THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA

INSTITUTE OF CONTINUING EDUCATION

OFC 010
PHYSICS

C.A. Kiwanga
 OFC 010
PHYSICS

Prof. C.A. Kiwanga

Senior Lecturer
Faculty of Science, Technology and Environmental Studies

The Open University of Tanzania

P. O. Box 23409,
DAR ES SALAAM.
Tel: 22-2668992/2668820
Fax: 22-2668759
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Website: http://www.openuniversity.ac.tz
The Open University of Tanzania
Kawawa Road,
P. O. Box 23409,
DAR ES SALAAM,
TANZANIA

©The Open University of Tanzania, 2007

FIRST EDITION, 2007

ISBN 978 9987 00 144 6

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means; electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
copyright owner.
 CONTENTS

General Introduction ………………………………………………………… vii

LECTURE ONE: MECHANICS

1.1 Introduction………………………………………………………... 1
1.2 Measurement ……………………………………............................ 1
1.3 Motion in One Dimension…………………………………………. 10
1.4 Vectors …………………………………………………………...... 19
1.5 Newton’s Laws of Motion……………………………………........ 25
1.6 Uniform Circular Motion………………………………………….. 39
1.7 The Universe and the Gravitational Force……………………….... 44
1.8 Fluids………………………………………………………………. 57

LECTURE TWO: ELECTROSTATICS

2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………… 65
2.2 Electric Charge and Coulomb’s Law ……………………………… 66
2.3 The Electric Field ……………………………………………......... 71
2.4 Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential ………………….. 74
2.5 Electric Potential…………………………………………………… 75
2.6 Capacitance………………………………………………………… 76
2.7 RC Electric Circuits………………………………………………... 82

LECTURE THREE: ELECTROMAGNETISM

3.1 The Magnetic Field………………... ……………………………... 93
3.2 The Faraday Law of Electromagnetic Induction………..…………. 98
3.3 Inductance and LR Electric Circuits................................................. 100

LECTURE FOUR: OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

4.1 Oscillations………………... …………………………………….... 117

iii
4.2 Damped Simple Harmonic Oscillations……….…….……………. 129
4.3 Forced Oscillations and Resonance……………………………….. 133
5.4 Wave Motion……………………………………………………… 136

LIST OF FIGURES

LECTURE ONE: MECHANICS

Figure 1.2 An Illustration of Components of Vectors ……………….... 20
Figure 1.3 An Illustration of Unit Vectors …………………….............. 21
Figure 1.4 An Illustration of the Right Handed Screw Rule ………….. 23
Figure 1.5 An Illustration of Cyclic Operations. The unit vector is
positive in the direction of the 24
arrow……………………………...
Figure 1.6 An Illustration of Free Body Diagrams for (a) A Book at
Rest on a Table (b) An Object Falling Freely, Air
Resistance Neglected (c) A Book on a Table being Pushed
or Pulled to The Right and (d) A car Decelerating to a Halt 27
r
Figure 1.7 An Illustration of Direction of Frictional Force F ……….... 28
Figure 1.7.1 An Illustration of a Ski Jumper Gliding Down a Ski Track.. 32
Figure 1.7.2 An Illustration of Transformation of Potential Energy into
Mechanical Energy……………………………………….... 38
Figure 1.8 An Illustration of Directions of Instantaneous Velocity
and Acceleration in Circular Motion …………………......... 40
Figure 1.9 A Free Body Diagram for a Car Making the 180° Turn……........ 42
Figure 1.10 An Elliptical Orbit of A Planet m Round the Sun M (With an
Exaggerated Eccentricity for Clarity) ……………………........... 47
Figure 1.11 The Hydraulic Lever ………………………………............. 59

LECTURE TWO: ELECTROSTATICS

Figure 2.1 Electric Charges………………………… ………………. 66
Figure 2.2 The Coulomb force Between a Pair of Electric Point …… 68
Charges.
Figure 2.3 The Principle of Superposition ………………………….. 69

iv
Figure 2.4 Electric Lines of Force for Positive and Negative Charges 72
Figure 2.5 A Collection of Point Charges ..............…………………. 73
Figure 2.6 A System of Three Point Charges ……………………..… 74
Figure 2.7 Parallel Plate Capacitor …………………..……………… 77
Figure 2.8 Capacitors in Parallel ……………………..……………... 79
Figure 2.9 Capacitors in Series ……………=……………………….. 80
Figure 2.10 An Illustration of the Application of Kirchhoff's Laws …. 83
Figure 2.11 An illustration of the Current Loop Method……..………. 85
Figure 2.12 Charging and Discharging a Capacitor through a
Resistor R............................................................................ 86
Figure 2.13(a) Charge Growth in a Charging Capacitor……………......... 87
Figure 2.13(b) Current Decay in a Charging Capacitor …………............. 87
Figure 2.14 Charge Decay in a Discharging Capacitor……….............. 88
Figure 2.15 Current Decay in a Discharging Capacitor ………………. 88
Figure 2.16 Diagrams A – E ….………………………......................... 90
Figure 2.17 91
Figure 2.18 91
Figure 2.19 92

LECTURE THREE: ELECTROMAGNETISM

Figure 3.1 The Magnetic Field Lines of a Bar Magnet ………… 95
Figure 3.2 A Positively Charged Particle Moving in a Magnetic Field 95
Figure 3.3 A Positively Charged Particle Moving through a Region
in which E and B are Crossed……………………………. 97
Figure 3.4 A Conducting Path Placed in a Magnetic Field …………. 99
Figure 3.5 Magnetic Field due to a Current Loop ……………........... 101
Figure 3.6(a) A circuit symbol of an Inductor ……………………......... 102
Figure 3.6(b) A circuit symbol of a Variable Inductor …………………. 102
Figure 3.6(c) A circuit symbol of an Inductor with a Ferromagnetic
Core……………………………………………………… 102

v
Figure 3.7 Magnetic Flux Due to Current i1 Linking Circuit 2 ……... 103
Figure 3.8 Self Inductances in Series ……………………………..… 105
Figure 3.9 Self Inductances in Parallel……………………………..... 106
Figure 3.10 An LR Circuit ………………..…………………………... 107
Figure 3.11 Growth of Current in an LR Circuit ……………………... 107
Figure 3.12 Decay of Current in an LR Circuit ……………………..... 107

LECTURE FOUR: OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

Figure 4.1 Variations with Time of the Displacement, Velocity and
Acceleration in Simple Harmonic Motion ………………. 123
Figure 4.2 A Simple Pendulum ……………………………………… 127
Figure 4.3 The Compound Pendulum ……………………………….. 129
Figure 4.4 Damped Simple Harmonic Oscillator …………………… 131
Figure 4.5 Oscillatory Motion of a Weakly Damped Simple
Harmonic Oscillator, where γ = p/m …………………...... 133
Figure 4.6 A Mechanical Forced Oscillator …………………………. 135
Figure 4.7 Variation of the Amplitude of a Forced Oscillator with the
Driving Frequency ………………………………………. 136
Figure 4.8 An Illustration of Transverse Wave ……………………... 138
Figure 4.9 An Illustration of Longitudinal Wave …………………… 138
Figure 4.10 An Illustration of Characteristics of a Wave …………….. 139
Figure 4.11 An Illustration of Addition of Two Sine Waves ………… 140
Figure 4.12 The Resultant of Addition of Two Sine Waves …….......... 140
Figure 4.13(a) First Harmonic of a Guitar String ……………………….. 141
Figure 4.13(b) Second Harmonic of a Guitar String …………………….. 141
Figure 4.13(c) Third Harmonic of a Guitar String …………………......... 141
Figure 4.13(d) Fourth Harmonic of a Guitar String……………………… 132
Figure 4.14 A Harmonic Wave Travelling in the Positive x-direction
at Time = 0 and at Time = t………………………………. 143

vi
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

This is a Physics Foundation course whose main objective is to lay a good foundation
for a would be physicist. In order to introduce the student to key physics topics, it has
been necessary to cover rather superficially a lot of areas in physics.

The unit is arranged in Lectures whereby each lecture is devoted to one topic. There are
four lectures in total. Lecture one is on Mechanics, Lecture two is on Electrostatics,
while Lecture three is on the Magnetic Field, and Lecture four is on Oscillations and
Waves.

The material is designed to be self instructional. To help the student along, I have
included short questions to check your comprehension and have also included
illustrative worked examples. The worked examples have been cast in summary form,
highlighting only the salient principles required in arriving at a solution. You should
nevertheless practice to introduce, in words, any formula you need when solving a
given problem. At the end of every lecture, I have included a selection of problems for
your exercise. You should endeavour to attempt all of them. It is only when you can
solve the problems set for you, can you claim to have understood the subject matter of
the lecture. Remember the old saying: “Practice makes perfect”. I have also included in
this preface a selection of physical constants you are likely to use when solving the
problems of this unit.

Each lecture is organized into topics, which are themselves subdivided into sub-topics.
At the end of very topic you should be able to tackle the problems pertaining to the
topic. Each lecture begins with a set of objectives as to what is expected of you when
you have completed the lecture. You are strongly advised to proceed to the next topic
within a lecture only when you have understood the current one. Similarly, you should
not proceed to the next lecture until you have thoroughly understood the current one.

vii
Should you follow this advice, then when you complete the last lecture of this unit, you
can be confident that you have fulfilled the principle objective of the unit that the
material contained in this unit be thoroughly understood, assimilated and internalized as
part of your working knowledge.

If you can access the internet, please do so. There are literally enormous resources on
the internet. Search by name of a topic or just by concept, you should be able to find
adequate help to your inquiry.

A SELECTION OF FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

Quantity Symbol Value Units

Permeability of vacuum µ0 4π × 10 −7 N . A −2
Permitivity of vacuum ε0 8.854 × 10 −12 F .m −1
Newton’s Gravitational constant G Error! Objects Error!
cannot be Objects
created from cannot be
editing field created
codes. from editing
field codes.
Planck’s constant h 6.626 × 10 −34 J.s
Electron mass e 1.602 × 10 −19 C
Electron mass me 9.109 × 10 −31 kg
Proton mass mp 1.672 × 10 −27 kg
Avogadro’s number NA 6.022 × 10 23 mol −1
Boltzmann’s constant k 1.380 × 10 −23 J .K .−1
Electron volt eV 1.602 × 10 −19 J
Speed of light c 3.00 × 108 m.s −1

viii
REFERENCES

Halliday, D., Resnick, R. and Krane, K.S. Physics Volume II, Fourth
Edition 1992. John Wiley and Sons.
Gottys,W., Keller, F.J. and Skove, M.J, Physics Classical and
Modern, 1989. McGraw Hill.
Kiwanga, C.A. OPH 105: Electromagnetism II, OUT 1994.
Kiwanga, C.A. OPH 104: Vibrations and Waves, OUT 2000.
Internet sites include: www.physicsclassroom, .physics.uoguelph.ca,
physics.nist.gov and .sparknotes.com.

ix
 LECTURE ONE

MECHANICS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Mechanics lays the foundation for most of the physics. It is concerned with a set of
physical laws governing and mathematically describing the motion of bodies and
aggregates of bodies.

OBJECTIVES

When you have completed this lecture you should be able to:
(i) Discuss Measurements
(ii) Define base quantities and their units
(iii) Describe One Dimensional Motion
(iv) Solve problems relating to One Dimensional Motion
(v) Manipulate vectors
(vi) State and Apply Newton’s Laws of Motion
(vii) State and Apply the Gravitational Force
(viii) State Kepler’s Laws and Apply to Planetary Motion
(ix) Describe Fluids and State Pascal’s Principle

1.2 MEASUREMENT
Measurement is at the heart of physics. The ability to make measurements of physical
quantities is necessary for an understanding of the physical world we live in. A famous
physcist once said that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it
in numbers, you know something about it; but when you can not express it in numbers,
your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind.

A physicist would ask questions such as: What is the time interval between two events;
what is the length between two points A and B; What is the temperature of boiling
water; etc. The quantities which one measures are involved in the laws of physics and

1
hence they are called physical quantities. Among these quantities are: Mass, Length,
Time, Temperature, Pressure, Electrical resistance, etc.

In order to describe a physical quantity a unit is defined which is a measure of the

quantity that is defined to be exactly 1.0. After a unit is defined, a standard is defined.
The standard is a reference to which all other examples of the quantity are compared.

The standard ensures that scientists around the world may agree on the measurements
they take. Some physical quantities such as speed are expressed in terms of other
quantities. So that we have base quantities and their standards and derived quantities.

1.2.1 Units of Measurements

SI units are currently divided into three classes:
• Base Units
• Derived units and
• Supplementary units;

The three classes together form the “coherent system of SI units”.

SI Base units
There are seven base quantities of measurements. These are; mass, length, time,
temperature, electric current, luminous intensity and amount of substance.

SI Supplementary units
These are two: the radian and steradian.

SI Derived units
These are many including are, volume, speed, velocity, acceleration, density, current
density, etc.

2
The definitions of the SI units for the seven base quantities, the two supplementary
quantities and some of the derived units are give below.

After completing this section you should be able to:

• Distinguish the base physical quantities from derived quantities
• Appreciate the use of numbers to explain physical phenomena.
• Relate the important derived units to the fundamental units they are
composed of.

1.2.2 Units of Base Quantities and their Definitions

(i) Mass
The fundamental unit of mass is the KILOGRAM (kg). The definition of the kilogram is
based on the International Prototype Kilogram, a 90% platinum - 10% iridium alloy
cylinder of equal height and diameter.

(ii) Length
The fundamental unit of length is the Metre (m). The metre is defined as the distance
between two known points on an International Prototype metre kept at in France. There
are two modern definitions of the metre:
• The length equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of radiation emitted by the
krypton 86 nuclide.
• The length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/
299,792,458 of a second. This definition also fixes the speed of light in vacuum at
exactly 299,792,458 m.s-1.

You will note that these are very precise definitions.

3
(iii) Time
The fundamental unit of time is the Second (s). The current definition of a second is the
duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between
the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the 133Cs atom.

(iv) Thermodynamic Temperature

The fundamental unit of thermodynamic temperature, pegged on the triple point of water,
is the Kelvin (K). The triple point of water is assigned a value of 273.16 K on this scale,
and the Kelvin is thus defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature
of the triple point of water.

(v) Electric Current

The fundamental unit of electric current is the Ampere (A). The current definition of
ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of
infinite length, of negligible circular cross-sectional area and placed one metre apart in
vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10-7 Nm-1.

(vi) Luminous Intensity

The fundamental unit of luminous intensity is the Candela (cd). This is defined as the
luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of
frequency 540 ×1012 Hz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of (1/683) watt
per steradian.

(vii) Amount of Substance

The fundamental unit of the amount of substance is the Mole (mol). This is defined as the
amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are
atoms in 1.2 × 10-2 kilogram of carbon - 12. Entity may refer to atoms, molecules, ions,
electrons, or other particles.

4
1.2.3 Units of Supplementary Quantities
(i) Plane angle
Plane angles are measured in Radians (rad.). The radian is a plane angle between two radii
of a circle which cut off on the circumference an arc equal in length to the radius.

(ii) Solid Angle

Solid angles are measured in Steradians (sr.). This is the solid angle which, having its
vertex at the centre of a sphere, cuts off an area of the surface of the sphere equal to that of
a square with sides of length equal to the radius of the sphere.

1.2.4 Derived Units and their Definitions

Derived units are obtained from the fundamental and or supplementary units. There are
many units under this category. The important ones are defined below.

(i) Force
The SI unit of force is the Newton (N). This is that force which, when acting on a mass of
one kilogram, gives it an acceleration of one metre per second per second.

(ii) Work, Energy and Quantity of Heat

In the SI system, these quantities are all measured in Joules (J). The joule is defined as the
work done by a force of one newton when its point of application is moved through a
distance of one metre in the direction of the force (or the energy needed to do this amount
of work).

(iii) Power
The SI unit of power is the Watt (W). This is the ability to perform work (or to generate or
dissipate energy) at a rate of one joule per second.

5
(iv) Electric Charge
The SI unit of electric charge is the Coulomb (C). This is the quantity of electricity
transported in one second by a current of one ampere.

(v) Electric Potential

This SI unit of electric potential is the Volt (V). This is the difference of potential between
two points of a conductor which carries a constant current of one ampere, when the power
dissipated between these two points is one watt.

(vi) Electric Capacitance

The SI unit of electric capacitance is the Farad (F). The capacitance of a given capacitor is
one farad if when charged with a quantity of electricity equal to one coulomb, the
difference of potential attained between its plates is one volt.

(vii) Electric Resistance

The SI unit of electric resistance is the OHM ( ). This is the resistance between two
points of a conductor when a constant difference of potential of one volt applied between
these two points produces a current of one ampere in the conductor.

(viii) Magnetic Flux

The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb). This is that flux which, when linking a
circuit of one turn, and being reduced to zero at a uniform rate in one second, produces in
the circuit an electromotive force of one volt.

(ix) Electric Inductance

The SI unit of electric inductance is the Henry (H). This is the inductance of a closed
circuit in which an electromotive force of one volt is produced when the electric current in
the circuit varies uniformly at the rate of one ampere per second.

6
(x) Luminous Flux
The SI unit of luminous flux is the Lumen (lm). This is the flux emitted in a solid angle of
one steradian by a point source having a uniform intensity of one candela.

(xi) Illumination
The SI unit of illumination is the Lux (lx). This is an illumination of one lumen per square
metre.

1.2.5 Dimensions, Units and Significant Figures

The dimension of a quantity is the physical property that it describes. So that all terms
in an equation must have the same dimensions, for example mass cannot be compared
with length, and an equation such as mass = length is meaningless.

A measurement of a physical quantity must have with it dimensions, units and

precision. Hence a measurement result such as 4.2 m, implies that the dimension of the
physical quantity is length, measured in metres, to one significant figure, which is the
precision with which the measurement was made.

1. What is the difference between dimensions and units?

? 2. A butcher gives a result of a measurement of a cut of meat as 4.4869
kg. Give comments on the measurement.

1.2.6 Idealization, Approximation and Precision

One of the most difficult things that the student of physics must accept is the fact that
no answer is the correct answer. We are limited by the precision of our experiments, the
sophistication of the mathematics we use to model the systems we are studying, and by
the very complexity of those systems.

A common way to evaluate the quantitative behavior of a system which is too

complicated to treat precisely is to compute the "order of magnitude" of one (or more)

7
of its variables. The order of magnitude of a quantity is given by the power of ten
which characterizes the scale of the quantity. For example, current estimates place
the age of the universe at from 5 to 15 billion years. The order of magnitude of the age
of the universe is then 1010 years which is 10 billion years. Many times we will be very
happy if our computational results are of the same order of magnitude as our
experimental results!

At this point in time, a reminder about order of magnitude prefixes may be in order:
k = kilo ( 10 3 ) ; M = mega ( 10 6 ) ; G = giga ( 10 9 ) ; T = tera ( 10 12 )
c = centi (10 -2 ) ; m = milli (10 -3 ); = micro (10 -6 ) ; n = nano (10 -9 ); p = pico ( 10 -
12
)

1.2.7 Errors, Accuracy and Precision

If a given physical quantity is measured (repeatedly under identical conditions) by a given
measuring instrument, the results obtained are not always identical. This leaves a degree
of uncertainty as to which of the results obtained is the most representative of the true
value of the quantity being measured. The true value of a physical quantity is itself an
ideal and is never known. This is because an ideally accurate instrument is needed to
measure it (all available instruments will leave a degree of uncertainty no matter how
small this may be). For all practical purposes, the expected value (the conventional value)
is adopted to represent the true value. The expected value is an approximation to the true
value such that the difference between them has no practical significance. Three terms are
used alternatively to express uncertainty in a measurement: error, accuracy and
precision.

1.2.7.1 Errors
Errors in measurement are discrepancies between measured values and corresponding
expected values. They are expressed in two forms, absolute errors and relative errors.

8
The absolute error of a measurement Ea is the magnitude of a deviation between the
measured value and the expected value of the quantity measured.
Ea = Xm - Xe
where Xmis the measured value and Xe = expected value.
The relative error of a measurement Er, normally expressed in percentage, is a ratio of
the absolute error to the expected value.
Er = 100(Xm - Xe)/(Xe)
Errors are further categorised under three major classes: gross errors, systematic errors and
andom errors.

Gross Errors: These are errors associated with human blunder in making the
measurement, such as incorrect reading of the instrument, incorrect recording of the
observed value and incorrect use of the instrument.

Systematic Errors: These are errors associated with inherent problems of the instrument,
environmental effects and observational problems.
Random Errors: These are those errors remaining after substantially reducing or
accounting for the gross and systematic errors. They result from the accumulation of a
large number of small effects.

1.2.7.2 Accuracy
Accuracy refers to the closeness between a measured value (Xm) and the expected value
(Xe). The narrower the gap between Xm and Xe, the higher the accuracy (and the lower the
error).

1.2.7.3 Precision
Precision is an indicator of the consistency or reproducibility of the results of a
measurement. That is if a given physical quantity is measured repeatedly under given
conditions by a given measuring instrument, the variability of the results obtained is an

9
indicator of the precision of the instrument. A precise instrument indicates readings
clustered together about their mean. This mean of readings may or may not be close to the
expected value. Therefore a precise instrument is not necessarily accurate and vice-versa.
A chosen measuring instrument must be sufficiently accurate and precise to serve the
intended duty.

1.3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

The motion of objects in one-dimension can be described using words, diagrams,
numbers, graphs, and equations. We shall discuss the language of kinematics and
equations of kinematics; where Kinematics is defined as the science of describing the
motion of objects using words, diagrams, numbers, graphs, and equations.

1.3.1 Position
This is a location of an object in space relative to a reference point, often called the
origin of an axis such as the x – axis.

1.3.1.1 Scalars and Vectors

Description of motion of objects using words, involves words such as distance,
displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration. These (words) mathematical quantities
can be divided into two categories. The quantity is either a vector or a scalar,
distinguished from one another by their distinct definitions:
• Scalars are quantities which are fully described by a magnitude alone.
• Vectors are quantities which are fully described by both a magnitude and a
direction.

1.3.1.2 Distance and Displacement

Distance and displacement are two quantities which may seem to mean the same thing,
yet they have distinctly different meanings and definitions.
• Distance is a scalar quantity which refers to "how much ground an object has
covered" during its motion.

10
• Displacement is a vector quantity which refers to a change of position from x1 to
another final position x2.
∆x = x 2 − x1

where the symbol ∆ represents a change in a quantity.

To test your understanding of this distinction, consider the motion of a physics teacher
who walks 4 m east, 2 m south, 4 m west, and finally 2 m north. Even though the
physics teacher has walked a total distance of 12 m, her displacement is 0 m. During the
course of her motion, she has "covered 12 m of ground" (distance = 12 m). Yet, when
she is finished walking, she is back to her starting point – i.e., there is no displacement
for her motion . Displacement, being a vector quantity, must give attention to direction.
The 4 m east is canceled by the 4 m West; and the 2 m south is canceled by the 2 m
North.

1.3.1.3 Speed and Velocity

Just as distance and displacement have distinctly different meanings (despite their
similarities), so do speed and velocity.

(i) Speed is a scalar quantity which refers to "how fast an object is moving." A fast-
moving object has a high speed while a slow-moving object has a low speed. An
object with no movement at all has a zero speed.

(ii) Velocity is a vector quantity which refers to "the rate at which an object changes
its position." Imagine a person moving rapidly - one step forward and one step
back - always returning to the original starting position. While this might result
in a frenzy of activity, it would also result in a zero velocity. Since velocity is
defined as the rate at which the position changes, this motion results in zero
velocity.

11
(iii) Average Speed
The average speed s is the total distance traveled in a given time interval
total distance
s=
∆t
(iv) Average Velocity
This is a displacement ∆x that occurs over a time interval ∆t
∆x x 2 − x1
v= = 1.2
∆t t 2 − t1

1.3.2 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

The instantaneous velocity is the average velocity when the time interval is limitingly
small
∆x dx
v = lim ∆t →0 = 1.3
∆t dt
Alternatively the instantaneous velocity is the rate at which a particle’s position x is
changing with time at a given instant.

(i) Instantaneous Speed

Is the speed at any given instant in time. You might think of the instantaneous speed as
the speed which the speedometer reads at any given instant in time and the average
speed as the average of all the speedometer readings during the course of the trip.

(ii) Constant Speed

Moving objects don't always travel with erratic and changing speeds. Occasionally, an
object will move at a steady rate with a constant speed. That is, the object will cover the
same distance every regular interval of time.

1.3.3 Acceleration
The final kinematic quantity to be discussed is acceleration.

12
(i) Acceleration is a vector quantity which is defined as "the rate at which an object
changes its velocity." An object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity.

(ii) The instantaneous acceleration or simply acceleration is the rate of change of

velocity over a limitingly small interval of time, ie. the derivative of velocity
dv
a= 1.4
dt
The average acceleration is the rate of change of velocity over a given interval of time
∆ v v 2 − v1
a= = 1.5
∆t t 2 − t1

The human body reacts to accelerations ( it is a kind of an accelerometer) but does not
react to velocities ( it is not a speedometer).

(ii) Direction of the Acceleration Vector

The direction of the acceleration vector depends on two factors:
• whether the object is speeding up or slowing down
• whether the object is moving in the positive (+) or negative (–) direction

The general RULE OF THUMB is:

If an object is slowing down, then its acceleration is in the opposite direction of its
motion.

(iv) Constant Acceleration

In many common types of motion the acceleration is either constant or approximately
so.
The acceleration is constant when an accelerating object changes its velocity by the
same amount each second.

13
1.3.4 Equations of Motion under Constant Acceleration
When the acceleration is constant, there is no distinction between average and
instantaneous acceleration.

From the definition of acceleration, Eq. 1.5

dv
a= Î dv = adt
dt

Integrating we have v = ∫ adt = at + C

Where C is a constant of integration obtained from the initial conditions that at t = 0,

v = v0.
=> v = v0 + at 1.6

From the definition of velocity, Eq.1.3

dx
v= => dx = vdt
dt

Integrating we have x = ∫ vdt

But from Eq.1.6 we have

x = ∫ (v0 + at )dt

1
= v0 t + at 2 + C ′
2
where C ′ is a constant of integration.

From the initial conditions that x = x0, t = 0, we have C ′ = x0,

1
Î x − x0 = v0 t + at 2 1.7
2

14
Equations 1.6 and 1.7 are the basic equations for motion in one dimension under
constant acceleration. They can be combined in three ways to yield three additional
equations.

Eliminating t in Eq.1.7, we have

x − x0 = v 0
( v − v0 ) + 1 a ⎛ v − v 0 ⎞ 2
a 2 ⎜⎝ a ⎟
⎠

Î v 2 = v02 + 2a ( x − x0 ) 1.8

Eliminating the acceleration a in Eq.1.7, we have

1 ⎛ v − v0 ⎞ 2
x − x0 = v 0 t + ⎜
2 ⎝ t ⎟⎠
t

1
Î
x− x0 = ( v +v0) t 1.9
2

Eliminating v0 in Eq.1.9, we have

1
x − x0 = ( v − at ) t + at 2
2

1
x− x0 = vt − at2 1.10
2

so that the equations for motion in one dimension under constant acceleration are
Eqs.1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9 and 1.10.

(i) Problem-Solving Strategy

We now use the kinematic equations to determine unknown information about an
object's motion. The process involves the use of a problem-solving strategy. The
strategy includes the following steps:

15
1. Construct an informative diagram of the physical situation.
2. Identify and list the given information in variable form.
3. Identify and list the unknown information in variable form.
4. Identify and list the equation which will be used to determine the unknown
information from the known variables.
5. Substitute known values into the equation and use appropriate algebraic steps to
solve for the unknown.
6. Check your answer to ensure that it is reasonable and mathematically correct.

The use of this problem-solving strategy is modeled in the example below.

Worked Example
Huruma approaches a traffic light in her car which is moving with a velocity of +30.0
m/s. The light turns yellow, she applies the brakes and skids to a stop. If her
acceleration is –8.00 m/s2, determine the displacement of the car during the skidding
process.

Solution
Given: v0 = +30.0 m/s , v = 0 m/s , a = –8.00 m/s2 , to Find d .
Use the following kinematic equation which allows you to determine the unknown
quantity.
v 2 = v 02 + 2a( x − x 0 ) , where d = x – x0.

Upon substitution we have

(0 m/s)2 = (30.0 m/s)2 + 2×(-8.00 m/s2) ×d
=> d = 56.3 m

(ii) Kinematic Equations and Free Fall

A free falling object is one which is falling under the sole influence of gravity. Any
object which is moving and being acted upon only by the force of gravity is said to be
"in a state of free fall." Such an object will experience a downward acceleration of 9.8

16
m/s/s (which is often approximated to 10 m/s/s). Whether the object is falling
downward or rising upward towards its peak, if it is moving under the influence of
gravity alone, the value of its acceleration will be 9.8 m/s/s. Like any moving object,
the motion of an object in free fall can be described by the kinematic equations.

The application of these equations to the motion of an object in free fall can be aided by
a proper understanding of the conceptual characteristics of free fall motion. These
concepts are as follows:
• An object in free fall experiences an acceleration of –9.8 m/s/s. (The negative (–)
sign indicates a downward acceleration.) Whether explicitly stated or not, in the
kinematic equations the acceleration for any freely falling object is always –9.8
m/s/s.

• If an object is dropped (as opposed to being thrown) from an elevated height to the
ground below, the initial velocity of the object is 0 m/s.

• If an object is projected upwards in a vertical direction, it will slow down as it rises

upward. The instant at which it reaches the peak of its trajectory, its velocity is 0
m/s. This value can be used as one of the motion parameters in the kinematic
equations; for example, the final velocity (v) after traveling to the peak would be
assigned a value of 0 m/s.

• If an object is projected upwards in a vertical direction, then the velocity at which it

is projected is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the velocity it has when it
returns to the same height. That is, a ball projected vertically with an upward
velocity of +30 m/s will have a downward velocity of –30 m/s when it returns to
that same height.

These four principles and the kinematic equations can be combined to solve problems
involving the motion of free falling objects. The one example below illustrates the

17
application of free fall principles to kinematic problem-solving. In each example, the
problem solving strategy which was introduced earlier will be utilized.

Worked Example
Luka drops a pile of roof tiles from the top of a roof located 8.52 meters above the
ground. Determine the time required for the tiles to reach the ground.

Solution
Given: vi = 0.0 m/s , d = –8.52 m, a = –9.8 m/s2 ;To find d, use Eq.1.7.

1.3.5 Free Fall Acceleration

This is the acceleration due to gravity g. The value of g varies slightly with latitude and
also with altitude.

The value of g = 9.8 ms-2 applies at sea level and in the mid latitudes.

Eqs. 1.6 – 1.10 apply to free fall near the earth’s surface, with the modifications
• the direction of motion is along y – axis, +ve upward; and
• the acceleration a is replaced by –g.

So that the free fall equations of motion become:

v = v0 - gt 1.11
1 2
y − y 0 = v0 t − gt 1.12
2
v 2 = v02 − 2 g ( y − y 0 ) 1.13
1
y − y0 = (v + v0 )t 1.14
2
1 2
y − y 0 = vt + gt 1.15
2

18
When solving problems under constant acceleration, choose the appropriate equation
among the five equations or alternatively use the pair of basic equations and solve them
simultaneously.

1.4 VECTORS
1.3.1 Introduction
We have already introduced vectors in the discussion of one dimensional motion. A
vector quantity is a quantity which is fully described by both magnitude and direction;
r
it is represented by a vector symbol: A and a scalar quantity is a quantity which is
fully described by its magnitude.

1.4.2 Addition of Vectors

As is in ordinary arithmetic, only vectors of the same kind can be added.
The Graphical method
This is a geometrical construction whereby the sum is the vector joining the lose ends
of a triangle or a polygon

1.4.3 Properties of vector Addition

1. Commutative law:
v v v v
A+ B = B+A

In other words the order of addition of vectors does not matter.

2. Associative Law:
v v v v v v
(A + B ) + C = A + (B + C )

19
If there are more than two vectors, it does not matter how they are grouped as they are
added.

3. Substraction:
v v v
A − A=0
v
0 is the null vector. A vector with zero magnitude and no direction.

1.4.4 Vectors and their Components

Addition of vectors by the graphical methods is a tedious process. Adding their
components on a rectangular coordinate system is neater.

Hence the vectors are resolved along x − and y − axes and the components are added.

Ax = Acosθ; Ay = Asinθ

Bx = Bcosφ; By = Bsinφ

Figure 1.2 An Illustration of Components of Vectors

A vector is represented fully by its component.

The magnitude
r
A= Ax2 + A2y

Ay
The angle θ, tan θ =
Ax
r
In solving problems you may use the A and θ notation or the Ax and Ay notation.

20
1.4.5 Unit Vectors
A Unit Vector is a vector of magnitude exactly one. It lacks both dimension and units.
Its purpose is to specify direction.
For the cartesian co-ordinate system, the unit vectors are î , ĵ and k̂ pointing in the x-,
y-, z- directions respectively.

Figure 1.3: An Illustration of Unit Vectors

The î , ĵ and k̂ are arranged in a right-handed screw rule, such that if a screw is rotated
from x to y it will advance in the z – direction.
So that the vectors  and B̂ can now be expressed as
r
A = Ax iˆ + Α y ˆj
r
B = B x iˆ + B y ˆj
r
Note that Ax iˆ and Ay ˆj are called the vector components of A while Ax and Ay are
r
simply called the components of A .

1.4.6 Adding Vectors by Components

Adding of vectors is neater when components are combined axis by axis
v r r
e.g. r =a + b
r
So that the components of the vector r become:
rx = a x + bx

21
ry = a y + b y

rz = a z + bz

In unit vector notation, we have

r
r = ( a x + bx ) iˆ + (ay )
+ b y ˆj + ( a z + bz ) kˆ

1. Can the speed of an object be negative? Explain.

? 2. Does a car’s speedometer measure velocity or speed? Explain.
3. Does a car’s odometer measure distance or displacement? Explain.
4. A car travels along a straight East-West street. We let the unit vector
î point toward the east. What is the sign of vx if the car is traveling (a)
toward the East, (b) toward the west?

1.4.7 Multiplying Vectors

(i) Multiplication by a scalar
v v v
Multiplying a vector a by a scalars the product is p = sa ; the magnitude of
v v
vector p is ‘sa’ and the direction is that of vector a .

(ii) The Scalar Product

This is one of two ways of multiplication of a vector by a vector to produce a scalar
quantity.
vv
a .b = abcosθ
v v
where θ is the angle between vector a and vector b . Because of the notation on the left
vv
hand side, a .b is called the “dot product”. The symbol “.” is an operator and not a
normal multiplication sign.

The scalar product is commutative

vv vv
a .b = b .a = ab cos θ .

22
The commutative law applies.
When the vectors are in the unit vector notation, the dot product becomes
v v
(
a . b = a x i + b y ˆj + bz kˆ ) . ( bx iˆ + b y ˆj + bz kˆ )
= a x bx + a y b y + a z bz - which obeys the distributive law. All other

combinations involve cos 90° which is zero, for example axbycos90° + axbkcos90°, etc.

1.4.8 The Vector Product

The vector product is the second way of multiplication of vectors that produces another
vector:
v v
c = a × b or c = a ∧ b Read as “ a cross b ” .
v v
The magnitude of c is c = a b sin θ, where θ is the smaller angle between vector a
v
and b .
You might ask, why the smaller angle, θ < 180°; the reason is that for θ > 180°,
sin θ = - sin (360 - θ), whereas cos θ = cos (360 – θ). Hence, whereas the vector
product takes the smaller angle, the scalar or dot product can take either angle.
v
The direction of c is in accordance with a right – handed screw rule which is described
as follows:

Figure 1.4: An Illustration of the Right Handed Screw Rule

v v
Place a and b tail to tail without altering their orientation. Imagine a line perpendicular
v v
to the plane of a and b and passing at the origin, as shown in Fig. 1.4. Imagine a

23
 v v
screw is rotated from a to b . The direction of advance of the screw is the direction of
v
vector c .
v v v v
The vector product is not commutative so that a ∧ b = − b ∧a

The distributive law for vector products.

( ) ( bx iˆ )
v v
a ∧ b = a x iˆ + a y ˆj + a z kˆ ∧ + b y ˆj + bz kˆ

(
= a x iˆ ∧ bx iˆ ) + ( a x iˆ ∧ b y ˆj ) + ( a x iˆ ∧ bz kˆ )
+ ( a y ˆj ∧ bx iˆ ) + ( a y ˆj ∧ by ˆj ) + ( a y ˆj ∧ bz kˆ )
+ ( az kˆ ∧ bx iˆ ) + ( az kˆ ∧ b y ˆj ) + ( az kˆ ∧ bz kˆ )
= Ο + a x b y kˆ − a x bz ˆj − a y bx kˆ + Ο + a y bz iˆ

+ a z bx ˆj − a z b y iˆ + Ο
r
r
( )
Î a ∧ b = a y bz − a z b y iˆ + ( a z bx − a x bz ) ˆj + a x b y − a y bx kˆ ( )
So that the distributive law holds for vector products.

Note that the vector products of the unit vectors î , ĵ and k̂ are cyclic.

iˆ ∧ ˆj = kˆ

ˆj ∧ kˆ = iˆ

kˆ ∧ iˆ = ˆj

Figure 1.5 : An Illustration of Cyclic Operations. The unit vector is positive in the direction of
the arrow.

24
1.5 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
1.5.1 Introduction
A force is a pull or push upon an object resulting from the object’s interaction with
another object. Forces only exist as a result of an interaction.
All forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad categories:
• Contact forces and
• Forces resulting from action at a distance.

Contact forces include frictional, tensional, normal, air resistance, applied and spring
forces. Action at a distance forces include gravitational and electromagnetic forces.

1.5.2 Newton’s First Law

Consider a body on which no net force acts. If the body is at rest it will remain at rest.
If the body is moving with constant velocity, it will continue to do so.

Statement
An object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object in motion tends to stay in motion
with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced
external force.

Newton’s 1st law is also called the Law of Inertia. Inertia is the tendency of an object
to resist change in its state of motion.

Every day Experience of Newton’s First Law

The idea expressed by Newton's law of inertia should not be surprising to us. We
experience this phenomenon of inertia nearly everyday when traveling in a motor
vehicle. For example, imagine that your are a passenger in a car at a traffic light. The
light turns green and the driver steps on the accelerator. The car begins to accelerate
forward, yet relative to the seat which you are on, your body begins to lean backwards.

25
Your body being at rest tends to stay at rest. This is one aspect of the law of inertia-
"objects at rest tend to stay at rest." As the wheels of the car spin to generate a forward
force upon the car to cause a forward acceleration, your body tends to stay in place. It
certainly might seem to you as though your body were experiencing a backwards force
causing it to accelerate backwards; yet you would have a difficult time identifying such
a backwards force on your body. There isn't one. The feeling of being thrown
backwards is merely the tendency of your body to resist the acceleration and to remain
in its state of rest. The car is accelerating out from under your body, leaving you with
the false feeling of being thrown backwards.

Now imagine that you're driving along at constant speed and then suddenly approach a
stop sign. The driver steps on the brakes. The wheels of the car lock and begin to skid
across the pavement. This causes a backwards force upon the forward moving car and
subsequently a backwards acceleration on the car. However, your body being in motion
tends to continue in motion while the car is slowing to a stop. It certainly might seem to
you as though your body were experiencing a forwards force causing it to accelerate
forwards; yet you would once more have a difficult time identifying such a forwards
force on your body. The feeling of being thrown forwards is merely the tendency of
your body to resist the deceleration and to remain in its state of forward motion. The
unbalanced force acting upon the car causes it to slow down while your body continues
in its forward motion.

1.5.3 Newton’s Second Law

Newton's first law of motion predicts the behavior of objects for which all existing
forces are balanced. An object will only accelerate if there is a net or unbalanced force
acting upon it. The presence of an unbalanced force will accelerate an object - changing
either its speed, its direction, or both its speed and direction. Newton's second law of
motion can be formally stated as follows:

26
The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.

The vector sum or the net force, of all forces that act on a body is given by
v v
∑F = ma 1.16

In solving problems, using Eq. 1.16 one draws a free-body diagram, in which the body
is represented by a dot and all forces are represented by vectors with their tails on the
dot, as shown below.

Figure 1.6: An Illustration of Free Body Diagrams for (a) A Book at Rest on a Table (b) An Object Falling
Freely, Air Resistance Neglected (c) A Book on a Table being Pushed or Pulled to The Right and
(d) A car Decelerating to a Halt.

Eq. 1.16 is equivalent to three scalar equations:

∑ Fx = ma x ; ∑ Fy = ma y ; ∑ Fz = ma z ………… 1.17

1.5.4 Some Particular Forces

1.5.4.1 Weight
v v v
W = mg , W is directed downward.

Many students of physics confuse weight with mass. The mass of an object refers to the
amount of matter that is contained by the object; whereas the weight of an object is the

27
force of gravity acting upon that object. The mass of an object will be the same no
matter where in the universe that objects are located. Weight is dependent upon the
value of g. On the earth's surface g is 9.8 m/s2 . On the moon's surface, g is 1.7 m/s2. Go
to another planet, and there will be another value of g. Hence, the weight of an object
(measured in Newtons) will vary according to where in the universe the object is.

1.5.4.2 Normal Force

v
The normal force Ν is the force experienced by a body when it is pressed against a
v
surface. Ν can in any direction.
From Newton’s 2nd law, we have ∑ Fy = N − mg = ma y

Since a y = 0 ⇒ N = mg .

So that the magnitude of the Normal force is

N = mg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.18

1.5.4.3 Frictional Force

This is the force experienced by an agent when sliding a body on a surface, The
r
frictional force F is parallel to the surface but acting opposite to the direction of the
intended motion.

r
Figure 1.7: An Illustration of Direction of Frictional Force F

1.5.4.4 Tension
When a cord is attached to a body and the cord is pulled tightly, the cord is said to be
v
under tensionΤ .

28
 ? Is a force required to keep an object moving? Explain.

1.5.5 Newton’s Third Law

Forces come in pairs. If you lean against a brick wall, the wall pushes back on you.
Statement: To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.
v v
If a body A exerts a force F BA on body B, it experiences a force F AB exerted by body B
on A.
v v
FBA = − F AB ……………………………….. 1.19
Note that the two forces do not cancel because one acts on A and the other on B.
v v
The forces F BA and F AB are also called an action – reaction pair.

1.5.6 Applying Newton’s Laws

In applying Newton’s laws to solve problems one should be able to translate a sketch of
a situation into a free body diagram, with appropriate axes.

1.5.6.1 Friction
r
Two types of frictional forces, static frictional force f s and kinetic frictional force
v
fk .
v
f s operates against the applied force up to break away point beyond which motion starts
v
and f k takes over.

1.5.6.2 Properties of Friction

r
When a body is pressed against a surface (dry and unlubricated) and a force F attempts
to move it along the surface, the resulting frictional force has three properties.
v r
1. f s and the component of F that is parallel to the surface are equal in magnitude
v r
and f s is directed apposite that component of F .

29
 v
2. The magnitude f s has a maximum value
f s ,max, = µ s N 1.20

where µs is the coefficient of static friction and N the magnitude of the normal
r
force. When the component of F that is parallel to the surface exceeds
f s ,max, the body begins to slide.

3. When the body begins to slide the magnitude of the frictional force rapidly
decreases to a value f k given by
f k = µk N 1.21
where µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

v v
Note that Eq. 1.20 and 1.21 are scalar; f s ,k are parallel to the surface whereas Ν is

perpendicular to the surface.

The coefficients µ s and µ k are dimensionless.
When the driver of a car slams on the car’s brakes, what object exerts
? the force that slows the car? Suppose this happened when the road is
smooth but muddy, would the results be the same? Explain.

1.5.7 Work, Energy and Power

1.5.7.1 Mechanical Energy
Work is defined as the transfer of energy from one object to another. The first object is
the agent that exerts a force on the second object which in turn is displaced. The amount
of work is calculated as the product of the force and the displacement. Since both force
and displacement are vectors and yet energy is not a vector quantity, the product of
these two vectors is a scalar product:
r r
W = F •d

30
The energy acquired by the object upon which work is done is known as mechanical
energy.

Mechanical energy is the energy which is possessed by an object due to its motion or
its stored energy of position. Mechanical energy can be either kinetic energy (energy of
motion) or potential energy (stored energy of position). Objects have mechanical
energy if they are in motion and/or if they are at some position relative to a zero
potential energy position (for example, a brick held at a vertical position above the
ground or zero height position). A moving car possesses mechanical energy due to its
motion (kinetic energy). A kicked football possesses mechanical energy due to both its
high speed (kinetic energy) and its vertical position above the ground (gravitational
potential energy).

A drawn bow possesses mechanical energy due to its stretched position, (elastic
potential energy). Any object which possesses mechanical energy - whether it be in the
form of potential energy or kinetic energy - is able to do work. The total amount of
mechanical energy is the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic energy. This sum
is referred to as the total mechanical energy, TME.
TME = PE + KE
As discussed above, there are two forms of potential energy - gravitational potential
energy and elastic potential energy. Given this fact, the above equation can be
rewritten:

TME = PEgrav + PEspring + KE

The diagram below depicts the motion of a ski jumper as she glides down snow covered
hill.

31
 Figure 1.7.1: An Illustration of a Ski Jumper Gliding Down a Ski Track

The total mechanical energy of the ski jumper is the sum of the potential and kinetic
energies. The two forms of energy sum up to 50000 Joules. Notice also that the total
mechanical energy of ski jumper is a constant value throughout her motion. There are
conditions under which the total mechanical energy will be a constant value and
conditions under which it is a changing value.

1.5.7.2 The Work-Energy Theorem

Internal and External Forces
There are a variety of ways to categorize all the types of forces. All the types of forces
can be categorized as contact forces or as action-at-a-distance forces.
Forces can also be categorized in terms of whether or not their presence is capable of
changing an object's total mechanical energy. The two categories of forces are called
internal and external forces.

External forces include applied forces, normal forces, tensional forces, friction forces,
and air resistance forces. Internal forces include gravitational forces, magnetic forces,
electrical forces, and elastic forces. The significance of categorizing a force as internal
or external is related to the ability of that type of force to change an object's total
mechanical energy when it does work upon an object. When work is done upon an

32
object by an external force, the total mechanical energy (KE + PE) of that object is
changed. If the work is "positive work", then the object will gain energy. If the work is
"negative work", then the object will lose energy. The gain or loss in energy can be in
the form of potential energy, kinetic energy, or both. Under such circumstances, the
work which is done will be equal to the change in mechanical energy of the object.
When work is done upon an object by an internal force (for example, gravitational and
spring forces), the total mechanical energy (KE + PE) of that object remains constant.
In such cases, the object's energy changes form. For example, as an object is "forced"
from a high elevation to a lower elevation by gravity, some of the potential energy of
that object is transformed into kinetic energy. Yet, the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies remain constant. This is referred to as energy conservation. When the only
forces doing work are internal forces, energy changes forms - from kinetic to potential
(or vice versa); yet the total amount of mechanical energy is conserved.

1.5.7.3 Analysis of Situations Involving External Forces

Whenever work is done upon an object by an external force, there will be a change in
the total mechanical energy of the object. If only internal forces are doing work (no
work done by external forces), there is no change in total mechanical energy; the total
mechanical energy is conserved. In this section, we will further explore the quantitative
relationship between work and energy. The quantitative relationship between work and
mechanical energy is expressed by the following equation:

TMEi + Wext = TMEf

Where TMEi is the initial amount of total mechanical energy, Wext is the work done by
external forces and TMEf is the final total mechanical energy. Since the mechanical
energy can be either potential energy or kinetic energy , the above equation can be
rewritten as
KEi + PEi + Wext = KEf + PEf
The work done by external forces can be a positive or a negative work term.

33
The above equation is known as the Work-Energy Theorem.
The work-energy theorem is the basis for the rest of this section. It forms the basis of
the conceptual aspect of a powerful approach to solving mathematical problems.
r
Consider a weightlifter who applies an upwards force F (say 100 N) to a weight to
displace it upwards a given distance d (say 0.25 meters) at a constant speed. According
to the work-energy theorem, the initial energy plus the work done by the external force
equals the final energy. If the weight begins with 150 Joules of energy (this is just a
made up value), and the weightlifter does 25 Joules of work, TMEi
r r
Wext = F .d = Fd cos θ = 100 × 0.25 cos0 = 25.0 J

then the weight will finish with 125 Joules of mechanical energy.
The final energy (125 J) is equal to the initial energy (100 J) plus the work done by
external forces (25 J).

Now consider a car which is skidding from a high speed to a lower speed. The force of
friction between the tyres and the road exerts a leftward force (say 8000 N) on the
rightward moving car over a given distance (say 30 m). According to the work-energy
theorem, the initial energy plus the work done by the external force equals the final
energy. If the car begins with say 320 000 Joules of energy and the friction force does -
240 000 Joules of work
W friction = Fd cos 180o = 8000 × 30 × ( −1 ) = -240000 J

then the car will finish with 80 000 Joules of mechanical energy. The final energy (80
000 J) is equal to the initial energy (320 000 J) plus the work done by external forces (-
240 000 J).

In each of these examples, an external force does work upon an object over a given
distance to change the total mechanical energy of the object. If the external force does
positive work, then the object gains energy; the amount of energy gained is equal to the
work done on the object. If the external force does negative work, then the object loses

34
energy; the amount of energy lost is equal to the work done on the object. In general,
the total energy of the object in the initial state (prior to the work being done) plus the
work done equals the total energy in the final state.

The work-energy theorem can be combined with the expressions for potential and
kinetic energy to solve complex problems. Like all complex problems, they can be
made simple if first analyzed from a conceptual viewpoint and broken down into parts.

1. A 1000-kg car traveling with a speed of 25 m/s skids to a stop. The car
? experiences an 8000 N force of friction. Determine the stopping
distance of the car.

2. At the end of a roller coaster ride, the 6000-kg train of cars (includes
passengers) is slowed from a speed of 20 m/s to a speed of 5 m/s over
a distance of 20 meters. Determine the braking force required to slow
the train of cars by this amount.

3. A shopping cart full of groceries sitting at the top of a 2.0-m hill begins
to roll until it hits a stump at the bottom of the hill. Upon impact, a
0.25-kg can of peaches flies horizontally out of the shopping cart and
hits a parked car with an average force of 500 N. How deep a dent is
made in the car (i.e., over what distance does the 500 N force act upon
the can of peaches before bringing it to a stop)?

All three of the above problems have one thing in common: there is a force which does
work over a distance in order to remove mechanical energy from an object. The force
acts opposite the object's motion (angle between force and displacement is 180°) and
thus does "negative work;" negative work means that the object loses energy. In each
situation, the work is related to the kinetic energy change. And since the distance (d)

35
over which the force does work is related to the work and since the velocity squared
(v2) of the object is related to the kinetic energy, there must also be a direct relation
between the stopping distance and the velocity squared. Observe the derivation below.
TMEi + Wext = TME f

KEi + Wext = 0

1
mv 2 + Fd cos 180o = 0
2
1
mv 2 = Fd
2

∴ v2 ∝ d
The above equation depicts stopping distance as being dependent upon the square of the
velocity. This means that a twofold increase in velocity would result in a fourfold (two
squared) increase in stopping distance. A threefold increase in velocity would result in a
nine-fold (three squared) increase in stopping distance. And a fourfold increase in
velocity would result in a sixteen-fold (four squared) increase in stopping distance. As
shown, an equation is a not merely an algebraic recipe for solving problems; equations
are also cognitive guides to thinking about how two quantities are related to each other.
In this case for a force bringing an object to a stop over a given distance, the stopping
distance of the object is related to the square of the velocity of the object.
The examples mentioned above involve the application of the work-energy theorem to
situations involving external forces doing work. An entirely different outcome results in
situations in which there is no work done by external forces

1.6.7.4 Analysis of Situations in Which Mechanical Energy is Conserved

Whenever work is done upon an object by an external force, there will be a change in
the total mechanical energy of the object. If only internal forces are doing work (no
work done by external forces), there is no change in total mechanical energy; the total
mechanical energy is said to be "conserved." In this section, we will further explore the

36
quantitative relationship between work and mechanical energy in situations in which
there are no external forces doing work.
The quantitative relationship between work and the two forms of mechanical energy is
expressed by the work – energy theorem:
KEi + PEi + Wext = KEf + PEf

The equation illustrates that the total mechanical energy (KE + PE) of the object is
changed as a result of work done by external forces. There are a host of other situations
in which the only forces doing work are internal forces. In such situations, the total
mechanical energy of the object is not changed. In such instances, it is sometimes said
that the mechanical energy is "conserved." The previous equation can be simplified to
the following form:
KEi + PEi = KEf + PEf

In these situations, the sum of the kinetic and potential energy is everywhere the same.
As kinetic energy is decreased (due to the object slowing down), the potential energy is
increased (due to the stretch/compression of a spring or an increase in height above the
earth). As kinetic energy is increased (due to the object speeding up), the potential
energy is decreased (due to the return of a spring to its rest position or a decrease in
height above the earth). Energy is transformed from kinetic energy to potential energy
(or vice versa) - yet the total amount present is conserved.

The tendency of an object to conserve its mechanical energy is observed whenever

external forces are not doing work. If the influence of friction and air resistance can be
ignored (or assumed to be negligible) and all other external forces are absent or merely
not doing work, then the object is often said to conserve its energy. Consider a
pendulum bob swinging to and fro on the end of a string. There are only two forces
acting upon the pendulum bob. Gravity (an internal force) acts downward and the
tensional force (an external force) pulls upwards towards the pivot point. The external
force does not do work since at all times it is directed at right angle to the motion.

37
A roller coaster at a lunar park operates on this same principle of energy transformation.
Work is initially done on a roller coaster car to lift to its initial summit. Once lifted to
the top of the summit, the roller coaster car has a large quantity of potential energy and
virtually no kinetic energy (the car is almost at rest). If it can be assumed that no
external forces are doing work upon the car as it travels from the initial summit to the
end of the track (where finally an external braking system is employed), then the total
mechanical energy of the roller coaster car is conserved. As the car descends hills and
loops, its potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy (as the car speeds up); as
the car ascends hills and loops, its kinetic energy is transformed into potential energy
(as the car slows down). Yet in the absence of external forces doing work, the total
mechanical energy of the car is conserved.

Figure 1.6.2: An Illustration of Transformation of Potential Energy into Mechanical Energy

Conservation of energy on a roller coaster ride means that the total amount of
mechanical energy is the same at every location along the track. The amount of kinetic
energy and the amount of potential energy is constantly changing; yet the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies is everywhere the same.

The motion of a ski jumper, Fig.1.6.1, is also governed by the transformation of energy.
As a ski jumper glides down the hill towards the jump ramp and off the jump ramp

38
towards the ground, potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy. If it can be
assumed that no external forces are doing work upon the ski jumper as it travels from
the top of the hill to the completion of the jump, then the total mechanical energy of the
ski jumper is conserved.

The assumption made for both the roller coaster car and the ski jumper is that there are
no external forces doing work. In actual fact there are external forces doing work. Both
the roller coaster car and the ski jumper experience the force of friction and the force of
air resistance during the course of their motion. Both friction and air resistance are
external forces and both would do work upon the moving object. The presence of
friction and air resistance would do negative work and cause the total mechanical
energy to decrease during the course of the motion. Nonetheless, the assumption that
mechanical energy is conserved is a useful approximation which assists in the analysis
of an otherwise complex motion.

1.6 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

If a particle is moving in a circle or circular arc of radius r with constant velocity v, it
experiences the centripetal acceleration.
v2
a= 1.22
r
The velocity vector is tangential to the circle in the direction of motion while the
acceleration is always directed radially inwards.
Arising from the centripetal acceleration is a centripetal force whose magnitude is
mv 2
F = ma = 1.23
r
Both the centripetal acceleration and the centripetal force are vectors whose magnitudes
are constants but their directions are changing continuously so as to point towards the
centre of the circle.

39
 Figure 1.7: An Illustration of Directions of Instantaneous Velocity and Acceleration in
Circular Motion

1.6.1 The False Sensation of an Outward Force

The tendency of our body to maintain its state of rest or motion while the surroundings
(the car) accelerate is often misconstrued as an acceleration. This becomes particularly
problematic when we consider the inertia experience of a passenger in a moving car and
making the right hand turn.

Suppose as you continue driving and suddenly you have to make a sharp turn to the
right at constant speed. During the turn, the car travels in a circular-type path and
sweeps out one- quarter of a circle. The unbalanced force acting upon the turned wheels
of the car cause an unbalanced force upon the car and a subsequent acceleration. The
unbalanced force and the acceleration are both directed towards the center of the circle
about which the car is turning. This is the centripetal force and acceleration. Your body
however is in motion and tends to stay in motion. It is the inertia of your body - the
tendency to resist acceleration - which causes it to continue in its forward motion.
While the car is accelerating inward, you continue in a straight line. If you are sitting on
the passenger side of the car, then eventually the outside door of the car will hit you as
the car turns inward. This phenomenon might cause you to think that you were being
accelerated outwards away from the center of the circle. In reality, you are continuing
in your straight-line inertial path tangent to the circle while the car is accelerating out
from under you. The sensation of an outward force and an outward acceleration is a
false sensation. There is no physical object capable of pushing you outwards. You are

40
merely experiencing the tendency of your body to continue in its path tangent to the
circular path along which the car is turning.

1. A 900 kg car moving at 10 m/s takes a turn around a circle with

? radius R = 25.0 m. Determine the acceleration and the net force
acting upon the car.

2. A 95 kg athlete makes a quarter circle turn in 2.1 seconds. If the

radius of the circle R = 12 m, determine the speed, acceleration and
the net force acting upon the athlete.

Worked Examples
Example 1
A 900-kg car makes a 180° turn with a speed of 10.0 m/s. The radius of the circle
through which the car is turning is 25.0 m. Determine the force of friction and the
coefficient of friction acting upon the car.

Solution
Known Information:
m = 900 kg , v = 10.0 m/s and R = 25.0 m
The mass of the object can be used to determine the force of gravity acting in the
downward direction.
Fgrav = mg

where g can be approximated as 10 m/s2. Knowing that there is no vertical acceleration

of the car, it can be concluded that the vertical forces balance each other. Thus, Fgrav =
Fnorm= 9000 N. This allows us to determine two of the three forces identified in the
free-body diagram. Only the friction force remains unknown.

41
 Figure 1.9: A Free Body Diagram for a Car Making the 180° Turn

Since the force of friction is the only horizontal force, it must be equal to the net force
acting upon the object. So if the net force can be determined, then the friction force is
known. To determine the net force:
v2
F =m
R
Substituting the given values yields a net force of 3600 N. Thus, the force of friction is
3600 N.
Finally the coefficient of friction µ can be determined using the equation which relates
the coefficient of friction to the force of friction and the normal force.
F frict = µ Fnorm

Substituting 3600 N for Ffrict and 9000 N for Fnorm yields a coefficient of friction µ =
0.400.

Example 2
The coefficient of friction acting upon a 900-kg car is 0.850. The car is making a 180°
turn around a curve with a radius of 35.0 m. Determine the maximum speed with which
the car can make the turn.

Solution
Known Information
m = 900 kg , µ = 0.85 and R = 35.0 m

42
The mass of the car can be used to determine the force of gravity acting in the
downward direction.
Fgrav = m g

where g can be approximated as 10 m/s/s. Knowing that there is no vertical acceleration

of the car, it can be concluded that the vertical forces balance each other.
Thus,
Fgrav = Fnorm= 9000 N.

Since the coefficient of friction µ is given, the force of friction can be determined.
F frict = µ Fnorm

This allows us to determine all three forces identified in the free-body diagram. The net
force acting upon any object is the vector sum of all individual forces acting upon that
object. So if all individual force values are known (as is the case here), the net force can
be calculated. The vertical forces add to 0 N. Since the force of friction is the only
horizontal force, it must be equal to the net force acting upon the object. Thus,
Fnet = 7650 N.

Once the net force is determined, the acceleration can be quickly calculated using the
equation:
Fnet = ma

Substituting the given values yields an acceleration of 7.65 m/s2. Finally, the speed at
which the car could travel around the turn can be calculated using the equation for
centripetal acceleration:
v2
a=
R

Substituting the known values for a and R into this equation and solving algebraically
yields a maximum speed of 16.4 m/s.

43
1.7 THE UNIVERSE AND THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
1.7.1 Structure of the Universe
Starting at home on planet Earth our immediate neighbours are the planets, Mars and
Venus. Next nearest neighbours are planets Jupiter and Mercury. There are four other
planets which revolve about the sun. This is our Solar system at the centre of which is
the sun.

Beyond the solar system, we have a collection of stars, 100s of millions which together
form the Milky Way Galaxy.
The Milky Way galaxy is disc shaped and our sun is 26,000 light years from its centre.

What is a light year?

?

This is the distance traveled by light at speed of 3.0 x 108 m/s in one year. Beyond the
Milky Way galaxy there are millions of other galaxies which together constitute the
Universe. The Universe is an immense structure. Everything in the universe is in a state
of motion in an orbit!! The force that binds these progressively large structures in their
orbits is the Gravitational Force.

1.7.2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation

Every particle attracts any other particle with a gravitational force whose magnitude is
given by
m1m2
F =G 1.24
r2
where m1 and m2 are the masses of the particles, r the distance between them, measured
centre to centre, and G is the gravitational constant, whose value is
G = 6.67 ×10-11 N.m2/kg2

44
 v v
m1 F12 F21 m2
v v
F12 is the gravitational force on mass m1 due to mass m2 and F21 is the gravitational

force on mass m2 due to mass m1.

The gravitational force applies to “particles”.

1.7.3 The Particle Approximation

When the dimensions of the objects are smaller than the distance to the nearest other
objects, then the objects can be treated as particles.

Equal Forces but Unequal Accelerations

The gravitational force on two distance objects has the same magnitude on each object,
but the accelerations are not necessarily the same.
m1m2
From F =G
r2
Gm2
The acceleration on m1 is a1 = 1.25
r2
Gm1
that on m2 is a2 = 1.26
r2

1.7.4 Gravitation and Principle of Superposition

Given a group of particles, the gravitational force exerted on any one of the particles is
the vector sum of the individual gravitational forces on the particle.
For n interacting particles, the net force on particle 1:
v v v v
F1 = F12 + F13 + ............... + F1n
v
where F12 is the gravitational force on particle 1 due to particle 2, etc.
or simply:
v n v
F1 = ∑ F1i ………………….. 1.27
i=2

45
Worked Example
Determine the force of gravitational attraction between the earth (m = 5.98 × 1024 kg)
and a 70-kg student if
(a) the student is standing at sea level, a distance of 6.37 × 106 m from the earth's
centre and
(b) the student is in an airplane at 40000 feet above earth's surface. This would place
the student a distance of 6.38 × 106 m from earth's center.

Solution
(a) The solution of the problem involves substituting known values of G = 6.67 ×
10-11 N m2/kg2, m1 = 5.98 × 1024 kg, m2 = 70 kg and r = 6.37 × 106 m into the
universal gravitation equation and solving for Fgrav. The solution is as follows:
6.67 × 10−11 × 5.98 × 1024 × 70
Fgrav = = 688.1 N
6.37 × 106 × 6.37 × 102

(b) The solution of the problem involves substituting known values of G = 6.67 ×
10-11 N m2/kg2, m1 = 5.98 × 1024 kg , m2 = 70 kg) and r = 6.38 × 106 m into the
universal gravitation equation and solving for Fgrav. The solution is as follows:
6.67 × 10−11 × 5.98 × 1024 × 70
Fgrav = = 685.9 N
6.38 × 102 × 6.38 × 102

Two general conceptual comments can be made about the results of the two worked
solutions above. First, observe that the force of gravity acting upon the student is less
on an airplane at 40 000 feet than at sea level. This illustrates the inverse relationship
between separation distance and the force of gravity (or in this case, the weight of the
student). The student weighs less at the higher altitude. However, a mere change of 40
000 feet further from the center of the Earth is virtually negligible. This altitude change
altered the student's weight by 3 N which is less than 1% of the original weight. A
distance of 40 000 feet (from the earth's surface to a high altitude airplane) is not very

46
far when compared to a distance of 6.37 × 106 m (equivalent to approximately 21 000
000 feet from the centre of the earth to the surface of the earth). The distance of
separation becomes much more influential when a significant variation is made.
The second conceptual comment to be made about the above sample calculations is that
the use of Newton's universal gravitation equation to calculate the force of gravity (or
weight) yields the same result as when calculating it using the equation
Fgrav = mg = (70 kg)(9.8 m/s2) = 686 N

Gravitational interactions do not simply exist between the earth and other objects; and
not simply between the sun and other planets; gravitational interactions exist between
all objects with an intensity which is directly proportional to the product of their
masses. Most gravitational forces are so minimal to be noticed. Gravitational forces
only are recognizable as the masses of objects become large.

1.7.5 Kepler’s Laws

The motion of planets around the sun and satellites around planets are governed by
Kepler’s laws:

(i) The Law of Orbits or Kepler’s First Law

Statement: All planets orbit the sun in an elliptical path with the sun being at one of the
foci of that ellipse.
Kepler’s first law is sometimes referred to as the law of ellipses.

Fig.1.10: An Elliptical Orbit of A Planet m Round the Sun M

(With an Exaggerated Eccentricity for Clarity)

47
Parameters of an Ellipse
Three parameters describe an ellipse: The Semimajor axis is half the distance of the
major axis; the Semi minor axis is half the distance of the minor axis; and the
Eccentricity is a dimensionless coefficient denoting departure from circular shape.

An eccentricity of zero corresponds to a circle in which the two foci merge to one
central point. Planetary eccentricities are not large, for example that of planet Earth is
only 0.0167.

(ii) The Law of Area or Kepler’s Second Law.

Statement: A line that connects the centre of a planet to the centre of the sun sweeps
out equal areas in equal times.

In other words, A planet will move most slowly when it is farthest from the sun and
most rapidly when it is nearest the sun.

Kepler’s second law is a statement of conservation of Angular Momentum.

(iii) The Law of Periods or Kepler’s Third Law

Statement: The Square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the
semi major axis of its orbit.

For a circular orbit, we have:

⎛ 4π 2 ⎞ 3
Τ 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟r 1.28
⎝ GM ⎟⎠
For an elliptical orbit, we have:

48
 ⎛ 4π 2 ⎞ 3
Τ 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ a
⎝ GM ⎠ 1.28

The law predicts that the ratio T2/a3 has essentially the same value for every planetary
orbit. This is well proven for the orbits of the solar system as shown in the table below,
where R is the average radius of planetary radius.

Average
Period T2/R3
Planet Distance
(yr) (yr2/au3)
(au)

Mercury 0.241 0.39 0.98

Venus 0.615 0.72 1.01

Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00

Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01

Jupiter 11.8 5.20 0.99

Saturn 29.5 9.54 1.00

Uranus 84.0 19.18 1.00

Neptune 165 30.06 1.00

Pluto 248 39.44 1.00

TAKE NOTE

The average distance is given in astronomical units where 1 a.u. is

equal to the distance from the earth to the sun which is 1.4957 ×
1011 m. The orbital period is given in units of earth-years where 1
earth year is the time required for the earth to orbit the sun , 3.156 ×
107 seconds.

49
The equivalence of the ratio T2/a3 among planets has consequently leaded to Kepler’s
third law being sometimes referred to as the Law of Harmonies.

1.7.5.1 Planetary and Satellite Motion

The motion of objects are governed by Newton's laws. The same simple laws which
govern the motion of objects on earth also extend to the heavens to govern the motion
of planets, moons, and other satellites. In this section, we will be concerned with the
variety of mathematical equations which describe the motion of satellites.
Consider a satellite with mass Msat orbiting a central body with a mass , m = MCentral.
The central body could be a planet, the sun or some other large mass capable of causing
sufficient acceleration on a less massive nearby object. If the satellite moves in circular
motion, then the net centripetal force acting upon this orbiting satellite is given by the
relationship
M sat v 2
Fnet =
R
This net centripetal force is the result of the gravitational force which attracts the
satellite towards the central body, and can be represented as
GM sat M central
Fgrav =
R2
Since Fgrav = Fnet, the above expressions for centripetal force and gravitational force are
equal. Thus,
M sat v 2 GM sat M central
=
R R2
GM central
Î v2 =
R
The velocity of a satellite moving about a central body in circular motion is given by
GM central
v=
R

50
where G = 6.67 × 10-11 N m2/kg2, Mcentral = the mass of the central body about which
the satellite orbits, and R = the radius of orbit for the satellite.
Similar reasoning can be used to determine an equation for the acceleration of our
satellite that is expressed in terms of masses and radius of orbit. The acceleration of a
satellite is equal to the acceleration of gravity of the satellite at whatever location which
is given by
GM central
g=
R2
Thus, the acceleration of a satellite in circular motion about some central body is given
by the following equation
GM central
a= (i)
R2
where G = 6.67 × 10-11 N m2/kg2, Mcentral = the mass of the central body about which
the satellite orbits, and R = the average radius of orbit for the satellite. The final
equation which is useful in describing the motion of satellites is Newton's form of
Kepler's third law.

Consider a planet with mass Mplanet orbiting in nearly circular motion about the sun of
mass MSun. The net centripetal force acting upon this orbiting planet is given by the
relationship
M planet v 2
Fnet =
R
This net centripetal force is the result of the gravitational force which attracts the planet
towards the sun, and can be represented as
GM planet M sun
Fgrav = … ii
R2
Since Fgrav = Fnet, the above expressions for centripetal force and gravitational force are
equal. Thus,

51
 M planet v 2 GM planet M sun
= … iii
R R2
Since the velocity of an object in nearly circular orbit can be approximated as
2π R
v=
T

4π 2 R 2
v2 = …..iv
T2
Substitution of the expression for v2 into the equation (iii) above yields,
M planet × 4π 2 R GM planet M sun
2
=
T R2
By cross-multiplication, the equation can be transformed into

T2 M planet × 4π 2
=
R3 GM planet M sun

Which upon simplification yields

T2 4π 2
= ……v
R3 GM sun

The right side of the above equation will be the same value for every planet regardless
of the planet's mass. Subsequently, it is reasonable that the T2/R3 ratio would be the
same value for all planets if the force which holds the planets in their orbits is the force
of gravity. Newton's universal law of gravitation provided a theoretical explanation for
Kepler's Law of Harmonies.

Hence, the period of a satellite (T) and the mean distance from the central body (R) are
related by the following equation:
T2 4π 2
= ……. vi
R 3 GM central
where T = the period of the satellite, R = the average radius of orbit for the satellite
(distance from center of central planet), and G = 6.67 × 10-11 N m2/kg2.

52
There is an important concept evident in all three of these equations - the period, Eq.
(vi) , speed , Eq.(iv) and the acceleration, Eq. (i) of an orbiting satellite are not
dependent upon the mass of the satellite.

GM central GM central T2 4π 2
v= a= =
R R2 R 3 GM central
To illustrate the usefulness of the above equations, consider the following worked
examples.

Worked Examples
Example 1
A satellite wishes to orbit the earth at a height of 100 km (approximately 60 miles)
above the surface of the earth. Determine the speed, acceleration and orbital period of
the satellite. (Given: Mearth = 5.98×1024 kg, Rearth = 6.37 × 106 m)

Solution
Given data:
R = Rearth + height = 6.47 × 106 m, Mearth = 5.98×1024 kg and G = 6.67 × 10-11 N m2/kg2
.
Note that the radius of a satellite's orbit can be found from the knowledge of the earth's
radius and the height of the satellite above the earth. As shown in the diagram at the
right, the radius of orbit for a satellite is equal to the sum of the earth's radius and the
height above the earth. These two quantities can be added to yield the orbital radius. In
this problem, the 100 km must first be converted to 100 000 m before being added to
the radius of the earth. The equations needed to determine the unknown are those which
are listed above. We will begin by determining the orbital speed of the satellite using
the following equation:

v= ( GM Central ) / R

53
Which upon substitution yields:
v = 6.16 × 107 m/s
The acceleration can be found from either one of the following equations (i) or from
a = v2 / R
Either equation can be used to calculate the acceleration and yields
a = 9.53 m/s2
Observe that this acceleration is slightly less than the 9.8 m/s2 value expected on earth's
surface. The increased distance from the centre of the earth lowers the value of g.
Finally, the period can be calculated using Eq.(vi) and yields :
T = 5177 s = 1.44 hrs

Example 2
The period of the moon is approximately 27.2 days (2.35×106 s). Determine the radius
of the moon's orbit and the orbital speed of the moon. (Given: Mearth = 5.98×1024 kg,
Rearth = 6.37 × 106 m)

Solution
Given data
T = 2.35×106 s, Mearth = 5.98×1024 kg and G = 6.67 × 10-11 N m2/kg2
The radius of orbit can be calculated Eq.(vi):
R3 = 5.58 × 1025 m3
By taking the cube root of 5.58 × 1025 m3, the radius can be determined to be:
R = 3.82 × 108 m

The orbital speed of the satellite can be computed from Eq.(iv) which upon substitution
yields
v = 1.02 × 103 m/s

54
Example 3
A geosynchronous satellite is a satellite which remains above the same point on the
earth. A geosynchronous satellite orbits the earth with an orbital period of 24 hours,
thus matching the period of the earth's rotational motion. If a satellite has to orbit the
earth at the equator in 24 hours (86400 s), then how high above the earth's surface must
it be located? (Given: Mearth = 5.98×1024 kg, Rearth = 6.37 × 106 m).

Solution
Given data
T = 86400 s , Mearth = 5.98×024 kg , Rearth = 6.37 × 106 m and G = 6.67 ×10-11 N
m2/kg2.
The radius of orbit can be found using Eq.(vi) which upon substitution yields:
R3 = [ ((86400 s)2 × (6.67 ×0-11 N m2/kg2) × (5.98×024 kg) ) / (4× (3.1415)2) ]
R3 = 7.54 ×1022 m3.

By taking the cube root of 7.54 ×1022 m3, the radius becomes R = 4.23 × 107 m.
The radius of orbit indicates the distance which the satellite is from the centre of the
earth. Now that the radius of orbit has been found, the height above the earth can be
calculated. Since the earth's surface is 6.37 × 106 m from its center (that's the radius of
the earth), the satellite must be a height of
4.23 ×107 m - 6.37 ×106 m = 3.59 × 107 m
above the surface of the earth. So the height of the satellite is 3.59 ×107 m.

1.7.5.2 Weightlessness
Weightlessness is simply a sensation experienced by an individual when there are no
external objects touching one's body and exerting a push or pull upon it. Weightless
sensations exist when all contact forces are removed. These sensations are common to
any situation in which you are momentarily (or perpetually) in a state of free fall. When

55
in free fall, the only force acting upon your body is the force of gravity - a non-contact
force.

Weightlessness is only a sensation; it is not a reality corresponding to an individual who

has lost weight.

Earth-orbiting astronauts are weightless because there is no external contact force

pushing or pulling upon their body. Gravity is the only force acting upon their body.
Being an action-at-a-distance force, it cannot be felt and therefore would not provide
any sensation of their weight.

It is the force of gravity which supplies the centripetal force requirement to allow the
inward acceleration which is characteristic of circular motion. The force of gravity is
the only force acting upon their body. The astronauts are in free-fall. The astronauts and
all their surroundings, that is the space shuttle with its contents are falling towards the
earth without colliding into it. Their tangential velocity allows them to remain in orbital
motion while the force of gravity pulls them inward.

1. David stands on a bathroom scale and reads the scale while in an

? elevator ascending and descending a tall building. David weighs 1000
N, but notices that the scale readings depend on what the elevator is
doing. Use a free-body diagram and Newton's second law of motion to
solve the following problems.
(a) What is the scale reading when David accelerates upwards at 0.50
m/s2?

(b) What is the scale reading when David is traveling upward at a

constant velocity of at 2 m/s?

(c) As David approaches the top of the building, the elevator slows
down at a rate of 0.50 m/s2. What does the scale read?

56
1.8 FLUIDS
A fluid is a substance that can flow. A fluid conforms to the boundaries of any
container in which it is put. In other words, a fluid cannot support a shearing stress.
Whereas in the discussion of the mechanics of solids, physical quantities of use are
mass and force, in the discussion of the mechanics of fluids the physical quantities of
use are density and pressure.

1.8.1 Density
By definition, the density of a substance is given by
m
ρ = …………………………. 1.30
V
where m is the mass and V the volume. Density is a scalar quantity. Whereas the
density of gases varies considerably with pressure that of liquids does not. Hence gases
are said to be compressible whereas liquids are not.

1.8.2 Pressure
By definition the pressure exerted by the fluid is given by
F
Ρ = ……………………………. 1.31
A
where F is the force exerted over an area A.
Pressure is a scalar quantity even though the force is a vector quantity. Pressure has
no directional properties.
The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa)
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
The Pascal is a small unit, such that
1 atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa
Tyre pressure gauges are calibrated in kilo Pascals.

57
1.8.3 Fluids at Rest
For a mountaineer the pressure decreases with altitude while for a diver, the pressure
increases with depth. The pressure encountered by the mountaineer and the diver is
called Hydrostatic pressure.
For a diver, at a depth h the pressure experienced is given by
P = Po + ρgh …………………. 1.32
Where Po is the surface pressure (atmospheric) ρ is the density of water, g acceleration
due to gravity and h the distance below surface.
The term ρgh is called the Gauge pressure.
The pressure at a given depth, depends on that depth and not on any horizontal
dimension.
For a mountaineer, the pressure at a height h is given by
P = Po - ρgh ……………………. 1.33
Where the Gauge pressure is in this case negative.

1.8.4 Pascal’s Principle

The everyday practice of squeezing one end of a toothpaste is a demonstration of
Pascal’s principle.

Statement
A change in the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to
every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the containing vessel.

1.8.4.1 The Hydraulic Lever

Consider the device shown in Fig.1.15, in which piston A is the input and B is the
output.

58
 Fig. 1.11: The Hydraulic Lever

Piston A has cross sectional area Ai and B has cross sectional area Ao. The device is
filled with an incompressible fluid.

When a force Fi is applied on piston A, an upward force Fo is exerted on piston B. In

order to keep the system in equilibrium a load must exert a downward force Fo on B.
The force Fi and the load Fo produce a change of pressure
Fi F
∆Ρ = = o
Ai Ao

Ao
⇒ Fo = Fi ………………………… 1.34
Ai

Under the conditions that Ao > Ai, then Fo > Fi.

Hence a small force Fi lifts a heavier load Fo.

Relative Distances
If the input piston is moved downward a distance di then the output piston is moved
upwards a distance do such that the same volume of the incompressible fluid is
displaced at both pistons.
Volume displaced in A = di Ai
Volume displaced in B = do Ao
Ai
⇒ do = d i ………………… 1.35
Ao

59
If Ao > Ai then do < di. In other words, the smaller piston moves through a longer
distance in comparison with the distance covered by the larger piston.

Work done
From Eq. 1.34 and 1.35 we can write the output work as
⎛ F Ao ⎞ ⎛ Ai ⎞
W = Fo d o = ⎜ i ⎟ ⎜ di ⎟ = Fi d i ………. 1.36
⎝ Ai ⎠ ⎝ Ao ⎠

which shows that the work W on A by the applied force is equal to the work done by
the output piston in lifting the load placed on it.

1.8.5 The Equilibrium of Floating Objects

Two forces act on a floating object. The weight acts downwards and the buoyant force
acts upwards. The two forces need not necessarily act at the same point. The weight
acts at the centre of mass whereas the buoyant force acts at the control of buoyancy, a
fictitious point in the water.

Hence torques must play a role in the equilibrium of floating objects.

If the floating object is tilted by a small angle from its equilibrium position, the location
of the centre of buoyancy changes. For the floating object to be in stable equilibrium,
the centre of buoyancy must shift in such a way that the buoyant force and the weight
provide a restoring torque so that the object returns to its original upright position.

If the torque acts in the opposite direction the floating objects will tilt farther and
eventually tip over.

60
EXERCISES

(i) Measurement
1. The period of a simple pendulum, defined as the time for one
complete oscillation, is measured in time units and is given by:
l
T = 2π
g

where l is the length of the pendulum and g is the acceleration

due to gravity. Show that this equation is dimensionally
consistent; that is, show that the right hand side of this equation
gives units of time.

2. Astronomical distances are so large compared to terrestrial ones

that much larger units of length are used for easy
comprehension of the relative distances of astronomical objects.
An astronomical unit (AU) is equal to the average distance
from the Earth to the sun, about 1.50 × 108 km. A parsec (pc)
is the distance at which 1 AU would subtend an angle of
exactly 1 second of arc. A light-year (ly) is the distance that
light, traveling through a vacuum with a speed of 3.0 ×108 m/s,
would cover in 1.0 year. (a) Express the distance from the Earth
to the sun in parsecs and in light-years. (b) Express the speed
of light in terms of astronomical units per minute.

3. During a total eclipse, your view of the sun is almost exactly

replaced by your view of the moon. Assuming that the distance
from you to the sun is about 400 times the distance from you to
the moon, (a) find the ratio of the sun’s diameter to the moon’s
diameter. (b)
What is the ratio of their volumes?

61
4. A person on diet might lose 2.3 kg per week. Express the mass
loss rate in milligrams per second.

(ii) One Dimensional Motion

5. A car travelling at a constant speed of 30 m/s passes a police car
at rest. The policeman starts to move at the moment the speeder
2
passes his car and accelerates at a constant rate of 3.0 m/ s
until he pulls even with the speeding car. Find (a) the time
required for the policeman to catch the speeder and (b) the
distance travelled during the chase.

6. A stone is thrown vertically upward from the edge of a building

19.6 m high with initial velocity 14.7 m/s. The stone just misses
the building on the way down. Find (a) the time of flight and (
b) the velocity of the stone just before it hits the ground.

7. A rocket moves upward, starting from rest with an acceleration

2
of 29.4 m/s for 4 s. At this time, it runs out of fuel and
continues to move upward. How high does it go?

(iii) Vectors
8. Find the sum of the following displacement vectors:
= 5.0 m at 37 o N of E, = 6.0 m at 45 o N of W
r
C = 4.0 m at 30 o S of W, and = 3.0 m at 60 o S of E

9. A plane drops a package of emergency rations to a stranded party

of explorers. The plane is travelling horizontally at 40.0 m/s at
100 m above the ground. Find (a) where the package strikes the
ground relative to the spot it was dropped and (b) the velocity of
the package just before it hits the ground.

62
(iv) Force and Motion
10. A box of mass 5.0 kg is pulled vertically upwards by a force of 68 N
applied to a rope attached to the box. Find (a) the acceleration of the
box and (b) the vertical velocity of the box after 2 seconds.

11. A wooden plank is raised at one end to an angle of 30o . A 2.0 kg box
is placed on the incline 1.0 m from the lower end and given a slight
tap to overcome static friction. The coefficient of kinetic friction
between the box and the plank is µk = 0.20 . Find (a) the acceleration
of the box and (b) the speed of the box at the bottom. Assume that the
initial speed of the box is zero.

12. A student of mass 50 kg tests Newton's laws by standing on a bathroom

scale in an elevator. Assume that the scale reads in newtons. Find the
scale reading when the elevator is (a) accelerating upward at 0.5 m/s 2,
(b) going up at a constant speed of 3.0 m/s and (c) going up but
decelerating at 1.0 m/s 2.

(v) Work and Energy

13. (a) A 2000 kg car is traveling at 80 km/hr. Find the kinetic energy in
Joules. (b) The same car is lifted vertically upward and then dropped
from rest. Find the height from which it is dropped if it strikes the
ground at 80 km/hr (neglect air resistance).

14. A man pushes a 100 kg box across a level floor at a constant speed of
2.0 m/s for 10 s. If the coefficient of friction between the box and the
floor is µk = 0.20 , find the average power output by the man.

15. An object of mass 1 kg travelling at 5.0 m/s enters a region of ice

where the coefficient of kinetic friction is .10. Use the work energy
theorem to find the distance the object travels before coming to rest.

63
(vi) Circular Motion and Gravitational Force
16. A bicycle wheel of radius r = 1.5 m starts from rest and rolls 100 m
without slipping in 30 s. Calculate (a) the number of revolutions the
wheel makes, (b) the number of radians through which it turns, (c)The
average angular velocity.
17. The escape velocity of any object is the speed it must achieve to escape
the gravitational pull of the Earth. Calculate the escape velocity for an
object of mass m.
18. What is the relationship between the radius of orbit of a satellite mass
m and its period?

(vii) Fluids
19. A boy tries to use a garden hose to supply air for a swim at the bottom
of a 50 m deep pool. What goes wrong?
20. A car weighing 1.2 × 104 N rests on four tyres. If the gauge pressure in
each tyre is 200 kPa, what is the area of each tyre in contact with the
road?
21. The same car as in the problem above sits on a hydraulic press as shown
in Fig.1.17. If the area of the cylinder holding the car up is 4 times
greater than the area of the cylinder on the other side of the press,
what is the force that must be applied to the other side of the hydraulic
press.

Figure 1.11

64
 LECTURE TWO

ELECTROSTATICS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Every object in our visible and tangible world contains an enormous amount of electric
charge. However this fact is hidden because the object contains equal amounts of
positive and negative charges. With such an equality of charge the object is said to be
electrically neutral. If the two charges are not in balance, then there is a net charge that
can interact with other objects. We say an object is charged when such an object has
charge imbalance. Charged objects interact by exerting forces on one another. Like
charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.

The attraction and repulsion between charged bodies has many industrial applications
including electrostatic paint spraying, nonimpact ink jet printing and photocopying. In
this lecture we shall study the basic law of force of electrostatic charges, the
electrostatic field created by electric charges and the basic application of electrostatic
field in the capacitor.

OBJECTIVES

When you have completed this lecture you should be able to:
(i) Define an electric point charge
(ii) State and apply Coulomb’s law
(iii) Define the Electric Field and Compute the Electric field due to
Point Charges
(iv) Define the Electric Potential Energy and Compute the electric
potential energy due to Point charges
(v) Define the Electric Potential and Compute the electric potential due
to point charges

65
 (vi) Define Capacitance and Compute the capacitance due to a Parallel
Plate Capacitor
(vii) Compute Equivalent Capacitance due to Series and Parallel
combinations
(viii) Compute Energy stored in a capacitor
(ix) Manipulate RC electric circuits
(x) Compute Power in Alternating Current Circuits

2.2 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW

Matter has two properties which give rise to forces. These are mass which gives rise to
the gravitational force and charge which gives rise to the electromagnetic force. The
other two of the fundamental forces are nuclear in nature, namely the Weak and the
strong interactions.

2.2.1 Electric Point Charge

An electric point charge is a charge that is concentrated in a region in space whose
dimension are small compared with the distance to the other charges. Fig.2.1 clarifies
the difference between electric point charges and electric charges for which the point
charge approximation does not hold.

Figure 2.1: Electric Charges:

(a) Illustrates Electric Point Charges

(b) Illustrates Electric Charges which are not Point Charges

66
2.2.2 Coulomb’s Law of Force
This is the most important law in electrostatics. It is an experimental fact that:
Two stationary electric point charges repel, when both have the same sign of charge, or
attract, when they have unlike signs of charge, one another with a force which acts
along the line joining them and whose magnitude is proportional to:
• The product of the magnitude of the two charges, and
• The inverse square of the distance between them.

Expressing the experimental observations in mathematical terms, the electric force F

between two electric point charges q1 and q2 a distance r apart takes the form:
q1q2
F∝
r2
1
In SI units the constant of proportionality is equal to , where ε0 is the permittivity
4πε 0

of free space. Hence Eq.2.1 becomes

q1q2
F= N
4πε 0 r 2

2.1
This force, variously called the Coulomb force or the Electrostatic force is mutual, it
acts equally on both charges.

Now a force is a vector quantity, it has magnitude as well as directional properties.

Eq.2.1 gives the scalar form or the magnitude of the Coulomb force.

2.2.2.1 Vector Form of Coulomb’s Law of Force

With reference to Fig.2.2, we adopt the following convention:

67
 Figure 2.2: The Coulomb force Between a Pair of Electric Point Charges

r
The Coulomb force on charge q1 due to charge q2 is denoted by F12 . The position
r
vector, that locates q1 relative to q2 is denoted by r12 . The position of the charge q2 is in
r r
effect the origin of the coordinate system. For a repulsive force, r12 is parallel to F12 ,
r
this is the case in Fig.2.2(a). If the charges have opposite signs, then F12 is anti-parallel
r
to r12 , which is the case in Fig 2.2(b). In either case, the Coulomb force on charge q1
due to q2 now takes the form
r qq
F12 = 1 2 2 rˆ12 2.2
4πε 0 r12
r
where r12 is the magnitude of the vector r12 and r̂12 is the unit vector in the direction of
r
r12 .

In Cartesian coordinates,
xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ
r̂ = .
2 2 2
x + y +z
r
Similarly, the Coulomb force on a charge q2 due to charge q1 is denoted by F21 and the
r
position vector of q2 relative to q1becomes r21 , this is the situation shown in Fig 2.2(c ).
r qq
F21 = 1 2 2 rˆ21 2.3
4πε 0 r12

68
Notice that the position vector of charge q2 relative to charge q1 is anti-parallel to the
position vector of charge q1 relative to charge q2.
ie. rˆ21 = − rˆ12

Coulomb’s law is valid for point charges that are either at rest respect to each other or
are moving very slowly so that their magnetic effects can be neglected.

2.2.3 Definition of the Coulomb

A Coulomb is defined as the amount of charge that flows through a given cross section
of a wire in one second if there is a steady current of one ampere in the wire.
ie. q = it
where i is in amps and t in seconds.

The charge of an electron e = 1.6 × 10−19 C. Thus one Coulomb is the total charge due to
6 ×1018 electrons. Hence a Coulomb is a large unit of charge.

2.2.4 The Principle of Superposition

When there are more than two point charges present, the force on any charge is the
vector sum of the Coulomb’s forces from each of the other charges.

Figure 2.3: The Principle of Superposition

69
In Fig.2.3 the force on q due to the other charges is given by
r 1 ⎛ qq1 qq qq ⎞
F= ⎜ 2 rˆ1 + 22 rˆ2 + 23 rˆ3 ⎟ 2.4
4πε 0 ⎜⎝ r1 r2 r3 ⎟
⎠
The direction and the sense of the forces are determined by the position and relative
types of charges. Repulsive forces act away (outwards) and attractive forces act towards
(inwards).

We generalize Eq.2.4 as follows:

The electrostatic force on a charge q due to a collection of other charges is the vector
sum:
r r r r
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + ......

q ⎛ q1 q q ⎞
= ⎜ 2 rˆ1 + 22 rˆ2 + 32 rˆ3 + ....⎟
4πε 0 ⎜⎝ r1 r2 r3 ⎟
⎠

r q N
q
=> F=
4πε 0
∑ r 2i rˆi 2.5
i =1 i

where N is the total number of charges.

Significance of the Coulomb’s Law of Force

The Coulomb law describes

• The electrical forces that bind the electrons of an atom to its nucleus,
• The forces that bind atoms together to form molecules, and
• The forces that bind atoms and molecules together to form solids or liquids.

In short all forces that one encounters in materials, whether binding or contact,
are electrical in nature and therefore they are Coulomb derived forces.

70
2.3 THE ELECTRIC FIELD
According to Coulomb’s law, a force exists between point charges that cause them
either to be attracted or repelled. The Coulomb force is an action at a distance kind of
force and not a contact force. Therefore the space surrounding a point charge, say q, is
affected by the point charge. This effect which would result in a force being exerted on
another distant charge q0 is called an electric field and the electric point charge q is
said to the source of the electric field.

In general, a field is a physical quantity that is a function of space coordinates, ie. the
field varies with position. There exists a function to represent the physical quantity that
takes a specific value at each point in space. There are scalar fields as well as vector
fields. The electric field is a vector field whereas the gravitational field is a scalar filed.

2.3.1 The Concept of Electric Field

Consider a positive test charge q0 being brought towards a positive point charge q. The
test charge experiences a repulsive force which at any point a distance r from the
charge q is given by Coulomb’s law:
r qq0
F= rˆ
4πε 0 r 2
r
The force F decreases at large r but it gets stronger as r is decreased.

2.3.2 Definition of the Electric Field

The Electric Field Strength ( or simply the Electric Field) at a point is defined as the
Electrical Force (or the Coulomb Force) per unit positive electric charge.
r
r F
ie. E= NC-1 (or Vm-1) 2.6
q0

Since the Electric field is a force, it follows therefore that the Electric Field is a vector
quantity.

71
2.3.3 Electric Field due to a Point Charge
By Definition, the electric field at any point, a distance r from the charge q is given by
Eq.2.6:
r
r F
E=
q0

qq0
= r̂
4πε 0 r 2q0
r q
∴ E= 2
rˆ Vm-1 2.7
4πε 0 r

Eq.2.7 gives the expression of the electric field at a point a distance r from the electric
point charge q.

2.3.4 Electric Lines of Force

We use lines of force in order to visualize electric field patterns. Fig.2.4 shows the
pattern of the electric field due to (a) a positive point charge and (b) due to a negative
point charge.

Figure 2.4: Electric Lines of Force for Positive and Negative Charges

Electric lines of force radiate outwardly from a positive charge and radiate inwardly
onto a negative charge. An electric line of force can always be assumed to emanate
(originate) from a positive charge and terminate (end) on a negative charge.
The relationship between the lines of force and the electric field strength E is as
follows:

72
 r
• The tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of E at that point.
• The number of lines per unit cross sectional area is proportional to the magnitude of
r
E.

2.3.5 Electric Field Due to Isolated Point Charges

Consider a positive charge q a distance r from a point P, as shown in Fig.2.5.

Figure 2.5: Electric Field at a Point due to a Point Charge

The electric field at point P is given by

r q
EP = rˆ
4πε 0 r 2

2.3.6 The Electric Field Due to a Collection of Charges

Figure 2.5: A Collection of Point Charges

For a collection of point charges, such as those shown in Fig.2.6, the electric field
strength at point P is by superposition principle, the vector sum of the electric fields due
to the individual point charges.

73
 r r r r
E P = E1 + E2 + E3

r 1 ⎛ q1 q q ⎞
=> EP = ⎜ 2 rˆ1 + 22 rˆ2 + 23 rˆ3 ⎟
4πε 0 ⎜⎝ r1 r2 r3 ⎟⎠

In general, the electric field strength at a point due to a collection of point charges
r 1 N
q
E=
4πε 0
∑ r 2i rˆi 2.8
i =1 i

2.4 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

2.4.1 The Concept of Electric Potential Energy
Consider two positive charges q and a test charge q0 at infinite distance apart. At this
infinite separation, the repulsive force on q0 due q is negligibly small. If the test charge
q0 is brought closer to q the repulsive force increases as the separation is reduced. In
order to move q0 towards q without accelerating q0, the external agent must exert a
force on q0 which is equal but opposite to the repulsive Coulomb force on q0 due to q.
i.e. Fexternal = - FCoulomb
The total workdone U by the external agent in bringing q0 from infinity to a position a
distance r from q is called the electric potential energy and it is given by
qqo
U=
4πε o r

2.4.2 Electric Potential Energy of a System of Charges

Thus, for a system of three point charges, as shown in Fig.2.8,

Figure 2.7: A System of Three Point Charges

74
the electric potential energy of the system is
q q q q q q
U= 1 2 + 1 3 + 2 3
4ππo r 4ππo r 4ππo r
12 13 23

2.5 THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

The electric potential describes the amount of potential energy stored in each point of
an electric field. It is in effect the potential energy between a point charge q and an
imaginary positive charge of magnitude one coulomb a distance r from charge q.

Hence the electric potential at a point due to a point charge q is given by

q
V= 2.9
4πε o r

Eq.2.9 gives the electric potential due to a positive point charge q at a point P a distance
r from the point charge.

2.5.1 Electric Potential due to a Collection of Point Charges

The electric potential at any point P due to a collection of charges is calculated using
the following procedure:
• Calculate the electric potential Vi due to each point charge qi , and
• Add the contributions Vi
1 qi
i.e. V = ∑Vi = ∑r 2.10
i =1 4πε o i =1 i

Note that Eq.2.10 is scalar, it is simply an algebraic sum and not a vector sum.

2.5.2 Electric Potential Difference

The electric potential difference between two points B and A is the work done against
the electric field in taking unit positive charge from A to B .

75
 i.e. VAB = VB - VA
B
∴ V AB = − ∫ E .d x 2.11
A

2.6 CAPACITANCE
2.6.1 Introduction
In section 2.3 we discussed electrical energy. In this section we shall study capacitance
which is a concept that provides a practical means of storing electrical energy.

2.6.2 The Concept of Capacitance

When a finite isolated conductor is given a charge, it acquires an electric potential. A
positive charge raises the potential of the conductor whereas a negative charge lowers
it.

2.6.3 Definition of Capacitance

The capacitance of a conductor is defined as the amount of charge that must be placed
on the conductor to raise its electric potential by one volt.

Q
i.e. C= (farads) or (F) 2.12
V

The larger the capacitance of a conductor, the larger the amount of charge required to
raise the potential by one volt. If charge is continually added to a conductor, the
potential may be raised to such a level that a corona discharge may result.

2.6.4 Capacitance due to a Parallel Plate Capacitor

Technologically, this is the most important arrangement of charged conducting plates.

We consider a parallel - plate capacitor formed of two parallel conducting plates of area
A separated by a distance d, as shown in Fig.2.9.

76
 Figure 2.7: Parallel Plate Capacitor

If the separation distance d is small compared with the plate dimensions, the electric
field strength E between the plates may be considered to be uniform. In other words
neglecting fringing of the electric field at the edges, or in short neglect edge effects, the
electric field between the plates
σ q
E= = 2.13
ε o Aε o

The electric potential difference between the plates

higher
potential
V =− ∫ E.dl 2.14
lower
potential

The integration is carried out from the plate at lower potential to the plate at higher
potential in consistence with the definition of V .

Between the plates E and dl are in opposite directions, and so Eq.2.14 becomes
d
V = + ∫ Edl
0
qd
==> V= 2.15
Aε o

77
Thus, the capacitance of the configuration is
q Aε o
C= = 2.16
V d

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is proportional to its area and inversely
proportional to the spacing between the plates. Therefore, the capacitance C can be
increased as follows:
1. Reduce d. This is limited to about 10 µm and also the onset of electrical
breakdown.

2. Increase A: Size of the apparatus into which the capacitor is to be used limits A.
Interleaving increases A somewhat but not by several orders of
magnitude.

3. Use of dielectrics: A dielectric material is an insulator. The presence of a dielectric

between charged conducting plates is that the electric field between the plates is
reduced and consequently the electric potential is reduced. From the capacitance -
voltage relation, a decrease in V for the same charge Q implies an increase in C. The
electrical properties of the dielectric are expressed in a dielectric constant.
Aε oε r
Then C= 2.17
d
where εr is the dielectric constant of the material.

2.6.5 Applications
Capacitors are important in two main aspects:

1. Establishment of electrostatic fields for a variety of purposes;

e.g. X-Y deflection plates in the CRO, accelerating plates of the cyclotron or
electron synchrotrons, etc.

78
2. Energy storage.
Electric energy is stored in the electric field. Since capacitors can confine strong
fields and therefore confine energy to small volumes they have become important
devices technologically.

2.6.6 Capacitors in Parallel and in Series Configurations

When analyzing electric circuits it is often convenient to replace several capacitors
connected in a certain configuration by their equivalent capacitance.

2.6.7 The Parallel Connection

Consider a circuit consisting of two capacitors C1 and C2 connected to a battery of
potential V, as shown in Fig.2.10.

We assume that when the capacitors are fully charged, the charge in each capacitor is q1
and q2 respectively.

Figure 2.8: Capacitors in Parallel

Since for parallel connection, the potential difference across the capacitors is the same,
we have
q 1 = C 1V and q2 = C2V

79
so that the total charge extracted from the battery
q = q1 + q2 = ( C1 + C2 )V

Hence, the parallel equivalent capacitance for the two capacitors is

Ceq = C1 + C2 2.18

2.6.8 The Series Connection

We consider a circuit consisting of two capacitors C1 and C2 connected to a battery with

potential difference V, as shown in Fig.2.11.

Figure 2.9: Capacitors in Series

For a series connection, the charge in the capacitors is the same, so that the potential
difference across each capacitor is
V1 = q/C1 and V2 =q/C2

Now, the potential difference of the battery must equal the sum of the potential
differences across each capacitor
i.e. V = V1 + V2 = q/C1 + q/C2 = q(1/C1 + 1/C2 )

Hence, the equivalent capacitance for the series connection is

80
 1 1 1
= + 2.19
Ceq C1 C2

2.6.9 Energy Storage in an Electric Field

2.6.9.1 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
When a battery charges a capacitor, the battery does work as it transfers charge from
one plate to another.

Suppose at some instant during the charging process, a charge q' has already been
transferred from one plate to another. The potential difference between the plates

V' = q'/C

When a differential charge dq is further transferred, the change in the electric potential
energy of the charges is
q ′dq ′
dU = V'dq' =
C

The workdone in charging a capacitor from zero to Q is

Q
q′dq′ 1 Q 2
U=∫ = 2.20
0
C 2 C

Using the definition of capacitance, C = Q/V, the energy stored in a capacitor may be
expressed in terms of any two of the three quantities, Q, C and V:

1 Q2 1 1
U= = CV 2 = QV 2.21
2 C 2 2

81
2.6.9.2 The Electric Energy Density
We consider a charged parallel plate capacitor, charged with total energy U. Neglecting
edge effects, the electric field between the plates is uniform and can be expressed in
terms of the potential difference

E = V/d 2.22

From Eq. 2.22 we have

1 1 ⎛ Aε ⎞ 1
U = CV 2 = ⎜ o ⎟( Ed ) 2 = ε o E 2 ( Ad )
2 2⎝ d ⎠ 2
The factor (Ad) is the volume of the capacitor and corresponds to the volume occupied
by the electric field.

Hence, we define the electric energy density u in the space containing the electric field
U 1
u= = εo E 2 2.23
Ad 2

Eq.2.23 is valid generally. If E exists in space including vacuum, the amount of energy
per unit volume, stored in the space is given by Eq.2.23.

2.7 RC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

We now study electric circuits containing only capacitors and resistors as circuit
elements. However, we shall first review the basic laws in analysis of electric circuits.
These laws are referred to as Kirchhoff's laws.

82
2.7.1 Kirchhoff’s Laws
2.7.1.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
The algebraic sum of currents at any junction (also called a node or Branch point) in a
circuit is zero.

i.e. ∑ currents entering a junction = ∑ currents leaving the junction

This is basically a statement of conservation of charge.

2.7.1.2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of potential differences across any closed loop is zero.
i.e. ∑ potential drops = ∑ emfs

In theory a straight forward application of Kirchhoff's laws may be used to solve any
circuit; but in practice the method in this form is suitable only for simple circuits for
which the number of unknowns does not exceed three. Then one has to solve at most
three simultaneous equations.

For example, In Fig.2.12: E =10 V, R1 = 5k, R2 = 2k and R3 = 10k ohms, to find I1, I2
and I3.

Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law around loop a we have:

E = I1R1 + I2R2 (i)

Figure 2.10: An Illustration of the Application of Kirchhoff's Laws

83
Applying KVL around loop b we have:
0 = I3R3 - I2R2 (ii)

Applying Kirchhoff's current law to node c we have:

I1 = I2 + I3 (iii)

From (iii) Eq. (i) becomes

E = (I2 + I3) R1 + I2R2
E = I2 (R2+ R1) + I3 R1 (iv)

Solving (ii) and (iv) for I2 and I3 by Cramer’s rule, or by whatever other method you
would prefer, we have

0 R3
E R1 − ER3
I2 = =
− R2 R3 −( R1 R2 + R3( R1 + R2 ) )
( R1 + R2 ) R1

10 × 10 × 103
I2 = = 1.25 mA
5 × 2 × 106 + 10 ( 5 + 2 ) × 106

− R2 0
R1 + R2 E − ER2 20 × 103
I3 = =− = = 0.25 mA
−80 × 106 −80 × 106 80 × 106

Hence, from (iii) we have

I1 = I2 + I3 = 1.25 + 0.25 = 1.5 mA.

84
2.7.1.3 The Current Loop Method
In the analysis of complex circuits, for which the number of unknowns n > 3, the
straight forward application of Kirchhoff's laws becomes tedious since one has to solve
many simultaneous equations. Thus, the Current Loop Method (or the Mesh Current
Method or simply Loop Analysis) is preferred to a straight use of Kirchhoff's laws.

We illustrate the use of the Current Loop method to the circuit shown in Fig.2.13.

The procedure for use of the Current Loop method is as follows:

• Draw loop currents around any complete loop, the direction of current is arbitrary.
• Indicate the polarities of the potential drops across each resistance in accordance
with the chosen current direction, using the convention that the positive polarity of
an IR drop across a resistor is at the point where the current enters the
resistor .
• Apply KVL around each loop.

Following this procedure the circuit in Figure 2.12 takes the form shown in Fig.2.13.

Figure 2.11: An illustration of the Current Loop Method.

Whereas the straight use of Kirchhoffs laws, Fig.2.12, involved three unknowns,
namely I1, I2, and I3, the Current Loop method, Fig.2.13 has reduced the number of
unknowns to two, viz. Ia and Ib.

85
KVL applied to loop a:

E = I a ( R1 + R2 ) − Ib R2 (i)

KVL applied to loop b:

0= − I a R2 + Ib ( R2 + R3 ) (ii)

Solving for Ia and Ib we have:

Ia = 1.5 mA and Ib = 0.25 mA.

The currents in each resistor are obtained from Ia and Ib,

i.e. I1 =Ia = 1.5 mA, I2 = ( Ia - Ib ) = 1.5 - 0.25 = 1.25 mA and I3 = Ib = 0.25 mA.

We now consider a circuit consisting of a resistor R in series with a capacitor C, as

shown in Fig.2.14. The circuit can be used either for charging or discharging the
capacitor through the resistor R.

2.7.2 Charging and Discharging a Capacitor

We now study the behaviour of charge and current in a capacitor during charging and
discharging through a resistor. We consider the situation as shown in Fig.2.14.

During Charging the switch S is thrown to a:

Figure 2.12: Charging and Discharging a Capacitor through a Resistor R

Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law around the circuit, we obtain

86
 q
ε = VR + VC = iR + C 2.24

The charge is shown to be given by

q (t )= ε C(1−e −t / RC )
q(t )= Qo (1−e −t /τ ) 2.25

The charge in the capacitor grows with a capacitive time constant τ =RC.

The time constant τC sets the time scale of the RC circuit. The charge rises from
zero at t = 0 to 0.63Q0 at t = τ and approaches asymptotically the maximum charge Q0,
as shown in Fig.2.15(a).

Figure 2.13(a) Charge Growth in a Figure 2.13(b) Current Decay in a

Charging Capacitor Charging Capacitor

Differentiating Eq.2.37 with respect to t, we obtain the equation for the charging current
ε
i ( t )= e −t / RC = io e −t /τ 2.26
R

Thus the charging current decreases exponentially with a time constant τ = RC, as
shown in Figure 2.15(b).

During Discharging of the capacitor the switch S is disconnected at point a and thrown
at point b.

87
Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law around the circuit we have
q
VC + VR = 0 ==> + iR = 0 2.27
C

The charge can be shown to be given by

q = Qo e −t / RC 2.28

The charge on the capacitor decreases exponentially with time, as shown in Fig.2.16.

The current flowing during discharge

dq Q
i= = − 0 e −t / RC
dt RC

The current has a negative sign because on discharging the current direction is no
longer clockwise, as per Fig.2.15(a), as was the case during charging.

Figure 2.14: Charge Decay in a Discharging Figure 2.15: Current Decay in a Discharging
Capacitor Capacitor

Since Q0 = Cε then the above equation becomes

ε
i=− e −t / RC ==> i = −i0e −t / RC 2.29
R

88
Hence, like the charge on the capacitor, the discharge current decreases exponentially
with time, approaching zero from an initially large but negative current, as shown in
Fig.2.17.

You will observe that an RC circuit connected to a dc supply, sustains only a temporary
or transient current, which is initially large but decays exponentially to zero as the
capacitor charges up. The time scale of the charging current is governed by the
capacitive time constant RC.

EXERCISES

Coulomb’s Law
1. Determine the electrical force of attraction between two
balloons with separate charges of +3.5 × 10-8 C and -2.9 × 10-8
C when separated a distance of 0.65 m.

2. Determine the electrical force of attraction between two

balloons with opposite charges but the same quantity of charge
of 6.0 × 10-7 C when separated a distance of 0.50 m.

3. At what distance of separation must two 1.00-microCoulomb

charges be positioned in order for the repulsive force between
them to be equivalent to the weight of a 1.00-kg mass?

4. Two charged objects have a repulsive force of 0.080 N. If the

charge of both of the objects is doubled, then what is the new
force?

5. Two charged objects have a repulsive force of 0.080 N. If the

distance separating the objects is tripled, then what is the new
force?

89
6. Two charged objects have a repulsive force of 0.080 N. If the
charge of one of the objects is doubled, and the distance
separating the objects is doubled, then what is the new force?

7. Three charges are placed along the x -axis. Charge A is a +18

nC charge placed at the origin. Charge B is a -27 nC charge
placed at x = 60 cm location. Where along the axis must
positively-charged P = 10 nC be placed in order to be at
equilibrium?

Electric Field
8. Several electric field line patterns are shown in Fig.2.18 below.
Which of these patterns are incorrect? Explain what is wrong
with all incorrect diagrams.

Figure 2.18

9. The following unit is certainly not the standard unit for

expressing the quantity of electric field strength: kg • m / s2 /C.
However, it could be an acceptable unit for E. Use dimensional
analysis to identify whether the above set of units is an
acceptable unit for electric field strength.

10. A ball of mass m = 2 g is suspended by a string of length l = 20

cm as in Fig.2.19 in a constant electric field of E = 1000 N/C.
o
If the string makes an angle of = 15 with respect to the
vertical, what is the net charge on the ball?

90
 Fig. 2. 19

11. A constant electric field E = 2000 V/m exists in space. A 10 µC

charge of mass 20 g, initially at rest at x = - 1 m, is released.
What is its speed at x = 5 m?

Electric Circuits
12. Find the current through R4 in the circuit in Fig. 2.20 if V = 30
V, R1 = 12 , R2 = 18 , R3 = 9 , and R4 = 6 .

Figure 2.20

13. Find the power lost in the 50 resistor in the circuit in Figure
2.21.

91
 Figure 2.21 Figure 2.22

14. Find the currents through all three resistors in the circuit in Fig. 2.22.

92
 LECTURE THREE

ELECTROMAGNETISM

3.1 THE MAGNETIC FIELD

3.1.1 Introduction
Iron fillings sprinkled loosely onto a sheet of paper, under which there is a bar magnet,
will form themselves into a regular pattern.

A similar pattern is obtained when the bar magnet is replaced by a loop of wire carrying
a direct current, provided that the plane of the loop is at right angles to the axis of the
magnet.

The space around a permanent magnet or a current-carrying conductor is described to

be the location of a magnetic field. The magnitude and the direction of the magnetic
field are indicated by the vector B.

There is not general agreement on the naming of field vectors in magnetism. B may be
called the magnetic induction or magnetic flux density, while another field vector
denoted by H, is called the magnetic field intensity.

Generally, B is regarded to be more fundamental than H and hence B is called the

magnetic field. In this course, the vector field B shall be called the magnetic field.

Unlike the electric field E whose origin is the electric charge, the magnetic field does
not originate from magnetic charges which are also called magnetic monopoles, (these
do not exist) instead B originates from moving electric charges.

93
A moving electric point charge or an electric current sets up a magnetic field, which in
turn can exert a magnetic force on other moving electric point charges or currents.

OBJECTIVES

When you have completed the lecture you should be able to:
(i) Describe Magnetic Field Lines
(ii) State the Magnetic Force on a Moving Electric Point Charge
(iii) Define the Magnetic Field
(iv) Compute the Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Conductor
(v) State Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
(vi) Define Self Inductance and Mutual Inductance
(vii) Compute the self inductance due to inductors in series and in
parallel
(viii) Manipulate RL Electric Circuits
(ix) Compute the Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field

3.1.2 Magnetic Field Lines

The magnetic field B is represented pictorially by magnetic field lines drawn in a such
a manner that
• the tangent to any line gives the direction of B at that point;
• the number of lines (also called magnetic flux) crossing any particular area at right
angles gives a measure of the magnitude of B; and
• magnetic field lines are closed or in other words continuous, they have no
beginning and no end .

Figure 3.1 shows the magnetic field lines due to a permanent bar magnet. Lines are
outwards at the north (seeking) pole and are inwards at the south (seeking) pole.

94
 Figure 3.1: The Magnetic Field Lines of a Bar Magnet

3.1.3 Magnetic Force on a Moving Electric Charge

This is the principle manifestation of the presence of the magnetic field at any point in
space.

An electric point charge q moving in a magnetic field B as shown in Fig.3.2, xperiences

a sideways deflecting force whose magnitude depends on:
• the magnitude of the charge q,
• the velocity of the point charge v,
• the magnetic field B, and
• the angle between B and v.

Figure 3.2: A Positively Charged Particle Moving in a Magnetic Field

The direction of the force is perpendicular to both v and B. In vector form, the force is
the cross product between the two vectors:
F = q v∧B 3.1

95
Thus, the direction of the magnetic force on a moving electric charge is in accordance
with the right hand screw rule, that a screw which is rotated in the direction from v to
B advances in the direction of the force F acting on a positive electric point charge.

Eq.3.1 also serves as the definition of the magnetic field B.

3.1.4 Definition of the Magnetic Field

The Magnetic Field at a point is defined as the vector field B which exerts a force F,
F = q v∧B, on a charged particle q moving with velocity v through that point.

Units
The SI unit of B is the Tesla, abbreviated T.

3.1.5 Work Done in a Magnetic Field

Consider an electric point charge moving in a magnetic field B. In moving the electric
point charge over an element of path dl the work done
dW = F.dl 3.2

Since F is always perpendicular to the direction of motion, then F and dl are always
perpendicular. Hence
dW = Fdlcos90 = 0.

Thus, under magnetostatic conditions, i.e. non-time varying magnetic field, the work
done on a charged particle is zero. In other words, the magnetic field does not change
the kinetic energy of a charged particle.

3.1.7 The Lorentz Force

If in the space an electric point charge is moving both an electric field E and a
magnetic field B are present, then the total force acting upon the electric point charge is

96
the sum of the force due to the electric field and the force due to the magnetic field.
Hence,

F = qE + qv∧B 3.3
This force is called the Lorentz force.

One common application of the Lorentz force occurs when a beam of charged particles
passes through a region in which the electric field E and the magnetic field B are
perpendicular to each other and to the velocity of the particles. If E, B and v are
oriented as shown in Fig.3.3, then the electric force is in the opposite direction to that of
the magnetic force. It is possible to adjust the electric and magnetic fields such that the
two forces cancel each other out, in which case the Lorentz force is zero. So that

E
qE = qvB => v= .
B

Figure 3.3: A Positively Charged Particle Moving through a Region in which E and
B are Crossed.

The crossed fields E and B therefore serve as a velocity selector; only particles with
speed v =E/B pass through the region undeflected by the two fields while particles with
other velocities are deflected. A mass spectrometer, a device that separates ions by
mass, uses the principle of the velocity selection.

97
3.1.8 Magnetic Force on a Conductor Carrying a Current
As a consequence of the magnetic force on moving electric charged particles, a straight
wire of length l carrying a current I placed in a magnetic field B, experiences a
sideways force
F = I l∧B 3.4
where l is the displacement vector whose direction is the same as that of the current I.

When the conducting wire is non-linear, i.e. not straight, or the magnetic field is not
uniform, we divide the wire into small segments each of length say dl such that over the
length of each segment, the conditions of linearity of the conductor and uniformity of
the magnetic field are fulfilled, then the magnetic force on a differential element of the
conductor of length dl becomes
dF = I dl∧B 3.5

The total force on a segment of length L is then obtained by a suitable integration over
the length L.

Technological Applications
The magnetic force on a moving charge, current carrying conductor is the basis for
mass spectrometry, electric motors, speakers, etc.

3.2 THE FARADAY LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

3.2.1 The Electromotive Force
The electromotive force (emf) is the force that keeps charges in motion in a circuit.
Strictly speaking the emf is not a force measured in Newtons it is measured in volts
instead.

The e.m.f. may be localized in a part of the circuit, as is the case in batteries or may
extend round the whole circuit, as is the case with electromagnetically induced emfs.

98
For localized emfs, the emf is equal to the open circuit potential difference between the
source terminals.

3.2.2 Statement of The Faraday Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Consider a closed conducting path placed in a magnetic field in such a way that the
lines of the magnetic field thread the conducting path, as shown in Fig.3.4. If the
magnetic flux through the surface bounded by the closed path varies with time, an
electromotive force is induced in the closed conducting path.

Figure 3.4: A Conducting Path Placed in a Magnetic Field

The Faraday Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that:

In any time varying magnetic field, the electromotive force induced in any closed circuit
is equal to the negative of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux over the surface
bounded by the circuit.
dφ B
i.e. ε =− 3.6
dt

The change in the magnetic flux linking the closed circuit may be brought about by
• a time rate of change in the current producing B and hence the flux , or
• relative motion between the flux and the closed path.

99
Induced emf. due to variation in the magnetic flux is called Changing Field or
Transformer Induced emf. Induced emf due to relative motion is called Motional
emf.

In Eq.3.6, the negative sign is due to Lenz's law and relates to the sense of the induced
emf in the circuit.

Lenz's Law
The sense of the induced current is such that its contribution to the magnetic field
opposes the change in magnetic flux which produces the induced current.

3.3 INDUCTANCE AND RL ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

3.3.1 Introduction
Having studied Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, we now investigate the
behaviour of simple circuit elements in circuits with currents that change. An induced
emf can appear in a circuit element called an inductor, and the circuit is then said to
contain self inductance or simply inductance.

We shall also study an important principle of electromagnetism, that energy is

associated with or stored in a magnetic field.

3.3.2 Self Inductance

Consider a single loop carrying a current i as shown in Figure 3.5.

100
 Figure 3.5: Magnetic Field due to a Current Loop

In the absence of magnetic materials, the magnetic field at any point due to the current
loop is proportional to the current in the circuit. For example, at the centre of the loop
µoi
B = 2R where R is the radius of the loop.

Since the magnetic flux through the circuit φ B = BxArea , it follows therefore that, the
magnetic flux through the circuit is also proportional to the current i.

3.3.2.1 Definition of Self Inductance

The Self Inductance L of a circuit of a given shape is defined as the ratio of the
magnetic flux through the circuit to the current in the circuit, so that

φi = Li 3.7
L is a constant for a circuit of given shape and size.

When the circuit is a coil consisting of several turns, say N turns, it is assumed that the
magnetic flux has the same value for each of the N turns of the coil. The product Nφ is
known as the number of flux linkages of the coil. For such a coil, Eq.3.7 becomes
Nφi = Li.

101
Units of Inductance
φi
From Eq.3.7, we have L = Wb/A or H (Henry).
i

The Henry is a fairly large unit, in practical circuit elements, values of inductance of
coils are typically in the range 1 µH to 1 mH.

3.3.2.2 Circuit Application

If the current i in the rigid circuit changes with time, then φi will also change with time
and so an emf will be induced in the circuit.
dφ di
ε L = − dt = − L dt 3.8

The negative sign which is due to Lenz's law, indicates that when the current increases,
the self-induced emf is negative. Thus, the induced emf is opposed to the change in the
current, hence gives rise to a reactance.

When a device is constructed to embody self inductance, it is known as an inductor

and has the symbol in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig.3.6a which resembles the shape
of a solenoid. When the inductor is variable the symbol is crossed as shown in
Fig.3.6b, and when it has a ferromagnetic core it has parallel lines adjacent to it as
shown in Fig.3.6c.

Figure 3.6a: A circuit symbol of an Inductor

Figure 3.6b: A circuit symbol of a Variable Inductor

Figure 3.6c: A circuit symbol of an Inductor with a Ferromagnetic Core

102
Since the magnitude of the self induced emf εL increases with di/dt, which is the
frequency of the time varying current, the reactance due to an inductor increases with
the frequency of the current.

In electric motors, the self induced emf is called back-emf.

3.3.3 Inductors with Magnetic Materials

When a magnetic field B0 acts on a magnetic substance, the total field B can be written
as
B = µr B 0
Where µr is the relative permeability of the material. Since the applied field already
includes the permeability of the vacuum µ0, we can account for the effect of the
magnetic material by replacing µ0 with the quantity µrµ0 , so that the inductance L with
the magnetic material present can be written as

L = µrL0 3.9
where L0 is the inductance of the empty inductor. As discussed earlier, the permeability
constants of diamagnets and paramagnets are not substantially different from unity, so
that only ferromagnetic cores provide the means to obtain large inductances.

3.3.4 Mutual Inductance

We consider two circuits as shown in Fig.3.7

Figure 3.7: Magnetic Flux Due to Current i1 Linking Circuit 2

103
When current i1 flows in circuit 1, the magnetic flux linking circuit 2 is proportional to
i1
i.e. φ2 = M12i1 3.10

where M12 is a constant of proportionality for the pair of circuits in their specified
positions. The constant M12 is known as the mutual inductance of the two circuits.

Similarly, if current i2 circulates in circuit 2, a magnetic flux φ1 is produced in circuit 1,

where
φ 1= M21i2 3.11

The mutual inductances M12 and M21 are equal. Units of M are Henrys.

If the current i1 changes the flux φ2 will also change, and so the emf induced in 2 is
given by
di
ε 2 = − M12 dt1 3.12

Similarly, if i2 changes an emf is induced in circuit 1

di
ε1 = − M21 dt2 3.13

In circumstances where the circuits are in relative motion, the mutual inductance
changes so that an additional emf is induced. The total emf induced is then given by
d
ε M = − dt ( Mi) 3.14

The fact that a variation of the magnetic field in circuit 1 induces an emf in circuit 2
implies that energy is exchanged between the two circuits. That is energy is exchanged
via the electromagnetic field.

104
3.3.5 Combination of Self Inductances
3.3.5.1 Self Inductances in Series
We consider three inductors connected as shown in Fig.3.8.

Figure 3.8: Self Inductances in Series

If the interaction between the coils through mutual inductance is neglected, then the
induced emf across the three isolated inductances will be
di di di di
ε = − L1 dt − L2 dt − L3 dt =- ( L1 + L2 + L3) dt

di
∴ ε = − L dt
where L = L1 + L2 + L3.

Hence inductors in series have an equivalent inductance equal to the sum of the
separate inductances provided there is no mutual inductance between one and
another.

3.3.5.2 Self Inductances in Parallel

We consider two inductors connected as shown in Fig.3.9. Neglecting interaction
through mutual inductance, the induced emf in each inductor is as follows
di di
Coil 1 : ε1 = − L1 dt1 and Coil 2: ε 2 = − L2 dt2

105
 Figure 3.9: Self Inductances in Parallel

Since for parallel arrangement ε 1 = ε 2 = ε and i = i1 + i2 , hence

di di1 di2 ⎛⎜ ε ε ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 1 1 ⎞⎟
= + = − + =− L + L ε
dt dt dt ⎝ L1 L2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 2⎠

The equivalent inductance of the parallel arrangement is therefore

1 1 1
L = L1 + L2

3.3.6 LR Circuits
3.3.6.1 Current Growth and Decay in an LR Circuit
We now consider a circuit containing a resistor R and an inductor L connected in series
as shown in Fig.3.10.

During current growth, the switch S is closed at position 1.

Applying Kirchhoff's voltage around the circuit, we obtain
di
ε = VR +VL = iR + L dt 3.15

where i is the current flowing in the circuit .

106
 Figure 3.10: An LR Circuit

The current growth equation can be shown to be given by

⎛ −Rt⎞
i ( t ) = i0⎜1−e L ⎟ 3.16
⎝ ⎠
L
We introduce a characteristic time constant τL = R called an inductive time

constant so that Eq.3.23 becomes

⎛ − t ⎞
i ( t ) = i0⎜1−e τ L ⎟ 3.17
⎝ ⎠
This is the current growth equation in an LR circuit.
As observed in the case of RC circuits, the time constant τL sets the time scale of the
LR circuit. The current rises from zero at t = 0 to 0.63i0 at t = τL and approaches
asymptotically the steady value i0. These features of the time dependence of the current
in an LR circuit are shown in Fig.3.11.

Figure 3.12: Decay of Current in an LR

Figure3.11: Growth of Current in an LR Circuit Circuit

107
3.3.6.2 Current Decay in an LR Circuit
During current decay, the switch is closed at position 2 when the current in the circuit
has reached the steady current value i0, the equation that governs the subsequent decay
of the current is obtain by applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the circuit:
di
L dt + Ri = 0
di R
=> = − dt 3.18
i L

With the initial condition i = i0 at t = 0, the solution of Eq.3.18 is

R
− Lt
i = i0e 3.19

Eq.3.19 is the current decay equation in an LR circuit.

The decay of the current is shown schematically in Fig.3.12.

It will be noted that the decay of the current occurs with the same time constant
L
τL = as was the growth of the current, Fig.3.11.
R

You will observe that unlike an RC circuit, an LR circuit sustains a current when
connected to a dc supply. However, the current builds up at a rate governed by the time
constant L/R. A large time constant implies a slow build up.

3.3.7 Energy Storage in a Magnetic Field

3.3.7.1 The Basic Relation
We consider the energy stored in a circuit containing self-inductance L and a resistor R
such as the circuit shown in Fig.3.10.

108
During the current growth, the rate at which energy is being transferred from the source
of emf to the rest of the circuit at any instant is the product iε.

From Eq.3.15, we have

di
iε = i 2 R + iL dt 3.20

In Eq.3.20, the first term on the right hand side is recognizable as the energy dissipated
in the resistor. Now since Eq.3.20 represents a statement of conservation of energy, it
follows therefore that the second term represents the rate of energy storage in the
magnetic field of the inductor.

Let UB represent the energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor. Then the rate at
which energy is stored is from Eq.3.20
dU B di
dt = iL dt
or dUB = i Ldi

The total energy stored in the magnetic field as the current grows from zero to a final
value i becomes
UB i
∫ dU B = ∫ Lidi
0 0
1
∴ U B = 2 Li 2 3.21

This is the energy that dissipates in the resistor R when the switch in Fig.3.10 is thrown
from position 1 to 2 after a current i has been established.

Eq.3.21 is to be compared with Eq.2.21 for the energy stored in a charged capacitor

1 q2
UE =
2 C

109
3.3.8 The Alternating Current
By Faraday law of electromagnetic induction, the emf induced in a coil of N turns, area
A, rotating with an angular frequency ω in a uniform magnetic field B is given by

ε = NABω sin ω t
or ε = ε 0 sin ω t 3. 22
where ε 0 = NABω .

Since the emf develops a voltage across the circuit, Eq.3.22 may be written as
v= V0 sin ω t 3.23

Eq.3.23 describes a sinusoidal voltage. The constant V0 is called the peak value of the
voltage also the amplitude of the sinusoidal waveform.

A sinusoidal waveform is completely described by its frequency, amplitude, and the

phase angle.

Definitions
Frequency: If T is the period, the time interval required for one cycle, then the
1 −1
frequency f = s or Hertz (Hz).
T

Amplitude v0 or i0: The maximum magnitude of the voltage or current.

∧
Phase φ: The angle between the unit normal to the plane of the coil n and the magnetic
field B at t = 0; (i.e. the phase angle sets the starting point of the rotating coil).

Phase Difference: Two sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency are said to be out
of phase when they have different starting points. The phase difference
cannot exceed 90° or π/2 radians.

110
Average Value: A sinusoidal voltage with period T has an average value

1T
v ave = ∫ v(t )dt 3.24
T0

Root Mean Square (RMS) Value: A sinusoidal voltage with period T has an r.m.s (or
effective) value

1T
v r ms = ∫
T0
v(t ) 2 dt 3.25

From Eq.3.23 we have

1T 1 2T 1
v r ms = ∫ v(t ) 2 dt = V ∫ ( 1− cos 2ω t ) dt
T0 T 0 02

∴v r ms = V0 / 2 3.26

Because the integral of the cosine function over a complete cycle is zero.

Similarly the rms value of a sinusoidal current

ir ms = I 0 / 2 3.27

It should be noted that ac meters measure rms values.

Power: The electrical power is the product of impressed voltage and the resulting
current
P(t) = v(t) ×i(t).

This is instantaneous and therefore fluctuates with time. The average power is
P =v r ms i r ms

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Energy: Power is the time rate of energy transfer

dW
i.e. P=
dt

So the energy transferred during the time interval t1 to t2 is

t 2

W= ∫ Pdt
t1

Questions: 1. The power rating of an element used in ac circuits refers to the element's
average power rating. What is the maximum instantaneous power to a 60-W light bulb?

2. The average current in the power line to your house is zero. Despite this fact, electric
power is delivered to your house. Explain.

Example: A resistance R = 25 Ω is connected to a sinusoidal source of voltage

v = 150sinωt. Determine the (a) the current i (b) the rms current
(c) the instantaneous power and (d) the average power.

Solution: (a) i = 6sinω t (b) irms = 6/√ 2 = 4.24 A.

(c) instantaneous power p = 6sinω t × 150sinω t = 900sinω t watts.
(d) the average power pave = irms × vrms = 4.24 × 106.07 = 449.7 watts.

EXERCISES

Magnetic Force
1. What is the net force (magnitude and direction) on the electron
moving in the magnetic field in Fig.3.15 if B = 2 T, v = 4 x 104
m/s, and = 30 o ?

112
 Figure 3.13
3. Consider the mass spectrometer in Fig.3.14. The electric field
between the plates of the velocity selector is E = 950 V/m, and the
magnetic field B in both the velocity selector and in the deflection
chamber has a magnitude of 0.9 T. Find the radius r for a singly
charged ion of mass m = 2.18 x 10- 26
kg in the deflection
chamber.

Figure 3.14
4. Determine the magnetic force on an electron with velocity
components vx = 4.4 x 106 m/s, vy= -3.2 x106 m/s, vz =0 at a point
where the magnetic field has components Bx = 0, By =-12 mT
and Bz = 12 mT.
5. An electric field of 1.5 kV/m and a magnetic field of 0.44 T act on
a moving electron to produce no force. Calculate the minimum
electron speed v.

113
6. An α - particle travels in a circular path of radius 4.5 cm in a
magnetic field with B = 1.2 T. Calculate (a) its speed, (b) its
period of revolution, (c) its kinetic energy in eV and (d) the
potential difference through which it would have to be
accelerated to achieve this energy.

Faraday’s Law
7. A small loop of area A is inside, and has its axis in the same
direction as, a long solenoid of n turns per unit length and current
i. If i = io sin wt, find the emf in the loop, given that the magnetic
field inside a solenoid is given by B = µ0ni.

8. A uniform magnetic field B is perpendicular to the plane of a

circular wire loop of radius r. The magnitude of the field varies
− t τ
with time according B = B 0 e , where Bo and τ are
constants. Find the emf in the loop as a function of time.

9. The magnetic flux through a loop of resistance R increases

according to the relation
Φ B ( t ) = 6.0t 2 + 7.0t ,

where ΦB is in milliwebers and t is in seconds. What is the

magnitude of the emf induced in the loop when t = 2.0 s?

114
Inductance
10. Two inductors L1 and L2 are connected in series and are
separated by a large distance. (a) Show that the equivalent
inductance is given by Leq = L1 + L2 .

(b) Why must their separation be large for this relationship to

hold? (c) What is the generalization of (a) for N inductors in
series?

11. Two inductors L1 and L2 are connected in parallel and separated

by a large distance.
(a) Show that the equivalent inductance is given by
1 1 1
= +
Leq L1 L2

(b) Why must their separation be large for this relation to be

valid.

RL Circuits
12. The current in an RL circuit builds up to 1/3 of its steady state
value in 5 .0 s. Calculate the inductive time constant.

13. The current in an RL circuit drops from 1.0 A to 10 mA in 1 s

following removal of the battery from the circuit. If L = 10 H,
find the resistance R in the circuit.

Energy Storage
14. The magnetic energy stored in a certain inductor is 25 mJ when
the current is 60.0 mA. (a) Calculate the inductance. (b) What
current is required for the magnetic energy to be four times as
much?

115
15. A coil with inductance L= 2.0 H and a resistance R = 10 Ω is
suddenly connected to a resistanceless battery with ε = 100 V.
(a) What is the equilibrium current? (b) How much energy is
stored in the magnetic field when this current exists in the
circuit?

16. A coil is connected in series with a resistance R = 10.k. When a

50 V battery is applied to the circuit the current reaches a value
of 2.00 mA after 5 mS. (a) Find the inductance of the coil. (b)
How much energy is stored in the coil when the current is 2
mA.

116
 LECTURE FOUR

OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

4.1 OSCILLATIONS
4.1.1 Introduction
In Lecture One, we studied the most common types of motion, namely One
Dimensional and Rotational motions. We have developed the concepts of work, energy
and momentum for these types of motion. In this Lecture we are going to study
oscillations. Unlike the other types of motion we have studied so far, oscillations
generally do not have constant acceleration, are many times chaotic, and require far
more advanced mathematics to handle. As such, we are going to concentrate on the
most basic kinds of oscillations which are naturally easier to examine.

Practically everyday one encounters many kinds of oscillatory motion. Common

examples include children playing on a swing, vibration of a guitar string, low and high
tides by the sea shore, etc. Examples on a microscopic scale include the vibration of air
molecules that transmit sound waves and the oscillation of atoms in a quartz crystal of
an electronic watch. The examples mentioned so far are mechanical oscillations.
Examples of electrical oscillations range from simple oscillator circuits comprising a
capacitor and an inductor to complex circuits to be found in transmitters and receivers
of electromagnetic waves.

One common feature of all these systems is the mathematical formulations used to
describe their oscillations. In all cases, the oscillating quantity can be described in terms
of sine or cosine functions.

In this lecture we shall study simple harmonic motion which is the most fundamental
vibration of a single particle or a one - dimensional system. Many problems involving

117
mechanical vibrations at small amplitudes reduce to that of the simple harmonic
oscillator or to a combination of such oscillators.

OBJECTIVES

When you have completed this lecture you should be able to:
(i) Define an oscillation;
(ii) Describe the variables of an oscillation;
(iii) Derive the simple harmonic equation;
(iv) Describe the characteristics of simple harmonic motion;
(v) Compute the energy of a simple harmonic motion;
(vi) Apply the physics of oscillation to the simple and compound
pendulums.

4.1.2 Definition of an Oscillating System

An oscillating system is a system in which a particle or set of particles moves back
and forth, always returning to its initial position after a certain period of time. It can be
a ball bouncing on a floor, or a pendulum swinging back and forth, or a spring
compressing and stretching. This kind of motion, is called periodic motion and it is
encountered in all branches of physics.

We can also define an oscillating system a little more precisely, in terms of the forces
acting on a particle in the system. In every oscillating system there is an equilibrium
point at which no net force acts on the particle. A pendulum, for example, has its
equilibrium position when it is hanging vertical, and the gravitational force is
counteracted by the tension. If displaced from this point, however, the pendulum will
experience a gravitational force that causes it to return to the equilibrium position. No
matter which way the pendulum is displaced from equilibrium, it will experience a
force returning it to the equilibrium point. If we denote our equilibrium point as x = 0,
we can generalize this principle for any oscillating system: In an oscillating system, the

118
force always acts in a direction opposite to the displacement of the particle from the
equilibrium point.

This force, called a restoring force, can be constant or it can vary with time or position.

4.1.3 Variables of an Oscillation

In an oscillating system, the traditional variables displacement x, velocity v, time t, and
acceleration a still apply to the motion, but we introduce two new variables that
describe the periodic nature of the motion, namely the amplitude A, the period T, and
the frequency f or ν.

Amplitude
A simple oscillator generally goes back and forth between two extreme points; the
points of maximum displacement from the equilibrium point. This point of maximum
displacement denoted by either xm or A is defined as the amplitude of the oscillation.

Period and Frequency

In simple oscillations, a particle completes a round trip in a certain period of time. This
time, T, which denotes the time it takes for an oscillating particle to return to its initial
position, is called the period of oscillation.

We also define another variable related to time called the frequency. Frequency,
denoted by ν or f is defined as the number of cycles per unit time and is related to
period by the equation
ν = 1/T
The Period is measured in seconds, while frequency is measured in Hertz (or Hz),
where
1 Hz = 1cycle/second. The variable angular frequency denoted by ω defines the
number of radians per second in an oscillating system. This concept of angular
frequency it may seem to be confusing because most oscillations don't engage in

119
circular motion and thereby sweep out radians like in rotational motion. However,
oscillating systems do complete cycles, and if we think of each cycle as containing 2π
radians, then we can define angular frequency.

The three variables dealing with the cycle of an oscillation are related by the equation
2π
ω = 2πν =
T
Equipped with these variables, we now look at the special case of the simple harmonic
oscillator.

4.1.4 The Basic Simple Harmonic Equation

Simple harmonic motion (SHM) results when a particle which is displaced a small
distance x from its equilibrium position experiences a restoring force which is
proportional to x.
The restoring force
F = - kx 4.1
where k is a constant of proportionality and is generally called the force constant or
stiffness and has the dimensions of force per unit length. The negative sign shows that
F acts against the direction of increasing displacement.

By Newton’s second law, we have the equation of motion of the simple harmonic
oscillator
d2x
m = − kx
dt 2

d2x k
==> 2
+ x=0 4.2
dt m

The dimensions of k/m are

[ MLT −2 ] ≡ T −2
[ M ][ L]

120
And so we let ω 2 = k / m , where ω is the angular frequency with which the particle
oscillates.

TAKE NOTE

The frequency of oscillation is determined by the elastic and inertial

properties of the system.

In terms of ω Eq. 4.2 becomes

d2x
2 +ω2x = 0 4.3
dt

Eq.4.3 is called the equation of motion of a simple harmonic oscillator.

Let us interpret this equation. The second derivative of a function of x plus the function
itself (times a constant) is equal to zero. Thus the second derivative of our function
must have the same form as the function itself. What readily comes to mind is the sine
and cosine function. Let us come up with a trial solution to our differential equation,
and see if it works.

As a tentative solution, we write:

x = Acos(ωt) 4.4

where A is a constant. Differentiating this equation, we see that

dx
= − Aω sin ( ω t )
dt
and differentiating again we have
d2x
2
= − Aω 2 cos ω t
dt
Plugging this into Eq.4.3, we have
− Aω 2 cos ω t + ω 2 Acos ω t = 0

121
Eq.4.3 is indeed satisfied. Thus the equation governing simple harmonic oscillation is:

x = Acos(ωt) 4.5

Eq. 4.5 is rather too simple in the sense that it lacks a phase constant which sets how
the simple harmonic motion is initiated. Hence, we add the phase constant φ to make
the equation complete.

x = Acos(ωt+φ) 4.6
where the constant A is the amplitude.

Give some examples of motions that are approximately simple

? harmonic. Why are motions that are exactly simple harmonic rare?

What would happen to the motion of an oscillating system if the

sign of the force term -kx were changed?

4.1.5 Characteristics of SHM

In Eq.4.6, the constants A and φ are determined by the initial conditions, that is by the
initial position and speed. Once the motion has started, the object will continue to
oscillate with constant amplitude and phase at a fixed frequency.

Velocity and Acceleration

Another distinctive feature of SHM is the relation between the displacement, the
velocity and the acceleration of the oscillating object.

The velocity and acceleration of an object executing SHM are determined from Eq.4.6
as follows:
dx
vx = = − Aω sin(ω t + φ ) 4.7
dt
and

122
 d2x
a x = 2 = − Aω 2 cos(ω t + φ ) 4.8
dt

The variations with time of the displacement, velocity and acceleration in SHM for the
phase constant zero are shown in Fig.4.1

TAKE NOTE

You will observe that the velocity is a maximum in the positive direction
when the displacement is zero and is zero at the maximum displacement;
in other words, the velocity, Eq.4.7, leads the displacement, Eq.4.6, by
a phase angle of π/2. Similarly, the acceleration leads the velocity by a
phase angle of π/2 and finally the acceleration leads the displacement by
a phase angle of π.

Figure 4.1: Variations with Time of the Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration in Simple Harmonic Motion

123
 What changes could you make in a harmonic oscillator that would
?
double the maximum speed of the oscillating object?

4.1.6 Energy of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator

The simple harmonic oscillator is a conservative system. The kinetic energy of the
system at any given time is given by

1 1
mv 2 = m ( −ω sin ( ω t + φ ) )
2
K=
2 2
1
=> K = kA2 sin2 ( ω t + φ )
2

Since the velocity of the oscillator does change, going from zero to a maximum value,
there must be an expression for the potential energy of the system, such that the total
energy of the system is constant.

The kinetic energy has a maximum value when the potential energy is zero and
sin(ωt+φ) = 1, so that
1 2
K max = kA
2
Since the potential energy is zero at this point, this value must give the total energy of
the system. Thus, at any time, we can state that:

E=U+K
1 2 1
kA = U + A2 k sin2 ( ω t + φ )
2 2

Solving for U we have

U=
1 2
2
(
kA 1 − sin2 ( ω t + φ ) )
Recall that sin2a + cos2a = 1, so that we have

124
 1 2
U= kA cos 2 ( ω t + φ )
2

1
=> U = kx 2
2

The potential energy U is largest when the displacement is at its maximum value x = A
and zero at the equilibrium position, while the kinetic energy is maximum at the
equilibrium position and zero when the displacement is at its maximum value.

Example
An object executes SHM with an amplitude of 0.17 m and a period of 0.84 s.
(a)Determine (i) the frequency and (ii) the angular frequency; (b) Write expressions
for the time dependence of (i) coordinate, (ii) the velocity component and (iii) the
acceleration component.

Solution:
(a) (i) the frequency v = 1/T = 1/0.84 s = 1.2 Hz.
(ii) the angular frequency ω = 2π?T = 2π/(0.84 s) = 7.5 rad/s

(b) Since the problem is silent regarding the phase constant, we set φ = 0. So that
(i) x = 0.17cos7.5t
(ii) vx = -1.3sin7.5t
and (iii) ax =-ω 2Acos(ωt + φ ) = - 9.5 cos 7.5t

Example
A particle oscillates simple harmonically with amplitude 4 cm and a frequency of 5 Hz.
At time t = 0, the particle is at its equilibrium position. Write down the equation
describing the position of the particle as a function of time.

125
Solution:
The equation of motion is Eq.1.6, where the amplitude A = 4 cm; the angular frequency
ω = 2πν = 2π x 5 = 10π rad/s; the phase constant: at t = 0, x = 0 => 0 = 4cosφ
→ φ = ±π/2. So that the equation of motion becomes x = 4cos(10πt ± π/2).

4.1.6 Applications of Simple Harmonic Motion

We shall now analyse a few systems that oscillate simple harmonically.

4.1.6.1 The Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum is an idealized system consisting of a massless inextensible string,
fixed rigidly at one end having a point mass at the other, as shown in Fig.4.2.

We consider a point mass m attached to a string of length L. Let at some instant the
angle subtended by the string with the vertical be θ. The forces acting on the particle
are the weight mg and the tension on the cord T. The motion will be along an arc of a
circle of radius L.

We choose axes tangent to the circle and along the radius, ie.radially.

Resolving the forces radially, we have T = mgcosθ

Resolving tangentially, we have the unbalanced tangential component of the weight,

mgsinθ , directed towards the equilibrium position, a direction opposite to that of
increasing θ.

126
 Figure 4.2: A Simple Pendulum

Therefore, the tangential component constitutes the restoring force F.

F = −mg sin θ
TAKE NOTE

You will notice that the restoring force is not proportional to θ, the angular
displacement, and hence the oscillation is not necessarily simple harmonic.

The displacement along the arc is Lθ and for small angles this is nearly straight-line
motion. Hence, assuming

sinθ ≈ θ and x = Lθ
we obtain
x ⎛ mg ⎞
F = −mg sin θ = −mgθ = −mg = −⎜ ⎟x
L ⎝ L⎠

The force is now proportional to the displacement and is oppositely directed. Such a
force fulfills the criterion for simple harmonic motion.

By Newton’s second law we obtain the equation of motion of the simple harmonic
oscillator

127
 x
ma x + mg =0
L
g
==> ax + x=0 4.9
L

For which the angular frequency of the system ω = g/ L ;

1 g
the frequency v=
2π L
L
and so the period T =2π .
g

TAKE NOTE

When the amplitude of the oscillation is not small, the assumption sinθ ≈ θ
ceases to be valid and so the force becomes no longer proportional to the
displacement; and hence, the motion of the oscillator is no longer simple
harmonic.

Could we ever construct a true simple pendulum? Explain your answer.

? Predict by qualitative arguments whether a pendulum oscillating with a
large amplitude will have a period longer or shorter than the period for
oscillations with small amplitude.

Example
An astronaut on the surface of the moon sets up a simple pendulum of length 860 mm
and measures its period for small oscillations to be 4.6 s. Determine the acceleration
due to gravity at the location of the astronaut.

Solution:
Since for the simple pendulum, the period

128
 L 4π 2 L
T =2π => g = =16
. m/s
g T2

4.1.6.2 The Compound Pendulum (or The Physical Pendulum)

A compound pendulum is a rigid body, of any shape, pivoted to rotate about a fixed
horizontal axis, such as shown in Fig.4.3. This is in fact a generalization of the simple
pendulum in which a ‘weightless’ chord holds a single particle.

Figure 4.3: The Compound Pendulum

The period of a compound pendulum is given by

I
T =2π 4.15
mgL

4.2 DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS

4.2.1 Introduction
In the previous sections we have considered the case of ideal free simple harmonic
oscillations which once started would continue indefinitely, with a constant amplitude
and a constant frequency. The total energy of an ideal free simple harmonic oscillator

129
remains constant. Free simple harmonic oscillations of this kind are in practice never
realized. A free oscillation of a real physical system gradually decreases with time and
eventually the system comes to rest. The total energy of a real physical system
decreases with time due to losses arising from
• frictional forces in the medium through which the oscillator moves, and
• radiation; the oscillator imparts periodic motion to the particles of the
medium
in which it oscillates, thus producing waves. It is this effect that is responsible
for the propagation of sound and electromagnetic waves.

The effect of radiation and frictional forces on a free oscillator is that the amplitude of
oscillations gradually decreases with time. The reduction in amplitude, and hence
energy, of the oscillator is called damping and the oscillations are said to be damped. In
this chapter we will study the effect of damping on harmonic oscillations.

OBJECTIVES

When you have completed the section you should be able to

(i) explain damping forces;
(ii) derive the differential equation for damped simple harmonic
oscillations.

4.2.3 Damping Forces

The damping of a real system is a complex phenomenon involving several kinds of
damping forces such as viscous damping, Coulomb friction (ordinary friction) and
structural damping (internal friction). Because it is very difficult to predict the
magnitude of the various damping forces, the damping of a system is usually
approximated by an equivalent viscous damping.

130
For small velocities, the viscous damping force is proportional to the velocity of the
oscillator,
F = -pv 4.16

where p is called the viscous damping coefficient. This linear viscous damping force
model shall be adopted throughout.

4.2.4 Damped Simple Harmonic Oscillations

Consider the effect of damping on a simple harmonic oscillator shown in Fig.4.4.

Figure 4.4: Damped Simple Harmonic Oscillator

When the system is displaced from its equilibrium position, the forces acting on the
system are as follows:
• a restoring force -kx, where k is the spring constant and x the displacement,
and
dx
• a damping force, −p , where p is the coefficient of the damping force
dt
dx
and is the velocity of the moving part of the system.
dt

131
These forces must balance with the Newton’s force, so that the equation of motion
becomes

d 2x dx
m = −kx − p
dt 2 dt

The displacement of a particle acted upon by a damped restoring force is given by

x ( t ) = Aexp( − pt / 2m )cos ( ωd t + φ ) 4.17

where ωd, the angular frequency of the damped oscillator, is given by

k b2
ωd = − 4.18
m 4m 2

If p = 0, then Eq.4.17 reduces to simple harmonic motion and Eq.4.18 reduces angular
frequency of a simple harmonic oscillator.

We can regard Eq. 4.17 as a cosine function whose amplitude gradually decreases with
time.
For a simple harmonic oscillator, the mechanical energy is constant and given by

1 2
E= kA 4.19
2
In a damped oscillator the mechanical energy is not constant but decreases with time. If
the damping is small, the mechanical energy of the oscillator is given by

1 2 − pt / m
E( t ) ≈ kA e 4.20
2

132
Thus, mechanical energy of a damped harmonic oscillator decreases exponentially with
time.

Figure 4.5: Oscillatory Motion of a Weakly Damped Simple Harmonic Oscillator, where γ = p/m

4.3 FORCED OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE

4.3.1 Introduction
In the previous section we investigated the effect of damping on free simple harmonic
oscillations. Two effects were observed, namely the exponential decay, with time, of
the amplitude and the slight reduction of the angular frequency of oscillation. In this
section we shall investigate the behaviour of a weakly damped harmonic oscillator
when driven by an externally applied harmonically varying force. The frequency of
the driver need not be the same as that of the oscillator.

The problem of a damped harmonic oscillator driven by an externally applied harmonic

force is very important in physics. The applications of the physics of this problem
include
• in a resonance tube, the air column vibrates because it is linked by sound waves to a
vibrating tuning fork;
• the diaphragm of a microphone vibrates because it is linked by sound waves to the
voice of a person;

133
• the diaphragm of a loudspeaker vibrates because it is linked by current oscillations
to the output circuit of an amplifier;
• the electrical circuit in a radio receiver oscillates because it is linked by radio waves
to the oscillatory system, the transmitter in a broadcasting station.

In all these cases, the driven oscillator picks up energy from the driving system and
oscillates. The transfer of energy is one way and is such that the driving system
remains unaffected by the forced oscillations of the driven system. A harmonic
oscillator that is driven by an externally applied harmonic force is said to execute
forced oscillations.

OBJECTIVES

When you have completed the chapter you should be able to

(i) derive the equation of motion of forced oscillations of a damped
harmonic oscillator
(ii) appreciate the solution of a forced oscillator
(iii) explain resonance in a forced oscillator

4.3.3 Forced Oscillations of a One-Dimensional Damped Harmonic Oscillator

We consider the forced oscillator shown in Fig.4.6. It is driven by a harmonic force of
the type

F (t )= F0 cosω t 4.21

The equation of motion then becomes

d2x dx
m 2 = − kx − p + F0 cosω t
dt dt

134
 d2x dx
m 2 + kx + p = F0 cosω t
dt dt
d 2 x p dx k F0
==> + + x = cosω t 4.22
dt 2 m dt m m

Figure 4.6: A Mechanical Forced Oscillator

We now have to deal with two frequencies, the natural angular frequency ω0 and the
angular frequency of the external driving force, ω. Solution of Eq.4.22 is rather
complex, but takes the form
x( t ) = B cos ( ω t − φ ) 4.23

where φ is the phase constant of the oscillations relative to that of the driving force
which is conveniently taken to be zero and the constant B is frequency dependent.

The amplitude of the forced oscillator becomes maximum when the frequency of the
driving force is very nearly equal to the frequency of natural oscillations. The condition
at which the amplitude is maximum is called resonance and the frequency ωr is called
the resonant frequency.

135
The response of a forced oscillator as the frequency of the driving force is increased
from a very low value to a high value for different cases of damping is shown in
Fig.4.7.

If the damping is weak, the peak value of the amplitude occurs at ω = ω0, a condition
called amplitude resonance. The peak value is smaller for higher damping coefficient,
but always occurs at or near ω = ω0, provided the damping is not too large. When the
damping is large then the peak value occurs at frequencies ωr less than ω0.

Figure 4.7: Variation of the Amplitude of a Forced Oscillator with the Driving Frequency

4.4 WAVE MOTION

4.4.1 Introduction
Wave motion appears in almost every branch of physics and an important phenomenon
in life. For example, sound and light waves are essential for our contact and perception
of our environment, surface waves are a common feature on water bodies,
electromagnetic waves are playing an increasingly important role in local and global
communication, the structure of atoms and nuclei can be understood via the wavelike
properties of their constituent particles. Mobile phone signals, microwave ovens, ultra
sound machines all use energy carried by waves. Earthquakes and tsunamis are
destructive waves of energy.

136
A wave is a pulse of energy. Waves carry energy away from a central transmitter.
Mechanical waves, such as sound waves, need some medium of transmission.
Electromagnetic waves, for example radio waves, can carry energy through a vacuum.
If a mechanical wave is travelling through a medium, the particles of the medium do
not move along with it. They simply vibrate about their equilibrium position, and the
energy is transmitted through the interaction of neighbouring particles.

Waves can be classified into two broad classes: mechanical waves and electromagnetic
waves. Mechanical waves travel in deformable or elastic media whereas
electromagnetic waves do not require a medium for their propagation. Despite the
differences in the nature of the waves, the physical and mathematical descriptions are
similar.

OBJECTIVES

When you have completed this section you should be able to

(i) Distinguish between waves and oscillations;
(ii) Appreciate addition of two sine waves;
(iii) Describe waves on a guitar string;
(iv) Give a mathematical description of waves;
(v) Derive the wave equation;
(vi) Explain interference of waves;
(vii) Describe standing waves.

4.4.3 Waves Versus Oscillations

A wave is travelling energy: all waves radiate in all directions from a central source
while an oscillation is when a mass moves back and forth in a regular rhythm: a swing,
the tide, a duck sitting still on a wavy pond all oscillate.

137
Even though oscillations and waves are different phenomena, the same mathematical
functions are used to describe them. These functions are the sine and cosine functions.

4.4.4 Mechanical Waves

Sound and water waves transmit energy through a medium. The molecules vibrate and
their interaction transmits the energy. Such waves are called mechanical waves. There
are two main types:
Transverse waves: the molecules vibrate at right angles to the direction of travel.

Figure 4.8: An Illustration of Transverse Wave

Longitudinal waves: the molecules vibrate along the direction of travel.

Figure 4.9: An Illustration of Longitudinal Wave

4.4.5 Wave Characteristics

Imagine a long rope stretched out straight along the ground. If you vibrate one end
periodically, then a transverse wave will move along it. A snapshot would look like
this:

138
 Figure 4.10: An Illustration of Characteristics of a Wave

The amplitude A measures the maximum displacement of a particle from equilibrium:

“rest to crest”. The amplitude is related to the amount of energy the wave is carrying.
The wavelength measures the length of one complete cycle, for example from A to E or
from E to I. The period is the time a particle on the rope takes to do one cycle. The
frequency is the number of cycles a particle makes/unit time.

The mathematical functions that model periodic behaviour with a constant amplitude
and wavelength are sines and cosines.

4.4.6 Wave Interactions

A mechanical wave is a disturbance that travels through a medium. The crest moves
from particle to particle in the form of a sine wave. It will continue to move in the same
form until something interferes with it. This could be because it meets another wave or
it reflects off a boundary. If two single pulses meet, as they pass they interact, but as
they separate, their shape is the same as before the interaction.

When travelling waves interact, they form another waveform. In general it will not be a
simple sine wave, but there will be a periodic pattern and a fixed wavelength. In
Fig.4.11 we illustrate the addition of two sine waves:

139
 Figure 4.11: An Illustration of Addition of Two Sine Waves

Although the resultant wave form is not a simple sine wave it is clearly periodic and has
a fixed maximum amplitude. The resultant wave form is shown again in Fig.4.12
below.

Figure 4.12: The Resultant of Addition of Two Sine Waves

4.4.7 Waves on a Guitar String

A guitar string is fixed at both ends, so waves are reflected and interact in the length of
the string. As both ends have to be at rest, this restricts the possible wavelengths. The
possible waves are called modes of vibration.

140
As the length and thickness of the string is fixed, the pitch of the note is determined by
its tension. The tone is made up of harmonics which are the different frequencies of the
modes of vibration.

Below are the first four modes of vibration, or harmonics of a guitar string. The
wavelength of the harmonic shortens as the frequency increases. The higher the
frequency, the higher the pitch that is the sensation one hears.

Figure 4.13(a): First Harmonic of a Guitar String

Figure 4.13(b): Second Harmonic of a Guitar String

Figure 4.13(c): Third Harmonic of a Guitar String

141
 Figure 4.13(d): Fourth Harmonic of a Guitar String

4.4.8 Variables of Wave Motion

In addition to the three variables characteristic of oscillations, there is an additional
variable characteristic of wave motion, namely the wavelength.

Definition:
The wavelength of a wave is defined as the distance, measured along the direction of
wave propagation, between two nearest points which are in the same state of vibration.

The wavelength is also the distance travelled by the wave in one time period T of
particle oscillation. So that the wave velocity v is given by

λ
v= = νλ 4.24
T
1
where ν = T is called the frequency of particle oscillations.

4.4.9 Mathematical Description of Waves

We consider a harmonic plane wave traveling in the positive x-direction with velocity
v in a medium as shown in Fig 4.14.

142
Figure 4.14: A Harmonic Wave Travelling in the Positive x-direction at Time = 0 and at Time = t

Let us follow the motion of a particular part or phase of the wave. Suppose that at time
t = 0, the displacement of the particles at point P, are given by
2π
y( x,0)= A sin
λ x 4.25

At time = t, the point P has moved to P’a distance vt in the positive x-direction. Since
the wave is assumed to propagate in the medium without change of shape, at time t the
particle displacements at point P’ are the same as those at position (x - vt), i.e.
2π
y( x,t )= A sin
λ ( x− vt ) 4.26

If the wave moves in the negative x-direction, the velocity v is replaced by -v so that
the displacements at time t are then given by

2π
y( x,t )= A sin ( )
λ x +vt 4.29

By the definition of the wave length λ, Eq.4.8, can be shown to be doubly periodic; it
has a temporal periodicity T and a spatial periodicity λ.

i.e. y( x,t + T ) = y( x,t ) and y( x + λ,t ) = y( x,t )

143
Eq.4.28 can be written in a more compact form, by defining two new quantities
2π 2π
k=
λ and ω= T

The quantity k is called the wave number.

In terms of k and ω, Eq.4.26 becomes

⎛ 2π 2π vt ⎞
y( x,t )= A sin⎜ x− ⎟
⎝ λ λ ⎠
==> y( x,t )= A sin( kx −2πνt )
==> y( x,t ) = A sin( kx − ωt ) 4.28

For propagation in the negative x-direction

y( x,t ) = A sin( kx + ωt ) 4.29

TAKE NOTE

The waves described above by the sine function can equally well be
described by the cosine function.

4.4.10 The Wave Equation

The differential equation that governs the propagation of one-dimensional waves
described by Eqs.4.28 and 4.29 is given by

∂ 2 y( x,t ) 2 ∂ 2 y( x,t )
=v 4.30
∂ t2 ∂ x2

144
TAKE NOTE

Eq.4.30 is called the classical wave equation or simply the Wave Equation

Example:
Given a plane wave
y(x,t) = 0.01 sin (0.02πx - 4πt)
calculate (a) the wavelength, velocity and frequency of the wave; ( b) the phase
difference between two positions of the same particle at time interval of 0.25 s; and (c)
the phase difference, at a given instant of time, between two particles 50 m apart.

Solution:
The given equation can be written in the form
⎧ 2π ⎫
y( x,t )=0.01sin⎨ ( x −200t ) ⎬
⎩100 ⎭

Comparing with the wave equation

⎧ 2π ⎫
y( x,t )= A sin⎨ ( x− vt ) ⎬
⎩ λ ⎭
we have:
the wavelength λ = 100 m
the wave velocity v = 200 m/s
and the frequency ν = v/λ = 2.0 Hz

(b) The phase change in a time interval ∆t is

2π
−
τ .∆t = −2πν .∆t = −2π .2.0.25 = −π

145
(c) The phase difference for the path difference of ∆x is
2π 2π
.∆x = .50 = π
λ 100

4.4.11 Interference of Waves

When two or more waves combine at a particular point, they are said to interfere and
the phenomenon is called interference.

There are two cases of interference:

1. Constructive interference in which the waves reinforce each other giving rise to a
resultant wave having an amplitude equal to the sum of the individual wave
amplitudes.

2. Destructive interference in which the waves tend to cancel each other out giving
rise to a resultant wave having an amplitude close to zero.

Let us consider two waves of the same frequency and amplitude but different phase
constants both traveling in the +x-direction.

y1( x,t )= A sin( kx − ωt − φ1) 4.31

y2 ( x,t )= A sin( kx − ωt − φ 2 ) 4.32

These waves could be propagating in any medium. Interference arises from the
superposition of the two waves. Thus adding Eqs.4.31 and 4.32 we have

y( x,t )= y1( x,t )+ y2 ( x,t )

= A sin( kx − ωt − φ1 ) + A sin( kx − ωt − φ 2 )

146
From the trigonometric identity

sinP +sinQ = 2sin½(P+Q)cos½(P-Q)

we obtain
1 1
y( x,t )=2 A sin
2
{2kx −2ωt − ( φ1 + φ 2 )} cos {φ 2 − φ1}
2
1 ⎧ 1 ⎫
=2 A cos {φ 2 − φ1} sin⎨ kx − ωt − ( φ1 + φ 2 ) ⎬
2 ⎩ 2 ⎭
1
==> y( x,t )=2 A cos ∆φ sin( kx − ωt − φ ′) 4.33
2

where
1
φ ′ = 2 ( φ1 + φ 2 ) and ∆φ = ( φ 2 − φ1)

The quantity ∆φ is called the phase difference between the two waves.

Eq.4.33 corresponds to a new wave having the same frequency but with an
amplitude2A⏐cos(∆φ/2)⏐. If ∆φ is very small in comparison with 180°, the resultant
amplitude is nearly 2A, twice the amplitude of either wave, this is constructive
interference; on the other hand if ∆φ is close to 180° the resultant amplitude is nearly
zero, this is destructive interference.

Two waves are said to be in phase when ∆φ = 0 and are out of phase when ∆φ = 180°.

If the individual wave amplitudes are A1 and A2, the resultant wave amplitude is A1 +
A2 if the waves are in phase, while the resultant amplitude is ⏐A1- A2⏐ if they are out
of phase.

147
Example
Two waves travel in the same direction along a string and interfere. The waves have the
same wavelength and travel with the same speed. The amplitude of each wave is 9.7 mm
and there is a phase difference of 110° between them. Calculate the amplitude of the
combined wave resulting from the interference of the two waves.

Solution:
The amplitude of the combined wave is given by

y( x,t )=2 A cos ∆φ = y( x,t )=2(9.7) cos(110/2) =111

. mm

4.4.12 Standing Waves

When two or more waves travelling along the same direction combine they may
interfere destructively or constructively. On the other hand when the waves travel in
opposite directions the superposition gives rise to standing waves.

We consider two waves of equal amplitude and frequency moving in opposite direction
a string.
y1( x,t )= A sin( kx − ωt )
y2 ( x,t )= A sin( kx + ωt )

Superposition gives rise to

y( x,t )= y1( x,t )+ y2 ( x,t )

= A sin( kx − ωt )+ A sin( kx + ωt )
==> y( x,t )=2 A sin kx cosωt 4.34

148
TAKE NOTE

Eq.4.34 is an equation of a Standing wave because the space and time

variables, x and t , do not appear as argument of the same trigonometric
function as required for a travelling wave.

In a travelling wave, each particle of the string vibrates with the same amplitude. In a
standing wave, the amplitude is not the same for different particles but varies for
different location x of the particle.

In Eq.4.34, the amplitude, 2Asinkx, is maximum at positions where

π 3π 5π
kx = ; ; ......
2 2 2
λ 3λ 5λ
or x = ; ; ........ 4.35
4 4 4

Points of maximum amplitude in a standing wave are called antinodes. They are spaced
one-half wavelength apart.

On the other hand, the amplitude of the standing wave is minimum with value zero at
positions where

kx = π ,2π ,3π ....

λ 3λ
or x = ,λ, ,...... 4.36
2 2

Points of minimum amplitude in a standing wave are called nodes. They are also spaced
one-half wavelength apart. Hence, the separation between nodes and antinodes is a
quarter wavelength.

149
EXERCISES

Simple Harmonic Oscillations

1. A mass m = 0.5 kg is hung on a vertical massless spring. The new
equilibrium position of the spring is found to be 3 cm below the
equilibrium position of the spring without the mass. What is the
spring constant, k ?
2. Consider a simple harmonic oscillation with m = 0.5 kg, k = 10 N/m
and amplitude A = 3 cm.( a) What is the total energy of the
oscillator? (b) What is its maximum speed? (c) What is the speed
when x = 2 cm? (d) What are the kinetic and potential energies when
x = 2 cm?
3. If the oscillator in the above problem is released from rest at
x = A when the clock is set to t = 0 seconds, (a) determine the
position and velocity of the oscillator at t = 2 s. ( b) At what time
does the oscillator get to x = - 1 cm?
4. A simple pendulum is used in a physics laboratory experiment to
obtain an experimental value for the gravitational acceleration, g . A
student measures the length of the pendulum to be 0.510 meters,
displaces it 10 o from the equilibrium position, and releases it. Using a
stopwatch, the student determines that the period of the pendulum is
1.44 s. Determine the experimental value of the gravitational
acceleration.
5. Find the mechanical energy of a block-spring system having a spring
constant of 1.3 N/cm and an amplitude of 2.4 cm.
6. An oscillating block-spring system has a mechanical energy of 1.00J,
an amplitude of 10.0 cm, and a maximum speed of 1.20 m/s. Find (a)
the spring constant, (b) the mass, and (c) the frequency of
oscillation.

150
7. What is the length of a simple pendulum whose period is 1.00 s at a
point where
g = 9.8 m/s2?

8. If a simple pendulum with length 1.50 m makes 72.0 oscillations in

180 s, what is the acceleration of gravity at its location?

9. The amplitude of a lightly damped oscillator decreases by 3.0%

during each cycle. What fraction of the energy of the oscillator is
lost in each full oscillation?

Waves
10. A wave has an amplitude of 2 cm and a frequency of 12 Hz, and the
distance from a crest to the nearest trough is measured to be 5 cm.
Determine the period of such a wave.

11. A fly flaps its wings back and forth 150 times each second.
Determine the period of a wing flap.

12. A transverse wave is found to have a distance of 8 cm from a trough

to a crest, a frequency of 12 Hz, and a distance of 6 cm from a crest
to the nearest trough. Determine the amplitude, period, and
wavelength of such a wave.

13. An ocean wave has an amplitude of 2.5 m. Weather conditions

suddenly change such that the wave has an amplitude of 5.0 m.
Determine the amount of energy transported by the wave.

14. In Fig.4.15, determine the time required for the waves, v = 340 m/s to
travel from the tuning fork to point P is

151
 Figure 4.1

15. Two waves on identical strings have frequencies in a ratio of 2 to 1.

If their wave speeds are the same, then how do their frequencies
compare?

16. A transverse wave is found to have a distance of 4 cm from a trough

to a crest, a frequency of 12 Hz, and a distance of 5 cm from a crest
to the nearest trough. Determine the amplitude, period, wavelength
and speed of such a wave.

152