Solutions

In-Depth Explanation of Solutions

This unit from your sources delves into the fundamental concepts of
solutions, their properties, and how their concentrations are expressed. It
also covers the behaviour of ideal and non-ideal solutions, including key
laws governing their properties and the concept of abnormal molar
masses.

1. Introduction to Solutions

In everyday life, pure substances are rarely encountered; most

materials are mixtures of two or more pure substances. The utility and
importance of these mixtures depend heavily on their composition. For
instance, different metal alloys like brass and German silver have distinct
properties due to their varying compositions. Similarly, the concentration
of fluoride ions in water determines whether it prevents tooth decay,
causes mottling, or becomes poisonous. Intravenous injections also
require specific ionic concentrations to match blood plasma.

A solution is defined as a homogeneous mixture of two or more

components. Being homogeneous means its composition and
properties are uniform throughout.

 The component present in the largest quantity is generally known

as the solvent. The solvent dictates the physical state in which
the solution exists.

 Components present in the solution other than the solvent are

called solutes.

 The sources primarily focus on liquid solutions and binary

solutions, which consist of only two components.

Solutions can exist in various physical states, depending on the states of

the solute and solvent. Table 1.1 in the sources provides examples:

 Gaseous Solutions:

o Gas in Gas: Mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases.

o Liquid in Gas: Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas.

 o Solid in Gas: Camphor in nitrogen gas.

 Liquid Solutions: (The main focus of this unit)

o Gas in Liquid: Oxygen dissolved in water.

o Liquid in Liquid: Ethanol dissolved in water.

o Solid in Liquid: Glucose dissolved in water.

 Solid Solutions:

o Gas in Solid: Solution of hydrogen in palladium.

o Liquid in Solid: Amalgam of mercury with sodium.

o Solid in Solid: Copper dissolved in gold.

2. Expressing Concentration of Solutions

The composition of a solution can be described by expressing its

concentration. This can be done qualitatively or quantitatively.

 Qualitative descriptions include terms like "dilute" (very small

quantity of solute) or "concentrated" (very large quantity of solute).
However, these are often ambiguous and lead to confusion,
necessitating quantitative descriptions.

Several quantitative ways to express solution concentration are outlined:

 (i) Mass Percentage (w/w): Represents the mass of a

component per 100 parts by mass of the solution.

o Formula: Mass % of a component = (Mass of the

component in the solution / Total mass of the solution)
× 100.

o Example: 10% glucose in water by mass means 10g glucose in

90g water, making 100g solution. Commonly used in industrial
chemical applications.

 (ii) Volume Percentage (V/V): Represents the volume of a

component per 100 parts by volume of the solution.

o Formula: Volume % of a component = (Volume of the

component / Total volume of solution) × 100.

o Example: 10% ethanol solution in water means 10mL ethanol

in water to make 100mL total solution. Commonly used for
liquid solutions, like antifreeze (35% v/v ethylene glycol).
 (iii) Mass by Volume Percentage (w/V): Represents the mass of
solute dissolved in 100 mL of the solution. Commonly used in
medicine and pharmacy.

 (iv) Parts per Million (ppm): Used for trace quantities of

solute.

o Formula: Parts per million = (Number of parts of the

component / Total number of parts of all components of
the solution) × 10^6.

o Can be expressed as mass to mass, volume to volume, or

mass to volume. Pollutant concentrations in water or
atmosphere are often expressed in ppm.

 (v) Mole Fraction (x): The ratio of the number of moles of one
component to the total number of moles of all components.

o Formula: Mole fraction of a component = (Number of

moles of the component / Total number of moles of all
the components).

o For a binary mixture of A and B: x_A = n_A / (n_A + n_B).

o The sum of all mole fractions in a given solution is unity

(x_1 + x_2 + ... + x_i = 1).

o Mole fraction is useful for relating physical properties like

vapour pressure to concentration and in gas mixture
calculations.

 (vi) Molarity (M): Defined as the number of moles of solute

dissolved in one litre (or one cubic decimetre) of solution.

o Formula: Molarity = Moles of solute / Volume of solution

in litre.

o Example: 0.25 mol L^-1 (or 0.25 M) NaOH solution means

0.25 mol NaOH in 1 litre.

 (vii) Molality (m): Defined as the number of moles of the

solute per kilogram (kg) of the solvent.

o Formula: Molality (m) = Moles of solute / Mass of solvent

in kg.

o Example: 1.00 mol kg^-1 (or 1.00 m) KCl solution means 1

mol KCl in 1 kg water.
It is important to note that mass %, ppm, mole fraction, and molality
are independent of temperature, because they are based on mass,
which does not change with temperature. However, molarity is a
function of temperature because volume changes with temperature.

3. Solubility

Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of a substance that

can be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent at a specified
temperature. It depends on the nature of the solute and solvent, as
well as temperature and pressure.

3.1 Solubility of a Solid in a Liquid

 "Like dissolves like" Principle: Polar solutes tend to dissolve in

polar solvents, and non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar solvents.
This is because intermolecular interactions between solute-solvent
molecules are similar to those within pure solute and solvent. For
example, NaCl (polar) dissolves in water (polar), while naphthalene
(non-polar) dissolves in benzene (non-polar).

 Dissolution and Crystallisation: When a solid solute is added to

a solvent, dissolution occurs as solute particles enter the solution.
Simultaneously, crystallisation can occur where solute particles
leave the solution and deposit on the solid solute.

 Dynamic Equilibrium and Saturated Solutions: A state of

dynamic equilibrium is reached when the rates of dissolution and
crystallisation become equal, and the concentration of solute in the
solution remains constant.

o A saturated solution is one in which no more solute can

be dissolved at the given temperature and pressure, being in
dynamic equilibrium with undissolved solute.

o An unsaturated solution is one in which more solute can

be dissolved.

 Effect of Temperature: For endothermic dissolution (ΔsolH >

0), solubility increases with rising temperature. For exothermic
dissolution (ΔsolH < 0), solubility decreases. This follows Le
Chatelier's Principle.

 Effect of Pressure: Pressure has no significant effect on the

solubility of solids in liquids because solids and liquids are highly
incompressible.

3.2 Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid

 Effect of Pressure: Henry's Law

o Henry's Law states that at a constant temperature, the

solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to
the partial pressure of the gas present above the liquid or
solution.

o Alternatively, using mole fraction as a measure of solubility,

the partial pressure of the gas in the vapour phase (p) is
proportional to its mole fraction (x) in the solution.

o Formula: p = K_H * x.

 K_H is the Henry's law constant.

 K_H values are different for different gases and vary

with temperature [24, 25, Table 1.2].

 Higher K_H at a given pressure indicates lower

solubility of the gas in the liquid.

 Effect of Temperature: Solubility of gases in liquids generally

decreases with a rise in temperature. This is because the
dissolution of a gas in a liquid is typically an exothermic process
(heat is evolved), and according to Le Chatelier's Principle,
increasing temperature shifts the equilibrium to reduce solubility.
This explains why aquatic species prefer colder waters due to higher
dissolved oxygen levels.

 Applications of Henry's Law:

o Soft drinks and soda water: Sealed under high pressure to

increase CO2 solubility, creating fizz when opened and
pressure is released.

o Scuba diving: Divers breathe air at high pressure

underwater, which increases the solubility of atmospheric
gases (especially nitrogen) in blood. Rapid ascent causes
pressure decrease, releasing dissolved gases as bubbles in
blood, leading to a painful and dangerous condition called
bends. To avoid this, scuba tanks are filled with air diluted
with helium (11.7% He, 56.2% N2, 32.1% O2) because helium
is less soluble in blood.

o High altitudes: Lower partial pressure of oxygen at high

altitudes leads to low oxygen concentration in blood and
tissues, causing anoxia (weakness, inability to think clearly)
in climbers.
4. Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions

The sources discuss vapour pressure for binary liquid solutions where the
solvent is a liquid and the solute can be a gas, liquid, or solid.

4.1 Vapour Pressure of Liquid-Liquid Solutions (Raoult's Law)

For a binary solution of two volatile liquids (components 1 and 2):

 When placed in a closed vessel, both components evaporate,

establishing equilibrium between the vapour and liquid phases.

 Raoult's Law states that the partial vapour pressure of each

component of the solution is directly proportional to its mole
fraction present in the solution.

o For component 1: p_1 = p_1^0 * x_1, where p_1^0 is the

vapour pressure of pure component 1.

o For component 2: p_2 = p_2^0 * x_2, where p_2^0 is the

vapour pressure of pure component 2.

 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures states that the total vapour

pressure (p_total) over the solution is the sum of the partial
pressures of the components.

o Formula: p_total = p_1 + p_2.

o Substituting Raoult's law: p_total = x_1 * p_1^0 + x_2 *

p_2^0.

o This equation shows that the total vapour pressure varies

linearly with the mole fraction of any one component.

 The composition of the vapour phase in equilibrium with the

solution is determined by the partial pressures of the components. If
y_1 and y_2 are the mole fractions in the vapour phase:

o p_1 = y_1 * p_total

o p_2 = y_2 * p_total

o In general: p_i = y_i * p_total.

o The vapour phase will always be richer in the more

volatile component.

4.2 Raoult's Law as a Special Case of Henry's Law

 Comparing Raoult's law (p_i = x_i * p_i^0) and Henry's law (p = K_H
* x), it's evident that both relate partial pressure to mole fraction.
  Raoult's law can be considered a special case of Henry's law where
the Henry's law constant (K_H) becomes equal to the vapour
pressure of the pure component (p_1^0).

4.3 Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Solids in Liquids

 When a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent, the

vapour pressure of the solution is lower than that of the
pure solvent at the same temperature.

 This happens because the non-volatile solute molecules also

occupy part of the surface area of the solution, reducing the
fraction of the surface covered by solvent molecules.
Consequently, fewer solvent molecules can escape into the vapour
phase, leading to a reduced vapour pressure.

 The decrease in vapour pressure depends solely on the

quantity of non-volatile solute present, not its nature. For
example, 1.0 mol of sucrose or 1.0 mol of urea added to 1 kg of
water causes a similar decrease in vapour pressure.

 Raoult's law in this general form states that for any solution, the
partial vapour pressure of each volatile component (here,
the solvent) is directly proportional to its mole fraction.

o For solvent (component 1) with non-volatile solute (component

2): p_1 = x_1 * p_1^0.

5. Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions

Solutions are classified based on their obedience to Raoult's law.

5.1 Ideal Solutions

 Definition: Solutions that obey Raoult's law over the entire

range of concentration.

 Properties:

o Enthalpy of mixing (Δ_mix_H) is zero: No heat is absorbed

or evolved when components are mixed.

o Volume of mixing (Δ_mix_V) is zero: The volume of the

solution equals the sum of the volumes of the components.

 Molecular Explanation: Intermolecular attractive forces between

the components in the solution (A-B interactions) are nearly equal
to the forces within the pure components (A-A and B-B interactions).
  Examples: Solutions of n-hexane and n-heptane, bromoethane and
chloroethane, benzene and toluene. Perfectly ideal solutions are
rare, but some are nearly ideal.

5.2 Non-ideal Solutions

 Definition: Solutions that do not obey Raoult's law over the

entire range of concentration. Their vapour pressure is either higher
or lower than predicted.

 Positive Deviation from Raoult's Law:

o Vapour pressure is higher than predicted by Raoult's law.

o Molecular Explanation: Intermolecular attractive forces

between solute-solvent molecules (A-B) are weaker than
those between solute-solute (A-A) or solvent-solvent (B-B)
molecules. This makes it easier for molecules to escape into
the vapour phase.

o Examples:

 Ethanol and acetone: Acetone molecules disrupt

hydrogen bonds in pure ethanol, weakening interactions.

 Carbon disulphide and acetone: Dipolar interactions

between solute-solvent are weaker.

 Negative Deviation from Raoult's Law:

o Vapour pressure is lower than predicted by Raoult's law.

o Molecular Explanation: Intermolecular attractive forces

between solute-solvent molecules (A-B) are stronger than
those between solute-solute (A-A) or solvent-solvent (B-B)
molecules. This decreases the escaping tendency of
molecules.

o Examples:

 Phenol and aniline: Stronger intermolecular hydrogen

bonding forms between phenol and aniline.

 Chloroform and acetone: Chloroform forms hydrogen

bonds with acetone molecules.

 Azeotropes:

o Binary mixtures that have the same composition in

both liquid and vapour phases and boil at a constant
temperature.
 o Components cannot be separated by fractional
distillation once the azeotropic composition is reached.

o Minimum boiling azeotropes: Formed by solutions showing

a large positive deviation from Raoult's law (e.g., ethanol-
water mixture, ~95% ethanol by volume).

o Maximum boiling azeotropes: Formed by solutions showing

a large negative deviation from Raoult's law (e.g., nitric
acid-water, ~68% nitric acid by mass).

6. Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar Mass

Colligative properties are properties of solutions that depend on the

number of solute particles (or concentration) irrespective of their
nature or chemical identity. These properties are connected to the
decrease in vapour pressure when a non-volatile solute is added to a
volatile solvent.

The four main colligative properties discussed are:

 (1) Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure (RLVP):

o When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the vapour

pressure of the solution (p_1) is less than that of the pure
solvent (p_1^0).

o The lowering of vapour pressure (Δp_1) = p_1^0 - p_1.

o According to Raoult's law for non-volatile solutes, Δp_1 = x_2

* p_1^0, where x_2 is the mole fraction of the solute.

o The relative lowering of vapour pressure is defined as

(p_1^0 - p_1) / p_1^0.

o Formula: (p_1^0 - p_1) / p_1^0 = x_2.

o For dilute solutions, where n_2 << n_1 (moles of solute

much less than moles of solvent), this simplifies to: (p_1^0 -
p_1) / p_1^0 ≈ n_2 / n_1.

o Further, it can be expressed in terms of masses and molar

masses: (p_1^0 - p_1) / p_1^0 = (w_2 / M_2) * (M_1 /
w_1).

o This property can be used to calculate the molar mass

(M_2) of the solute.

 (2) Elevation of Boiling Point (ΔT_b):

 o The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour
pressure of the liquid equals the atmospheric pressure.

o Since a non-volatile solute lowers the vapour pressure of the

solvent, the solution needs to be heated to a higher
temperature than the pure solvent to reach the atmospheric
pressure.

o Thus, the boiling point of a solution is always higher

than that of the pure solvent. This increase is called
elevation of boiling point (ΔT_b).

o Formula: ΔT_b = T_b (solution) - T_b^0 (pure solvent).

o For dilute solutions, ΔT_b is directly proportional to the

molal concentration (m) of the solute.

o Formula: ΔT_b = K_b * m.

 K_b is the Boiling Point Elevation Constant or Molal

Elevation Constant (Ebullioscopic Constant). Its
unit is K kg mol^-1.

o In terms of mass and molar mass: ΔT_b = (K_b * w_2 *

1000) / (M_2 * w_1).

o This allows for the determination of the molar mass (M_2)

of the solute: M_2 = (K_b * w_2 * 1000) / (ΔT_b * w_1).

 (3) Depression of Freezing Point (ΔT_f):

o The freezing point of a substance is the temperature at

which its vapour pressure in the liquid phase equals its vapour
pressure in the solid phase.

o Since a non-volatile solute lowers the vapour pressure of the

solvent, the solution's vapour pressure will become equal to
that of the pure solid solvent at a lower temperature.

o Thus, the freezing point of the solvent decreases when a

non-volatile solute is dissolved. This decrease is called
depression in freezing point (ΔT_f).

o Formula: ΔT_f = T_f^0 (pure solvent) - T_f (solution).

o For dilute solutions, ΔT_f is directly proportional to the

molality (m) of the solution.

o Formula: ΔT_f = K_f * m.

  K_f is the Freezing Point Depression Constant or
Molal Depression Constant (Cryoscopic Constant).
Its unit is K kg mol^-1.

o In terms of mass and molar mass: ΔT_f = (K_f * w_2 * 1000)

/ (M_2 * w_1).

o This allows for the determination of the molar mass (M_2)

of the solute: M_2 = (K_f * w_2 * 1000) / (ΔT_f * w_1).

o K_f and K_b values depend on the nature of the solvent

and can be calculated using thermodynamic relations
involving gas constant (R), molar mass of solvent (M_1),
freezing/boiling points (T_f, T_b), and enthalpies of
fusion/vaporisation (ΔfusH, ΔvapH).

 (4) Osmotic Pressure (P or Π):

o Osmosis is the flow of solvent molecules through a

semipermeable membrane (SPM) from a region of pure
solvent to a solution, or from a dilute solution to a
concentrated solution. SPMs allow small solvent molecules to
pass but hinder larger solute molecules.

o Osmotic pressure (P or Π) is the excess pressure that

must be applied to the solution side to prevent osmosis
(i.e., to stop the flow of solvent molecules into the solution).

o It is a colligative property, depending on the number of

solute molecules, not their identity.

o For dilute solutions, osmotic pressure is proportional to the

molarity (C) of the solution at a given temperature (T).

o Formula: P = C R T, where R is the gas constant.

o In terms of moles and volume: P = (n_2 / V) R T, where n_2 is

moles of solute and V is volume in litres.

o In terms of mass and molar mass: P V = (w_2 / M_2) R T.

o This allows for the determination of the molar mass (M_2)

of the solute: M_2 = (w_2 * R * T) / (P * V).

o Advantages of the osmotic pressure method for molar

mass determination:

 Measurements are done around room temperature,

which is crucial for biomolecules (like proteins) and
polymers that are unstable at higher temperatures.
  It uses molarity (C), which is easier to measure than
molality for solutions.

 The magnitude of osmotic pressure is large even

for very dilute solutions, making it a very sensitive
method.

 Useful for macromolecules (proteins, polymers) due to

their poor solubility in many solvents at high
concentrations.

 Isotonic, Hypertonic, and Hypotonic Solutions:

o Isotonic solutions have the same osmotic pressure at a

given temperature; no osmosis occurs between them.
Example: 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride solution
(normal saline) is isotonic with blood cells.

o Hypertonic solutions have a higher osmotic pressure; if

cells are placed in them, water flows out of the cells, causing
them to shrink.

o Hypotonic solutions have a lower osmotic pressure; if

cells are placed in them, water flows into the cells, causing
them to swell.

 Reverse Osmosis:

o If a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure is

applied to the solution side, the direction of osmosis is
reversed. Pure solvent flows out of the solution through the
semipermeable membrane.

o Great practical utility in desalination of sea water to

produce potable water. Cellulose acetate membranes are
often used, which are permeable to water but impermeable to
impurities and ions.

7. Abnormal Molar Masses

The molar masses calculated using colligative properties are sometimes

different from the expected or normal molar mass. This occurs when the
solute undergoes dissociation (breaks into more particles) or
association (combines to form fewer particles) in the solution.

 Dissociation: If a solute dissociates into ions (e.g., KCl dissociates

into K+ and Cl-), the number of particles in solution increases.
This leads to an experimentally determined molar mass that is
 lower than the true value. For example, 1 mol of KCl yields 2 moles
of particles.

 Association: If solute molecules associate (e.g., ethanoic acid

dimerises in benzene due to hydrogen bonding), the number of
particles in solution decreases. This leads to an
experimentally determined molar mass that is higher than
the true value. For example, 2 molecules of ethanoic acid form 1
dimer.

Van't Hoff Factor (i)

 Introduced by van't Hoff in 1880 to account for the extent of

dissociation or association.

 Definitions:

o i = Normal molar mass / Abnormal molar mass.

o i = Observed colligative property / Calculated

colligative property.

o i = Total number of moles of particles after

association/dissociation / Number of moles of particles
before association/dissociation.

 Values of i:

o i < 1 for association (e.g., ~0.5 for ethanoic acid in

benzene).

o i > 1 for dissociation (e.g., ~2 for aqueous KCl solution).

o For non-associating, non-dissociating solutes, i = 1

[Implicit].

 Modified Colligative Property Equations (including van't Hoff

factor):

o Relative lowering of vapour pressure: (p_1^0 - p_1) /

p_1^0 = i * n_2 / (n_1 + i * n_2) (or for dilute solutions: i *
n_2 / n_1).

o Elevation of Boiling Point: ΔT_b = i * K_b * m.

o Depression of Freezing Point: ΔT_f = i * K_f * m.

o Osmotic Pressure: P = i * C * R * T (or P = i * n_2 * R * T /

V).

Brief Summary
The chapter introduces solutions as homogeneous mixtures, defining
solvent and solute, and classifying solutions by the physical states of their
components. It then details various quantitative methods for expressing
concentration, including mass percentage, volume percentage, parts per
million, mole fraction, molarity, and molality, highlighting their
temperature dependence.

Solubility is explored, emphasizing the "like dissolves like" principle for

solids in liquids, and the effects of temperature and pressure on solid and
gas solubilities. Henry's law describes the proportionality between gas
solubility and partial pressure, with important applications like soft drinks
and scuba diving.

The discussion moves to vapour pressure of liquid solutions,

introducing Raoult's law for volatile liquid mixtures (partial pressure
proportional to mole fraction) and for solutions with non-volatile solutes
(where vapour pressure is lowered). Raoult's law is presented as a special
case of Henry's law.

Ideal solutions obey Raoult's law with zero enthalpy and volume of
mixing, while non-ideal solutions show positive (weaker A-B
interactions, higher vapour pressure) or negative (stronger A-B
interactions, lower vapour pressure) deviations. Large deviations can lead
to azeotropes, which are constant-boiling mixtures that cannot be
separated by distillation.

Finally, the chapter covers colligative properties—properties that

depend on the number of solute particles, not their identity. These include
relative lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point,
depression of freezing point, and osmotic pressure. Each property's
relationship to solute concentration is explained, along with its use in
determining molar mass of solutes. The concept of abnormal molar
masses arises from solute dissociation or association, which is quantified
by the van't Hoff factor (i), modifying the colligative property equations.
Reverse osmosis is presented as a practical application of osmotic
pressure for water purification.

Formula Sheet

Here is a summary of the key formulas discussed in the sources:

1. Concentration Expressions

 Mass Percentage (w/w)

o Mass % of a component = (Mass of the component in the

solution / Total mass of the solution) × 100
  Volume Percentage (V/V)

o Volume % of a component = (Volume of the component / Total

volume of solution) × 100

 Parts per Million (ppm)

o Parts per million = (Number of parts of the component / Total

number of parts of all components of the solution) × 10^6

 Mole Fraction (x)

o x_A = n_A / (n_A + n_B + ...)

o Σx_i = 1

 Molarity (M)

o M = Moles of solute (n_2) / Volume of solution in litre (V)

 Molality (m)

o m = Moles of solute (n_2) / Mass of solvent in kg (w_1)

2. Solubility (Henry's Law)

 Henry's Law

o p = K_H * x

 p: partial pressure of the gas

 K_H: Henry’s law constant

 x: mole fraction of the gas in solution

3. Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions (Raoult's Law)

 Raoult's Law (for volatile liquid-liquid solutions)

o p_1 = p_1^0 * x_1

o p_2 = p_2^0 * x_2

 p_i: partial vapour pressure of component i in solution

 p_i^0: vapour pressure of pure component i

 x_i: mole fraction of component i in liquid solution

 Total Vapour Pressure (Dalton's Law combined with Raoult's

Law)

o p_total = p_1 + p_2 = x_1 * p_1^0 + x_2 * p_2^0

o p_total = p_1^0 + (p_2^0 - p_1^0) * x_2

  Mole Fraction in Vapour Phase (Dalton's Law)

o y_i = p_i / p_total

 y_i: mole fraction of component i in vapour phase

 Raoult's Law (for non-volatile solute in liquid solvent)

o p_1 = p_1^0 * x_1

 p_1: vapour pressure of solvent in solution

 p_1^0: vapour pressure of pure solvent

 x_1: mole fraction of solvent in solution

4. Colligative Properties

 Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure (RLVP)

o Δp_1 = p_1^0 - p_1

o Δp_1 = x_2 * p_1^0

o RLVP = Δp_1 / p_1^0 = x_2

o For dilute solutions: (p_1^0 - p_1) / p_1^0 = n_2 / n_1 =

(w_2 / M_2) * (M_1 / w_1)

 n_1, n_2: moles of solvent, solute

 w_1, w_2: mass of solvent, solute

 M_1, M_2: molar mass of solvent, solute

 Elevation of Boiling Point (ΔT_b)

o ΔT_b = T_b - T_b^0

o ΔT_b = K_b * m

o ΔT_b = (K_b * w_2 * 1000) / (M_2 * w_1)

o M_2 = (K_b * w_2 * 1000) / (ΔT_b * w_1)

 T_b^0: boiling point of pure solvent

 T_b: boiling point of solution

 K_b: molal elevation constant (ebullioscopic constant)

 Depression of Freezing Point (ΔT_f)

o ΔT_f = T_f^0 - T_f

o ΔT_f = K_f * m
 o ΔT_f = (K_f * w_2 * 1000) / (M_2 * w_1)

o M_2 = (K_f * w_2 * 1000) / (ΔT_f * w_1)

 T_f^0: freezing point of pure solvent

 T_f: freezing point of solution

 K_f: molal depression constant (cryoscopic constant)

 Osmotic Pressure (P or Π)

o P=C*R*T

o P = (n_2 / V) * R * T

o P V = (w_2 / M_2) * R * T

o M_2 = (w_2 * R * T) / (P * V)

 C: molarity of solution

 R: gas constant

 T: temperature in Kelvin

 n_2: moles of solute

 V: volume of solution in litres

5. Abnormal Molar Masses (van't Hoff Factor, i)

 Van't Hoff Factor

o i = Normal molar mass / Abnormal molar mass (experimental)

o i = Observed colligative property / Calculated colligative

property

o i = Total number of moles of particles after

association/dissociation / Number of moles of particles before
association/dissociation

 Modified Colligative Property Formulas (with i)

o Relative lowering of vapour pressure: (p_1^0 - p_1) /

p_1^0 = i * n_2 / (n_1 + i * n_2) (For dilute solutions: i * n_2 /
n_1)

o Elevation of Boiling Point: ΔT_b = i * K_b * m

o Depression of Freezing Point: ΔT_f = i * K_f * m

o Osmotic Pressure: P = i * C * R * T (or P = i * n_2 * R * T / V)

List of All Formulas

1. Mass % of a component = (Mass of the component in the

solution / Total mass of the solution) × 100

2. Volume % of a component = (Volume of the component /

Total volume of solution) × 100

3. Parts per million = (Number of parts of the component /

Total number of parts of all components of the solution) ×
10^6

4. Mole fraction of a component (x_i) = Number of moles of the

component / Total number of moles of all the components

5. For binary mixture: x_A = n_A / (n_A + n_B)

6. Sum of mole fractions: x_1 + x_2 + ... + x_i = 1

7. Molarity (M) = Moles of solute / Volume of solution in litre

8. Molality (m) = Moles of solute / Mass of solvent in kg

9. Henry's Law: p = K_H * x

10. Raoult's Law (component 1): p_1 = p_1^0 * x_1

11. Raoult's Law (component 2): p_2 = p_2^0 * x_2

12. Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures (total pressure):

p_total = p_1 + p_2

13. Total vapour pressure (Raoult's combined): p_total =

x_1 * p_1^0 + x_2 * p_2^0

14. Alternative total vapour pressure: p_total = p_1^0 +

(p_2^0 - p_1^0) * x_2

15. Mole fraction in vapour phase: y_i = p_i / p_total

16. Lowering of Vapour Pressure: Δp_1 = p_1^0 - p_1

17. Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure: Δp_1 / p_1^0 =

x_2

18. RLVP for dilute solutions: (p_1^0 - p_1) / p_1^0 = n_2 /

n_1 = (w_2 / M_2) * (M_1 / w_1)

19. Elevation of Boiling Point: ΔT_b = T_b - T_b^0

20. ΔT_b = K_b * m

21. Molality from mass: m = (w_2 / M_2) / (w_1 / 1000) =

(w_2 * 1000) / (M_2 * w_1)
22. ΔT_b in terms of masses: ΔT_b = (K_b * w_2 * 1000) /
(M_2 * w_1)

23. Molar mass from ΔT_b: M_2 = (K_b * w_2 * 1000) / (ΔT_b
* w_1)

24. Depression of Freezing Point: ΔT_f = T_f^0 - T_f

25. ΔT_f = K_f * m

26. ΔT_f in terms of masses: ΔT_f = (K_f * w_2 * 1000) /

(M_2 * w_1)

27. Molar mass from ΔT_f: M_2 = (K_f * w_2 * 1000) / (ΔT_f *
w_1)

28. K_f calculation: K_f = (R * M_1 * T_f^2) / (1000 * ΔfusH)

29. K_b calculation: K_b = (R * M_1 * T_b^2) / (1000 *

ΔvapH)

30. Osmotic Pressure: P = C * R * T

31. Osmotic Pressure (moles/volume): P = (n_2 / V) * R * T

32. Osmotic Pressure (mass/molar mass): P V = (w_2 / M_2)

*R*T

33. Molar mass from Osmotic Pressure: M_2 = (w_2 * R *

T) / (P * V)

34. Van't Hoff Factor: i = Normal molar mass / Abnormal

molar mass

35. Van't Hoff Factor: i = Observed colligative property /

Calculated colligative property

36. Van't Hoff Factor: i = Total moles of particles after /

Moles of particles before

37. Modified RLVP (with i): (p_1^0 - p_1) / p_1^0 = i * n_2 /

(n_1 + i * n_2)

38. Modified ΔT_b (with i): ΔT_b = i * K_b * m

39. Modified ΔT_f (with i): ΔT_f = i * K_f * m

40. Modified Osmotic Pressure (with i): P = i * C * R * T