A Strong Partner for Sustainable

Development

Module 2
In
SS 113
Course Code

Comparative Government
and Politics

College of Education
Bachelor of Secondary Education
 Module No. 2

Forms of Government

1st Semester _2021-2022_

DAVID R. PEREZ
Associate Professor V

\INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

This module would provide you an educational experience while

independently accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims
as well to ensure that learning is unhampered by health and other
challenges. It covers the topic about The Forms of Government

Reminders in using this module:

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 1. Keep this material neat and intact.
2. Answer the pretest first to measure what you know and what
to be learned about the topic discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and
reinforcement for better understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to
social media platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and
honestly answering and doing the exercises and activities.
Time and effort were spent in the preparation in order that
learning will still continue amidst this Covid-19 pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain
physical distancing.

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Introduction

This module introduces students to the discipline of Comparative

Politics. It examines the origins of political systems, regime formation
and processes of a range of states from all regions of the world from a
comparative perspective.

This module will also study the political institutions, identities, and
organized interests in countries around the world. Emphasis is on how to
make meaningful comparisons between systems in different countries.
Towards that goal, we will be looking at a dozen countries with different
histories, political systems, and from various regions around the world.
We will also use a comparative framework to use our knowledge of these

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(and other) countries to examine questions about democracies and
democratization, electoral systems and political parties, authoritarian
regimes, political mobilization and change, economic development and
globalization, nationalism and identity politics, among other topics. The
meta theme of this course is the comparative method as a unique way of
leveraging our understanding about social and political phenomena.

Overview

The course enables the students to demonstrate an understanding

in comparing countries, regional blocks, and the state system in terms of
their current politico-economic conditions as shaped by socio-cultural
and historical factors.

Course Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course, the students can:

Lesson 1. Monarchy
A. Learning outcomes:

B. Time Allotment

C. Discussion
1. Monarchy
2. Aristocracy
3. Democracy
4. Republican Government
5. Parliamentary Government
6. Presidential Government
7. Communist Government
8. Totalitarian Government
9. Authoritarian Government

● Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well

as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. States
are served by a continuous succession of different governments.
● Governments with Aristarchy attributes are traditionally ruled by
the “best” people. Examples include aristocracy, technocracy and
meritocracy.
● Governments with autocratic attributes are ruled by one person
who has all the power over the people in a country. Examples
include authoritarian, totalitarian and fascist governments.
● Governments with democratic attributes are most common in the
Western world and in some countries of the east. In democracies,

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 all of the people in a country can vote during elections for
representatives or political parties that they prefer.
● Governments with monarchic attributes are ruled by a king or a
queen who inherits their position from their family, which is often
called the royal family.
● Governments with oligarchic attributes are ruled by a small group
of powerful and/or influential people. These people may spread
power equally or not equally.
● Plutocracy defines a society or a system ruled and dominated by
the small minority of the wealthiest citizens. Unlike systems such
as democracy, capitalism, socialism or anarchism, plutocracy is not
rooted in an established political philosophy and has no formal
advocates
● government: The body with the power to make and/or enforce
laws to control a country, land area, people or organization.
● state: A political division of a federation retaining a degree of
autonomy, for example one of the fifty United States.

Government
Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well
as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A form of
government, or form of state governance, refers to the set of political
institutions by which a government of a state is organized (synonyms
include “regime type” and “system of government”). Governments
consist of two broad interplaying elements that generally determine how
a government is coded: the power source and the power structure. Power
source refers to the individuals and institutions that exercise governing
authority over a state and the means by which they obtain their power,
while power structure refers to the system by which they are organized.

In the case of its broad definition, government normally consists of

legislators, administrators, and arbitrators. Government is the means by
which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining
the policy of the state. States are served by a continuous succession of
different governments. Each successive government is composed of a
body of individuals who control and exercise control over political
decision-making. Their function is to make and enforce laws and
arbitrate conflicts. In some societies, this group is often a self-
perpetuating or hereditary class. In other societies, such as democracies,
the political roles remain, but there is frequent turnover of the people
actually filling the positions.

Forms of Government
Governments with Aristarchy attributes are traditionally ruled by
the “best” people. Aristocracy refers to the rule by elite citizens; a system

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of governance in which a person who rules in an aristocracy is an
aristocrat. It has come to mean rule by “the aristocracy” who are people
of noble birth. A meritocracy refers to rule by the meritorious; a system
of governance where groups are selected on the basis of people’s ability,
knowledge in a given area, and contributions to society. Finally, a
technocracy refers to rule by the educated; a system of governance
where people who are skilled or proficient govern in their respective
areas of expertise in technology would be in control of all decision
making. Doctors, engineers, scientists, professionals and technologists
who have knowledge, expertise, or skills, would compose the governing
body, instead of politicians, businessmen, and economists.

Governments with autocratic attributes are ruled by one person

who has all the power over the people in a country. The Roman Republic
made Dictators to lead during times of war. In modern times, an
Autocrat’s rule is not stopped by any rules of law, constitutions, or other
social and political institutions. After World War II, many governments in
Latin America, Asia, and Africa were ruled by autocratic governments.

Governments with democratic attributes are most common in the

Western world and in some countries of the east. In democracies, all of
the people in a country can vote during elections for representatives or
political parties that they prefer. The people in democracies can elect
representatives who will sit on legislatures such as the Parliament or
Congress. Political parties are organizations of people with similar ideas
about how a country or region should be governed. Different political
parties have different ideas about how the government should handle
different problems. Democracy is the government of the people, by the
people, for the people.

Governments with monarchic attributes are ruled by a king or a

queen who inherits their position from their family, which is often called
the “royal family. ” There are at two opposing types of monarchies:
absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. In an absolute
monarchy, the ruler has no limits on their wishes or powers. In a
constitutional monarchy a ruler’s powers are limited by a document
called a constitution.

Governments with oligarchic attributes are ruled by a small group

of powerful and/or influential people. These people may spread power
equally or not equally. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy
because very few people are given the chance to change things. An
oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or monarchic. An oligarchy does
not have one clear ruler, but several powerful people. Some historical
examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
and Apartheid in South Africa. Fictional oligarchic examples include the
dystopian society of Oceania displayed in the book Nineteen Eighty-Four,
the stratocracy government of Starship Troopers, and the kritarchic
“Street Judges” of Judge Dredd.

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● Democracy allows people to participate equally—either directly or
through elected representatives—in the proposal, development,
and creation of laws. It encompasses social, economic and cultural
conditions that enable the free and equal practice of political self-
determination.
● A democratic government contrasts to forms of government where
power is either held by one, as in a monarchy, or where power is
held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy or
aristocracy.
● Direct democracy is a form of democracy in which people vote on
policy initiatives directly. This is different from a representative
democracy, in which people vote for representatives who then vote
on policy initiatives.
● Representative democracy is a variety of democracy founded on the
principle of elected people representing a group of people. For
example, three countries which use representative democracy are
the United States of America, the United Kingdom, and Poland.
● The concept of representative democracy arose largely from ideas
and institutions that developed during the European Middle Ages,
the Age of Enlightenment, and the American and French
Revolutions.

● direct democracy: Direct democracy is a form of democracy in

which people vote on policy initiatives directly, as opposed to a
representative democracy in which people vote for representatives
who then vote on policy initiatives. Depending on the particular
system in use, it might entail passing executive decisions, making
laws, directly electing or dismissing officials and conducting trials.
Two leading forms of direct democracy are participatory
democracy and deliberative democracy.
● representative democracy: Representative democracy is a variety
of democracy founded on the principle of elected people
representing a group of people.
● democracy: A government under the direct or representative rule
of the people of its jurisdiction.
● Democracy is a form of government in which all eligible citizens
have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Democracy
allows people to participate equally—either directly or through
elected representatives—in the proposal, development, and
creation of laws. It encompasses social, economic, and cultural
conditions that enable the free and equal practice of political self-
determination. The term originates from the Greek word:
δημοκρατία (dēmokratía), which translates to “rule of the people”.
This term was used around 400 BCE to denote the political systems
then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens.

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 ● A democratic government contrasts two forms of government
where power is either held by one, as in a monarchy, or where
power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy
or aristocracy. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from
Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary
governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic
elements. Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two
basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of citizens
executes its will: direct democracy and representative democracy.

Direct Democracy

Direct democracy is a form of democracy in which people vote on policy

initiatives directly. This is different from a representative democracy, in
which people vote for representatives who then vote on policy initiatives.
Depending on the particular system in use, it might entail passing
executive decisions, making laws, directly electing or dismissing officials,
and conducting trials. Two leading forms of direct democracy are
participatory democracy and deliberative democracy.

The earliest known direct democracy is said to be the Athenian

Democracy in the 5th century BCE, although it was not an inclusive
democracy; women, foreigners, and slaves were excluded from it. In the
direct democracy of Athens, the electorate did not nominate
representatives to vote on legislation and executive bills on their behalf
(as in the United States Congress), but instead voted on these items in
their own right. Participation was by no means open, but the in-group of
participants was constituted with no reference to economic class and
they participated on a large scale. The public opinion of voters was
remarkably influenced by the political satire performed by the comic
poets at the theaters.

Also relevant is the history of Roman republic, beginning circa 449 BCE.
The ancient Roman Republic’s “citizen lawmaking”—citizen formulation
and passage of law, as well as citizen veto of legislature-made law—
began about 449 BCE and lasted the approximately 400 years to the
death of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. Modern-era citizen lawmaking began in
the towns of Switzerland in the 13 th century CE. In 1847, the Swiss added
the “statute referendum” to their national constitution. Currently in
Switzerland, single majorities are sufficient at the town, city, and canton
level, but at the national level, double majorities are required on
constitutional matters. The intent of the double majorities is simply to
ensure any citizen-made law’s legitimacy.

Representative Democracy

Direct democracy was very much opposed by the framers of the United
States Constitution and some signatories of the Declaration of
Independence. They saw a danger in majorities forcing their will on
minorities. As a result, they advocated a representative democracy in the
form of a constitutional republic over a direct democracy. For example,

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James Madison, in Federalist No. 10, advocates a constitutional republic
over direct democracy precisely to protect the individual from the will of
the majority. Representative democracy is a variety of democracy
founded on the principle of elected people representing a group of
people. For example, three countries which use representative
democracy are the United States of America (a representative
democracy), the United Kingdom (a constitutional monarchy) and Poland
(a republic). It is an element of both the parliamentary system and
presidential system of government and is typically used in a lower
chamber such as the House of Commons (UK) or Bundestag (Germany).

Democracy in the Contemporary World

According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral

democracies – up from 40 in 1972. According to World Forum on
Democracy, electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing
countries and constitute 58.2 percent of the world’s population. At the
same time, liberal democracies—countries Freedom House regards as
free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law—are 85 in
number and represent 38 percent of the global population. In 2010 the
United Nations declared September 15 the International Day of
Democracy.

Non-Democratic Governments: Authoritarianism, Totalitarianism, and

Dictatorship
Unlike democracy, authoritarianism and totalitarianism are forms of
government where an individual or a single-party concentrates all power.

● An authoritarian government is characterized by highly

concentrated and centralized power maintained by political
repression and the exclusion of potential challengers. It uses
political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around
the goals of the regime.
● An autocracy is a system of government in which a supreme
political power is concentrated in the hands of one person; by
contrast, a single-party state is a type of party system government
in which no other parties are permitted to run candidates for
election.
● Totalitarianism is an extreme version of authoritarianism – it is a
political system where the state holds total authority over the
society and seeks to control all aspects of public and private life
wherever necessary.
● A dictatorship (government without people’s consent ) is a contrast
to democracy (government whose power comes from people) and
totalitarianism (government controls every aspect of people’s life)
opposes pluralism (government allows multiple lifestyles and
opinions).

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 ● A dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of government in
which the government is ruled by an individual: a dictator. In
contemporary usage, dictatorship refers to an autocratic form of
absolute rule by leadership unrestricted by law, constitutions, or
other political factors in the state.

Key Terms

● Autocratic: Of or pertaining to autocracy or to an autocrat;

absolute; holding independent and arbitrary powers of government.

Introduction

Authoritarianism is a form of social organization characterized by

submission to authority as well as the administration of said authority. In
politics, an authoritarian government is characterized by highly
concentrated and centralized power maintained by political repression
and the exclusion of potential challengers. It uses political parties and
mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime.
Authoritarianism emphasizes arbitrary law rather than the rule of law,
including election rigging and political decisions being made by a select
group of officials behind closed doors. Authoritarianism is marked by
“indefinite political tenure” of an autocratic state or a ruling-party state.

An autocracy is a system of government in which a supreme political

power is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are
subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of
popular control. By contrast, a single-party state is a type of party system
government in which a single political party forms the government and
no other parties are permitted to run candidates for election. Typically,
single-party states hold the suppression of political factions, except as
transitory issue oriented currents within the single party or permanent
coalition as a self-evident good. The Communist Party of China’s single-
party rule of the People’s Republic of China is a prominent contemporary
example.

Totalitarianism

Totalitarianismis an extreme version of authoritarianism.

Authoritarianism primarily differs from totalitarianism in that social and
economic institutions exist free from governmental control. By contrast,
totalitarianism is a political system where the state holds total authority
over the society and seeks to control all aspects of public and private life
wherever necessary. The term ‘an authoritarian regime’ denotes a state
in which the single power holder – an individual ‘dictator,’ a committee
or a junta or an otherwise small group of political elite – monopolizes
political power. However, a totalitarian regime attempts to control
virtually all aspects of the social life, including economy, education, art,
science, private life, and morals of citizens. The concept became

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prominent in Western anti-communist political discourse during the Cold
War era in order to highlight perceived similarities between Nazi
Germany and other fascist regimes on the one hand, and Soviet
communism on the other.

Political scientists Carl Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski were primarily

responsible for expanding the usage of the term in university social
science and professional research, reformulating it as a paradigm for the
Soviet Union as well as fascist regimes. For Friedrich and Brzezinski, the
defining elements were intended to be taken as a mutually supportive
organic entity composed of the following: an elaborating guiding
ideology; a single mass party, typically led by a dictator; a system of
terror; a monopoly of the means of communication and physical force;
and central direction, and control of the economy through state planning.
Such regimes had initial origins in the chaos that followed in the wake of
World War I, at which point the sophistication of modern weapons and
communications enabled totalitarian movements to consolidate power.

Dictatorship

A dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of government in which

the government is ruled by an individual: a dictator. In contemporary
usage, dictatorship refers to an autocratic form of absolute rule by
leadership unrestricted by law, constitutions, or other social and political
factors within the state.

For some scholars, a dictatorship is a form of government that has the

power to govern without consent of those being governed (similar to
authoritarianism), while totalitarianism describes a state that regulates
nearly every aspect of public and private behavior of the people. In other
words, dictatorship concerns the source of the governing power and
totalitarianism concerns the scope of the governing power. In this sense,
dictatorship (government without people’s consent) is a contrast to
democracy (government whose power comes from people) and
totalitarianism (government controls every aspect of people’s life)
opposes pluralism (government allows multiple lifestyles and opinions).

The wave of military dictatorships in Latin America in the second half of

the twentieth century left a particular mark on Latin American culture. In
Latin American literature, the dictator novel challenging dictatorship is a
significant genre. There are also many films depicting Latin American
military dictatorships.

Lesson 1. Monarchy

● A monarchy is a form of government in a state is ruled by an

individual who typically inherits the throne by birth and rules for
life or until abdication.
● Oligarchy is a form of power structure in which power effectively
rests with a small number of people. These people could be

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 distinguished by royalty, wealth, family ties, education, corporate,
or military control.
● Aristocracy is a form of government in which a few elite citizens
rule; this is usually contrasted with democracy, in which all citizens
are able to rule.
● Theocracy is a form of government in which religious leaders
acting in the place of God rule the state.
● Technocracy is a form of government in which experts in
technology would be in control of all decision making. Scientists,
engineers, and technologists who have knowledge, expertise, or
skills, would compose the governing body, instead of politicians,
businessmen, and economists.
● Theocracy is a form of government in which official policy is
governed by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are
regarded as divinely guided, or is pursuant to the doctrine of a
particular religion or religious group.

● meritocracy: Meritocracy, in an administrative sense, is a system

of government or other administration wherein appointments and
responsibilities are objectively assigned to individuals based upon
their “merits” and achievements.
● oligarchy: a government run by only a few, often the wealthy

● technocracy: A system of governance where people who are

skilled or proficient govern in their respective areas of expertise. A
type of meritocracy based on people’s ability and knowledge in a
given area.
● junta: The ruling council of a military dictatorship.

Introduction

The decline of monarchy: Postcard of ruling monarchs, taken in 1908

between February (accession of King Manuel II of Portugal) and
November (death of Guangxu Emperor).

Governments tend to fall between traditionally democratic and non-

democratic forms. These forms of government are usually distinguished
based on who controls the state, how that authority is justified, and in
what ways leaders and governments are structurally organized based on
these justifications.

Monarchy

A monarchy is a form of government in which sovereignty is actually or

nominally embodied in a single individual, the monarch. This is a form of
government in which a state or polity is ruled or controlled by an
individual who typically inherits the throne by birth and rules for life or
until abdication. Monarchs may be autocrats (absolute monarchy) or

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ceremonial heads of state who exercise little or no power or only reserve
power, with actual authority vested in a parliament or other body such as
a constitutional assembly.

Monarchs have various titles — king or queen, prince or princess, Malik

or Malikah, emperor or empress, duke or grand duke, and Shah.
Monarchy is associated with political or sociocultural hereditary rule;
most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born
and brought up within a royal family and trained for future duties.
However, some monarchies are non-hereditary. In an elective monarchy,
the monarch is elected but otherwise serves as any other monarch.
Historical examples of elective monarchy include the Holy Roman
Emperors and the free election of kings of the Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth.

Monarchies have existed throughout the world, although in recent

centuries many states have abolished the monarchy and become
republics. Advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy
of monarchies is called monarchism. As of 2010 in Europe, there are
twelve monarchies: seven kingdoms, one grand duchy, one papacy, and
two principalities, as well as the diarchy of Andorra.

Oligarchy

Oligarchy is a form of power structure in which power effectively rests

with a small number of people. These people could be distinguished by
royalty, wealth, family ties, education, corporate, or military control.
Such states are often controlled by a few prominent families who pass
their influence from one generation to the next. Forms of government
and other political structures associated with oligarchy usually include
aristocracy, meritocracy, plutocracy, military junta, technocracy, and
theocracy.

Aristocracy is a form of government in which a few elite citizens rule. In

the origins in Ancient Greece, it was conceived of as rule by the best
qualified citizens, and contrasted with monarchy. In later times,
aristocracy was usually seen as rule by a privileged group, the
aristocratic class, and contrasted with democracy. Similarly, plutocracy
is rule by the wealthy. Unlike systems such as democracy, plutocracy is
not rooted in a political philosophy and has no advocates; the term is only
used in a pejorative sense. Examples of plutocracies include the Roman
Republic, some city-states in Ancient Greece, the civilization of Carthage,
the Italian city-states/merchant republics of Venice, Florence, Genoa, and
pre-World War II Empire of Japan zaibatsu.

Other Forms of Governance

Iran’s Theocracy: Iran is an example of a theocracy. Ali Khamenei,

depicted here, current holds the position of Supreme Leader in Iran. The
Supreme Leader is a religious figure who has arguably the most political
power in Iran.

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Technocracy is a form of government in which experts in technology
would be in control of all decision making. Scientists, engineers, and
technologists who have knowledge, expertise, or skills, would compose
the governing body instead of politicians, businessmen, and economists.
In a technocracy, decision makers would be selected based upon how
knowledgeable and skillful they are in their field.

Theocracy is a form of government in which official policy is governed by

immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely
guided, or is pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religion or religious
group. Theocracy essentially means rule by a church or analogous
religious leadership; a state in which the goal is to direct the population
towards God and in which God himself is the theoretical “head of the
state”.

An Islamic state is a state that has adopted Islam, specifically Sharia

(Islamic Law), as its foundations for political institutions, or laws,
exclusively, and has implemented the Islamic ruling system and is
therefore a theocracy. Although there is much debate as to which states
or groups operate strictly according to Islamic Law, Sharia is the official
basis for state laws in the following countries: Yemen, Afghanistan,
Somalia, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Mauritania, Oman and Iran.

Licenses and Attributions

D. Suggested Learning Activities

Misconception Check.
Discover class’ preconceptions
Lecture/Discussion using PowerPoint Presentation on Forms of
Government
Writing Exposition Write an article. “Which among the forms of
government is best suited in the Philippines?”
A. Assessment

Module 1.

Lesson 3. Functions of Government

From the political economy to political philosophy, politics determines “who gets what,
when, and how” for all citizens.

Learning Objectives
1. Recognize the role that power plays in making decisions

2. Identify the main function of the United States National Security Council

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 3. Identify the common principles and elements of the justice system in the United
States
4. Identify the common principles and elements of the justice system in the United
States

Key Points

● As a term, politics is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state
affairs. It includes behavior within civil governments, but also applies to institutions, fields,
and special interest groups.
● Political science is the study of politics. It examines the acquisition and application of power.

● Public policy as government action is generally the principled guide to action taken by the
administrative or executive branches of the state with regard to a class of issues in a manner
consistent with law and institutional customs.
● Political philosophy seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic for public behavior.

● Political economy attempts to develop understandings of the relationships between politics

and the economy and the governance of the two.
● Public administration examines the practices of governance in institutions.

Key Terms

● political science: The systematic study of government and politics.

● public policy: The set of policies (laws, plans, actions, behaviors) of a government; plans and
methods of action that govern that society; a system of laws, courses of action, and priorities
directing a government action.
● politics: The profession of conducting political affairs.

Introduction
Politics as a term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state
affairs. The term includes behavior within civil governments, but is also applied to
institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the corporate, academic, and religious
segments of society. It consists of “social relations involving authority or power” as well as
the methods and tactics used to formulate and apply policy.
Political science is the study of politics. It examines the acquisition and application of power.
Political scientist Harold Lasswell defined politics as “who gets what, when, and how”.
Related areas of study include political philosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an
ethic of public behavior; political economy, which attempts to develop understandings of the
relationships between politics and the economy and the governance of the two; and public
administration, which examines the practices of governance.

Political Science

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Political scientists study matters concerning the allocation and transfer of power in decision
making, the roles and systems of governance including governments and international
organizations, political behavior, and public policies. They measure the success of
governance and specific policies by examining many factors including stability, justice,
material wealth, and peace. Some political scientists seek to advance theses by analyzing
politics. Others advance normative theses by making specificpolicy recommendations.
Like all social sciences, political science faces the difficulty of observing human actors who
can only be partially observed and have the capacity for making conscious choices unlike
other subjects such as non-human organisms in biology or inanimate objects as in physics.
Despite the complexities, contemporary political science has progressed by adopting a variety
of methods and theoretical approaches to understanding politics. Methodological pluralism is
a defining feature of contemporary political science.

Public Policy
Public policy as government action is generally the principled guide to action taken by the
administrative or executive branches of the state with regard to a class of issues in a manner
consistent with law and institutional customs. Shaping public policy is a complex and
multifaceted process. It involves the interplay of numerous individuals and interest groups
competing and collaborating to influence policymakers to act in a particular way. These
individuals and groups use a variety of tactics and tools to advance their aims. The tactics
include advocating their positions publicly, attempting to educate supporters and opponents,
and mobilizing allies on a particular issue.

Defending the Nation

Key Points

● Article One, Section Eight of the U.S. Constitution gives Congress certain broad enumerated
powers. Among these are the power to lay and collect taxes, provide for the common
defense, and provide for the general welfare of the United States.
● The U.S. Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. They consist of the Army,
Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Coast Guard.
● The White House National Security Council is the principal forum used by the President of
the United States for considering national security and foreign policy matters with his senior
national security advisors and Cabinet officials.
● The U.S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of the number of personnel. U.S.
Defense spending draws its manpower from a large pool of paid volunteers. Although
conscription has been used in the past in various times of both war and peace, it has not
been used since 1972.

Key Terms

● Article One, Section Eight: Article One, Section Eight of the U.S. Constitution gives Congress
certain broad enumerated powers. Among these are the power to lay and collect taxes and
provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States.
● United States Armed Forces: The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the
United States. They consist of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Coast Guard.

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 ● The White House National Security Council: The White House National Security Council in
the United States is the principal forum used by the President of the United States for
considering national security and foreign policy matters with his senior national security
advisors and Cabinet officials.

Introduction
Article One of the United States Constitution describes the powers of Congress, which is the
legislative branch of the federal government. More importantly, it establishes limits on the
powers of Congress as well as the states. Section Eight gives Congress certain broad
enumerated powers. Among these are the power to lay and collect taxes and provide for the
common defense and general welfare of the United States; to borrow money on the credit of
the United States; and to regulate interstate, foreign, and Indian commerce. As stated in the
Constitution, “The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and
excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the
United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United
States. ”

United States Armed Forces

The U.S. Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. They consist of the
Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Coast Guard. The United States has a strong
tradition of civilian control of the military. The President is the overall head of the military.
The President helps form military policy with the United States Department of Defense. This
department is a federal executive department, acting as the principal organ by which military
policy is carried out. The United States has the largest defense budget in the world. As of
2011, the United States spends about 160 billion to fund Overseas Contingency Operations.
Combined, the United States constitutes roughly 43 percent of the world’s military
expenditures.
he U.S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of the number of personnel. It draws
its manpower from a large pool of paid volunteers. However, conscription has been used in
the past in various times of both war and peace. It has not been used since 1972. Historically,
defense-related spending in the United States is at its highest inflation-adjusted level since
World War II. As of September 2010, 1,430,895 people were on active duty in the military,
with an additional 848,000 people in the seven reserve components. The United States
military is the second largest in the world, after the People’s Liberation Army of China. The
U.S. has troops deployed around the globe.

United States National Security Council

The White House National Security Council is the principal forum used by the President of
the United States for considering national security and foreign policy matters with his senior
national security advisors and Cabinet officials. The Security Council is part of the Executive
Office of the President of the United States. Since its inception under Harry S. Truman, the
function of the Council has been to advise and assist the President on national security and
foreign policies. The Council also serves as the president’s principal arm for coordinating
these policies among various government agencies. The U.S. Council also has counterparts in
the national security councils of many other nations.

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The National Security Council is chaired by the President. Its regular attendees (both
statutory and non-statutory) are the Vice President (statutory), the Secretary of State
(statutory), the Secretary of Treasury (non-statutory), the Secretary of Defense (statutory),
and the National Security Advisor (non-statutory).
Key Points

● Justice is a concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion,
or equity.
● Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make law or
enforce law, but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case.
● The rule of law is the legal doctrine that implies that every citizen, including headz of state
and members of government, is subject to the law.
● The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the United States. It has
ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all federal courts and over state court cases involving
issues of federal law, and original jurisdiction over a small range of cases.

Key Terms

● The Supreme Court of the United States: The Supreme Court of the United States is the
highest court in the United States. It has ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all federal
courts and over state court cases involving issues of federal law, and original jurisdiction
over a small range of cases.
● the judiciary: The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the
name of the state.
● rule of law: The doctrine that no individual is above the law and that everyone must answer
to it.

Introduction
Justice is a concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion,
or equity. In a world where people are interconnected, but with disagreements, institutions are
required to instantiate ideals of justice. These institutions may be justified by their
approximate instantiation of justice, or they may be deeply unjust when compared with ideal
standards. Another definition of justice is an independent investigation of truth. In a court
room, lawyers, the judge, and the jury are supposed to be independently investigating the
truth of an alleged crime.

The Judiciary and Rule of Law

The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the
state. Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make
law or enforce law, but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case. The
judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes. This branch of the state is
often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. It usually consists of a court of final
appeal, together with lower courts.

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The rule of law is a legal doctrine whereby governmental decisions are made by applying
known legal principles. Rule of law implies that every citizen is subject to the law. It stands
in contrast to the idea that the ruler is above the law, for example by divine right, which the
European monarchy routinely invoked to justify its rule. All government officers of the
United States, including the President, the Justices of the Supreme Court, and all members of
Congress, pledge first and foremost to uphold the Constitution. These oaths affirm that the
rule of law is superior to the rule of any human leader

The Judiciary and Rule of Law

The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the
state. Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make
law or enforce law, but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case. The
judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes. This branch of the state is
often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. It usually consists of a court of final
appeal, together with lower courts.
The rule of law is a legal doctrine whereby governmental decisions are made by applying
known legal principles. Rule of law implies that every citizen is subject to the law. It stands
in contrast to the idea that the ruler is above the law, for example by divine right, which the
European monarchy routinely invoked to justify its rule. All government officers of the
United States, including the President, the Justices of the Supreme Court, and all members of
Congress, pledge first and foremost to uphold the Constitution. These oaths affirm that the
rule of law is superior to the rule of any human leader

Congratulations for completing this module!

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 Vision 2020
WPU: the leading knowledge center for sustainable
development of West Philippines and beyond.

Mission
WPU commits to develop quality human resource and
green technologies for a dynamic economy and
sustainable
development through relevant instruction,
research and extension services.

Core Values (3CT)

Culture of Excellence
Commitment
Creativity
Teamwork

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