PL/SQL – PRACTICAL No – 1
PL/SQL Basics
What is PL/SQL?
PL/SQL (Procedural Language for SQL) is an extension of SQL provided by Oracle that
allows procedural programming. It combines SQL with procedural features like loops,
conditions, and exception handling.
1. Use of Variables in PL/SQL
Variables store and manipulate data in PL/SQL. They are declared in the DECLARE
section and used in the BEGIN section.
Declaring Variables:
DECLARE
v_name VARCHAR2(100);
v_salary NUMBER;
BEGIN
v_name := 'Robert';
v_salary := 85000;
-- Display output
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee Name: ' || v_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Salary: ' || v_salary);
END;
2. Writing Executable Statements in PL/SQL
PL/SQL blocks consist of three sections:
1. Declaration Section – Variables are declared here.
2. Executable Section – Contains SQL queries, loops, and logic.
3. Exception Handling Section – Handles errors.
Example:
DECLARE
TYPE emp_record IS RECORD (
emp_id VARCHAR2(10),
emp_name VARCHAR2(100),
emp_salary NUMBER
);
employee emp_record;
BEGIN
employee.emp_id := 'E001';
employee.emp_name := 'John Doe';
employee.emp_salary := 50000;
-- Display employee details
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee ID: ' || employee.emp_id);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee Name: ' || employee.emp_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee Salary: ' || employee.emp_salary);
END;
3. Interacting with the Oracle Server
PL/SQL allows executing SQL statements within a block:
• SELECT – Retrieves data
• INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE – Modifies data
• COMMIT – Saves changes
• ROLLBACK – Reverts changes
Example:
BEGIN
INSERT INTO employees (id, name, salary) VALUES (101, 'Alice', 60000);
COMMIT;
END;
4. Creating an Anonymous PL/SQL Block
An anonymous block is a PL/SQL block that runs without a name and isn’t stored in the
database.
Example:
DECLARE
v_name VARCHAR2(100);
v_salary NUMBER;
BEGIN
v_name := 'Robert';
v_salary := 85000;
-- Display output
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee Name: ' || v_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Salary: ' || v_salary);
END;
5. Sequences in PL/SQL
A sequence generates unique numbers automatically, often used for primary keys.
Creating a Sequence:
CREATE SEQUENCE emp_seq
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
MINVALUE 1
MAXVALUE 5
NOCYCLE;
Using a Sequence in a Table:
CREATE TABLE tea (
empid NUMBER(10) PRIMARY KEY,
empname VARCHAR2(50)
);
INSERT INTO tea VALUES (emp_seq.NEXTVAL, 'Wasim');
INSERT INTO tea VALUES (emp_seq.NEXTVAL, 'Arif');
INSERT INTO tea VALUES (emp_seq.NEXTVAL, 'Azim');
SELECT * FROM tea;
Dropping a Sequence:
DROP SEQUENCE emp_seq;
PL/SQL – PRACTICAL No – 2
Control Structures in PL/SQL
Control structures help in executing repetitive tasks and decision-making in PL/SQL.
1. WHILE Loop
The WHILE loop executes a block of code as long as a condition is TRUE.
Syntax:
WHILE condition LOOP
-- Code to execute
END LOOP;
Example: Print numbers from 1 to 5
DECLARE
v_num NUMBER := 1;
BEGIN
WHILE v_num <= 5 LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Number: ' || v_num);
v_num := v_num + 1;
END LOOP;
END;
2. DO Loop (LOOP-END LOOP)
The DO loop (LOOP-END LOOP) runs at least once and continues until an EXIT
condition is met.
Syntax:
LOOP
-- Code to execute
EXIT WHEN condition;
END LOOP;
Example: Print numbers from 1 to 5
DECLARE
v_num NUMBER := 1;
BEGIN
LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Number: ' || v_num);
v_num := v_num + 1;
EXIT WHEN v_num > 5;
END LOOP;
END;
3. FOR Loop
The FOR loop runs a specific number of times based on a given range.
Syntax:
FOR counter IN start_value..end_value LOOP
-- Code to execute
END LOOP;
Example: Print numbers from 1 to 5
BEGIN
FOR v_num IN 1..5 LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Number: ' || v_num);
END LOOP;
END;
4. GOTO Statement
The GOTO statement jumps to a specific labeled section in the program.
Syntax:
GOTO label;
<<label>>
-- Code to execute
Example: Skip printing 3
DECLARE
v_num NUMBER := 0;
BEGIN
LOOP
v_num := v_num + 1;
IF v_num = 3 THEN
GOTO skip;
END IF;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Number: ' || v_num);
EXIT WHEN v_num = 5;
<<skip>>
END LOOP;
END;
PL/SQL – PRACTICAL No – 3
PL/SQL Conditional Statements
• IF statement
• IF-ELSE statement
• ELSIF ladder
• CASE expression
1. IF Statement
The IF statement executes code only if a condition is TRUE.
Syntax:
IF condition THEN
-- Statements to execute
END IF;
Example: Check if sales exceed 100K
DECLARE
n_sales NUMBER := 2000000;
BEGIN
IF n_sales > 100000 THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Sales revenue is greater than 100K');
END IF;
END;
Output:
Sales revenue is greater than 100K
2. IF-ELSE Statement
Executes one block of code if the condition is TRUE and another block if FALSE.
Syntax:
IF condition THEN
-- Code if condition is TRUE
ELSE
-- Code if condition is FALSE
END IF;
Example: Check if a number is less than 20
DECLARE
a NUMBER(3) := 500;
BEGIN
IF a < 20 THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('a is less than 20');
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('a is not less than 20');
END IF;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Value of a is: ' || a);
END;
Output:
a is not less than 20
Value of a is: 500
3. ELSIF Ladder
Allows multiple conditions to be checked sequentially.
Syntax:
IF condition1 THEN
-- Code for condition1
ELSIF condition2 THEN
-- Code for condition2
ELSIF condition3 THEN
-- Code for condition3
ELSE
-- Default code if no conditions match
END IF;
Example: Assign letter grade based on score
DECLARE
v_Score NUMBER := 85;
v_LetterGrade CHAR(1);
BEGIN
IF v_Score >= 90 THEN
v_LetterGrade := 'A';
ELSIF v_Score >= 80 THEN
v_LetterGrade := 'B';
ELSIF v_Score >= 70 THEN
v_LetterGrade := 'C';
ELSIF v_Score >= 60 THEN
v_LetterGrade := 'D';
ELSE
v_LetterGrade := 'E';
END IF;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Your Letter Grade is: ' || v_LetterGrade);
END;
Output:
Your Letter Grade is: B
4. CASE Expression
The CASE statement works like an IF-ELSE ladder but uses a selector (expression)
instead of multiple Boolean conditions.
Syntax:
CASE selector
WHEN value1 THEN statement1
WHEN value2 THEN statement2
ELSE default_statement
END CASE;
Example: Print grade description
DECLARE
grade CHAR(1) := 'A';
BEGIN
CASE grade
WHEN 'A' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Excellent');
WHEN 'B' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Very good');
WHEN 'C' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Well done');
WHEN 'D' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('You passed');
WHEN 'F' THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Better try again');
ELSE DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('No such grade');
END CASE;
END;
Output:
Excellent
PL/SQL – PRACTICAL No – 3
Aim:
To create and use different types of cursors in PL/SQL:
• Implicit Cursor
• Explicit Cursor
• Parameterized Cursor
Introduction to Cursors in PL/SQL
A cursor is a pointer to a memory area known as the context area, which holds the
result of an SQL query. Cursors allow row-by-row processing of query results in PL/SQL.
1. Implicit Cursor
PL/SQL automatically creates an implicit cursor for SQL statements like INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE, and SELECT INTO when no explicit cursor is used.
Example: Implicit Cursor
Step 1: Create a Table and Insert Data
CREATE TABLE exp5(
ID INT PRIMARY KEY,
NAME VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR(25),
SALARY DECIMAL(18,2)
);
INSERT INTO exp5 VALUES (1, 'Ramesh', 32, 'Ahmedabad', 2000.00);
INSERT INTO exp5 VALUES (2, 'Khilan', 25, 'Delhi', 1500.00);
INSERT INTO exp5 VALUES (3, 'Kaushik', 23, 'Kota', 2000.00);
INSERT INTO exp5 VALUES (4, 'Chaitali', 25, 'Mumbai', 6500.00);
INSERT INTO exp5 VALUES (5, 'Hardik', 27, 'Bhopal', 8500.00);
INSERT INTO exp5 VALUES (6, 'Komal', 22, 'MP', 4500.00);
Step 2: Implicit Cursor Example (Updating Salaries)
DECLARE
total_row NUMBER(2);
BEGIN
UPDATE exp5
SET salary = salary + 3000;
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('No customers updated');
ELSIF SQL%FOUND THEN
total_row := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(total_row || ' customers updated');
END IF;
END;
Output:
Statement processed.
6 customers updated
Key Features of Implicit Cursors:
• Automatically created by PL/SQL.
• Used when a single-row query is processed.
• Does not require OPEN, FETCH, CLOSE commands.
• Can be monitored using SQL%FOUND, SQL%NOTFOUND, SQL%ROWCOUNT.
2. Explicit Cursor
An explicit cursor is manually declared, opened, fetched, and closed to handle
multiple rows from a query.
Steps for Using an Explicit Cursor:
1. Declare the cursor with a SELECT statement.
2. Open the cursor to allocate memory.
3. Fetch rows into variables.
4. Close the cursor to release memory.
Example: Explicit Cursor
DECLARE
id exp5.id%TYPE;
name exp5.name%TYPE;
add exp5.address%TYPE;
CURSOR a IS
SELECT id, name, address FROM exp5; -- Cursor declaration
BEGIN
OPEN a; -- Open cursor
LOOP
FETCH a INTO id, name, add; -- Fetch data
EXIT WHEN a%NOTFOUND; -- Exit when no more rows
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(id || ' ' || name || ' ' || add);
END LOOP;
CLOSE a; -- Close cursor
END;
/
Output:
1 Ramesh Ahmedabad
2 Khilan Delhi
3 Kaushik Kota
...
Key Features of Explicit Cursors:
• Used for multi-row queries.
• Requires OPEN, FETCH, CLOSE commands.
• Can be monitored using %FOUND, %NOTFOUND, %ROWCOUNT.
3. Parameterized Cursor
A parameterized cursor allows passing arguments to filter data dynamically when it is
opened.
Example: Parameterized Cursor (Filtering Employees by Salary)
DECLARE
record exp5%ROWTYPE;
CURSOR c1 (max_wage NUMBER) IS
SELECT * FROM exp5 WHERE salary < max_wage;
BEGIN
OPEN c1(5000); -- Open cursor with max salary filter
LOOP
FETCH c1 INTO record;
EXIT WHEN c1%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Name = ' || record.name || ', Salary = ' || record.salary);
END LOOP;
CLOSE c1;
END;
Output:
Name = Ramesh, Salary = 2000.00
Name = Khilan, Salary = 1500.00
Name = Kaushik, Salary = 2000.00
...
Key Features of Parameterized Cursors:
• Allows filtering of data dynamically.
• Requires parameters while opening the cursor.
Summary
Cursor Type Description Example Use Case
Automatically created for SELECT COUNT(*) INTO v_count
Implicit Cursor
simple queries FROM employees;
Manually declared for multi-
Explicit Cursor Iterating through customer records
row queries
Parameterized Accepts parameters for Fetching employees with salary <
Cursor dynamic queries 5000
