Synchronous phasor Measurements:

Phasor Measurement Unit:

 Architecture,
 Functions,
 Optimal Placement of PMUs,
 phasor data concentrators, and associated communication system.
 Visualization tools to enhance visibility and control within transmission system,
 PMU measurements and sampling rates
 State Estimation
& observability by using PMU
 Use of phasor data for real-time operation, frequency stability monitoring and trending,
 Power oscillation, voltage monitoring and trending. Alarm and setting system operating limits.
 Dynamic line rating and congestion management, outage restoration. Application of PMU for wide area monitoring and control.

A Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) is a device that measures the electrical quantities of a power system, such as voltage
and current, and calculates the phasor values. The architecture of a PMU typically consists of the
following components:
Hardware Components
1. Sensors: Current Transformers (CTs) and Potential Transformers (PTs) to measure current and voltage.
2. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): Converts the analog signals from the sensors to digital signals.
3. Global Positioning System (GPS) Receiver: Provides a timing reference for synchronization.
4. Processor: Performs calculations and algorithms to determine phasor values.

Software Components

1. Phasor Calculation Algorithm: Calculates the phasor values from the measured voltage and current signals.
2. Filtering and Conditioning: Filters and conditions the measured signals to remove noise and errors.
3. Time Synchronization: Synchronizes the PMU with the GPS timing reference.
4. Communication Protocol: Transmits the phasor data to other devices or systems .
System Architecture
1. Centralized Architecture: A single PMU measures and calculates phasor values for a specific location.
2. Distributed Architecture: Multiple PMUs are deployed across the power system, measuring and calculating
phasor values at different locations.
3. Hybrid Architecture: A combination of centralized and distributed architectures.
Communication Interfaces

1. IEEE C37.118: A standard for PMU communication, defining the format and protocol for transmitting phasor
data.
2. IEC 61850: A standard for substation automation, defining the communication protocol for PMUs and other
devices.

Applications

1. Wide-Area Monitoring: PMUs provide real-time phasor measurements for monitoring and controlling the power
system.
2. Power System Stability Analysis: PMUs help analyze power system stability and detect potential issues.
3. Fault Detection and Location: PMUs can detect and locate faults in the power system.
4. Smart Grid Applications: PMUs enable advanced smart grid applications, such as real-time energy management
and optimized power flow control.
Phasor Measurement Unit:
Architecture
 Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) perform several functions to provide accurate
and reliable phasor measurements:

Measurement Functions

1. Voltage and Current Measurement: PMUs measure the voltage and current
signals from the power system.
2. Phasor Calculation: PMUs calculate the phasor values from the measured
voltage and current signals.
3. Frequency Measurement: PMUs measure the frequency of the power system.

Processing Functions

1. Filtering and Conditioning: PMUs filter and condition the measured signals to
remove noise and errors.
2. Time Synchronization: PMUs synchronize the measured signals with the GPS
timing reference.
3. Data Processing: PMUs process the measured data to extract relevant
information.

Communication Functions

1. Data Transmission: PMUs transmit the phasor data to other devices or systems.
2. Protocol Conversion: PMUs convert the phasor data into standardized protocols
(e.g., IEEE C37.118).
3. Data Storage: PMUs store the measured data for later analysis or retrieval.

Analysis Functions

1. Power System Stability Analysis: PMUs analyze the phasor data to assess
power system stability.
2. Fault Detection and Location: PMUs detect and locate faults in the power
system.
3. State Estimation: PMUs estimate the state of the power system based on the
phasor measurements.

Other Functions

1. Self-Monitoring: PMUs monitor their own performance and detect potential

issues.
2. Configuration and Calibration: PMUs allow for configuration and calibration to
ensure accurate measurements.
3. Security and Authentication: PMUs provide security and authentication
mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access

A Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU), also known as a synchrophasor, is a device

that measures voltage and phase angle at key locations in an electricity
grid. PMUs are a vital component of Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)


 Optimal placement of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) is crucial to
ensure accurate and reliable monitoring of the power system. The goal is to
place PMUs in a way that maximizes the observability of the power system,
minimizes the number of PMUs required, and reduces the overall cost.


 Methodologies for Optimal PMU Placement



 1. Topological Observability: This method ensures that every bus in the

power system is observable, either directly or indirectly, through the PMU
measurements.
 2. Numerical Observability: This method uses numerical methods to evaluate
the observability of the power system and determine the optimal PMU
placement.
 3. Genetic Algorithm (GA): This method uses a genetic algorithm to search
for the optimal PMU placement that maximizes the observability of the power
system.
 4. Simulated Annealing (SA): This method uses a simulated annealing
algorithm to search for the optimal PMU placement that maximizes the
observability of the power system.


 Criteria for Optimal PMU Placement



 1. Observability: The power system should be fully observable, either directly

or indirectly, through the PMU measurements.
 2. Redundancy: The PMU placement should provide redundant
measurements to ensure that the power system remains observable even if
one or more PMUs fail.
 3. Cost: The number of PMUs required should be minimized to reduce the
overall cost.
 4. Reliability: The PMU placement should ensure that the power system
remains observable even during contingencies, such as line outages or
generator failures.


 Challenges in Optimal PMU Placement



 1. Complexity of the Power System: The power system is a complex network

with many buses, lines, and generators, making it challenging to determine
the optimal PMU placement.
 2. Limited Budget: The number of PMUs that can be installed is limited by
the budget, making it challenging to ensure full observability of the power
system.
  3. Dynamic Nature of the Power System: The power system is dynamic, with
changing loads, generation, and topology, making it challenging to determine
the optimal PMU placement that can adapt to these changes.


 Solutions to Challenges


 1. Use of Advanced Algorithms: Advanced algorithms, such as GA and SA,

can be used to search for the optimal PMU placement that maximizes the
observability of the power system.
 2. Use of Phasor Data Concentrators (PDCs): PDCs can be used to
concentrate the phasor measurements from multiple PMUs, reducing the
amount of data that needs to be transmitted and processed.
 3. Use of Hybrid PMU Placement Methods: Hybrid methods that combine
different PMU placement methodologies can be used to determine the
optimal PMU placement that adapts to the dynamic nature of the power
system.
Phasor Data Concentrators (PDCs) are devices that collect and concentrate
phasor measurements from multiple Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) and
transmit the data to a central location for analysis and processing.

Functions of PDCs

1. Data Collection: PDCs collect phasor measurements from multiple PMUs.

2. Data Concentration: PDCs concentrate the phasor measurements into a single
data stream.
3. Data Transmission: PDCs transmit the concentrated data to a central location.
4. Data Synchronization: PDCs synchronize the phasor measurements from
multiple PMUs to ensure accurate analysis.
5. Data Quality Monitoring: PDCs monitor the quality of the phasor measurements
and detect any errors or anomalies.

Associated Communication System

1. Communication Protocols: PDCs use standardized communication protocols,

such as IEEE C37.118, to transmit phasor data.
2. Network Architecture: PDCs can be connected to a network architecture, such
as a wide-area network (WAN) or a local-area network (LAN).
3. Data Transmission Media: PDCs can transmit data through various media, such
as fiber optic cables, Ethernet cables, or wireless communication systems.
4. Cybersecurity Measures: PDCs and associated communication systems must
implement cybersecurity measures to prevent unauthorized access and ensure
data integrity.

Types of PDCs

1. Centralized PDCs: Concentrate phasor data from multiple PMUs at a central

location.
2. Distributed PDCs: Concentrate phasor data from multiple PMUs at multiple
locations.
3. Hybrid PDCs: Combine centralized and distributed architectures.

Benefits of PDCs

1. Improved Data Management: PDCs simplify data management by concentrating

phasor measurements from multiple PMUs.
2. Enhanced Data Analysis: PDCs enable advanced data analysis by providing a
centralized platform for phasor data.
3. Increased Efficiency: PDCs reduce the complexity and cost of phasor data
transmission and analysis.
4. Improved Reliability: PDCs improve the reliability of phasor data by detecting
errors and anomalies.
Visualization tools are essential to enhance visibility and control within
transmission systems, enabling operators to make informed decisions and take
prompt actions. Here are some visualization tools used in transmission systems:

1. Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

GIS provides a visual representation of the transmission system, including
geographical locations, infrastructure, and asset information.

2. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems

SCADA systems provide real-time monitoring and control of transmission systems,
displaying data on graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and maps.

3. Energy Management Systems (EMS)

EMS provides advanced visualization tools for transmission system monitoring,
control, and optimization, including real-time data, forecasts, and predictive
analytics.
4. Wide-Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)
WAMS provides real-time monitoring of transmission systems over wide areas,
using synchronized phasor measurements to visualize system behavior.

5. Visualization Dashboards
Customizable dashboards provide a centralized view of transmission system data,
including key performance indicators (KPIs), alerts, and real-time data.

6. 3D Visualization
3D visualization tools provide an immersive and interactive view of transmission
systems, enabling operators to better understand complex system behavior.

7. Mobile Applications
Mobile applications provide field personnel with real-time access to transmission
system data, enabling them to make informed decisions and take prompt actions.

8. Augmented Reality (AR)

AR technology overlays digital information onto real-world environments, providing
field personnel with enhanced visibility and control of transmission system assets.

Benefits of Visualization Tools

1. Improved Situational Awareness: Visualization tools provide operators with a

comprehensive view of transmission system behavior.
2. Enhanced Decision-Making: Real-time data and visualization enable operators
to make informed decisions quickly.
3. Increased Efficiency: Automation and visualization reduce manual effort and
improve response times.
4. Better Asset Management: Visualization tools enable operators to optimize
asset performance and extend lifespan.
5. Improved Reliability: Advanced visualization and analytics enable operators to
predict and prevent outages.
Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) measure electrical quantities, such as
voltage and current, and calculate phasor values. The sampling rate of PMU
measurements is critical to ensure accurate and reliable phasor calculations.

Types of PMU Measurements

1. Voltage Phasor Measurements: Measure the magnitude and phase angle of

voltage signals.
2. Current Phasor Measurements: Measure the magnitude and phase angle of
current signals.
3. Frequency Measurements: Measure the frequency of the power system.
4. Rate of Change of Frequency (ROCOF) Measurements: Measure the rate of
change of frequency.

Sampling Rates for PMU Measurements

1. IEEE C37.118 Standard: Recommends a minimum sampling rate of 10 samples

per cycle (60 Hz) for PMU measurements.
2. Typical Sampling Rates: Range from 10 to 256 samples per cycle, depending on
the application and required accuracy.
3. High-Speed Sampling Rates: Some PMUs can sample at rates up to 512
samples per cycle or higher for specialized applications.

Factors Affecting Sampling Rates

1. System Frequency: Sampling rates must be adjusted according to the system

frequency (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz).
2. Measurement Accuracy: Higher sampling rates can improve measurement
accuracy, but may also increase data storage and processing requirements.
3. Data Transmission: Sampling rates can impact data transmission rates and
bandwidth requirements.
4. Application Requirements: Different applications, such as fault detection or state
estimation, may require different sampling rates.

Benefits of High-Speed Sampling Rates

1. Improved Measurement Accuracy: High-speed sampling rates can provide more

accurate phasor measurements.
2. Enhanced Fault Detection: High-speed sampling rates can improve fault
detection and location capabilities.
3. Better State Estimation: High-speed sampling rates can improve state
estimation accuracy and reduce errors.
4. Increased Situational Awareness: High-speed sampling rates can provide more
detailed information about power system behavior

State estimation is a critical function in power system monitoring and control,

enabling operators to make informed decisions about the system's operation.
Here's an overview of state estimation:

Definition

State estimation is the process of estimating the state variables of a power system,
such as voltage magnitude and phase angle, from a set of measurements.

Objectives

1. Accurate estimation: Estimate the state variables as accurately as possible.

2. Bad data detection: Identify and eliminate erroneous measurements.
3. Observability analysis: Determine the ability to estimate the state variables.

Methods

1. Weighted Least Squares (WLS): A popular method for state estimation.

2. Maximum Likelihood (ML): A method that estimates the state variables by
maximizing the likelihood function.
3. Kalman Filter: A method that uses a state-space model to estimate the state
variables.

Measurements

1. Voltage magnitude: Measured by voltage transformers.

2. Voltage phase angle: Measured by phasor measurement units (PMUs).
3. Current magnitude: Measured by current transformers.
4. Power flow: Measured by power flow meters.
Challenges

1. Measurement errors: Errors in measurement values can affect state estimation

accuracy.
2. Modeling errors: Errors in the power system model can affect state estimation
accuracy.
3. Computational complexity: State estimation can be computationally intensive,
especially for large power systems.

Applications

1. Power system monitoring: State estimation provides real-time information about

the power system's operation.
2. Control and optimization: State estimation provides the necessary information
for control and optimization applications.
3. Fault detection and diagnosis: State estimation can be used to detect and
diagnose faults in the power system.

Benefits

1. Improved accuracy: State estimation provides accurate information about the

power system's operation.
2. Enhanced reliability: State estimation enables operators to detect and respond
to faults and anomalies.
3. Optimized operation: State estimation provides the necessary information for
optimized power system operation.

State estimation and observability are critical components of power system

monitoring and control. Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) play a key role in
enabling accurate state estimation and observability. Here's an overview of state
estimation and observability using PMUs:

State Estimation using PMUs

1. PMU Measurements: PMUs provide synchronized phasor measurements of

voltage and current.
2. State Estimation Algorithm: The measurements are used as input to a state
estimation algorithm, such as Weighted Least Squares (WLS) or Maximum
Likelihood (ML).
3. Estimation of State Variables: The algorithm estimates the state variables, such
as voltage magnitude and phase angle, for each bus in the power system.

Observability using PMUs

1. Observability Analysis: Observability analysis determines whether the power

system is observable, i.e., whether the state variables can be estimated accurately.
2. PMU Placement: PMUs are strategically placed in the power system to ensure
observability.
3. Observability Metrics: Metrics such as observability index and observability
matrix are used to evaluate the observability of the power system.

Benefits of Using PMUs for State Estimation and Observability

1. Improved Accuracy: PMUs provide accurate and synchronized measurements,

enabling accurate state estimation.
2. Enhanced Observability: PMUs enable observability analysis and optimization,
ensuring that the power system is observable.
3. Real-Time Monitoring: PMUs enable real-time monitoring and control of the
power system.
4. Increased Reliability: PMUs enable detection and diagnosis of faults and
anomalies, increasing power system reliability.

Challenges and Limitations

1. PMU Placement Optimization: Optimizing PMU placement to ensure

observability can be challenging.
2. Measurement Errors: Measurement errors can affect state estimation accuracy.
3. Communication Latency: Communication latency can affect real-time monitoring
and control.
4. Cybersecurity: PMUs and associated communication systems must be secure to
prevent cyber threats.
Phasor data from Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) can be used for real-time
operation of power systems, enabling improved monitoring, control, and
optimization. Here are some applications:

Real-Time Monitoring

1. Voltage Stability Monitoring: Phasor data enables real-time monitoring of voltage

stability, allowing operators to take corrective actions to prevent voltage collapses.
2. Angle Stability Monitoring: Phasor data monitors angle stability, enabling
operators to detect and respond to potential stability issues.
3. Oscillation Detection: Phasor data detects oscillations in the power system,
allowing operators to take corrective actions to dampen oscillations.

Real-Time Control

1. Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR): Phasor data enables real-time AVR,

optimizing voltage levels and improving power quality.
2. Load Shedding: Phasor data informs load shedding decisions, ensuring that the
power system remains stable during high-demand periods.
3. Grid Stability Control: Phasor data enables real-time control of grid stability,
allowing operators to respond quickly to changes in the power system.

Real-Time Optimization

1. Optimal Power Flow (OPF): Phasor data enables real-time OPF, optimizing
power flow and reducing transmission losses.
2. Transmission Loss Minimization: Phasor data minimizes transmission losses by
optimizing power flow and voltage levels.
3. Renewable Energy Integration: Phasor data enables real-time optimization of
renewable energy integration, maximizing the use of available renewable energy
sources.

Benefits

1. Improved Situational Awareness: Phasor data provides real-time visibility into

power system operations, enabling operators to make informed decisions.
2. Enhanced Reliability: Phasor data enables real-time monitoring and control,
reducing the risk of power outages and improving overall reliability.
3. Increased Efficiency: Phasor data optimizes power system operations, reducing
transmission losses and improving overall efficiency.
4. Better Decision-Making: Phasor data enables operators to make data-driven
decisions, reducing the risk of human error and improving overall decision-making.

Frequency stability monitoring and trending are critical components of power

system operation, ensuring that the grid frequency remains within acceptable
limits. Here's an overview of frequency stability monitoring and trending:

Frequency Stability Monitoring

1. Real-time Frequency Measurement: Measure the grid frequency in real-time

using phasor measurement units (PMUs) or other frequency measurement
devices.
2. Frequency Deviation Detection: Detect deviations in the grid frequency from the
nominal value (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz).
3. Rate of Change of Frequency (ROCOF) Monitoring: Monitor the rate of change
of frequency to detect rapid changes that may indicate instability.
4. Frequency Stability Indices: Calculate frequency stability indices, such as the
frequency stability margin, to assess the grid's ability to maintain frequency
stability.

Frequency Trending

1. Historical Frequency Data Analysis: Analyze historical frequency data to identify

trends, patterns, and correlations.
2. Frequency Forecasting: Use statistical models or machine learning algorithms to
forecast future frequency trends.
3. Frequency Variability Analysis: Analyze the variability of the grid frequency to
identify potential issues with frequency stability.
4. Event Detection and Analysis: Detect and analyze events that may impact
frequency stability, such as generator trips or transmission line faults.

Tools and Techniques

1. Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs): Use PMUs to measure grid frequency and
other electrical quantities.
2. SCADA Systems: Use Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
systems to monitor and control the grid frequency.
3. Machine Learning Algorithms: Use machine learning algorithms to analyze
frequency data and predict future trends.
4. Data Analytics Software: Use data analytics software to visualize and analyze
frequency data.

Benefits

1. Improved Frequency Stability: Frequency stability monitoring and trending help

to identify potential issues before they impact the grid.
2. Enhanced Situational Awareness: Real-time frequency monitoring and trending
provide operators with a clear understanding of the grid's frequency stability.
3. Informed Decision-Making: Frequency trending and forecasting enable
operators to make informed decisions about grid operations and maintenance.
4. Reduced Risk of Blackouts: Frequency stability monitoring and trending help to
reduce the risk of blackouts by identifying potential issues before they impact the
grid.

Power oscillation, voltage monitoring, and trending are crucial aspects of

power system operation, ensuring the stability and reliability of the grid. Here's an
overview:

Power Oscillation Monitoring

1. Real-time monitoring: Monitor power oscillations in real-time using phasor

measurement units (PMUs) or other monitoring devices.
2. Oscillation detection: Detect power oscillations using algorithms that analyze the
frequency, amplitude, and duration of the oscillations.
3. Oscillation classification: Classify power oscillations based on their frequency,
amplitude, and duration to determine their impact on the grid.
4. Oscillation mitigation: Implement control strategies to mitigate power oscillations,
such as adjusting generator output or activating damping controllers.

Voltage Monitoring

1. Real-time voltage measurement: Measure voltage levels in real-time using

PMUs or other monitoring devices.
2. Voltage trending: Analyze historical voltage data to identify trends, patterns, and
correlations.
3. Voltage stability assessment: Assess voltage stability using metrics such as the
voltage stability margin.
4. Voltage control: Implement voltage control strategies, such as adjusting
transformer taps or activating voltage regulators.

Voltage Trending

1. Historical data analysis: Analyze historical voltage data to identify trends,

patterns, and correlations.
2. Voltage forecasting: Use statistical models or machine learning algorithms to
forecast future voltage trends.
3. Voltage variability analysis: Analyze the variability of voltage levels to identify
potential issues with voltage stability.
4. Event detection and analysis: Detect and analyze events that may impact
voltage stability, such as generator trips or transmission line faults.

Tools and Techniques

1. Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs): Use PMUs to measure power oscillations

and voltage levels.
2. SCADA Systems: Use Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
systems to monitor and control power oscillations and voltage levels.
3. Machine Learning Algorithms: Use machine learning algorithms to analyze
power oscillation and voltage data.
4. Data Analytics Software: Use data analytics software to visualize and analyze
power oscillation and voltage data.

Benefits

1. Improved grid stability: Power oscillation and voltage monitoring help to identify
potential issues before they impact the grid.
2. Enhanced situational awareness: Real-time monitoring and trending provide
operators with a clear understanding of the grid's behavior.
3. Informed decision-making: Power oscillation and voltage trending enable
operators to make informed decisions about grid operations and maintenance.
4. Reduced risk of blackouts: Power oscillation and voltage monitoring help to
reduce the risk of blackouts by identifying potential issues before they impact the
grid.
Alarm and setting system operating limits are critical components of power
system monitoring and control. Here's an overview:

Alarm System

1. Alarm Generation: Automatically generate alarms based on predefined

conditions, such as voltage or frequency deviations.
2. Alarm Prioritization: Prioritize alarms based on severity and impact on the power
system.
3. Alarm Notification: Notify operators and maintenance personnel of alarms via
various communication channels (e.g., email, SMS, or audible alerts).

Setting System Operating Limits

1. Operating Limit Definition: Define operating limits for various power system
parameters, such as voltage, frequency, and power flow.
2. Limit Violation Detection: Detect violations of operating limits and trigger alarms
or control actions.
3. Limit Adjustment: Allow operators to adjust operating limits based on changing
system conditions or maintenance activities.

Types of Operating Limits

1. Hard Limits: Absolute limits that must not be exceeded (e.g., maximum voltage
or frequency limits).
2. Soft Limits: Advisory limits that indicate approaching a hard limit or an
undesirable operating condition.
3. Dynamic Limits: Limits that change based on system conditions, such as load or
generation levels.

Benefits

1. Improved Situational Awareness: Alarm systems and operating limits provide

operators with real-time information about power system conditions.
2. Enhanced Reliability: Automated alarm systems and operating limits help
prevent human error and ensure timely response to system disturbances.
3. Optimized System Performance: Operating limits help optimize power system
performance by preventing overloading or underloading of equipment.
4. Reduced Risk of Blackouts: Alarm systems and operating limits help identify
potential issues before they lead to blackouts or other system disturbances.

Dynamic Line Rating (DLR) and Congestion Management are essential

components of modern power grid operation, enabling utilities to optimize
transmission line utilization, reduce congestion, and ensure reliable power delivery.

Dynamic Line Rating (DLR)

1. Real-time monitoring: Continuously monitor transmission line conditions, such

as temperature, wind, and humidity.
2. Ampacity calculation: Calculate the transmission line's ampacity (current-
carrying capacity) based on real-time conditions.
3. Dynamic rating: Adjust the transmission line's rating in real-time to reflect
changing conditions, allowing for increased power transfer during favorable
conditions.
4. Integration with energy management systems: Integrate DLR with energy
management systems to optimize power flow and reduce congestion.

Congestion Management

1. Real-time monitoring: Continuously monitor power flow and transmission line

utilization to identify potential congestion.
2. Congestion detection: Detect congestion using advanced algorithms and
machine learning techniques.
3. Congestion mitigation: Implement congestion mitigation strategies, such as
redispatching generation, adjusting load, or using energy storage.
4. Optimization techniques: Use optimization techniques, such as linear
programming or dynamic programming, to optimize power flow and reduce
congestion.

Benefits of DLR and Congestion Management

1. Increased transmission capacity: DLR enables utilities to increase transmission

capacity during favorable conditions, reducing congestion and improving power
delivery.
2. Improved reliability: Congestion management helps prevent power outages and
improves overall grid reliability.
3. Enhanced flexibility: DLR and congestion management enable utilities to
respond quickly to changing grid conditions, improving flexibility and resilience.
4. Reduced costs: Optimized power flow and reduced congestion can lead to cost
savings for utilities and consumers.

Challenges and Future Directions

1. Data quality and availability: Ensuring accurate and reliable data is essential for
effective DLR and congestion management.
2. Advanced analytics and machine learning: Integrating advanced analytics and
machine learning techniques can improve congestion detection and mitigation.
3. Integration with emerging technologies: Integrating DLR and congestion
management with emerging technologies, such as energy storage and renewable
energy sources, will be crucial for future grid operation.

Outage restoration is the process of restoring power to customers after an outage

occurs. The goal of outage restoration is to minimize the duration and impact of the
outage, ensuring that customers have reliable and safe access to electricity.

Steps involved in Outage Restoration:

1. Outage Detection: Identify the outage and its location using advanced
technologies such as smart grid sensors, SCADA systems, and customer reports.
2. Assessment: Assess the extent of the outage, including the number of
customers affected, the duration of the outage, and the potential cause.
3. Crew Dispatch: Dispatch repair crews to the affected area, ensuring they have
the necessary equipment and resources to restore power.
4. Repair: Perform repairs to the damaged infrastructure, such as replacing faulty
equipment or repairing damaged lines.
5. Restoration: Restore power to customers, either by re-energizing the affected
circuit or by switching customers to an alternate circuit.
6. Verification: Verify that power has been restored to all customers and that the
system is operating safely and reliably.

Technologies used in Outage Restoration:

1. Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI): Provides real-time data on customer

energy usage and outage status.
2. Smart Grid Sensors: Monitor the grid in real-time, detecting outages and
anomalies.
3. SCADA Systems: Provide real-time monitoring and control of the grid, enabling
rapid response to outages.
4. Mobile Workforce Management: Enables utilities to manage and dispatch repair
crews efficiently.
5. Outage Management Systems (OMS): Provide a centralized platform for
managing outages, including detection, assessment, and restoration.

Benefits of Advanced Outage Restoration:

1. Reduced Outage Duration: Advanced technologies and strategies enable faster

outage detection and restoration.
2. Improved Customer Satisfaction: Utilities can provide customers with timely
updates and accurate estimates of restoration times.
3. Enhanced Grid Reliability: Advanced outage restoration enables utilities to
identify and address potential issues before they cause outages.
4. Increased Efficiency: Utilities can optimize their outage restoration processes,
reducing costs and improving resource allocation.
 Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) play a crucial role in wide-area
monitoring and control of power systems. Here are some applications of
PMUs in wide-area monitoring and control:

Wide-Area Monitoring

1. Real-time monitoring: PMUs provide real-time measurements of voltage,

current, and frequency phasors, enabling operators to monitor the power system's
behavior.
2. State estimation: PMU measurements are used to estimate the power system's
state variables, such as voltage magnitude and phase angle.
3. Oscillation detection: PMUs detect power oscillations, which can indicate
potential stability issues.
4. Voltage stability monitoring: PMUs monitor voltage stability by tracking voltage
magnitude and phase angle.

Wide-Area Control

1. Automatic generation control: PMUs provide feedback to automatic generation

control systems, enabling real-time adjustments to generation output.
2. Load shedding: PMUs trigger load shedding schemes to prevent power system
instability.
3. Grid stability control: PMUs provide inputs to grid stability control systems, which
adjust system parameters to maintain stability.
 4. Renewable energy integration: PMUs enable real-time monitoring and control of
renewable energy sources, ensuring stable grid operation.

Advanced Applications

1. Wide-area damping control: PMUs enable wide-area damping control, which

stabilizes power oscillations across the grid.
2. Predictive analytics: PMU data is used in predictive analytics to forecast
potential power system issues.
3. Grid resilience: PMUs help assess grid resilience by monitoring the power
system's response to disturbances.
4. Cyber-physical security: PMUs provide real-time monitoring and detection of
cyber-physical attacks on the power grid.

Benefits

1. Improved situational awareness: PMUs provide real-time visibility into the power
system's behavior.
2. Enhanced grid stability: PMUs enable wide-area monitoring and control,
improving grid stability and reducing the risk of blackouts.
3. Increased efficiency: PMUs optimize power system operation, reducing energy
losses and improving overall efficiency.
4. Better decision-making: PMU data informs decision-making, enabling operators
to respond quickly and effectively to power system disturbances.

 Phasor measurements
PMUs measure voltage and current phasors at critical substations on a power
grid. A phasor is a quantity that tells the magnitude and phase angle for the AC
voltage or current at a specific location on a power line.
 Synchronization
PMUs synchronize multiple phasor measurements from different points on the
grid to a common time source. This allows for accurate assessment of the grid's
quality in terms of voltage and current.
 Communication
PMUs communicate the information they collect to a phasor data concentrator
(PDC).
PMUs are used for a variety of applications, including: Improving state estimation,
Detecting and controlling oscillations, Monitoring and controlling voltage stability,
Validating load modeling, and System restoration and event analysis.
A phasor measurement unit (PMU) is a device that measures these
electrical characteristics on the grid and then communicates them back to
a phasor data concentrator (PDC) and ultimately to T-SCADA systems.
Role of Phasor Measurement Unit in Smart Grid
Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) are electronic devices that use digital signal-processing
components to measure AC waveforms and convert them into phasor, according to the system
frequency, and synchronize these measurements under the control of GPS reference sources.
The analog signals are sampled and processed by a recursive Phasor algorithm to generate
Voltage
and Current Phasor. Different components of a PMU are shown by a block diagram in below
fig.

A Phasor network consists of Phasor measurement units (PMUs) dispersed

throughout the electricity system, Phasor Data Concentrators (PDC) to collect the
information and a Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) system at
the central control facility. Such a network is used in Wide Area Measurement
Systems (WAMS).

From the voltage and current samples, the magnitudes and phase angles of the voltage and
current signals are calculated in the Phasor microprocessor of the PMU. As the PMUs use the
clock signal of the Global Positioning System (GPS) to provide synchronised phase angle
measurements at all their measurement points, the measured Phasor are often referred to as
synchrophasors.

The data from different PMUs distributed in the grid is transmitted to a Phasor Data
Concentrator (PDC) located at the control centre. The PDC collects and sorts the data by time
stamp until the arrival of the slowest data. The data concentrated by the PDC is then utilised for
different applications at the control centre. Data collected from several PDCs distributed over a
particular area may then be transmitted to a super PDC.
 A R DIGITECH
A PDC collects phasorJournal
International data from multiple PMUs
Of Engineering, or And
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Technology the data by time tag to create a
(ARDIJEET)
synchronized dataset, and then
www.ardigitech.in ISSNpasses the data
2320-883X, on to3,applications
VOLUME processors. For applications that process
ISSUE 2, 01/04/2015
PMU data from across the grid, it is vital that the measurements are time aligned based on their original
time tag to create a system-wide, synchronized snapshot of grid conditions. To accommodate the varying
latencies in data delivery from individual PMUs, and to take into account delayed data packets over the
communications system, PDCs typically buffer the input data streams and include a certain ―wait time‖
before outputting the aggregated data stream.

PMUs often use phone lines to connect to PDCs, which then send data to the SCADA or Wide Area
Measurement System (WAMS) server. Additionally, PMUs can use mobile (cellular) networks for data
transfer (GPRS, UMTS, etc.,), which allows potential savings in infrastructure and deployment costs, at the
expense of a larger data reporting latency.

Applications:
Phasor Measurement Technology and synchronized time stamping can be used for Security improvement
through synchronized encryptions like trusted sensing base. Cyber attack recognition by verifying data
between the SCADA system and the PMU data.

A phasor measurement unit (PMU) is a device which measures the electrical waveform on an
electricity grid, using a common time source for synchronization. PMUs measure positive sequence
voltages and currents on the transmission grid, and when a sufficient number of PMUs are installed.
Time synchronization allows synchronized real- time measurements of multiple remote measurement
points on the grid. In power engineering, these are also commonly referred to as synchrophasors and
are considered one of the most important measuring devices in the future of power systems. Phasor
measurement units (PMUs) are power system devices that provide synchronized measurements of real-
time phasors of voltages and currents. Synchronization is achieved by same-time sampling of voltage
and current waveforms using timing signals from the Gobal Positioning System Sattelite (GPS). A
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 A R DIGITECH
PMU can be a dedicated device, or the PMU function can be incorporated into a
International Journal Of Engineering, Education And Technology (ARDIJEET)
protective relay or
www.ardigitech.in ISSN 2320-883X,
other device. Synchronized VOLUME
phasor 3, ISSUE 2,selevate
measurement 01/04/2015
the standards of power system monitoring,
control, and protection to a new level.

In many countries around the world are affected by power failures, which are caused
by factors such as lack of investment into power system infrastructure, inadequate asset
maintenance, and continuous increase in electricity consumption that overstresses the power
transmission and distribution system. Consequently, power companies suffer from losses of
billions of dollars, and inconvenience to private and business customers. In order to prevent
the prevalent blackouts, implementation of state-of- the-art technologies, such as a state
estimation of the transmission network, is required to achieve better controllability, higher
reliability and stability of the power system. The Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) is a
device that is employed to detect the voltage and current waveform that is synchronized with
a clocking signal obtained continuously from the global positioning system (GPS).
What is Phasor ?
A phasor is a complex number that represents both the magnitude and phase angle of
the sine waves found in electricity. Phasor measurements that occur at the same time are
called "synchrophasors", as are the PMU devices that allow their measurement. In typical
applications phasor measurement units are sampled from widely dispersed locations in the
power system network and synchronized from the common time source of a global
positioning system

(GPS) radio clock. Synchrophasor technology provides a tool for system operators and planners to measure the
state of the electrical system and manage power quality. Synchrophasors measure voltages and currents at diverse
locations on a power grid and can output accurately time-stamped voltage and current phasors. Because these
phasors are truly synchronized, synchronized comparison of two quantities is possible, in real time. These
comparisons can be used to assess system conditions.

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5
A R DIGITECH
International Journal Of Engineering, Education And Technology (ARDIJEET)
www.ardigitech.in ISSN 2320-883X, VOLUME 3, ISSUE 2, 01/04/2015

Here the phase or phase angle is the distance between the signal’s sinusoidal peak and a specified
reference and is expressed using an angular measure. Here, the reference is a fixed point in time
(such as time = 0). The phasor magnitude is related to the amplitude of the sinusoidal signal.

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Smart Grid Technologies PG Electrical

What is phasor measurement unit?

A PMU is an electroinc device that uses state-of- the-art digital signal processors
that can measure 50/60Hz AC waveforms (voltages and currents) typically at a
rate of 48 samples per cycle (2880 samples per second). The analog AC
waveforms are digitized by an Analog to Digital converter for each phase. A
phase-lock oscillator along with a Global Positioning System (GPS) reference
source provides the needed high-speed synchronized sampling with
microsecond accuracy. Additionally, digital signal processing techniques
are used to compute the voltage and current phasors.

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Smart Grid Technologies PG Electrical

A phasor is a complex number that represents both the magnitude and

phase angle of the sine waves found in electricity. In typical applications phasor
measurement units are sampled from widely dispersed locations in the power
system network and synchronized from the common time source of a global
positioning system (GPS) radio clock. Synchrophasor technology provides a tool
for system operators and planners to measure the state of the electrical system and
manage power quality. Synchrophasors measure voltages and currents at diverse
locations on a power grid and can output accurately time-stamped voltage and

Published in A R
current phasors. Because these phasors are truly synchronized, synchronized
comparison of two quantities is possible, in real time. These comparisons can be

DIGITECH
used to assess system conditions. The technology has the potential to change the
economics of power delivery by allowing increased power flow over existing
lines. Synchrophasor data could be used to allow power flow up to a line's
dynamic limit instead of to its worst-case limit.

Phasor networks
A phasor network consists of phasor measurement units (PMUs) dispersed
throughout the electricity system, Phasor Data Concentrators (PDC) to collect the
information and a Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) system at
the central control facility. Such a network is used in Wide Area Measurement
Systems (WAMS), the first of which was begun in 2000 by the Bonneville Power
Administration. The complete network requires rapid data transfer within the
frequency of sampling of the phasor data. GPS time stamping can provide a
theoretical accuracy of synchronization better than 1 microsecond. “Clocks need
to be accurate to ± 500 nanoseconds to provide the one microsecond time
standard needed by each device performing synchrophasor measurement.” For
60Hz systems, PMUs must deliver between 10 and 30 synchronous reports per
second depending on the application. The PDC correlates the data, and controls
and monitors the PMUs (from a dozen up to 60). At the central control facility,
the SCADA system presents system wide data on all generators and substations in
the system every 2 to 10 seconds. PMUs often use phone lines to connect to PDC,
which then send data to the SCADA and/or Wide Area Measurement System
(WAMS) server

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Smart Grid Technologies PG Electrical

Functions
The availability of synchronized phasor measurements has given rise to the
possibility of two categories of new and improved applications. One category has
been broadly referred to as Wide- Area Control. It is in the same family as all
existing automatic control and protection, which are mostly local, that is, the
actuating signal source and the control signal destination are in the same
substation. Synchronized measurements and fast communication now make it
possible for such control to be wide-area or regional. Special and unique
examples of such wide-area control already exist and are called Special

Published in A R
Protection Schemes (SPS). The increasing availability of phasor measurements
will make the development of more wide-area controls easier. Some example
DIGITECH
possibilities are provided below. The other category is the enhanced control
center functions. The main functions of the control center – SCADA, State
Estimator, Contingency Analysis, etc. – are for the system operator to monitor the
power system and make operational changes, either using supervisory control or
by telephone, to ensure the reliable and efficient operation of the system. The
availability of phasor measurements at faster rates can improve these functions.
Secure operation of power systems requires close monitoring of the system
operating conditions. This is traditionally accomplished by the state estimator
which resides in the control center computer and has access to the measurements
received from numerous substations in the monitored system. By collecting
analog measurements and the status data of the circuit breakers from remotely
monitored and controlled substations and feeding them as input into state
estimation function, state estimation can provide an estimate for all metered and
un- metered electrical quantities and network parameters of the power system,
detect and filter out gross errors in the measurement set and detect the topology
errors in the network configuration. Until recently, available measurement sets
did not contain phase angle measurements due to the technical difficulties
associated with the synchronization of measurements at remote locations. Global
positioning satellite (GPS) technology alleviated these difficulties and lead to the
development of phasor measurement units (PMU).

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Smart Grid Technologies PG Electrical

The phasor measurement system and phasor measurement process are shown in the figure

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Smart Grid Technologies PG Electrical

Optimal Placement of PMUs

Synchronized Phase Measurement Unit (PMU) is a monitoring

device, which was first introduced in mid-1980s. Phasor measurement
units (PMU) are devices, which use synchronization signals from the
global positioning system (GPS) satellites and provide the phasors of
voltage and currents measured at a given substation. As the PMUs
become more and more affordable, their utilization will increase not
only for substation applications but also at the control centers for the
EMS applications. One of the applications, which will be significantly
affected by the introduction of PMUs, is the stat estimator. TVA is in
the process of installing phasor measurement units (PMU) for enhanced
monitoring of the TVA system. In order to avoid redundant use of
PMUs, the optimal locations for the new PMUs must be determined.
The objective this project is to make use of a minimum number of
PMUs in order to make the system fully observable. Installation of
PMUs will be a gradual process, requiring decisions on the best possible
locations for a limited number of PMUs at the beginning. Hence, a
systematic method is needed for finding the best locations for new
PMUs in the presence of other already placed PMUs and/or
conventional measurements. This project investigates this issue and
provides a practical solution for the PMU placement problem.

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 Smart Grid Technologies PG Electrical

It is the data collection unit of synchro phasor technology. It collects the time syn- chronized voltage
and current data from all PMUs optimally placed in an area. These PDCs then communicate to the super
PDC which provide information to control room for monitoring, control and protection for a wide area
monitoring system. Figure 6 gives the idea of PMU in integration with PDC work in a wide area
monitoring system
A phasor data concentrator (PDC) is a device that collects and time-synchronizes phasor
measurements from Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) and communicates the data to T-
SCADA systems. The PDC acts as a station in a communication network that:
 Collects time-aligned measurements from PMUs
 Sorts and correlates the data based on time-stamp values
 Stores the data in a database system
 Transmits the data to other applications for monitoring, archival, visualization, control, and
protection
PDCs are critical links between PMUs and the synchrophasor applications that use the
data. They are used to:
 Monitor and manage the transmission system
 Perform real-time monitoring of the system
 Analyze and monitor the power system in real-time
PDCs can be located at different geographical locations and communicate with each other
over a wide area network.
Here are some examples of phasor data concentrators:
 VCL-PDC
A high-performance platform that can receive and time-synchronize phasor data from
multiple PMUs
 iPDC
A phasor data concentrator that can collect data from different devices and direct it to real
time applications
The use of highly reliable satellite clocks, such as those with IRIG-B outputs, is important for
accurate time-stamping. Inaccurate time-stamps can lead to misdiagnosing the network and
degrade the controllability of the distribution network

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Smart Grid Technologies PG Electrical

6.1 State Estimation

It estimates the state of the power system from the telemetered data collected from the
network.These data come from various devices present at various nodes point. However, it
may not be present at all the node point of a network to the control room. The EMS converts
these data into state variables, i.e., the voltages and the phase angles. In static state
estimation, the voltage, current, reactive power flow and real power flow measurements are
available. The phase angles can be calculated from these data. In this Estimation, data are
calculated at a time interval of (0–5) s. This method is actively used in SCADA technology.
In dynamic state, estimation data are calculated at a very short time interval say 0.01 s and
all these data are synchronized with the help of a GPS clock. These data are collected from
the measurement devices, i.e., PMU which are basically present at locations that are
geographically very far from each other of a particular region. A group of PMUs
communicate with the PDC of that region and the PDC of different region submit the data to
the main control centre for further action of monitoring and control. This forms a vital part
of synchro phasor technology. State estimation is a very important tool for online
monitoring and disturbance analysis. The phase angle difference clearly indicates that the
system stress and transient present. State estimation is used to check bad data handling, error
detection and elimination of redundant data. The EMS operation depends on the working of
operating states. The measurement equation is given by Eq. (1):
M = H(x) + E (1)

where M = measurement vector formed by voltage magnitude, real and reactive power
flows and power injections; H(x) = the nonlinear function relating the error- free
measurements to the system states; x = state vector; e = noise in measurements; m =
number of measurements and n = number of state variables.
In conventional state estimator, weighted least square estimator is commonly used. It is
used to reduce the error in the measurements. Since, it is nonlinear, iterative and time
consuming. So, linear state estimator is used to overcome this drawback. It uses current and
voltage data as state variables. As, a result, the problem of state estimation is linear non-
iterative. PMU-based state estimation has advantage of linearity and is non-iterative. So
speed of computation is very fast. It also helps in case of online implementation.

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 Smart Grid Technologies PG Electrical

Dynamic line rating (DLR) is a technology that can help manage grid
congestion by optimizing the use of existing power lines:
 How it works
DLR uses real-time data to account for environmental conditions like wind,
temperature, and humidity. This allows for more accurate calculations of a
power line's ampacity, which can be up to 200% higher than traditional
static ratings.
 Benefits
DLR can:
 Reduce congestion on power lines
 Improve efficiency
 Reduce costs
 Increase the integration of solar and wind power
 Reduce the need for new infrastructure
 Improve safety through adequate clearance
 Comparison to traditional solutions
DLR can provide congestion relief in the near term at a lower cost than
traditional solutions like expanding, upgrading, or rebuilding the electric
infrastructure.
 Other factors
Other factors that can affect a power line's ampacity include:
 Ambient temperature
 Solar radiation
 Rain is generally not taken into account, as its physical load on the line is
compensated by its cooling effect.

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 Smart Grid Technologies PG Electrical

Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) are essential devices for wide area
monitoring and control (WAMS) of power systems. PMUs are used in
WAMS to:
 Monitor power grid health
PMUs provide real-time information about the power grid's state and
power quality.
 Predict and respond to problems
PMUs can be used with automated controls to identify and respond to
system problems, such as power outages and supply disruptions.
 Improve measurement accuracy
PMU data is used to improve the accuracy of state estimation
calculations.
 Enhance EMS applications
PMU measurements can be used in EMS applications like state
estimation, parameter estimation, and voltage stability analysis.
Here are some other applications of PMUs: oscillation detection and
control, voltage stability monitoring and control, load modeling validation,
and system restoration and event analysis.
PMUs are installed at selected locations in the power grid, and they
communicate their measurements to a central control network. This allows
the network to quickly respond to protect the entire system from blackouts.

Outage Management System

(OMS) Outage management
system (OMS)
The OMS is a system which combines the trouble call centre and DMS tools to
identify, diagnose and locate faults, then isolate the faults and restore supply. It
provides feedback to customers that are affected. It also analyses the event and
maintains historical records of the outage as well as calculating statistical indices of
interruptions. The information flow of an OMS is shown in Figure
7.18. Outage management is important in distribution networks with goals (and
sometimes penalties) to restore the supply to a faulted section of the network within a
period of time. The main functions of each part of OMS are as follows.

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Smart Grid Technologies PG Electrical

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