conditions but must not exceed limits. Penetrants
used in open tanks can withstand temperatures of up to 40C (100F) and above. If the penetrant is
heated to a point where some of its light constituents are driven off its flaw detection capability
will be greatly reduced. Prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures will degrade the
fluorescence or visible dyes in penetrants, greatly reducing them to a level below which they are
visible.

Materials packaged in aerosol spray containers are also not affected by normal storage
conditions. Cold storage reduces the internal pressure so the can must be warmed to nearly room
temperature to spray properly. Conversely, high storage temperatures raise the pressure, and
extremely high pressures can cause bursting of the can. Therefore, aerosol can temperatures
should never exceed 55C (130F).

Aerosol packages do not have infinite shelf life, largely because there is always some slight
leakage of propellant through the valve. This leakage normally does not cause a significant
change of spray performance until at least 2 years after the date of manufacture, but eventually
there will be a loss. Some cans may be completely depressurized after storage for 3 to 5 years.

Stability under light and ultraviolet radiation

Penetrants are exposed to the ultraviolet radiation contained in ordinary light when kept in
open tanks. They are again so exposed during the draining or penetration time after they have
been applied to surfaces of parts. Black light is used during the step of washing or cleaning so as
to ensure satisfactory removal of penetrant. Black light is again applied during inspection and in
many cases a part is examined more than once under black light before its disposition is decided.
Progressive loss of fluorescent intensity during this process is obviously highly undesirable and
could be critical, especially in the case of very fine cracks. Fortunately the best dyes which have
 been developed for penetrant uses, do have excellent resistance to fading under black light,
though nearly all show some fading under such exposure. The poor dyes, however, fade so rapidly
that they are generally unsatisfactory for penetrant purposes for this reason.

The fluorescent brightness test is usually performed with a modified photofluorometer. In

this test, a small amount of the penetrant to be tested and the reference penetrant are diluted with
a nonfluorescent highly volatile solvent such as methylene chloride. Test papers, cut to fit the
sample holder of the photofluorometer, are then dipped into the solutions, withdrawn, and
allowed to air dry. Following drying, the samples are placed in a preheated oven at 225ºF (107ºC)
for 5 minutes. Five samples are prepared of the penetrant being tested and six of the reference
penetrant (the extra reference penetrant sample is used as the master for setting up the
photofluorometer). The samples are then alternately read on the photofluorometer and the results
compared. If the fluorescent brightness of the penetrant being tested should drop below 85% of
the reference penetrant, the penetrant is discarded.

3.1.2. Removers

Characteristic properties and behaviour

Removers are used to wash off excess penetrant and also as a precleaning/post cleaning
agent. They can be water or solvent type depending upon the type of the penetrant.

In solvent cleaning test objects are immersed and soaked in tanks of common organic liquid
solvents. Organic solvents are normally used at or near room temperature. Oil, grease and loose
metal chips are removed from metal surfaces with or without agitation. After solvent cleaning, the
parts are dried at room temperature or by external heat. Since contamination removed from test
parts is retained in the solvent, both cleaning efficiency and the final cleanliness of test objects
can decrease with continual use. Nearly all metals and alloys can be cleaned in common solvents
unless acid or alkaline contamination is introduced into the solvents. Solvent cleaning is often
used in combination with separate acid or alkaline cleaning procedures for removal of complex
soils. Common organic solvents include aliphatic petroleums and chlorinated hydrocarbons
similar to those used in vapour degreasing or blends of two or more solvents. Aliphatic
petroleums include such familiar fluids as kerosene, naphtha, mineral spirits and Stoddard
solvent. Other solvents include alcohol’s (ethanol, methanol or isopropanol), ketones, benzol,
toluol, 1, 1, 1, trichloroethene, and glycol ethers, as well as unsaturated chlorinated hydrocarbons
such as trichloroethylene.

Portable penetrant kits for field use usually contain spray cans of penetrant, developer, and
cleaner/remover. The cleaner/remover serves a dual purpose. It may be used to (1) clean the
surface before penetrant application, although other stronger solvents are also used for
precleaning in the field, or (2) remove the excess surface penetrant upon completion of the
penetrant dwell time. When used to preclean, the spray solvent should be applied liberally and
may be sprayed directly on the surface to be cleaned. Contaminant and excess solvent can then be
removed from test surface with dry, lint-free cloth or paper towels. Adequate time to permit
evaporation of the remaining surface solvent must be allowed prior to penetrant application.
When solvent removers are used for removal of excess penetrant, caution must be exercised to
prevent removal of the penetrant from shallow flaws. The solvent should be applied sparingly to a
cloth which is then used to wipe off the excess surface penetrant. Never spray solvent directly on
the part surface to remove excess penetrant.

135
3.1.3. Emulsifiers

Characteristic properties and behaviour

Emulsifiers are liquids used to emulsify the excess oily penetrant on the surface of the part,
rendering it water washable. There are two basic types of emulsifiers. Oil based and water-based
(detergent removers) both of which can act over a range of time from a few seconds to several
minutes, depending on part surface, viscosity, concentration and chemical composition. Oil based
emulsifiers function by diffusing (dissolving) into the excess penetrant on the surface of the part
and rendering it water washable. The rate of diffusion establishes the emulsification time. Water
base emulsifiers (detergent type removers) are normally supplied as concentrates, to be diluted
with water and used as dip or spray. Water based emulsifiers function by displacing the excess
penetrant film from the surface of the part through detergent action. The force of the water spray
or air agitation of open dip tanks provides the scrubbing action while the detergent displaces the
film of penetrant. The emulsification time will vary, depending on the concentration of the
detergent in water.

Sensitivity test

The emulsifier sensitivity test is performed on aluminium comparator block, ceramic test
block, or anodized test plate. After processing the indications panels are visually compared, if a
noticeable difference exists the emulsifier is discarded.

Contamination test

The principal contaminant of emulsifiers held in open tanks is the penetrant. To limit this
contamination, a fluorescence test is periodically performed. In this test, two blends of emulsifier
and penetrant are prepared. The first blend consists of 75% new emulsifier and 25% new
penetrant. The second blend consists of the same percentages of used emulsifier and penetrant.
The samples are applied to separate test panels and permitted to drain at a 45 degree angle for
15 minutes.

The “used” penetrant-emulsifier test panel is then dipped momentarily in the emulsifier
being tested; the reference panel is dipped in the reference emulsifier. The dwell period used will
depend on the emulsifier but it usually ranges from 3 to 30 seconds. Then, using a special spray
apparatus and a 20-grain hard water solution and 5 pounds air pressure (34 kPa), the panels are
rinsed for 30 seconds with the spray nozzle held 90 degrees to the surface and 12 inches
(305 mm) away.

Following the rinse, the panels are dried in a warm air dryer, after which (if applicable) the
appropriate developer is applied. The panels are then compared under black light. Should the
residual fluorescence of the used penetrant-emulsifier combination noticeably exceed that of the
reference sample (by visual observation), the emulsifier is discarded.

3.1.4. Developers

Characteristic properties and behaviour

Developers when applied after the removal of excess penetrant from test surface help in
drawing out the entrapped penetrant from the surface-open discontinuities. Developers consist of
fine powder which has the following functions.

(a) It has a blotting action which serves to draw more penetrant from the surface open
discontinuities.
 (b) It provides a reflective base over which the penetrant can spread and disperse, thus
increasing the amount of penetrant covered surface exposed to eye.

(c) The action of drawing out the entrapped penetrant is by solvent action in case of solvent
type developers.

The characteristics required or desired in a good developer are:

(a) The material must be absorptive so as to secure a maximum of blotting action.

(b) It must not be itself fluorescent if used with fluorescent penetrants.

(c) It must be easily removable after the inspection is completed.

(d) It should be inert and non-toxic.

(e) For purposes of storage and handling, as well as application, the powders should not be
hygroscopic. This is of importance if the developer powder is stored in the humid
atmosphere. This way they might lose ability to flow and dust easily.

Granulometry and apparent volume

Granulometry is defined as the measurement of grain sizes of sedimentary rock. A sediment

is a mass of organic or inorganic solid fragment itself, that comes from weathering of rock and is
carried by suspension or dropped by air, water or ice, or a mass that is accumulated by other
material agent and that forms in layers on the earth's surface such as sand, gravel, mud, fill etc.

In case of powder particle, the apparent volume of the particle would mean its volume
excluding open pores but including closed pores.

Sedimentation and compaction

Sedimentation is the method of analysis of suspension, by measuring the rate of settling of

the particles under gravity or centrifugal force and calculating a particle parameter from the
measured settled velocities.

Compaction is a technique for increasing the dry density of a granular material, particularly
soil, by means such as impact or by rolling the surface layer. Process by which soil and sediment
mass loses pore content in response to the increasing weight of overlying material.

Evaluation of processes

One of the basic and essential requirements of the wet developer is to form an even coating.
The evaluation procedure involves checking the wetting ability and coating evenness. With large
lumps occurring in developer coatings, small indications may be hidden under the lumps. If the
coating does not cover the whole surface, indications in the uncovered areas will not be
developed and rejectable parts may be accepted.

Developer baths that have lost their wetting ability can sometimes be brought back to
working order by addition of more developer, or in special instance, by addition of the proper
wetting agent. Usually, however the material must be replaced.

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 Another test for evaluating the performance of the developer in the penetrant process is the
measurement of concentration of aqueous wet suspendible developer. The powder concentration
in water suspensions generally range from 40 to 120 g of dry powder concentrated per litre of
water. The specific gravity test for concentration is run by placing hydrometer directly in the
developer tank or in a jar or cylinder. Any cracking of the developer coating during the drying
operation in the normal inspection procedure indicates.

 A serious loss of water.

 An excessive over-concentration of the developer powder.

The third test that should be applied to wet developers is a check for fluorescence. Wet
developer becomes fluorescent mainly from penetrant carried into it on test parts or which
otherwise enters the developer. There is no way to reclaim penetrant contaminated developer so
replacement is the only answer to such a problem.

Dry developer

Dry developers used in open tanks are usually tested only by observation. Since they are not
hydroscopic, they do not absorb moisture from the air, and are relatively trouble-free if they do
not come in contact with water. Any dry developer that is found lumpy or caked instead of light
and fluffy, or that shows any other sign of having been wet, is discarded. Additionally the
developer is visually examined for dirt. It is also checked under black light for fluorescent dry
contamination. Should either condition exist, the developer is discarded.

Wet developer

Wet (aqueous) developers are usually tested only for proper density and possible
contamination from dirt or penetrant. Specific gravity is measured with a hydrometer. If reading
differs from specification requirements either powder or vehicle is added to the developer in
sufficient quantities to bring the density within acceptable limits. Additionally, a small sample of
the developer is taken from the tank and visually examined for dirt. It is also checked for
fluorescent dye contamination under black light. If either condition is in evidence, the developer
is discarded.

Use of standardized work pieces

The use of test blocks, plates, or panels is often specified in the performance of test
procedures used in testing penetrant materials. Depending on the particular test, the materials
used in the manufacture of test blocks include aluminium, steel, nickel, glass, and ceramic. Some
of the blocks are designed primarily for checking penetrant or “system” sensitivity and
performing comparison tests, etc., while others are designed specifically for testing penetrant or
emulsifier washability. All, however, are prepared to rigid specifications as detailed in the
following paragraphs.

Aluminium test blocks

Aluminium test blocks measure 2 by 3 inches (50 by 75 mm) and are cut from 5/16-inch
thick (8-mm) bare 2024-3T aluminium alloy plate, with the 3-inch dimension in the direction of
rolling. The blocks are heated non-uniformly and water quenched so as to produce thermal
cracks. This is accomplished by supporting the block in a frame and heating it with the flame of a
gas burner or torch in the centre on the underside of the block. The flame remains centered and
does not move in any direction during the heating process. A 950 to 980ºF (510 to 527ºC)
 Tempilstik, Tempilac, or equivalent, is applied to an area the size of a penny on the top side and
directly in the centre of the block. The heat of the torch or burner is adjusted so that the block is
heated approximately 4 minutes before the Tempilstik or Tempilac melts, after which the block is
immediately quenched in cold water Figure 4.3. The same operation is then repeated on the other
side of the block. A groove approximately 1/16-inch by 1/16-inch deep (1.5 by 1.5 mm) is cut in
the 2-inch direction across the centre of the heat-affected zone on both sides of the block. This
forms two specimen areas on each side of the block and permits the side-by-side application and
comparison of two penetrants without cross-contamination. This type of block is widely used for
comparing the performance of penetrants under actual crack-finding usage.

(a) Preparation for use. Prior to use, aluminium test blocks are scrubbed with a bristle brush
and liquid solvent, followed by vapour degreasing.

(b) Preparation for reuse. After a test block has been used it is cleaned prior to reuse. The block
is heated slowly with a gas burner to 800ºF (426ºC) as determined by an 800ºF Tempilstik,
or equivalent, after which the block is quenched in cold water. It is then heated to
approximately 225ºF (107ºC) for 15 minutes to drive off any moisture in the cracks, and is
allowed to cool to room temperature.

Ceramic test blocks

Ceramic test block are flat circular disks of unglazed ceramic that, although quite solid and
impervious to liquids, have micro-pit surfaces that entrap liquid penetrants. Inasmuch as the
micro-pit structure provides a range of pore sizes, a performance comparison can be made of two
or more penetrants merely by noting the number or distribution of porosity indications and their
brightness in a side-by-side comparison test. Indications appear as a large number of microscopic
specks of fluorescence or colour, the number increasing as the sensitivity of the penetrant
increases.

Figure 4.3: Heating and quenching of aluminium test block.

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 Preparation for use: The ceramic block is removed from its container (a shallow jar
containing alcohol) using a pair of tweezers, or equivalent, to avoid touching with the
fingers. The block is then wiped with a soft absorbent tissue, and allowed to dry 2 to 5
minutes.

Usage: Using a small applicator, a drop of each penetrant to be tested is applied to the flat
surface of the test block. Immediately following application, the penetrants are blotted with
a piece of soft tissue by pressing the tissue against the block using a glass platen or other
flat object. This prevents the evaporation of the volatile materials in the penetrants from
altering indications. The tissue and cover also hold the penetrants in proper contact with the
test block and prevent excessive bleeding and possible cross-contamination. Following the
required dwell period (usually 10 minutes), the penetrants are processed in accordance with
the penetrant manufacturer’s recommendations. A developer, however, is not used. In
making visual comparisons, both the number of indications observed and the brightness of
indications are noted.

Cleaning after use: After use, the ceramic block is placed on edge in alcohol and soaked
for several hours or until the penetrant entrapments diffuse into the alcohol. The block is
then returned to its storage container, covered with fresh alcohol, and sealed until again
needed.

Anodized/Plated test panels

Stress-cracked anodized aluminium and chrome-plated nickel test panels are frequently
employed in determining penetrant sensitivity and washability. The panels are classified
according to the size of the cracks they contain. The grades are; coarse, medium, and fine. The
coarse panels provide a low sensitivity level; the medium panels, a medium sensitivity; and the
fine panels, a high sensitivity. The panel used depends on the level of sensitivity desired. See
Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: Fluorescent indications of stress cracks in chrome nickel test panels.
 Preparation for use: Panel surfaces are scrubbed using moderate pressure and a cloth
dampened with emulsifier or concentrated soap solution, and followed with a thorough
rinsing using a water spray. Following rinsing, the panel is oven dried at 80 to 100 C for 3
to 5 minutes to drive off any moisture remaining in cracks. The panel is then dipped in
acetone and agitated for a minute or so, removed, and again oven dried at 60 to 80ºC for
approximately one minute.

Usage: A line is usually drawn along the centreline of the panel and parallel to the length-
wise dimension using a wax pencil or narrow vinyl tape. This forms two specimen areas
and permits the side-by-side application and comparison of penetrant materials without
cross-contamination.

Aluminium test panels

Aluminium test plates or panels are used in testing the washability of water-washable
visible dye penetrants. The panels may be of any convenient size, 2 by 4 inches (50 by 100 mm)
or larger, and are cut from clad aluminium alloy. The test surfaces are used in the “as-rolled”
condition. Prior to use, the panel is degreased, after which it is heated to approximately 225ºF
(107ºC), then cooled to room temperature in a dessicator.

Steel test panels

Steel test plates or panels are used in testing the washability of water-washable fluorescent
penetrants, and visible dye or fluorescent penetrants involving the use of an emulsifier or solvent
remover. The panels are prepared from annealed type 301 or 302 stainless steel and measure 2 by
4 inches (50 by 100 mm) or larger. Each is sandblasted on one side with 100-mesh average size
grit, using 60 pounds air pressure (414 kPa), with the gun held approximately 18 inches (457 mm)
from the surface. The sandblasting is continued until a uniform matte surface is obtained. It is the
sandblasted surface that is used in performing tests.

Preparation for use: Prior to use, the panels are cleaned by vapour degreasing, heated
to 225ºF (107ºC), and then allowed to cool to room temperature in a desiccator.

Cleaning for reuse: After each use, the panels are vapour degreased and resand-blasted.

Glass plates

One-quarter-inch thick (6 mm) glass plates (black for fluorescent penetrants and clear for
visible dye penetrants) are also used to test the washability of penetrants. They are fabricated by
sandblasting sheets of glass using 100-mesh average size grit at 60 psi air pressure (414 kPa), so
as to provide a uniform matte surface.

3.2. Cleaning equipment

3.2.1. Degreasing vapour

One of the most common methods of preparing test parts for liquid penetrant inspection is
vapour degreasing. This process is particularly suitable for removal of soluble organic
contaminants such as mineral oils and greases. Unfortunately, vapour degreasing is not effective
for removal of solid contaminants such as carbon, varnish, paints, scale, corrosion products or
oxides. Other means of removal should be used instead of or in addition to vapour degreasing if
any of these contaminants are involved. When steel or other ferrous metal parts are vapour
degreased, the metal is usually highly susceptible to atmospheric corrosion if the air has high
humidity or contains acid vapours, combustion products, or other corrodents. The hot vapours of
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a chlorinated solvent such as 1, 1, 1-trichloroethane (which is less toxic than trichloroethylene or
perchloroethylene) are used to remove oil, greases, or waxes from metallic test objects in
preparation for penetrant inspection. An open steel tank contains the heated liquid solvent which
boils and generates the solvent vapour. This vapour condenses upon the relatively cool metal
surfaces of parts placed in the vapour zone above the heated tank. Some vapour degreaser units
provide means also for immersing the test objects in the warm or boiling solvent or for spraying
clean solvent upon the parts.

The preferred solvent is 1, 1, 1-trichloroethane (methyl chloroform) which boils at

72.2C (167F) This solvent eases parts handling problems during the later step of penetrant
application, which is normally done at room temperature. During vapour degreasing, the
contaminated solvent condensate drips back into the heated tank, carrying contaminants into
the bath. During evaporation, only clean solvent vapours are produced, so that test parts are
given adequate final rinsing in clean vapour. The test objects come out of the vapour
degreasing operation both clean and dry, but warm. After adequate cooling, they are ready for
application of the liquid penetrant, if no other forms of contamination exist. Figure 4.5 refers
to a unit for precleaning by vapour degreasing.

Figure 4.5: Commercial vapour degreasing unit.

3.2.2. Ultrasonic cleaning

Ultrasonic cleaning method adds ultrasonic agitation to solvent or detergent cleaning to

improve cleaning efficiency and decrease cleaning time. It should be used with water and
detergent if the soil to be removed is inorganic (rust, dirt, salts, corrosion products etc.), and with
organic solvents if the soil to be removed is organic (grease and oily films etc.). After ultrasonic
cleaning the parts should be heated to remove the cleaning fluid, then cooled to at least 125F
(52C) before application of penetrant.
 3.3. Compressed air equipment

3.3.1. Air filters

Automatic external drain air filter

They are used ahead of air tools, cylinders, valves and other pneumatic devices to filter out
rust and scale particles and to separate water and sludge from compressed air systems. This helps
prevent rusting and washing away of lubricants.

Oil remover filters

Where clean, oil free compressed air is essential, these coalescing filters do the right job.
They remove more than 99.9% of oil mist over the entire operating line.

3.3.2. Supply of cold and hot air

There is a need of having supplies of cold and hot air available during penetrant inspection
at the time of drying the parts after the removal of excess penetrant and for precleaned parts.

3.3.3. Compressed air pistols

Blow guns for compressed air are of different forms and purposes, few of the types are
illustrated as under.

(a) Ionizing air pistols

Hand held, trigger actuated compressed air guns simultaneously clean and neutralize static
charges on small or delicate parts. Once neutralized, contaminants will not be retracted.

(b) Safety flex air pistols

Air can be discharged from a controlled flow to full blast in any direction with a slight flex
of the hose. When the hose is released, valve closes and shuts off the air flow. Please refer
to Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6: Typical flex air pistols.

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3.3.4. Electrostatic pulverizers

Penetrants and developers may be applied by electrostatic spray. While the equipment is
more costly than that required for immersion or normal air spraying techniques the method has
the following advantages.

(a) High speed operation.

(b) No overspray.

(c) Uniform coverage, which can be adjusted so that there is no drainage and only the
minimum penetrant required for the process is applied. (Hence there is economy in the use
of the high cost penetrant).

(d) Absence of dust when spraying dry powder developer.

Principles of electrostatic spraying

The process is based on the fundamental law that electrically charged particles of opposite
polarity attract one another, when these particles are placed within an electrical field they align
themselves to the lines of force of that field. In practice, this electrical field is obtained by
creating a potential difference between the workpiece, which is connected to ground, and the
hand gun which is connected to the electrical generator. The negative charge on the particles is
produced via a rotating atomizer in the liquid gun, and by a charged electrode surrounding the
nozzle in the powder gun. The result is a wrap-round which allows all shapes of components to be
evenly coated on the front and back with one pass of the gun.

Developers can also be electrostatically applied. However, solvents used as a vehicle in

spray type developers should be non-polar or chlorinated.

The application of a high potential to the penetrant at the point of application has the
following functions.

(a) To cause the penetrant to break up into small electrically charged droplets due to the
repulsion of electrical charges of the same sign. This may be assisted by discharging the
penetrant from a rotating cup or disc and/or by the application of compressed air(though at
a much lower energy than normal spray guns).

(b) To produce an electrical field between the charged application and grounded component or
area to be coated. The charged penetrant or developer particles then travel from the
applicator to the grounded surface and since the field extends all around the grounded
component, particles will deposit on the sides and behind the component giving the `wrap
around' effect.

As particles are deposited on the surface of the components they shield that particular area
from the electric field, and deposition is enhanced on uncoated areas. Thus rapid uniform
coverage is attained over the whole of the component or area.

Deep re-entrant shapes cause what is known as the Faraday Cage effect. This effect is the
absence of charge on the inside of a hollow charged conductor. Thus, there would be no tendency
for charged particles to enter such a region. This effect is overcome in practice by the use of a
gentle compressed air assistance to the spray formation, giving the droplets sufficient energy to
enter such charge free zones. An electrostatic gun for dry developer is shown in Figure 4.7.
 Figure 4.7: Electrostatic spray application minimizes consumption of penetrant material and
gives added assurance of full surface coverage. This technician is applying a fluorescent
penetrant with a hand-held electrostatic spray gun.

3.3.5. Aerosoles

Penetrant materials such as penetrants, developers and solvent removers are also available in
pressurized cans or aerosols. They have a storage life of about 2 years for normal use. Aerosol
cans’ temperature should however not exceed 55C (130F) as excessively high resulting
pressures can cause their bursting.

3.4. Stationary installations for processing by immersion

The stationary equipment used in liquid penetrant testing ranges from simple to fully
automatic systems and varies in size depending on the requirements of specific tests. Depending
on the type of the penetrant and processing employed Figures 4.8 and 4.9, liquid penetrant test
facility requires certain stations as shown in Figures 4.10 to 4.14.

3.4.1. Stations

In a typical testing facility for a post emulsification process, the following stations are
required.

 Precleaning station, usually set at a remote place from the penetrant test station.
 Penetrant station (tank).
 Drain station (used with a penetrant tank).
 Emulsifier station (tank).
 Rinse station (tank).
 Developer station (tank).
 Dryer station (usually an oven type).
 Inspection station, enclosed booth or table with lighting facilities.
 Post cleaning (usually remote from penetrant test station).

Text continued on page 149

145
Figure 4.8: Visible dye and fluorescent penetrant process.

Figure 4.9: Dual sensitivity penetrant process.

 Figure 4.10: Typical small-sized test equipment employing fluorescent post-emulsified
penetrant and dry developer.

Figure 4.11: Typical medium-sized test equipment employing fluorescent water-washable

penetrant and wet developer.

147
 Figure 4.12: Typical large-sized test equipment employing fluorescent water-washable
penetrant and wet developer.

Figure 4.13: Typical medium-sized test equipment employing visible dye water-washable
penetrant and dry developer.
 Figure 4.14: Typical medium-sized test equipment employing visible dye post-emulsified
penetrant and dry developer.

3.4.2. Auxiliary equipment

Auxiliary equipment is defined as the equipment located at penetrant test stations (other
than cleaning stations) required to perform penetrant testing. The auxiliary equipment being
discussed below may be in some cases 'built in' at one or more of test stations.

Pumps

Various pumps installed at the penetrant, emulsifier, rinse, and developer stations are
required to agitate the solutions, to pump/drain-off materials into the proper tank for reuse, and to
pump hand held sprayers and applicators.

Sprayers and applications

Sprayers and applicators are frequently employed at the penetrant, emulsifier, rinse and
developer stations. They reduce test time by permitting rapid and even application of penetrant
materials and water rinse. Both conventional and electrostatic sprayers are used.

Lights

White lights as well as black lights are installed as required to ensure adequate and correct
lighting conditions at all the stations. When fluorescent materials are used, black light is installed
at both the rinse and inspection stations.

149
 Timers

One or more 60-minute timer with alarm are used to control penetrant, emulsifier,
developing and drying processes.

Thermostats and thermometers

These items are required and used to control the temperature of the drying oven and
penetrant materials.

Exhaust fans

Exhaust fans are used when testing is performed in controlled areas to remove fumes and
dust.

Hydrometers

The hydrometers as shown in Figure 4.15 are used to measure the specific gravity of the
water-based wet developers. Normally floating type instruments are used.

Figure 4.15: Typical hydrometer.

3.4.3. Automatic installations

Typical sequence of operations in automated penetrant inspection system

The use of automated systems for performing penetrant inspections of production aircraft
and aerospace parts has become more common in recent years. Such systems have been installed
at several aerospace companies to solve handling and inspection problems peculiar to their own
situations. The following discussion outlines the basic components of a representative automated
penetrant system for use with a fluorescent water washable penetrant. Figure 4.14 shows the
typical sequence of operations in automated penetrant inspection of aerospace parts.

Techniques for handling of test parts

In a typical automated penetrant system, the parts to be inspected are initially racked on a
load bar which is attached to an overhead conveyor system. The way in which the parts are racked
is important in order for full coverage by the cleaning solutions, penetrant, water and developer to
take place. Such factors as part size and geometry must be considered. If large varieties of parts
are to be inspected in a typical inspection facility, it may be useful to develop technique cards for
racking the parts to ensure that the inspection personnel rack a particular part the same way each
time. The automated process is particularly effective for inspection of large numbers of simple
geometry parts such as stringers but more complex parts can also be accommodated.
 Automated pre-cleaning, rinsing and drying of parts

In order to prepare for application of the penetrant, the parts are first moved through a
series of modules that apply the appropriate cleaning solutions. A typical sequence might be
alkaline cleaning, tap water rinse, pickling tap water rinse, and deionized water rinse, as shown in
Figure 4.16. Each chemical processing module is preceded and followed by an air knife. The
function of the air knife is to prevent solutions from contaminating the previously applied solution
or the next processing solution. After cleaning and rinsing a hot air knife with typical air
temperature of approximately 80C (180F) is used to dry the parts thoroughly. Figure 4.16 is an
illustration of automatic unit for penetrant inspection. The parts are moved through the processing
modules at a controlled rate using continuously moving motor-driven, speed adjustable overhead
conveyers. Automatic controls actuate the spraying systems of each module when the parts are
positioned to utilize the sprays.

Figure 4.16: Automated aerospace penetrant spray processing and inspection system.

Automated electrostatic spray application of penetrants to parts

After the cleaning process, the parts are automatically moved into the module where the
penetrant is applied. The spray guns may be installed to oscillate vertically or in any other
suitable paths. The penetrant dwell time is controlled by the rate of movement of the overhead bar
during transit from the penetrant spray modules to the water spray module.

Automated water spray for removal of excess surface penetrant

The parts rack automatically moves into a water spray module which removes excess
penetrant from the parts. A series of adjustable water nozzles are commonly used in the module
while air knives act to keep the water in the module. To prevent overwashing it may be necessary
to conduct experiments to determine the proper wash water temperature, spray nozzle water
pressure, time of washing, and positions of nozzles. Production parts with known crack or
discontinuities or cracked reference panels could be used for this type of development
programme.

151
 Automated hot air drying, developing and visual inspection of parts

After the excess penetrant has been removed, the rack of parts is moved automatically into
a hot air drying module where the air temperature is typically 80C (180F). Then, after
application of developer, if desired, the parts are moved into a totally enclosed dark inspection
room which has overhead black lights as well as hand held spot lights. Large parts can be lowered
into a floor pit for ease of examination.

3.5. Light sources and light meters

3.5.1. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation sources (black light) and meters for measuring
UV radiation intensity

The common sources of black light are:

 Incandescent lamps.
 Metallic or carbon arcs.
 Tubular ‘BL’ fluorescent lamps.
 Tubular ‘BLB’ fluorescent lamps.
 Enclosed mercury vapour arc lamps.

Because of low output, the first two types are not practically suitable for inspection.
Similarly for low output of "BL" tubular fluorescent lamps, they are only usable in a very few
special applications. However, both 'BLB' tubular fluorescent lamps and the enclosed mercury
vapour lamps find many applications in fluorescent penetrant inspection.

Mercury vapour arc lamp sources of black light

Mercury vapour lamps are gaseous discharge devices in which an electric arc takes place in
a controlled atmosphere and emits light whose characteristics depend on the nature of the
atmosphere. The construction of a typical mercury vapour lamp is as shown in Figure 4.17.

Here, MC represents a quartz or hard-glass cartridge in which the mercury vapour is

confined. E1 and E2 are the main electrodes that carry current to the arc stream which takes place
along the length of the cartridge. E3 is an auxiliary starting electrode. R represents a current
limiting resistor. The entire assembly is sealed in an outer protective bulb, B, which may be either
evacuated or filled with air or an inert gas, depending on the design of the bulb. The lamp is fed
from a current regulating ballast reactance or transformer. This is required because the arc tube
shows negative resistance characteristics and would quickly destroy itself if not throttled by an
external device. A typical look of commercially available mercury arc black light source is as
given in Figure 4.18.

A black light mercury arc bulb requires a housing and fixture:

 To support the filter.

 To prevent leakage of unwanted visible light and to permit the operator to direct the beam
onto the area to be inspected. Mercury vapour arc lamps up to an intensity of 400 watt are
also commercially available, but are normally not portable.
 Figure 4.17: Mercury vapour arc bulb.

Figure 4.18: Portable 100 W mercury arc black light source.

Tubular fluorescent cold discharge black light sources

The second type of black light source used for inspection is the black light fluorescent bulb.
Electrically and mechanically, these are standard fluorescent bulbs that come in sizes from 2 to 60
input watts and over. These cold discharge tubular lamps contain low-pressure mercury vapour
glow discharges. Their primary radiation is hard ultraviolet of 253.7 nm (2537 A o) wavelength.
This is used to excite a special cerium-activated calcium phosphate phosphor which is coated on
the inside of the tube. This phosphor, when activated by the ultraviolet, emits black light with a
range of 320 to 440 nm wavelengths peaking at 360 nm. Because a significant amount of visible
light is emitted along-with the black light, these bulbs are often made of a purple-red filter glass
similar to that used over the high-pressure arc lamps previously described. This greatly reduces
the black light emitted, but still leaves what is often an excessive amount of visible blue light,
considering the relatively low intensity of the black light produced. A look of commercially
available such lamps is as shown in Figure 4.19.

153
 Figure 4.19: AC operated tubular low intensity black light.

Advantages and limitations of fluorescent tubular black light sources

Fluorescent black light bulbs put out reasonable amounts of black light, but because of their
configuration they cannot be easily focused. Therefore, their intensity per unit area illuminated is
much lower than that provided by the high-pressure mercury arc lamps. Thus, fluorescent black
lights are not usually considered adequate for critical fluorescent penetrant inspections.
Fluorescent lamp sources of black light for fluorescent penetrant inspection offer the significant
advantages of instant starting, cool operation, and low cost as compared to the commonly used
mercury arc lamps.

Incandescent filament black light sources

This type of source of black light comes in 75 and 150 watt sizes. It comes as standard
incandescent bulb with a filter glass envelope. These sources give a considerable portion of
visible light along with black light, as such are thus even less usable and suitable than the
fluorescent black light sources.

3.5.2. Measurement of ultraviolet radiation intensity

As far back as 1942, selenium cell photoelectric meters were being used to measure black
light intensity. The most common, easily used foot-candle meters made by Weston and General
Electric were designed for use by illumination engineers. The foot-candle was used as a unit of
visible light as seen by the human eye under photic conditions. There is no such thing as a foot-
candle of black light. For convenience, black light was incorrectly measured in foot-candles for
many years, with an unfiltered Weston 703 foot-candle meter. Even though these readings did not
make sense, they did give reproducible numbers. Further, no other meter capable of true
measurements in the near-ultraviolet wavelength range was then available.
 Measurement of black light intensity requires the use of a special meter calibrated in watts
per square metre or microwatt per square centimetre. The meter J-221 is shown in Figure 4.20.
This meter is filtered so that it responds only to black light. It is also filtered so as not to read
short wave ultraviolet. The meter scale runs up to 5000 watt/cm2, which is expandable up to
25000 watt/cm2 by attaching a multiplier screen supplied with the meter.

Figure 4.20: Photoelectric instruments used to measure black light intensity.

3.5.3. Checking the efficiency of ultraviolet lamps

An integral part of the fluorescent penetrant system is the ultraviolet light source (black
light), the intensity of which is vital to a reliable result. It is recommended that this intensity be
checked weekly or more often if the light is being operated at an intensity level close to the
minimum. The instrument commonly used for measurement of black light intensities is the Ultra
Violet Products Model J-221 Black-Ray Ultraviolet Intensity Meter. Measurements are taken at
distances of 38 cm (15 inch) from the face of the filter on the black light, in the centre of the
ultraviolet light beam. Various specifications call for minimum black light intensities of 8.6 to
10.2 W/m2 (865 or 1020 mW/cm2) when using the Black Ray J-221 Meter.
Once having established a level of illumination necessary for a particular job, it is important
to observe precautions to ensure that this level is maintained. Several things can cause reduction
in light from a black light source. Experience and tests have shown that light output decreases
gradually with age and use of black light source. A tremendous reduction in output can result
from improperly maintained enclosures. Oil and dust if collected at filter glass and external
reflector can reduce light intensity at the work surface by 50% or even more.

3.5.4. Cabinets for observation of fluorescent penetrating liquids

For best results, inspection for fluorescent indications should be done in darkened area. The
darker the area of inspection, the more brilliant the indications appear. This is extremely
important, particularly when inspection is being performed for very fine, crack-like defects which
may have trapped only a small amount of penetrant. It is also desirable that the inspection table or
darkened area should be free of random fluorescent materials. If penetrant has been spilled in the
inspection area, on the table, or on the operator's hands, it will fluorescence brilliantly and is
likely to distract the operator's attention from defects.

The visible light intensity in an inspection area has a dramatic effect on inspection
performance and reliability. More visible light makes fluorescent indications harder to see,
requiring higher black light intensity to permit detection of indications.

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 Black light booths do not have less than 10 to 20 lux (1 to 2 foot-candles) visible light
intensities because black lights (with filters) have some visible light output, and because of the
induced fluorescence form the test parts, the inspector's clothing and spills of fluorescent material
within the inspection booths.

The intensity of black light at the inspection surface can be altered by adjusting the
distance. A typical black light test to meet most specifications, when using a J-221 meter, calls for
distance of 38 cm (15 inch) and a minimum intensity not less than 10 W/m2.

A black light booth or cabinet is considered to be best if the ambient visible light present is
up to 10 lux or 1 foot-candle.

3.6. Standardized work pieces for evaluating processes and qualifying procedures

3.6.1. Comparator test blocks

Of all the tools currently used to evaluate penetrants and to judge the continued
serviceability of a penetrant inspection system, the quench-cracked aluminium comparator block
is the most popular. The cracked aluminium test block is described in both the ASME Code
Section V and in the U.S. MIL-I-25135 specifications.

Article 6 on Liquid Penetrant Examination of Section V of the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code contains a specification for
fabricating cracked aluminium comparator blocks as already described in section 4.1.4.

Procedures for producing cracked aluminium comparator blocks

Several procedures have been evaluated for producing 8 by 50 by 75 mm (5/16 by 2 by 3

in.) 2024-T3 aluminium cracked standard panels. The first procedure, described in MIL-I-25135,
involved heating with a torch to 510°C (950°F) for 4 min and quenching the panels in cold water.
The torch was adjusted to heat the top centre of the specimen. Each specimen was heated and
quenched from five to ten times successively to produce varied crack patterns. These panels had a
grain direction parallel to the 75 mm (3 in.) dimension. A second procedure used to produce 10
by 75 by 100 mm (3/8 by 3 by 4 in.) 2024-T3 aluminium panels involved heating in a furnace to
540°C (1000°F) for 30 min and quenching in ice water. These specimens were quenched
individually and checked after each quench in order to obtain an acceptable crack pattern with a
minimum number of severe cracks extending through the specimens. The specimens that did not
show an adequate crack pattern after twelve cycles of heating and quenching were then heated
with a torch and quenched in the same manner as the 50 by 75 mm (2 by 3 in.) specimens until an
acceptable crack pattern was obtained. These panels, which were cut from bar stock, represented
an end grain condition (the grain direction was parallel to the 10 mm, or 3/8 in. thickness
dimension).

The use of the Aluminium cracked block produced can then be made by following standard
procedures as specified in specifications such as ASME Code, article 6.

Cracked chromium-plated test panels

The cracked chromium-plated reference panel provides a surface containing cracks of

known dimensions and these flaws fall within a range of magnitudes close to the limit of the
ability of test penetrants to reveal them. The chromium-plated test panels are useful for evaluation
 of a penetrant system's flaw detection performance. They can provide useful results in qualitative
side-by-side comparisons of penetrant performance. This type of panel is made by burnishing a
brass or copper panel to a mirror finish, then electroplating a thin layer of nickel followed by a
layer of chrome upon this polished surface. The chrome layer is brittle, and cracks can be
generated in it by bending the panel over a curved form. Crack depth is controlled by the
thickness of the layer of chrome plating, but there is no control over crack width. Crack depth
may range from 1 or 2 to nearly 50 m. Crack width is determined by the degree of deformation
of the panel during bending and straightening. The width varies from a fraction of a micrometer
(for thin chrome layers) to up to about 2 m for chrome layers having a thickness in the range of
50 m.

Variations in the composition of the plating baths and plating techniques determine the type
and size of cracking in the nickel chrome test panels. Particulars on the preparation of three
different crack size panels were published in MIL-I-8963.

(a) Coarse crack panel with cracks measuring about 10 m in width and 50 m in depth.
(b) Medium crack panel with cracks about 2 to 3 m in width and 40 m in depth.
(c) Fine crack panel with cracks about 0.5 m in width and 2 m in depth.

Application of nickel-chrome test panels in evaluating penetrant system

Since the nickel-chrome sensitivity panel can be used over and over again, it is possible to
compare one penetrant system to another sequentially by first testing one system and accurately
recording results and then, after cleaning and drying, testing the second system.

A simultaneous comparison test of two different penetrant systems can also be made by
dividing the chrome panel into two equal sections by means of a longitudinal wax line or narrow
vinyl tape. One penetrant is applied to one half and a second on the other half of the panel. Using
this technique, it is possible to obtain a side-by-side comparison of two penetrants or process
materials. However, evaluation of variations in processing times and techniques is not so feasible.
Penetrant systems should be compared not only as to the completeness of the flaw patterns but as
to brightness and legibility of indications on the cracked chrome test panels.

Care and handling of nickel-chrome test panels

Do not bend the nickel-chrome panels. Flexing or bending will increase the size of the
existing cracks and may create new cracks. Post-cleaning is important after each test. A suggested
procedure for cleaning the panels between tests is as follows:

(1) Scrub the panels with a soft cloth saturated with a mild liquid detergent solution. A typical
hydrophilic emulsifier would be a suitable detergent. Then rinse the panels thoroughly with
a water spray. This removes developer and some of the penetrant.

(2) Immerse the panels in acetone for several minutes with some agitation. This removes crack-
entrapped penetrant. Replace the acetone at frequent intervals.

(3) Dry the panel.

If cleaning does not seem complete, repeat steps 2 and 3.

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3.6.2. Non-standardized test pieces for checking penetrability

Penetrants have been shown to enter cracks or spaces as small as 5 micro-inches (127 nm)
or even smaller. How fine a crack can a penetrant enter? If one can produce a very fine crack of
given size or a graduated series of cracks, one might find the limit of penetrability. In Figure 4.21
the glass plate experiment aimed at producing cracks of known width is shown.

To produce cracks of known width, two pieces of heavy plate glass are clamped together.
Each plate is 10 inches (254 mm) long by 1.5 inches (38 mm) wide by 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) thick,
and is transparent. The extent of penetration can thus be determined by observation through the
glass. When clamps are sufficiently tight and specimens are viewed under sodium light (5986A)
dark areas indicating plate contact appear between the plates under and adjacent to the clamps.
Interference fringes extend outward from these areas making a convenient measure of the small
opening between the plates. The distance between any two consecutive fringes represents a
change in separation equal to one half the wave length of the light used to produce the fringes.
Under sodium light, the separation at the last fringe before the black contact area would be
13 micro inches (330 nm). Fluorescent penetrant is swabbed onto the exposed edge of the
interface between the glass plates, with the specimen in a horizontal position. The liquid
penetrates the entire space between the plates up to the black contact area, where it feathers out.
This demonstrates penetration into a space at least as narrow as 13 micro inches (330 nm) and is
estimated at a minimum of 5 micro inches (127 nm). It has since been shown that modern "super
bright" penetrants can be seen to a point well within this last interference ring.

Figure 4.21: Glass plate experiment.

3.6.3. Equipment for checking fluorescence efficiency of UV lamps

Determination of fluorescent brightness can be done experimentally to evaluate the

performance of fluorescent penetrant. A brief description of methods and related equipment is
described as under:

(a) Laboratory fluorometers

These instruments normally contain the photometer sample holder and ultraviolet light
source all in one package. They are normally designed to measure test tubes full of fluorescent
liquid. When fluorometers are used for penetrant brilliance measurements, they must be equipped
with proper filters, primary and secondary. The primary filters to absorb visible light and at low
passage of ultraviolet light and secondary which corrects the photo detector to the correct wave
length response. Figure 4.22 illustrates a laboratory type fluorometer specified by MIL-I-25135.
 (b) Spectrophotometer instruments for measuring fluorescence brilliance

The most accurate measurement of fluorescent penetrant colour and brightness requires
spectro-photometer. Spectrophotometers are instruments that separate light into many narrow
spectral bands for measurement. Spectrophotometers are, however, seldom used for measurement
of brilliance of actual penetrant test indication because the light available in one colour band is
very low in intensity. Only very expensive spectrometers have sensitivity high enough to measure
such low light levels. Many spectrophotometers are not possibly arranged to measure only spectra
of lights emitted by the penetrant sample, instead they also receive the black light incident upon
the sample to excite it.

Figure 4.22: Laboratory-type fluorometer specified by MIL-I-25135 containing built-in black

light source and interchangeable for light modification.

Because of difficulties encountered in the use of such spectrophotometers, use of filter

photometer is made for determining the fluorescent brilliance of the penetrants. Filter
photometers in general include a light-sensitive cell, a meter activated by the cell, and provisions
for installation of light filters to exclude unwanted portions of the spectrum.

The meters used to measure the fluorescent brilliance of the penetrant materials should be filtered
in such a way that the total response is as nearly equivalent as possible to the response of the
normal eye.

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