Physic General

• read question carefully and take note of what

exactly the question asks. (i.e. "..in terms
of momentum...")

ALWAYS EXPLAIN WITH FORMULA WHERE

APPROPRIATE

Mass:
• centre of gravity: point on an object where all of
the weight seems to act

Motion:
braking distance in wet road: works vice versa
●​Lower friction, lower force
●​Lower declaration
●​longer time to stop
Forces:
• think about all forces involved
• balanced, unbalanced forces
• how the forces change

remember to write resultant force

mention direction of force

resultant force

friction is opposing force

Momentum:
conservation of momentum:
• no external forces/isolated system
• sum of momentums is constant

centripetal:
• direction of motion is changing
• velocity has direction
• direction of motion changes
• velocity changes direction
• changing velocity is acceleration
• resultant force towards centre of rotation
so it accelerates
• force perpendicular to direction of motion

Spring:
• limit of proportionality: the point after which
extension and load are no longer directly
proportional
springs in parallel extend less due to the force being
distributed between the two springs

Pressure
• particles are moving
• particles hit wall
• change in momentum
• Force = change in momentum/time
• particles exert a force which causes pressure
• pressure = force/area

change in pressures

temp change
• mention change in frequency of collision
• mention change of force of collision

volume change
• change in frequency of collision
• change in distance travelled by particle
between collisions
• mention change in average collisions per unit area
• mention area
• mention particles closer/further
• change in number particles per unit volume

• remember to add or subtract atmospheric

pressure for calculations

• hydrostatic pressure increases with depth because

there more mass of water above which has a larger
weight and exerts a larger force

Energy
• from what to what form
• conservation
• work done = force × displacement in the

direction of the force

work done against friction or air resistance
when mentioning loss of energy as heat, mention
how heat is lost, i.e. friction/resistance in
wires/internal resistance of battery

Momentum
• conservation : forward = backward

Thermal:
• from hot to cold
• movement of particles
• free electrons in metals

• mention arrangement,separation,motion of
particles in different states
internal energy = kinetic energy + potential energy

State change
• mention potential energy, internal energy (in state
change questions)
• bonds
• supply latent heat
• work done to break bonds
• work done to move particles apart
• ...work done against intermolecular force
of attraction
• work done to push back against atmosphere

• details of conduction, convection, radiation

Evaporation:
• Particles at surface with highest energy breaks
bonds, overcomes intermolecular force of
attraction, and escape as a gas
• the remaining particles in the liquid have lower
average kinetic energy. average KE decreases so
the temperature of the liquid decreases
• in skin, latent energy is taken from the body, so
the body cools down

gases are poor conductors because

• gas particles are far apart
• less collisions between particles

particles in solid vibrates faster when heated

because they gain KE

mention energy of particles/molecules during

state change
boiling/melting
• energy is supplied to do work against forces
between molecules/provide potential energy/
break bonds
• heat provides latent heat
• molecules separate

condensing/freezing
• energy released to strengthen forces between
molecules/form bonds/ release or lose
potential energy
• molecules get closer together
• latent heat given out

liquid particles can move throughout the liquid

metal conduction:
• free electrons
• particles gain ke and vibrate faster
• particles collide with each other to transfer heat
energy
• particles collide with electrons
• electrons gain ke
• electrons move throughout the metal and collide
with atoms to transfer energy

expansion
• gains ke
• moves faster
• collides harder
• able to overcome forces of attraction and
• moves apart
●​Volume increases

gas expand most because it has weakest

intermolecular forces and gas particles move
furthest apart

solid has strongest forces and particles move

apart the least

poor emitter, less/least radiation emitted (vice

versa)

liquids expand more than solid because:

• weaker forces between molecules
●​Molecules move further apart
• less energy to separate molecules

Electricity:
• in metals, free electrons can move from one
ion to another when a p.d. is applied, thus
conducting electricity
• in non-metals, electrons are fixed in place so
they cannot move

remember internal resistance

cells in parallel have higher total energy supply

mention electrons are positive

mention protons are negative
like charges repel

unlike charges attract

live wire supplies emf and current

neutral wire completes circuit

potential divider
• mention fraction of total resistance of component
• equivalent fraction of voltage across component
V1/V2 = R1/R2

use V = IR to explain changes in current and voltage

Electromagnetism
• magnetic flux
• change in magnetic flux linked to a coil
• magnetic field lines cut coil
• induces emf
• closed circuit ---> induces current

coil horizontal
• field lines are cut at a faster rate
• max induced emf

coil vertical
• force parallel to field
• no field lines are cut
• no induced emf
• induced emf is highest when coil is parallel to
direction of magnetic field because the rate of
magnetic field lines cutting the coil is highest at that
point

• force on a current carrying conductor

• magnetic fields interact
• magnetic field, current and force are all
perpendicular to each other
passing current through coil produces magnetic field

iron bar concentrates magnetic field through itself

(or close to itself)

split ring commutator reverses direction of current

in coil every half a revolution to make sure forces are
same direction in coil to rotate the coil continuously

magnetic field decreases(changes) when switch is

opened
Field lines cut the coil/wire to induce emf

Mag field increases when switch is closed

Field lines cut the coil/wire to induce emf

slip rings provide continuous connection while coil is

rotating and it prevents wires from getting twisted

brush maintains contact between circuit and slip/split

ring to conduct electricity

axle transfers rotation to external components

fuse:
• melts
• when current is too high
• cuts off electrical supply to appliance
• prevents wires overheating, insulation melting,
electrocution, electrical fire

earthed case
• keeps metal case at earth potential/voltage/0V
• if live wire touches metal case, conducts electricity
to earth
• prevents electrocution

iron core
• iron is a temporary magnetic material
• easy to magnetize
• becomes a temporary magnet
• links magnetic fields of coils
• increases the strength of magnetic field in
secondary coil
• directs/concentrates magnetic field to
secondary coil
• transfers magnetic field to secondary coil
more effciently
• better induction
• more efficient as more field lines cut the 2nd coil

Waves
• vibration/oscillation
• disturbance
• transfers energy
• without movement of particles between the points

refraction
• light changes speed
• wavelength changes
• one side enters first thus it slows down
first, vice versa
• wavefront travels shorter distance in the same
time, vice versa
●​Different parts of wave slow down by different
amounts so it bends
●​
refractive index has no units because it is ratio
of two speeds

• longitudinal waves are transferred/transmitted by

vibrating particles
• no particles in space

ultrasound: sound waves/compressions and

rarefactions, which have frequency higher than
20,000 Hz, larger than human hearing range

total internal reflection:

• angle of incidence greater than critical angle
• light ray travelling from more dense to less
dense medium
• all light rays reflected
• no light rays refracted

critical angle: angle of incidence for which angle of

refraction is 90°, light must be travelling from more
dense to less dense

Radioactivity
• radioactive decay: random emission of alpha beta
or gamma from unstable nuclei

• mention penetrates or absorbed

• remember background count rate

Write about all types of radiation for

absorption/penetration questions

Reactor:
●​Fission releases neutrons and daughter nuclei
●​There is high temperature due to KE of neutrons
and daughter nuclei
●​Coolant gas get heated up (coolant: CO2 gas)
●​Coolant heats water in boiler, water turns to
steam
●​High pressure steam turns a turbine
●​Turbine turns a generator
• beta decay: a neutron changes into an electron
and proton. the electron is released from nucleus at
high speed

too short half life - not enough time to spread, count

rate too low to detect

too long half life- contamination, harm/ionisation

causing mutations/cancer

fusion:
• formation of larger nucleus by combining
two smaller nuclei
• release energy (more than fission)

Requires higher temperature and pressure than

fission
●​Nuclei are positively charged so they repel
 ●​High temp provide high KE for nuclei to
overcome force and come in contact

fission:
• unstable nuclei gets hit by neutrons/
absorbs neutrons
• nucleus splits
• to form lighter,smaller daughter nuclei and release
two or more neutrons
• release energy (less than fission)

why nuclei decay:

• unstable nucleus
• too many neutrons
• decays to reduce number of neutrons to
become stable

alpha scattering conclusion

• atom mostly empty space, nucleus is a
small part of atom
• few alpha pass close to or at nucleus

• nucleus is positively charged

• alpha is positively charged to it is repelled
by nucleus

• nucleus is dense
• nucleus stays in place and alpha is deflected back

Space

●​Cloud of gas and dust(nebula) collapse due to

internal gravitation to form a hot ball of
gas(protostar)

●​As the particles are pulled closer together the

density of the protostar increases
 ●​more frequent collisions between the particles,
temperature increases

●​When temperature is high enough, fusion of

hydrogen to helium starts
●​Fusion releases light and heat to keep core hot

This is stable star

The outward force due to high temperature and

pressure in core(from expanding gases) balances
inward force of gravitation

Red giant

●​Hydrogen begins to run out

●​Star,core shrinks (outward force <
gravitational force)
●​Core heats up
 ●​Helium fuses to carbon
●​Star expands (red giant)
●​Star cools
●​Runs out of helium
●​Star collapses under its own gravity and
shrinks
●​The outer layers are ejected into space as a
planetary nebula
●​A white dwarf forms at the centre(core)
●​White dwarf cools to form black dwarf

Red supergiant

Almost same as red giant

differences are as follows:

●​After helium —> carbon, there is fusion of

heavier elements (nitrogen, oxygen)
 ●​Star collapses and expands repeatedly as fusion
starts and stops

●​Fusion stops when iron is formed

●​Red giant collapses rapidly and explodes as
a supernova
●​The outer layers of the star are ejected into
space forming new clouds of dust and gas
(stellar nebula)
●​Nebula contains heavy elements
●​Forms star and orbiting planets

●​A neutron star forms at the centre

●​It continues to collapse under its own gravity
until it forms a black hole

energy change for star formation

• gpe
• to ke
• to internal energy
• high temperature in core

big bang
• redshift: increase in wavelength of electromagnetic
radiation coming from receding stars and galaxies
• further the galaxy, faster it is receding,
larger the redshift
• therefore universe is expanding
• at one point in past all galaxies were closer
together and universe was denser
• universe began from a single point
• radiation was produced and emitted shortly
after universe began
●​Cmbr is the remnant radiation from ealy
universe which is observed now
• the radiation redshifted to microwave region
• cmbr present everywhere
• universe was hotter, now it has cooled down

Random points

induces a magnet/emf

force x perpendicular distance must be constant

while melting and boiling, work is done against the

intermolecular forces of attraction/bonds

work is done in pushing back atmosphere

emf is non electrical to electrical

pd is electrical to non electrical
radioactivity is emission of ionizing radiation

gravitational attraction force due to <object>

smaller fraction of voltage through <component>

remember to mention heat in energy conversions

mention evaporation as a way of heat loss

charges do not cancel

mention that metals contain free electrons(for

thermal)

electrons gain energy

work done compressing ground

lower fraction of resistance

think of forces for work done

molecules move shorter distances between collision

with walls when volume is reduced

remember to mention state change

ALWAYS MENTION THAT FORCE, MAGNETIC
FIELD AND INDUCED CURRENT ARE
PERPENDICULAR TO EACH OTHER

mention infrared radiation from sun is absorbed

by <thing>

when heated particles gain KE and their average

velocity is higher so they move or vibrate faster
talk about impulse for pressure

thermal energy: vibrations transferred from hotter

region to cooler region

orbital energy: total energy constant, energy cannot

be created or destroyed

when gap much larger than wavelength, waves pass

straight through and curve slightly only at edges