FOUNDATION

PHYSICS
0.1 Introduction.
Mathematics is the language of physics. It becomes very easier to describe, understand and apply the
physical principles, if we have a good knowledge of mathematics.
For example : Newton’s law of gravitation states that every body in this universe attracts every other
body with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
m1m2 Gm 1 m 2
This law can be expressed by a single mathematical relationship F  2
or F =
r r2
The techniques of mathematics such as algebra, trigonometry, calculus, graph and logarithm can be
used to make predictions from the basic equation.
If we are poor at grammar and vocabulary, it would be difficult for us to communicate our feelings,
similarly for better understanding and expressing of physics the basic knowledge of mathematics is must.
In this introductory chapter we will learn some fundamental mathematics.
0.2 Algebra.
(1) Quadratic equation : An equation of second degree is called a quadratic equation. Standard
quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
Here a is called the coefficient of x2, b is called the coefficient of x and c is a constant term, x is the
variable whose value (roots of the equation) are to be determined
−b  b2 − 4ac
Roots of the equation are : x =
2a
This formula can be written as
−Coefficient of x  (Coefficient of x)2 − 4(Coefficient of x 2 )  (Const ant t erm)
x=
2(Coefficient of x 2 )
Note : ❑ If  and  be the roots of the quadratic equation then
b c
Sum of roots  +  = – and product of roots =
a a
Problem 1. Solve the equation 10x2 − 27x + 5 = 0
Solution : By comparing the given equation with standard equation a = 10, b = – 27, and c = 5

−b  b2 − 4ac −( − 27)  ( − 27)2 − 4  10  5 27  23

x= = =
2a 2  10 20

27 + 23 5 27 − 23 1
 x1 = = and x 2 = =
20 2 20 5

5 1
 Roots of the equation are and .
2 5

(2) Binomial Theorem : If n is any number positive, negative or fraction and x is any real number,
such that x < 1 i.e. x lies between – 1 and + 1 then according to binomial theorem

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 n(n − 1) n(n − 1)(n − 2)
(1 + x) n = 1 + nx + x2 + x 3 + .....
2! 3!

Here 2 ! (Factorial 2) = 2  1, 3 ! (Factorial 3) = 3  2  1 and 4 ! (Factorial 4) = 4  3  2  1

Note : ❑ If |x| << 1 then only the first two terms are significant. It is so because the values of
second and the higher order terms being very very small, can be neglected. So the
expression can be written as
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx (1 + x)–n = 1 – nx
(1 – x)n = 1 – nx (1 – x)–n = 1 + nx
Problem 2. Evaluate (1001)1/3 upto six places of decimal.
Solution : (1001)1/3 = (1000 + 1)1/3 = 10(1 + 0.001)1/3
By comparing the given equation with standard equation
n(n − 1)
(1 + x) n = 1 + n x + x 2 + ......
2!

x = 0.001 and n = 1/3


 11  
 − 1   (.001)
2
   1 
+ ....  = 10 1 + 0.00033 − (0.000001) + .... 
1 33 
10(1 + 0.001) 1/ 3
= 10 1 + (0.001) +
 3 2!   9 
 

= 10[1.0003301] = 10.003301(Approx.)

Problem 3. The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) at a height h above the surface of earth is
gR2
given by g ' = . If h  R then
(R + h)2

 h  2h   h  2h 
(a) g ' = g  1 −  (b) g ' = g  1 −  (c) g ' = g  1 +  (d) g ' = g  1 + 
 R  R  R  R
−2
 
2 2 2
 
R  1   h h ( − 2)( − 3)  h 
Solution : (b) g ' = g   =g  =1 +  = g 1 + ( − 2) +   + ....... 
R+ h  1 + h / R  R  R 2!  R 

 2h  h
g' = g1 −  ( if h  R then by neglecting higher power of .)
 R R

(3) Arithmetic progression : It is a sequence of numbers which are arranged in increasing order and
having a constant difference between them.
Example : 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, …… or 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, …..
In general arithmetic progression can be written as a0, a1, a2, a3, a4, a5 …….
(i) nth term of arithmetic progression a n = a 0 + (n − 1)d
a0 = First term, n=Number of terms, d=Common difference=(a1 – a0) or (a2 – a1) or (a3 – a2)

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 n n
(ii) Sum of arithmetic progression Sn = 2a 0 + (n − 1)d  = a 0 + a n 
2 2
Problem 4. Find the sum of series 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 + 19 + 22 + 25
n 7
Solution : Sn =  a 0 + a n  = 7 + 25  = 112 [As n = 7; a0 = 7; an = a7 = 25]
2 2
(4) Geometric Progression : It is a sequence of numbers in which every term is obtained by
multiplying the previous term by a constant quantity. This constant quantity is called the common ratio.
Example : 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 …… or 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, …….
In general geometric progression can be written as a, ar, ar2, ar3, ar4, ….
Here a = first term, r = common ratio
a(1 − r n )
(i) Sum of ‘n’ terms of G.P. Sn = if r < 1
1−r
a (r n − 1)
Sn = if r > 1
r −1
a
(ii) Sum of infinite terms of G.P. S = if r < 1
1−r
a
S = if r > 1
r −1
q q q
Problem 5. Find the sum of series Q = 2q + + + + ......
3 9 27
 q q q 
Solution : Above equation can be written as Q = q +  q + + + + ...... 
 3 9 27 
 
 q  3 5
By using the formula of sum of infinite terms of G.P. Q = q +   =q+ q= q
1 2 2
1 − 
 3
(5) Some common formulae of algebra
(i) (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
(ii) (a – b)2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab
(iii) (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
(iv) (a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2
(v) (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)
(vi) (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab(a – b)
(vii) (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab
(viii) (a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = 2(a2 + b2)
(ix) a 3 − b 3 = (a − b)(a 2 + b2 + ab)
(x) a 3 + b 3 = (a + b)(a 2 + b2 − ab)
a c a+b c+d
(6) Componendo and dividendo method : If = then =
b d a−b c−d

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0.3 Trigonometry.
Arc AB S
Angle ( ) = = = (formula true for radian only) B
Radius OA r
 S
unit of angle is radian or degree
A
relation between radian and degree : O r
2 radian = 360o; 1 radian = 57.3o
(1) Trigonometric ratio : In right angled triangle ABC, the largest side AC, which is opposite to the
right angle is called hypotenuse, and if angle considered is  , then side opposite to , AB, will be termed
as perpendicular and BC is called the base of the triangle.
Perpendicular AB Hypot enuse AC
sin  = = cosec = = A
Hypot enuse AC Perpendicular AB
Base BC Hypot en use AC
cos  = = sec  = =
Hypot enuse AC Base BC
90o 
Perpen dicular AB Base BC
t an  = = cot  = =
B C
Base BC Perpendicular AB
(2) Value of trigonometric ratio of standard angles
Angle 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o 120o 135o 150o 180o 270o 360o
sin 0 1/2 1/2 3/2 1 3/2 1/ 2 1/2 0 –1 0
cos 1 3/2 1/2 1/2 0 – 1/2 – 1/2 – 3/2 –1 0 1
tan 0 1/3 1 3  – 3 –1 – 1/3 0 – 0

(3) Important points :

(i) Value of sin or cos lies between – 1 and +1, however tan and cot can have any real value.
(ii) Value of sec and cosec cannot be numerically less than one.
(iii) (90o – ) will lie in first quadrant
(90o + ) will lie in second quadrant Second quadrant First quadrant
(Only sin and cosec are (All T-ratio positive)
(180o – ) will lie in second quadrant positive)

(180o + ) will lie in third quadrant Third quadrant Fourth quadrant

(270 + ) and (0 – ) will lie in fourth quadrant.
o o (Only tan and cot are (Only cos and sec are
positive) positive)
(4) Fundamental trigonometrical relation
sin  1 1 1
(i) t an  = (ii) cosec = (iii) sec  = (iv) cot  =
cos  sin  cos  t an 
(v) sin  + cos  = 1
2 2
(vi) sec  − t an  = 1
2 2
(vii) cosec  − cot  = 1
2 2

(5) T-Ratios of allied angles : The angles whose sum or difference with angle  is zero or a multiple
of 90° are called angle allied to .
(i) sin( −) = − sin  cos( −) = cos  t an( −) = − t an 
(ii) sin(90 o − ) = cos  cos(90 o − ) = sin  t an(90 o − ) = cot 

(iii) sin(90 o + ) = cos  cos(90 o + ) = − sin  t an(90 o + ) = − cot 

(iv) sin(180 o − ) = sin  cos(180 o − ) = − cos  t an(180 o − ) = − t an 

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 (v) sin(180 o + ) = − sin  cos(180 o + ) = − cos  t an(180 o + ) = t an 

(vi) sin(270 o − ) = − cos  cos(270 o − ) = − sin  t an(270 o − ) = cot 

(vii) sin(270 o + ) = − cos  cos(270 o + ) = sin  t an(270 o + ) = − cot 

(viii) sin(360 o − ) = − sin  cos(360 o − ) = cos  t an(360 o − ) = − t an 

(ix) sin(360 o + ) = sin  cos(360 o + ) = cos  t an(360 o + ) = t an 

Note : ❑ Angle ( 2n  + ) lies in first quadrant, if  in an acute angle. Similarly (2n  − ) will lie
in fourth quadrant. Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
❑ Angle ( −) is presumed always lie in fourth quadrant, whatever the value of .
❑ If parent angle is 90° or 270° then sin  change to cos , t an  change to cot  and sec 
change to cos ec.
❑ If parent angle is 180° or 360° then no change in trigonometric function
Problem 6. Find the values of (i) cos( − 60 o ) (ii) t an 210o (iii) sin 300o (iv) cos120o (v)
sin ( − 1485o )
1
Solution : (i) cos( − 60 o ) = cos 60 o =
2
1
(ii) t an(210 o ) = t an(180 o + 30 o ) = t an 30 o =
3
− 3
(iii) sin(300 o ) = sin(360 o − 60 o ) = − sin 60 o =
2
−1
(iv) cos(120 o ) = cos(90 o + 30 o ) = − sin 30 o =
2
1
(v) sin( −1485o ) = − sin(3  360 o + 45o ) = − sin 45o = −
2
(6) Addition formulae
(i) sin(A + B) = sin Acos B + cos Asin B
(ii) cos(A + B) = cos Acos B − sin Asin B
t an A + t an B
(iii) t an (A + B) =
1 − t an A t an B
Putting B = A in these formulae, we get
(iv) sin 2A = 2 sin Acos A
(v) cos2A = cos2 A − sin 2 A = 1 − 2sin 2 A = 2cos2 A − 1
2 t an A
(vi) t an 2A =
1 − t an 2 A
Problem 7. If A = 60o then value of sin 2A will be
3 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 2 3 2

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 3 1 3
Solution : (a) sin 2A = 2sin Acos A = 2sin 60 cos 60 = 2   =
2 2 2
(7) Difference formulae
(i) sin(A − B) = sin Acos B − cos Asin B
(ii) cos(A − B) = cos Acos B + sin Asin B
t an A − t an B
(iii) t an (A − B) =
1 + t an A t an B
(8) Transformation formulae
sin(A + B) + sin(A − B) = 2sin Acos B
cos(A − B) − cos(A + B) = 2sin Asin B
sin(A + B) − sin(A − B) = 2cos Asin B
cos(A − B) + cos(A + B) = 2cos Acos B
If we put (A + B) = Cand (A − B) = D then on adding and subtracting, we get
C+ D C− D
A= and B =
2 2
Putting these values in the above equation we get
C+ D C− D
(i) sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos
2 2
C+ D C− D
(ii) cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos
2 2
C+ D C− D
(iii) sin C − sin D = 2 cos sin
2 2
C+ D C− D
(iv) cos C − cos D = − 2 sin sin
2 2
(9) The sine and cosine formulae for a triangle : In a triangle ABC of sides a, b, c and angles A, B
and C, the following formulae hold good.
a b c
(i) = =
sin A sin B sin C
(ii) a 2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
(iii) b2 = c2 + a 2 − 2ca cos B
(iv) c2 = a 2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
(v) Area of a triangle ABC = S(S − a)(S − b)(S − c) ; where, S = (a + b + c) / 3

0.4 Logarithm.
Logarithm of a number with respect to a given base is the power to which the base must be raised to
represent that number.
If a x = N then loga N = x
Here x is called the logarithm of N to the base a.

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 There are two system of logarithm : Logarithm to the base 10 are called common logarithms where
as logarithms to the base e are called natural logarithm. They are written as ln.
Conversion of natural log into common log : loge x = 2.3026 log10 x
Important formulae of logarithm :
(i) loga (mn) = loga m + loga n (Product formula)
m
(ii) log a   = log a m − log a n (Quotient formula)
n 
(iii) log a m n = n log a m (Power formula)
(iv) loga m = log b m loga b (Base change formula)
Note : ❑ Antilogarithm is the reverse process of logarithm i.e., the number whose logarithm is x is
called antilogarithm of x. If log n = x then n = antilog of x
0.5 Graphs.
A graph is a line, straight or curved which shows the variation of one quantity w.r.t. other, which are
interrelated with each other.
In a relation of two quantities, the quantity which is made to alter at will, is called the independent
variable and the other quantity which varies as a result of this change is called the dependent
variable. Conventionally, in any graph, the independent variable (i.e. cause) is represented along x-
axis and dependent variable (i.e. effect) is represented along y-axis.
For example, we want to depict V = IR graphically, in which R is a constant called resistance, V is
the applied voltage (cause) and I (effect) is the resulting current. We will represent voltage on x-axis
and current on y-axis.
BASIC COORDINATE GEOMETRY
If you have to specify the position of a point in a space , how will you do it ? This is the easiest
applications of coordinate geometry . We can give , assign or find out of exact numerical values of
the position of points, lines , curves, slopes etc. All this is done with the help of coordinate
systems. There are many types of coordinate systems like rectangular , polar, spherical ,
cylindrical etc. coordinate systems . It is generally the right-handed rectangular axes coordinate
system which you will be using in physics. This system consists of : (i) Origin and (ii) Axis or
Axes.
If the point is known to be on a given line or in particular direction, only one coordinate is
necessary to specify its position ; if it is a plane , two coordinates are required ; if it is in space ,
three coordinates are needed .
Origin
This is any fixed point which is convenient to you .Say , in a room, you can consider any corner of
the room as the origin . On a sheet of paper , you can mark any point on it and consider it as the
origin. All measurements are taken basically with respect to this point called origin.
Axis or Axes
Any fixed direction passing through the origin and convenient to you can be taken as an axis. If
the position of a point or position of all the points under consideration always happen to be in a
particular direction , then only one axis required . This is generally called x-axis . If the positions

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 of all the points under consideration are always in a plane , two axes are needed . These are
generally called x and y axes .
If the point are distributed in a space, three axes are taken which are called x, y and z axes. If x, y
and z axes are mutually perpendicular , the system is called rectangular axex coordinate system.

Points to Remember
____________________________________________________________________________________
• Origin can be any fixed point convenient to you. It is denoted by ‘’O’’.
• x-axis is any fixed direction passing through the origin an convenient to you. Thus it is not all
necessary that the (so called) horizontal line passing through the origin is x-axis.

• Unless otherwise explicitly mentioned, all angles are always measured from the direction of x-axis
(called the positive direction of x-axis). Positive angles are measured in anticlockwise direction
and negative in clockwise direction.
• y-axis is any fixed direction passing through the origin perpendicular to the x-axis, convenient to
you. Perpendicular means making an angle + 900 with the positive direction of x-axis. Students
may feel that once the origin and x-axis have been fixed, the position of y-axis also gets fixed
accordingly. No, it is not the case. Y-axis can be any fixed direction which is in the plane passing
through the origin and the x-axis and perpendicular to x-axis.
• Thus x and y axes can be any direction as shown in the figure.

• Once origin , x and y axes are fixed , z axis becomes automatically fixed. Convenience of the
observe goes away. z-axis is the fixed direction passing through the origin and perpendicular to
both x and y axes .

POSTION OF A POINT
As you already know it well , in case of plane coordinate geometry , i.e. when the position of a
point always remains contained in a plane (called x-y plane), the position of a point is specified
by its distances from the origin along (or parallel to) x and y axes , as shown in the figure .
You can easily observe that the coordinates (x 1 y1 ), (x 2 y 2 ), (x 3 y 3 ) and (x 4 y 4 ) in figure are (4, 2),
(-4, 3) , (-5 , -4) and (2, -2) respectively .

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Distance Formulae
(i) The distance between two points (x 1 y1 ) and

(x 2 , y 2 ) = (x 2 − x 1 ) 2 + (y 2 − y1 ) 2

(ii) The distance between of the point (x 1 y1 ) from the origin = (x 12 + y12 )

 x 1 + x 2 y1 + y 2 
The coordinates of the mid-point of the line joining A (x 1 y1 ) and B (x 2 y 2 ) are  , 
 2 2 
Slope of a Line
The slope of a line joining two points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) is denoted by m and is given by
y 2 − y1
m = tan  = , where  is the angle which the line makes with the positive direction of x-
x 2 − x1
axis .

Straight Line Equation

(i) ax +by +c = 0 is the general from of the equation of straight line .
(ii) Equation of x-axis is y = 0
(iii) Equation of y-axis is y = 0
(iv) Equation of a straight line parallel to y-axis and at a distance a from it is given by x = a.
(v) Equation of a straight line parallel to x-axis and at a distance b from it is given by y = b.

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 Constant function, x = a Constant function, y = b

(vi) y = mx + c is a line which cuts off an intercept c on y-axis and makes an angle  with the
+ ve direction of x-axis in anticlockwise direction; and m = tan  is called its slope or
gradient.
(vii) y = mx is any line through the origin and having slope m.
when c = 0, y = mx
The graph between x and y will be a straight line as x bears the direct dependence on y.

Here m represents the slope of line

 m = tan 

when c = 0, m< 0, y = mx; for m < 0    90o

when c  0, y = mx + c
Graph for this equation is also a straight line but with a + ve intercept on y-axis. (As when x goes
to zero, y accordingly takes value c. So the straight line will start from y = c instead of origin.

m = tan  is the slope of the straight line here also

when c  0, m < 0, y = mx + c; for m < 0    90o

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 x y
(viii) + = 1 is a line in intercept form where a and b are the intercepts on the axis of x and y
a b
Respectively.

(ix) y − y1 = m ( x − x 1 ) is the equation of a line through a given point ( x 1 , y1 ) and having slope m.

Slope
The slope m of the line Ax + By + C = 0 is given by
Coefficient of x −A
m =− =
Coefficient of y B

PARABOLA: THE QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Let us now discuss graphs of quadratic equations. For equation y = ax2 + bx + c (where a ,b and c
are constants), the graphs between x and y will be an asymmetric parabola . As long as a  0, this
equation represents a quadratic function . So what is the simplest quadratic equation ? It is y = ax 2
(obtained by putting b = 0 , c = 0 ) which is the equation of parabola.

Conclusion:
Equation of parabola is a quadratic equation in its simplest form. This parabola has its vertex at origin
(0, 0) because when we put x = 0. It gives y = 0 .
• The graph for y = ax2 will be a symmetric parabola about y- axis . The orientation of parabola will
be decided by the sign of a.
When a is Positive When a is Negative
2
The equation of the parabola will be y = ax The equation of the parabola will be y = ax 2

• If we exchange x and y in this equation, x = ay2 then the axis of symmetry will change and
becomes x-axis. And as we know this orientation changes as per the sign of a , so the orientation
changes as per the sign of a , so the orientation will be opposite when a is negative .

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 When a is Positive When a is Negative
2
The equation of the parabola will be y = ay The equation of the parabola will be y = ay 2

• For equation with c = 0 , y = ax2 + bx . The graph between x and y is an asymmetric parabola. But
the orientation of the graph varies with the signs of a and b . Let us take the special case when both
a and b are positive.
When y = 0, then x = 0 or x = -b/a.
At x = -b/2a, y is minimum and ymin = - b2/4a. It is known as vertex.

PLOTTING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

(i) General quadratic equation is y = ax2 + bx + c.
(ii) The graph of a quadratic equation is always a parabola .
(iii) Orientation of graph depend upon sign of a :
(a) When a is +ve, the graph will open (b) When a is –ve , the graph will open down.
(iv) The x-coordinate of the vertex is equal to –b/2a .i.e. .x = - b/2a.
(v) Put this value back in given equation and find y.
Point (x, y) so obtained represents vertex
(vi) Choose two values of x which are to the right or left to the x-coordinate of the vertex.
(vii) Substitution of these values will give values of y .
Using these values of (x ,y) graph can be plotted successfully .
Note :
Since a parabola is symmetric about line passing through its vertex, the mirror image of
points taken with same value will give other side of parabola

Illustration 9 Plot the graph for the equation y = -x2 + 4x – 1.

Solution
a = -1 , b= 4 , c = 1
As a is negative , so parabola should open down .

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 −b
Vertex : x = = 2. Put this value of x to get y = 3.
2a
Hence vertex is (2 ,3)
Assume two values of x as follows
X 1 -1
Y 2 -6

Points obtained : (1, 2) ,(-1,-6)

All points obtained : (2 ,3) (Vertex) , 1, 2  ,  −1, −6 
Symmetry of parabola : Mirror image points of (1, 2) and (-1,-6) are (3 ,2) and (5, -6)
Now sketch the Parabola as shown figure

0.6 Differential Calculus.

The differential coefficient or derivative of variable y with respect to variable x is defined as the
dy
instantaneous rate of change of y w.r.t. x. It is denoted by Y y = f (x)
dx
Geometrically the differential coefficient of y = f(x) with respect to x at any 

point is equal to the slope of the tangent to the curve representing y = f(x) at that
point X

dy
i.e. = t an  .
dx
dy
Note : ❑ Actually is a rate measurer.
dx
dy
❑ If is positive, it means y is increasing with increasing of x and vice-versa.
dx
dy
❑ For small change  x we use  y = . x
dx

:: 13 ::
 ds
Example: (1) Instantaneous speed v =
dt
dv d 2x
(2) Instantaneous acceleration a = =
dt dt 2
dp
(3) Force F =
dt
d
(4) Angular velocity  =
dt
d
(5) Angular acceleration  =
dt
dW
(6) Power P =
dt
dL
(7) Torque  =
dt
(1) Fundamental formulae of differentiation :
Function Differentiation
If c is some constant d
(c) = 0
dx
If y = c x where c is a constant dy d dx
= (c x) = c =c
dx dx dx
If y = c u where c is a constant and u is a function dy d du
= (c u) = c
of x dx dx dx

If y = xn where n is a real number dy

= n x n −1
dx
If y = un where n is a real number and u is a dy du
= n u n −1
function of x dx dx
If y = u + v where u and v are the functions of x dy du dv
= +
dx dx dx
If y = uv where u and v are functions of x (product dy dv du
=u +v
formula) dx dx dx
u du dv
If y = where u and v are the functions of x v −u
v dy d u dx dx
=  =
(quotient formula) dx dx  v  v2

If y = f (u) and u = f (x) dy dy du

= 
dx du dx
If y = (ax + b)n dy d
= n (ax + b) n −1  (ax + b)
dx dx
If y = sin x dy d
= (sin x) = cos x
dx dx

:: 14 ::
 If y = cos x dy d
= (cos x) = − sin x
dx dx
If y = tan x dy d
= (t an x) = sec2 x
dx dx
If y = cot x dy d
= (cot x) = − cosec2 x
dx dx
If y = sec x dy d
= (sec x) = t an x sec x
dx dx
If y = cosec x dy d
= (cosec x) = − cot x cosec x
dx dx
If y = sin u where u is the function of x dy d d(u)
= (sin u) = cos u
dx dx dx
If y = cos u where u is the function of x dy d d(u)
= (cos u) = − sin u
dx dx dx
If y = tan u where u is the function of x dy d d(u)
= (t an u) = sec2 u
dx dx dx
If y = cot u where u is the function of x dy d d(u)
= (cot u) = − cosec2 u
dx dx dx
If y = sec u where u is the function of x dy d d(u)
= (sec u) = sec u t an u
dx dx dx
If y = cosec u where u is the function of x dy d d(u)
= (cosec u) = − cosec u cot u
dx dx dx
If y = loga x dy 1
= log a e
dx x

Problem 8. Differentiate the following w.r.t x

(i) x3 (ii) x (iii) ax 2 + bx + c (iv) 2x 3 − e x (v) 6 log e x − x − 7
d
Solution : (i) (x 3 ) = 3x 2
dx
1
d 1 −1 1 1
(ii) (x)1/ 2 = (x) 2 = (x) −1/ 2 =
dx 2 2 2 x
d d d d
(iii) (ax 2 + bx + c) = a (x 2 ) + b (x) + (c) = 2ax + b
dx dx dx dx
d d d
(iv) (2x 3 − e x ) = 2 (x 3 ) − (e x ) = 6x 2 − e x
dx dx dx
d d d 1/ 2 d 6 1
(v) (6 log e x − x − 7) = 6 (log e x) − (x ) − (7) = −
dx dx dx dx x 2 x
Problem 9. Differentiate the following w.r.t. x
(i) sin x + cos x (ii) sin x + e x

:: 15 ::
 d d d
Solution : (i) (sin x + cos x) = (sin x) + (cos x) = cos x − sin x
dx dx dx
d d d
(ii) (sin x + e x ) = (sin x) + (e x ) = cos x + e x
dx dx dx

Problem 10. Differentiate the following w.r.t. t

(i) sin t 2 (ii) e sin t (iii) sin( t + )
d d
Solution : (i) (sin t 2 ) = cos t 2 (t 2 ) = 2t cos t 2
dt dt
d d
(ii) (e sin t ) = e sin t (sin t ) = e sin t . cos t
dt dt
d d
(iii) [sin (  t + )] = cos(  t + ). (  t + ) = cos(  t + ). 
dt dt
x2 + e x
Problem 11. Differentiate w.r.t. x
log x + 20
x2 + e x
Solution : Let y = .
log x + 20

dy d  x2 + e x 
Then =  
dx dx  log x + 20 
d 2 d
(log x + 20) (x + e x ) − (x 2 + e x ) (log x + 20)
= dx dx
(log x + 20) 2

1 
(log x + 20)(2x + e x ) − (x 2 + e x )  + 0 
= x 
(log x + 20) 2

(2) Maxima and minima : If a quantity y depends on another quantity x in a manner shown in
figure. It becomes maximum at x1 and minimum at x2.
Y
At these points the tangent to the curve is parallel to X-axis and hence its
slope is t an  = 0. But the slope of the curve equals the rate of change
dy dy
. Thus, at a maximum or minimum =0
dx dx O
X
x1 x2
Just before the maximum the slope is positive, at the maximum it is zero
dy
and just after the maximum it is negative. Thus decreases at a maximum and hence the rate of
dx
dy d  dy 
change of is negative at a maximum. i.e.,    0 at a maximum.
dx dx  dx 

dy d 2y
Hence the condition of maxima : = 0 and 0 (Second derivative test)
dx dx 2

:: 16 ::
 Similarly, at a minimum the slope changes from negative to positive. The slope increases at such a
d  dy 
point and hence  0
dx  dx 

dy d 2y
Hence the condition of minima : = 0 and  0. (Second derivative test)
dx dx 2
Problem 12. The height reached in time t by a particle thrown upward with a speed u is given by
1
h = ut − gt 2 . Find the time taken in reaching the maximum height.
2
dh d 1 2gt u
Solution : For maximum height =0 [ut − gt 2 ] = u − = 0 t =
dt dt 2 2 g
Problem 13. A metal ring is being heated so that at any instant of time t in second, its area is given by
t
A = 3t 2 + + 2 m2.
3
What will be the rate of increase of area at t = 10 sec.
dA d t 1
Solution : Rate of increase of area = (3t 2 + + 2) = 6t +
dt dt 3 3

 dA  1 181 m 2
  = 6  10 + = .
 dt  t =10 sec 3 3 sec

1
Problem 14. The radius of an air bubble is increasing at the rate of cm / sec . Determine the rate of
2
increase in its volume when the radius is 1 cm.
4
Solution : Volume of the spherical bubble V =  R3
3
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. time
dV d 4 3 4 2 dR dR
=  R  = .3R . = 4 R2
dt dt  3  3 dt dt
dV 1
at R = 1cm , = 4   (1)2  = 2 cm 3 / sec.
dt 2
dR 1
[Given = cm / sec ]
dt 2
Problem 15. Find the angle of tangent drawn to the curve y = 3x 2 − 7x + 5 at the point (1, 1) with the x-
axis.
Solution : y = 3x 2 − 7x + 5
dy
Slope of tangent = = 6x − 7
dx
dy
at (1, 1) = −1  t an  = −1   = 135o.
dx
0.7 Integral Calculus.
The process of integration is just the reverse of differentiation. The symbol ∫ is used to denote
integration.
:: 17 ::
 If f(x) is the differential coefficient of function F(x) with respect to x, then by integrating f(x) we can
get F(x) again.
(1) Fundamental formulae of integration :

x n +1  sec
2
x dx = t an x
 x dx = , provided n  – 1
n

n +1

x 0 +1  cos ec x dx = − cot x
2

 dx =  x dx = =x
0

0+1

 (u + v) dx =  u dx +  v dx  sec x t an x dx = sec x
 cu dx = c  u dx  cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x
where c is a constant and u is a function
of x.
x n +1 (ax + b) n +1 (ax + b) n +1
 cx dx = c  (ax + b) dx = =
n n

n +1 d
(n + 1) (ax + b) a(n + 1)
dx
dx a a log e ( ax + b )
x 
−1
dx = = log e x
x  (ax + b) dx = d
= loge (ax + b)
(ax + b)
dx

 e dx = e
x x
e ax + b e ax + b
 e dx =
ax + b
=
d a
(ax + b)
dx

ax a cx + d a cx + d
a a
cx + d
x
dx = dx = =
log e a d
loge a (cx + d) c log e a
dx
t an(ax + b) t an ( ax + b)
 sin x dx = − cos x  sec (ax + b) dx =
2

d
=
(ax + b) a
dx
− cos n x − cot (ax + b) − cot (ax + v)
 sin n x dx =  cosec (ax + b) dx = =
2

n d a
(ax + b)
dx
sec(ax + b) sec(ax + b)
 cos x dx = sin x  sec(ax + b) t an (ax + b) dx = d
=
(ax + b) a
dx
sin n x − cosec(ax + b) −cosec(ax + b)
 cos n x dx = n  cosec(ax + b) cot (ax + b) dx = d
=
a
(ax + b)
dx
(2) Method of integration : Sometimes, we come across some functions which cannot be integrated
directly by using the standard integrals. In such cases, the integral of a function can be obtained by
using one or more of the following methods.

:: 18 ::
 (i) Integration by substitution : Those functions which cannot be integrated directly can be reduced
to standard integrand by making a suitable substitution and then can be integrated by using the
standard integrals. To understand the method, we take the few examples.
(ii) Integration by parts : This method of integration is based on the following rule :
Integral of a product of two functions = first function  integral of second function – integral of
(differential coefficient of first function  integral of second function).
 du 
Thus, if u and v are the functions of x, then  uv dx = u  v dx −   dx   v dx  dx

Problem 16. Integrate the following w.r.t. x

1
(i) x1/2 (ii) cot 2 x (iii)
1 − sin x
x 1/ 2 +1 2 3/ 2
Solution : (i)  x 1/ 2dx =
1
= (x )
+1 3
2

(ii)  cot 2 x dx =  (cosec2x − 1)dx =  cosec2x dx −  dx = − cot x − x

1  1 1 + sin x  1 + sin x 1 sin x

(iii)  1 − sin x
dx =   
 1 − sin x 1 + sin x 
 . dx =  1 − sin x 2
dx =  cos 2
x
+
cos 2 x
dx

=  (sec2 x + t an x sec x)dx = t an x + sec x.

(3) Definite integrals : When a function is integrated between definite limits, the integral is called
definite integral. For example,
b

 a
f(x) dx is definite integral of f(x) between the limits a and b and is written as
b

 a
f(x) dx =| F(x) | ab = F(b) − F(a)

Here a is called the lower limit and b is called the upper limit of integration.
b
Geometrically  a
f(x) dx equals to area of curve F(x) between the limits a and b.

6
Problem 17. Evaluate 
0
(2x 2 + 3x + 5)dx
6 6
 2x 3   3x 2 
+ 5x 0 = 144 + 54 + 30 =
6 6 6
6 6
Solution :  (2x + 3x + 5)dx =  2x dx +  3x dx +  5 dx = 
2
 + 
2

0 0 0 0
 3 0  2 0
228.
Problem 18. Integrate the following
2 1 / 2 r2 Kq 1q 2 / 4
(i)  0
x
dx (ii)  0
cos x dx (iii)  r1 r 2
.dr (iv)  0
t an 2 x dx

2
 x 1/ 2 
2
1 2 2
 
−1/ 2
dx = dx =   = 2x  0 = 2 2
1/ 2
Solution : (i) x
0 x 0
1 / 2 0

:: 19 ::
 / 2

 cos x dx =  sin x 
/ 2
(ii) 0
= sin =1
0
2

1 1 1 1
r2 r2 r
 1
2
q 1q 2 1
(iii)  k dx = k q 1q 2  2 dx = kq 1q 2  −  = − kq 1q 2  −  = kq 1q 2  − 
r1
r2 r1
r  r  r1  r2 r1   r1 r2 
/ 4 / 4

x − 1)dx =  t an x  0
/ 4
 t an 2 x dx =  (sec − [x] 0 / 4 = 1 −
2
(iv)
0 o
4
0.8 General Formulae for Area and Volume.
1. Area of square = (side)2
2. Area of rectangle = length  breadth
1
3. Area of triangle =  base  h eigh t
2
4. Area enclosed by a circle =  r 2 ; where r is radius
5. Surface area of sphere = 4  r 2
6. Surface area of cube = 6 L2 ; where L is a side of cube
7. Surface area of cuboid = 2  L  b + b  h + h  L ; where L= length, b = breadth, h = height
8. Area of curved surface of cylinder = 2 rl ; where r = radius, l = length of cylinder
9. Volume of cube = L3
10. Volume of cuboid = L  b  h
4
11. Volume of sphere =  r3
3
12. Volume of cylinder =  r 2 l
1
13. Volume of cone =  r 2h
2
0.9 Introduction of Vector.
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and obeying laws of vector algebra are called
vectors.
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, impulse, weight, thrust,
torque, angular momentum, angular velocity etc.
If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction both, then it does not always imply that it is a
vector. For it to be a vector the third condition of obeying laws of vector algebra has to be satisfied.
Example : The physical quantity current has both magnitude and direction but is still a scalar as it
disobeys the laws of vector algebra.
0.10 Types of Vector.
(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be equal when they have equal magnitudes and same
direction.
(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors A and B are said to be parallel when
(i) Both have same direction.
(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero multiple of another vector.

:: 20 ::
 (3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be anti-parallel when
(i) Both have opposite direction.
(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple of another vector.
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under consideration can share the same support or have a
common support then the considered vectors are collinear.
(5) Zero vector (0) : A vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary direction (not known to us) is a
zero vector.
(6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude is a unit vector. Unit vector for A is  (read as A
cap / A hat).
A ˆ .
Since, Â =  A = AA
A
Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the direction.
(7) Orthogonal unit vectors : ˆi , ˆj and k̂ are called orthogonal unit vectors. These vectors must
form a Right Handed Triad (It is a coordinate system such that when we y
Curl the fingers of right hand from x to y then we must get the direction of
z along thumb). The ˆj

x
x y z kˆ
î = , ĵ = , k̂ = î
x y z
z
 x = xiˆ , y = yjˆ , z = zkˆ
(8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or point of application. Example displacement and
force etc.
(9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational effects and are always along the axis of rotation in
accordance with right hand screw rule. Angular velocity, torque and angular momentum, etc., are
example of physical quantities of this type.
Axial vector Axis of rotation

Anticlock wise rotation Clock wise rotation

Axis of rotation Axial vector

(10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors are called coplanar vector if they lie in the same
plane. Two (free) vectors are always coplanar.
0.11 Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors.
If two non zero vectors are represented by the two sides of a triangle taken in same order then the
resultant is given by the closing side of triangle in opposite order. i.e. R = A + B
 OB = OA + AB B

R = A+ B

(1) Magnitude of resultant vector B

AN O A
In  ABN cos  =  AN = Bcos  A
B

:: 21 ::
 BN
sin  =  BN = Bsin 
B
In OBN, we have OB2 = ON2 + BN2 B

 R = (A + Bcos ) + (Bsin )
2 2 2
R
B sin
B
 R = A + B cos  + 2ABcos  + B sin 
2 2 2 2 2 2  
O A A N
 R2 = A2 + B2 (cos2  + sin 2 ) + 2ABcos  B cos

 R = A + B + 2ABcos 
2 2 2

 R= A2 + B2 + 2ABcos 
(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If  is angle between A and B, then
| A + B| = A2 + B2 + 2ABcos 
If R makes an angle  with A, then in OBN, then
BN BN
t an  = =
ON OA + AN
Bsin 
t an  =
A + Bcos 
0.12 Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors.
If two non zero vector are represented by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the
resultant is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the point of
intersection of the two vectors.
(1) Magnitude
Since, R2 = ON2 + CN2 B C

 R = (OA + AN) + CN
2 2 2
R = A+ B
B B sin
 R = A + B + 2ABcos 
2 2 2
B
 

 R = | R | = | A + B| = A + B + 2ABcos 
2 2
O N
A
A B cos
Special cases : R = A + B when  = 0o
R = A − B when  = 180o
R= A2 + B2 when  = 90o
(2) Direction
CN Bsin 
t an  = =
ON A + Bcos 
0.13 Polygon Law of Vector Addition.
If a number of non zero vectors are represented by the (n – 1) sides of an n-sided polygon then the
resultant is given by the closing side or the nth side of the polygon taken in opposite order. So,
R = A + B + C+ D + E
OA + AB + BC + CD + DE = OE

:: 22 ::
 D D C

E C

E B

Note : ❑ Resultant of two unequal vectors can not be zero.

R B
❑ Resultant of three co-planar vectors may or may not be zero
O A
❑ Resultant of three non co- planar vectors can not be zero. A

0.14 Subtraction of Vectors.

Since, A − B = A + ( − B) and | A + B| = A2 + B2 + 2ABcos 
 | A − B| = A2 + B2 + 2ABcos(180 o − )
Since, cos(180 − ) = − cos  R sum = A + B

 | A − B| = A2 + B2 − 2ABcos 
B
 1
Bsin  2 A
t an  1 = −B
180 – 

A + Bcos 
Bsin (180 − )
and t an  2 = R diff = A + ( − B )
A + Bcos (180 − )
But sin(180 − ) = sin  and cos(180 − ) = − cos 
Bsin 
 t an  2 =
A − Bcos 

Sample problem based on addition and subtraction of vectors

Problem 19. A car travels 6 km towards north at an angle of 45° to the east and then travels distance of
4 km towards north at an angle of 135° to the east. How far is the point from the starting
point. What angle does the straight line joining its initial and final position makes with the
east
(a) 50 km and t an −1 (5) (b) 10 km and t an −1 ( 5)

(c) 52 km and t an −1 (5) (d) 52 km and t an −1 ( 5)

Solution : (c) Net movement along x-direction Sx = (6 – 4) cos 45° î N

1 4 km
= 2 = 2 km 6 km
2 45o
W E(X)
O
Net movement along y-direction Sy = (6 + 4) sin 45° ĵ
1
= 10  = 5 2 km S (Y)
2

( 2 ) + (5 2 )
2 2
Net movement from starting point | s | = s x 2 + s y 2 = = 52 km

Y − component 5 2
Angle which makes with the east direction t an  = =
X − component 2

  = t an −1 (5)

:: 23 ::
Problem 20. There are two force vectors, one of 5 N and other of 12 N at what angle the two vectors be
added to get resultant vector of 17 N, 7 N and 13 N respectively
(a) 0°, 180° and 90° (b) 0°, 90° and 180° (c) 0°, 90° and 90° (d) 180°, 0° and
90°
Solution : (a) For 17 N both the vector should be parallel i.e. angle between them should be zero.
For 7 N both the vectors should be antiparallel i.e. angle between them should be 180°
For 13 N both the vectors should be perpendicular to each other i.e. angle between them
should be 90°
Problem 21. Given that A + B + C = 0 out of three vectors two are equal in magnitude and the magnitude
of third vector is 2 times that of either of the two having equal magnitude. Then the
angles between vectors are given by
(a) 30°, 60°, 90° (b) 45°, 45°, 90° (c) 45°, 60°, 90° (d) 90°, 135°, 135°
Solution : (d) From polygon law, three vectors having summation zero should
form a closed polygon. (Triangle) since the two vectors are having 

same magnitude and the third vector is 2 times that of either of

two having equal magnitude. i.e. the triangle should be right C B

angled triangle 

Angle between A and B,  = 90º  A

Angle between B and C,  = 135º

Angle between A and C,  = 135º
Problem 22. If A = 4iˆ − 3ˆj and B = 6iˆ + 8 ˆj then magnitude and direction of A + B will be

(a) 5, t an −1 (3 / 4) (b) 5 5, t an −1 (1 / 2) (c) 10, t an −1 (5) (d) 25, t an −1 (3 / 4)

Solution : (b) A + B = 4iˆ − 3ˆj + 6iˆ + 8 ˆj = 10iˆ + 5 ˆj

| A + B| = (10)2 + (5)2 = 5 5

5 1 1
t an  = =   = t an −1  
10 2 2
Problem 23. A truck travelling due north at 20 m/s turns west and travels at the same speed. The change
in its velocity be
(a) 40 m/s N–W (b) 20 2 m/s N–W (c) 40 m/s S–W (d) 20 2 m/s S–W
Solution : (d) From fig. v1 =20 m/s

v 1 = 20 ˆj and v 2 = −20iˆ v2 =20 m/s

 O
 v = v 2 − v 1 = − 20(iˆ + ˆj)
v – v1
|  v | = 20 2 and direction  = t an −1 (1) = 45  i.e. S–W

Problem 24. If the sum of two unit vectors is a unit vector, then magnitude of difference is
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 1 / 2 (d) 5

:: 24 ::
Solution : (b) Let n̂ 1 and n̂ 2 are the two unit vectors, then the sum is

n s = nˆ 1 + nˆ 2 or n 2s = n 12 + n 22 + 2n 1 n 2 cos  = 1 + 1 + 2 cos 

Since it is given that n s is also a unit vector, therefore 1 = 1 + 1 + 2 cos 

1
or cos  = − or  = 120 
2
Now the difference vector is n d = n 1 − n 2 or
n 2d = n 12 + n 22 − 2n 1 n 2 cos  = 1 + 1 − 2cos(120)

 n 2d = 2 − 2( − 1 / 2) = 2 + 1 = 3  nd = 3
Problem 25. The sum of the magnitudes of two forces acting at point is 18 and the magnitude of their
resultant is 12. If the resultant is at 90° with the force of smaller magnitude, what are the,
magnitudes of forces
(a) 12, 5 (b) 14, 4 (c) 5, 13 (d) 10, 8
Solution : (c) Let P be the smaller force and Q be the greater force then according to problem –
P + Q = 18 ......(i)
R= P2 + Q2 + 2PQcos  = 12 .......(ii)
Qsin 
t an  = = t an 90 = 
P + Qcos 
 P + Q cos  = 0 .......(iii)
By solving (i), (ii) and (iii) we will get P = 5, and Q = 13
Problem 26. Two forces F1 = 1 N and F2 = 2 N act along the lines x = 0 and y = 0 respectively. Then the
resultant of forces would be
(a) ˆi + 2 ˆj (b) ˆi + ˆj (c) 3iˆ + 2 ˆj (d) 2iˆ + ˆj
Solution : (d) x = 0 means y-axis  F1 = ˆj

y = 0 means x-axis  F2 = 2iˆ so resultant F = F1 + F2 = 2iˆ + ˆj

Problem 27. Let A = 2iˆ + ˆj, B = 3ˆj − kˆ and C = 6iˆ − 2kˆ value of A − 2B + 3C would be

(a) 20iˆ + 5 ˆj + 4kˆ (b) 20iˆ − 5 ˆj − 4kˆ (c) 4iˆ + 5 ˆj + 20kˆ (d) 5iˆ + 4 ˆj + 10kˆ

Solution : (b) A − 2B + 3C = (2iˆ + ˆj) − 2(3 ˆj − k)

ˆ + 3(6iˆ − 2k)
ˆ

= 2iˆ + ˆj − 6 ˆj + 2kˆ + 18iˆ − 6kˆ

= 20iˆ − 5 ˆj − 4kˆ

Problem 28. A vector a is turned without a change in its length through a small angle d . The value of
|  a | and  a are respectively

(a) 0, a d (b) a d, 0 (c) 0, 0 (d) None of these

:: 25 ::
Solution : (b) From the figure | OA | = a and | OB | = a
B
Also from triangle rule OB − OA = AB =  a  |  a | = AB a
arc
 AB = a . d
a
Using angle = A
radius
d a
So |  a | = a d
O
 a means change in magnitude of vector i.e. | OB | − | OA |  a − a = 0

So  a = 0

Problem 29. An object of m kg with speed of v m/s strikes a wall at an angle  and rebounds at the same
speed and same angle. The magnitude of the change in momentum of the object will be

v   v
1 2
0 0

(a) 2m v cos  (b) 2m v sin  (c) 0 (d) 2m v

Solution : (a) P1 = m v sin  ˆi − m v cos  ˆj and P2 = m v sin  ˆi + m v cos  ˆj y

p2
p1
So change in momentum  P = P2 − P1 = 2 m v cos  ˆj  

|  P | = 2 m v cos  x

0.15 Resolution of Vector Into Components.

Consider a vector R in x-y plane as shown in fig. If we draw orthogonal vectors Rx and Ry along x
and y axes respectively, by law of vector addition, R = Rx + R y y

Now as for any vector A = Anˆ so, Rx = ˆiRx and Ry = ˆjRy Ry R


R = ˆiRx + ˆjRy
x
so .....(i) Rx

But from fig Rx = Rcos  .....(ii)

and Ry = Rsin  .....(iii)

Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii) and (iii) give the magnitude of the components of R
along x and y-axes respectively.
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved into its components, the components themselves
can be used to specify the vector as –
(1) The magnitude of the vector R is obtained by squaring and adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.
R= R2x + R2y

:: 26 ::
 (2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by dividing equation (iii) by (ii), i.e.
t an  = (Ry / Rx ) or  = t an −1 (Ry / Rx )

0.16 Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector.

R = Rx + Ry + Rz or R = Rx ˆi + Ry ˆj + Rz kˆ

If R makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis and  with z axis, then
Rx Rx
 cos  = = =l Y
R R +R +R
2
x
2
y
2
z

Ry Ry
 cos  = = =m Ry R
R R2x + R2y + R2z Rx

Rz
X
Rz Rz
 cos  = = =n Z
R R2x + R2y + R2z

where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the vector R

R2x + R2y + R2z
l2 + m2 + n 2 = cos2  + cos2  + cos2  = =1
R2x + R2y + R2z

Note : ❑ When a point P have coordinate (x, y, z) then its position vector OP = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ
❑ When a particle moves from point (x1, y1, z1) to (x2, y2, z2) then its displacement vector
→
r = (x 2 − x 1 ) ˆi + (y 2 − y 1 ) ˆj + (z 2 − z 1 )kˆ
Sample problem based on representation and resolution of vector
Problem 30. If a particle moves 5 m in +x- direction. The displacement of the particle will be
(a) 5 j (b) 5 i (c) – 5 j (d) 5 k
Solution : (b) Magnitude of vector = 5

Unit vector in +x direction is î

y
So displacement = 5 î
5 î
x
O

Problem 31. Position of a particle in a rectangular-co-ordinate system is (3, 2, 5). Then its position
vector will be
(a) 3iˆ + 5 ˆj + 2kˆ (b) 3iˆ + 2 ˆj + 5kˆ (c) 5iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2kˆ (d) None of these
Solution : (b) If a point have coordinate (x, y, z) then its position vector OP = xiˆ + yjˆ + zk.
ˆ

Problem 32. If a particle moves from point P (2,3,5) to point Q (3,4,5). Its displacement vector be
(a) ˆi + ˆj + 10kˆ (b) ˆi + ˆj + 5kˆ (c) ˆi + ˆj (d) 2iˆ + 4 ˆj + 6kˆ

:: 27 ::
Solution : (c) Displacement vector r =  xiˆ +  yjˆ +  zkˆ = (3 − 2)iˆ + (4 − 3) ˆj + (5 − 5)kˆ = ˆi + ˆj
Problem 33. A force of 5 N acts on a particle along a direction making an angle of 60° with vertical. Its
vertical component be
(a) 10 N (b) 3 N (c) 4 N (d) 5.2 N
Solution : (d) The component of force in vertical direction will be
Fcos  = Fcos 60  y
F
1

F cos
= 5 = 2.5 N

60o
2 60o
x
F sin 60o

Problem 34. If A = 3iˆ + 4 ˆj and B = 7iˆ + 24 ˆj, the vector having the same magnitude as B and parallel to
A is
(a) 5iˆ + 20 ˆj (b) 15iˆ + 10 ˆj (c) 20iˆ + 15 ˆj (d) 15iˆ + 20 ˆj

Solution : (d) | B| = 72 + (24)2 = 625 = 25

3iˆ + 4 ˆj
Unit vector in the direction of A will be  =
5

 3iˆ + 4 ˆj 
So required vector = 25   = 15iˆ + 20 ˆj
 5 

Problem 35. Vector A makes equal angles with x, y and z axis. Value of its components (in terms of
magnitude of A ) will be
A A 3
(a) (b) (c) 3A (d)
3 2 A

Solution : (a) Let the components of A makes angles ,  and  with x, y and z axis respectively then
==
1
cos2  + cos2  + cos2  = 1  3cos2  = 1  cos  =
3
A
 Ax = Ay = Az = Acos  =
3

Problem 36. If A = 2iˆ + 4 ˆj − 5kˆ the direction of cosines of the vector A are
2 4 −5 1 2 3
(a) , and (b) , and
45 45 45 45 45 45
4 4 3 2 5
(c) , 0 and (d) , and
45 45 45 45 45

Solution : (a) | A | = (2)2 + (4)2 + ( −5)2 = 45

2 4 −5
 cos  = , cos  = , cos  =
45 45 45

:: 28 ::
Problem 37. The vector that must be added to the vector ˆi − 3ˆj + 2kˆ and 3iˆ + 6 ˆj − 7kˆ so that the
resultant vector is a unit vector along the y-axis is
(a) 4iˆ + 2 ˆj + 5kˆ (b) − 4iˆ − 2 ˆj + 5kˆ (c) 3iˆ + 4 ˆj + 5kˆ (d) Null vector

Solution : (b) Unit vector along y axis = ĵ so the required vector

= ˆj − [(iˆ − 3ˆj + 2k) ˆ = − 4iˆ − 2 ˆj + 5kˆ

ˆ + (3iˆ + 6 ˆj − 7k)]

0.17 Scalar Product of Two Vectors.

(1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors is defined as the product of the
magnitude of two vectors with cosine of angle between them.
Thus if there are two vectors A and B having angle  between them, then their scalar product
written as A. B is defined as A. B = ABcos 
(2) Properties : (i) It is always a scalar which is positive if angle between the vectors is acute (i.e., <
90°) and negative if angle between them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< < 180°).
(ii) It is commutative, i.e. A. B = B. A
B
(iii) It is distributive, i.e. A. (B + C) = A. B + A. C

(iv) As by definition A. B = ABcos 
 A. B  A
The angle between the vectors  = cos −1  
 AB 
(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when cos  = max = 1, i.e.  = 0o ,
i.e., vectors are parallel
(A. B)max = AB

(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when | cos  | = min = 0, i.e.  = 90o

(A. B) min = 0

i.e., if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors vanishes the vectors are orthogonal.
(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self dot product and is given by
(A)2 = A. A = AAcos  = A2

i.e., A = A. A

(viii) In case of unit vector n̂

nˆ . nˆ = 1  1  cos 0 = 1 so nˆ . nˆ = ˆi . ˆi = ˆj. ˆj = kˆ . kˆ = 1

(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors ˆi, ˆj and k̂, ˆi . ˆj = ˆj. kˆ = kˆ . ˆi = 1  1 cos 90 = 0

(x) In terms of components A. B= (iAx + jAy + kAz ).(iBx + jBy + kBz ) = [Ax Bx + Ay By + AZBz ]
(3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for constant force work is defined as,

:: 29 ::
 W = Fs cos  .......(i)
But by definition of scalar product of two vectors,
F. s = Fs cos  .......(ii)

So from eqn (i) and (ii) W = F.s i.e. work is the scalar product of force with displacement.
(ii) Power P :
dW ds
As W = F. s or = F. [As F is constant]
dt dt
 dW ds 
or P = F. v i.e., power is the scalar product of force with velocity.  As = P and = v
 dt dt 
(iii) Magnetic Flux  : 
ds 
Magnetic flux through an area is given by d = Bds cos  ......(i) B

But by definition of scalar product B. d s = Bds cos  ......(ii) 

n
So from eq (i) and (ii) we have
O

d  = B. d s or  =  B. ds

(iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric dipole of moment p is situated in an electric field
E or a magnetic dipole of moment M in a field of induction B, the potential energy of the dipole is given
by :
UE = − p . E and UB = − M. B

Sample problem based on dot product

Problem 38. A = 2iˆ + 4 ˆj + 4kˆ and B = 4iˆ + 2 ˆj − 4kˆ are two vectors. The angle between them will be
(a) 0° (b) 45° (c) 60° (d) 90°
.B a 1 b1 + a 2 b2 + a 3 b 3 2 4 + 4 2 − 4  4
Solution : (d) cos  = = = =0
|  | .| B | |  | .| B | | A | .| B |
  = cos −1 (0 )   = 90
Problem 39. If two vectors 2iˆ + 3ˆj − kˆ and − 4iˆ − 6 ˆj −  kˆ are parallel to each other then value of  be
(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Solution : (c) Let A = 2iˆ + 3ˆj − kˆ and B = −4iˆ − 6 ˆj +  kˆ
a1 a2 a3 2 3 −1
A and B are parallel to each other = = i.e. = =   = 2.
b1 b2 b3 −4 −6 
Problem 40. In above example if vectors are perpendicular to each other then value of  be
(a) 25 (b) 26 (c) – 26 (d) – 25
Solution : (c) If A and B are perpendicular to each other then A. B = 0  a 1 b1 + a 2 b2 + a 3 b3 = 0
So, 2( −4) + 3( −6) + ( −1)( ) = 0   = −26
Problem 41. If  = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj − kˆ and B = − ˆi + 3ˆj + 4kˆ then projection of A on B will be

:: 30 ::
 3 3 3 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
13 26 26 13

Solution : (b) |  | = 22 + 32 + ( −1)2 = 4 + 9 + 1 = 14

| B| = ( −1)2 + 32 + 42 = 1 + 9 + 16 = 26

A. B = 2( − 1) + 3  3 + ( − 1)(4) = 3
A. B 3
The projection of A on B = =
| B| 26
Problem 42. A body, acted upon by a force of 50 N is displaced through a distance 10 meter in a direction
making an angle of 60° with the force. The work done by the force be
(a) 200 J (b) 100 J (c) 300 (d) 250 J
1
Solution : (d) W = F. S = FScos  = 50  10  cos 60  = 50  10  = 250 J.
2
Problem 43. A particle moves from position 3iˆ + 2 ˆj − 6kˆ to 14iˆ + 13ˆj + 9kˆ due to a uniform force of
4iˆ + ˆj + 3kˆ N. If the displacement in meters then work done will be
(a) 100 J (b) 200 J (c) 300 J (d) 250 J
Solution : (a) S = r2 − r1
W = F. S = (4iˆ + ˆj + 3k).
ˆ (11iˆ + 11 ˆj + 15k)
ˆ = (4  11 + 1  11 + 3  15) = 100 J.

Problem 44. If for two vector A and B , sum (A + B) is perpendicular to the difference (A − B) . The ratio
of their magnitude is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) None of these
Solution : (a) (A + B) is perpendicular to (A − B) . Thus
(A + B) . (A − B) = 0 or A2 + B. A − A. B − B2 = 0
Because of commutative property of dot product A.B = B.A
 A2 − B2 = 0 or A = B
Thus the ratio of magnitudes A/B = 1
Problem 45. A force F = − K(yiˆ + xj)
ˆ (where K is a positive constant) acts on a particle moving in the x-

y plane. Starting from the origin, the particle is taken along the positive x- axis to the point
(a, 0) and then parallel to the y-axis to the point (a, a). The total work done by the forces F
on the particle is
(a) − 2 Ka 2 (b) 2 Ka 2 (c) −Ka 2 (d) Ka 2
Solution : (c) For motion of the particle form (0, 0) to (a, 0)
F = − K(0 ˆi + a ˆj)  F = − Kajˆ

Displacement r = (a ˆi + 0 ˆj) − (0 ˆi + 0 ˆj) = aiˆ

ˆ aiˆ = 0
So work done from (0, 0) to (a, 0) is given by W = F. r = − Kaj.
For motion (a, 0) to (a, a)
ˆ and displacement r = (aiˆ + aj)
F = − K(aiˆ + aj) ˆ − (aiˆ + 0 ˆj) = ajˆ

So work done from (a, 0) to (a, a) W = F. r = − K(aiˆ + aj).

ˆ ajˆ = − Ka 2

:: 31 ::
 So total work done = −Ka 2

0.18 Vector Product of Two Vector.

(1) Definition : The vector product or cross product of two vectors is defined as a vector having a
magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle between them, and
direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors in accordance with right hand screw rule.
C= A B
Thus, if A and B are two vectors, then their vector product written as A  B is a vector C defined
by
C = A  B = ABsin  nˆ

The direction of A  B, i.e. C is perpendicular to the plane

containing vectors A and B and in the sense of advance of a right
handed screw rotated from A (first vector) to B (second vector) through
the smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right handed screw whose
axis is perpendicular to the plane framed by A and B is rotated from A
to B through the smaller angle between them, then the direction of advancement of the screw gives the
direction of A  B i.e. C
(2) Properties :
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a vector perpendicular to the plane containing these
two vectors, i.e., orthogonal to both the vectors A and B, though the vectors A and B may or may not be
orthogonal.
(ii) Vector product of two vectors is not commutative, i.e., A  B  B  A [but = − B  A]
Here it is worthy to note that
| A  B | =| B  A | = ABsin 
i.e., in case of vector A  B and B  A magnitudes are equal but directions are opposite.
(iii) The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors is strictly maintained, i.e.
A  (B + C) = A  B + A  C
(iv) As by definition of vector product of two vectors A  B = ABsin  nˆ
 | A B| 
So | A  B | = ABsin  i.e.,  = sin −1  
| A | | B | 
(v) The vector product of two vectors will be maximum when sin  = max = 1, i.e.,  = 90o
[A  B]max = AB nˆ
i.e., vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal.
(vi) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be minimum when | sin  | = minimum = 0, i.e.,
 = 0o or 180 o
[A  B]min = 0
i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, the vectors are collinear.

:: 32 ::
 (vii) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself vanishes, i.e., is null vector
A  A = AAsin 0 o nˆ = 0

(viii) In case of unit vector nˆ  nˆ = 0 so that ˆi  ˆi = ˆj  ˆj = kˆ  kˆ = 0

(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, ˆi, ˆj, kˆ in accordance with right hand screw rule :
ˆj ˆj

kˆ
î î

kˆ

ˆi  ˆj = k,
ˆ ˆj  kˆ = ˆi and kˆ  ˆi = ˆj
And as cross product is not commutative,
ˆj  ˆi = − kˆ kˆ  ˆj = − ˆi and ˆi  kˆ = − ˆj

(x) In terms of components

ˆi ˆj kˆ
A  B = Ax Ay Az = ˆi(Ay Bz − Az By ) + ˆj(Az Bx − Ax Bz ) + k(A
ˆ
x By − Ay Bx )

Bx By Bz

(3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors is a vector, vector physical quantities (particularly
representing rotational effects) like torque, angular momentum, velocity and force on a moving charge
in a magnetic field and can be expressed as the vector product of two vectors. It is well – established
in physics that :
(i) Torque  = r  F
(ii) Angular momentum L = r  p
(iii) Velocity v =   r
(iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B is given by
F = q(v  B)

(v) Torque on a dipole in a field  E = p  E and  B = M  B

Sample problem based on vector product
Problem 46. If A = 3iˆ + ˆj + 2kˆ and B = 2iˆ − 2ˆj + 4kˆ then value of | A  B | will be

(a) 8 2 (b) 8 3 (c) 8 5 (d) 5 8

ˆi ˆj kˆ
Solution : (b) A  B = 3 1 2 = (1  4 − 2  − 2)iˆ + (2  2 − 4  3) ˆj + (3  − 2 − 1  2)kˆ = 8iˆ − 8 ˆj − 8kˆ
2 −2 4

 Magnitude of A B= | A  B| = (8)2 + ( −8)2 + ( −8)2 = 8 3

Problem 47. In above example a unit vector perpendicular to both A and B will be
1 ˆ ˆ ˆ 1 ˆ ˆ ˆ
(a) + (i − j − k) (b) − (i − j − k) (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
3 3

:: 33 ::
 A B 8iˆ − 8 ˆj − 8kˆ 1 ˆ ˆ ˆ
Solution : (c) n̂ = = = (i − j − k)
| A B | 8 3 3
1 ˆ ˆ ˆ
There are two unit vectors perpendicular to both A and B they are n̂ =  (i − j − k)
3

Problem 48. The vectors from origin to the points A and B are A = 3iˆ − 6 ˆj + 2kˆ and B = 2iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ
respectively. The area of the triangle OAB be
5 2 3 5
(a) 17 sq.unit (b) 17 sq.unit (c) 17 sq.unit (d) 17 sq.unit
2 5 5 3

Solution : (a) Given OA = a = 3iˆ − 6 ˆj + 2kˆ and OB = b = 2iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ

ˆi ˆj kˆ
 (a  b) = 3 −6 2 = (12 − 2)iˆ + (4 + 6) ˆj + (3 + 12)kˆ
2 1 −2

= 10iˆ + 10 ˆj + 15kˆ  | a  b | = 102 + 102 + 152 = 425 = 5 17

1 5 17
Area of  OAB = | a b|= sq.unit.
2 2
Problem 49.The angle between the vectors A and B is . The value of the triple product A. (B  A) is
(a) A2B (b) Zero (c) A2Bsin  (d) A2Bcos 
Solution : (b) Let A.(B A) = A. C
Here C = B  A Which is perpendicular to both vector A and B  A. C = 0
Problem 50. The torque of the force F = (2iˆ − 3 ˆj + 4kˆ )N acting at the point r = (3iˆ + 2ˆj + 3k)
ˆ m about the
origin be [CBSE PMT 1995]
(a) 6iˆ − 6 ˆj + 12kˆ (b) 17iˆ − 6 ˆj − 13kˆ (c) − 6iˆ + 6 ˆj − 12kˆ (d) − 17iˆ + 6 ˆj + 13kˆ
ˆi ˆj kˆ
Solution : (b)  = r  F = 3 2 3
2 −3 4

= (2  4) − (3  −3) ˆi + (2  3) − (3  4)  ˆj + (3  −3) − (2  2)  kˆ = 17 ˆi − 6 ˆj − 13 kˆ

Problem 51. If A  B = C, then which of the following statements is wrong

(a) C⊥ A (b) C⊥ B (c) C⊥ (A + B) (d) C⊥ (A  B)
Solution : (d) From the property of vector product, we notice that C must be perpendicular to the plane
formed by vector A and B . Thus C is perpendicular to both A and B and (A + B) vector
also must lie in the plane formed by vector A and B . Thus C must be perpendicular to
(A + B) also but the cross product (A  B) gives a vector C which can not be perpendicular
to itself. Thus the last statement is wrong.
Problem 52. If a particle of mass m is moving with constant velocity v parallel to x-axis in x-y plane as
shown in fig. Its angular momentum with respect to origin at any time t will be
(a) mvb kˆ (b) − mvb kˆ (c) mvb ˆi (d) mv ˆi

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Solution : (b) We know that, Angular momentum y
ˆi ˆj kˆ
m
v
b
L = r  p in terms of component becomes L = x y z
x
px py pz O

As motion is in x-y plane (z = 0 and Pz = 0 ), so L = k (xp y − yp x )

Here x = vt, y = b, p x = m v and p y = 0

 L = k  vt  0 − b mv  = −mvb kˆ
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