University: somali national University

Faculty : Science department Geology

Batch: 3 Geology

Course : Research methodology

Lecture: prof Husein Bashiir

Tobic: Somali Coastal Basin

(study area muqdisho )

Name : Saalim Aadan Cabdullahi

Date of submission: 15 june 2025

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Thanks for you helping prof Husein Bashir and your hope successfully

ABSTRACT

Somalia has the longest national coastline (3025 km) inAfrica with an estimated shelf area (depth
0±200 m) of32 500 km2. The country is divided into the northern coastal plain of Guban, which
has a semi-arid terrain; thenorthern highlands with rugged mountain ranges con-taining the
countryÕs highest peak (2407 m); and the Og-aden region which descends to the south from
thehighlands and which consists of shallow plateau valleys,wadis and broken mountains. The
latter region continuesto the Mudug plain in central Somalia.From Ras Caseyr to the Kenya
border, the coast runsnorth-east to south-west, coinciding with the displacementcaused by the
Mesozoic marginal subsidence. This generalstructure is complicated by sedimentary troughs
crossingthe Horn of Africa, and by large sedimentary basins,cutting the coastline and extending
inland into SouthernSomalia and Northern Kenya (Juba±Lamu embayment,Mogadishu basin).
Offshore, the western Somali Basinextends from Socotra to the Comores.

CHAPTER 1 . Introduction

1.1: LOCATION

The Somali Coastal Basin is part of a larger geological and marine system along Somalia's
extensive coastline, which is the longest in Africa at about 3,025 km with a continental shelf area
of approximately 32,500 km². This basin is located offshore along the western Somali Basin,
which extends from Socotra to the Comores islands. The basin and shelf environments have
developed due to marine transgressions linked to coastal subsidence and inland uplift, producing
a complex sedimentary setting with both marine and continental deposits including skeletal
sands, coral build-ups, and eolian sands

the Somali Coastal Basin is a sedimentary basin that lies along the eastern coast of Somalia,
stretching from the Gulf of Aden in the north to the Indian Ocean in the south. It is an important
geological region with potential for hydrocarbons and groundwater resources.
Approximate Latitude and Longitude:

Latitude: 1°N to 11°N Longitude: 41°E to 51°E

General Coverage:

Northern boundary: Near Bosaso (approx. 11°N, 49°E)

Southern boundary: Near Kismayo (approx. 0.3°N, 42.5°E)

Inland extent: Varies but generally doesn't extend far inland from the coast

Muqdisho. the capital city of Somalia, is located within the Somali Coastal Basin along the
central southeastern coast of the country.

Approximate Coordinates of Mogadishu:

Latitude: 2.0469° N Longitude: 45.3182° E

Notes: Mogadishu lies directly on the Indian Ocean coast.

The city is part of the Benadir region.

The geology around Mogadishu is dominated by Quaternary to Tertiary sediments, typical of

coastal basins, with potential for groundwter and marine sediment studies

1.2 objective of research

main purpose of the research is to write this book And how to find research methodology

1.3 : Geological Background:

The Coastal Basin formed as a result of rifting and subsidence during the Mesozoic and
Cenozoic eras, associated with the breakup of Gondwana.

It is characterized by thick sequences of marine and continental sediments, often exceeding

5,000 meters in depth.

Stratigraphy:Composed mainly o fLimestone Sandstone Shale Marl

Sedimentary layers range in age from Jurassic to recent.

Hydrocarbon Potential:

The Coastal Basin is considered potentially rich in oil and gas.

Offshore and nearshore areas are of significant interest for petroleum exploration.

Historical surveys (e.g., seismic studies) have indicated the presence of structural traps and
potential source rocks.

1.4 Economic Significance:

Potential site for future oil and gas exploration.

May support fisheries and marine resources due to its proximity to productive oceanic zones.

1.5 Environmental and Hydrological Aspects:

Coastal aquifers are found in this basin, which are important for freshwater supply in cities like
Mogadishu and Kismayo.

Vulnerable to saltwater intrusion due to over-extraction of groundwater and climate change.

Key Cities Within the Basin:Mogadishu Merca Baraawe Kismayo

stratigraphic history
 figure 1. wells stations

Pre-Jurassic

No pre-Jurassic sedimentary rock has been reported from outcrop in the Somali Coastal basin.
However, the Brava 1 Well (S13 in Fig.1) bottomed in quartz sandstone 120 m thick, which
bears resemblance to the continental Triassic – Lower Jurassic Adigrat Formation described in
other wells. Both Kamen-Kaye (1978) and Kamen-Kaye and Barnes (1978) noted that
palynomorphs of Permo-Triassic age were found in the shale overlying the quartz sandstone in
the Brava 1 Well. Nevertheless, Beltrandi and Pyre (1973) considered both units to be Jurassic in
age. Until more documentation becomes available, it is considered that the basal sandstone to be
the top of Adigrat Formation, the lower part of which is Triassic in age.
Lower Jurassic

Deposition of the Adigrat Formation continued uninterrupted from Triassic through

Pliensbachian time. The formation consists of as much as 130 m of quartz sandstone with
intercalations of gypsum and dark shale. Interestingly, the Qoryoley 1 Well (S9 in Fig.1)
bottomed in extrusive igneous rock after penetrating at least part of the Adigrat Formation. This
rock may be the manifestation of the rifting process that ultimately led to the separation of
Madagascar and Africa in the Middle Jurassic time (Segoufin and Patriat, 1980; Parson and
others, 1981; and Rabinowitz and others, 1983). Overlying this sandstone, and extending to the
middle of the top of the Middle Jurassic are basinal dark grey shale and dark grey argillaceous
fossiliferous limestone that grade to pure limestone seaward. At the Marai Asha Well (S1 in Fig.
1) this section – the Hamanlei Formation – is at least 1,525 m thick; just to the north at the
Hobyo 1 Well (not on this map), the thickness is at least 2, 175 m.

Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous

The Oxfordian – Kimmeridgian Warandab Formation consists of yellowish, marly limestone

containing belemnites and ammonites in Southern Somalia. The formation is represented in the
boreholes by basinal dark grey marly limestone stringers, and in the Marai Asha Well (S1 in
Fig.1) a total thickness of 538 m was recorded. The remainder of the Upper Jurassic (Late
Kimmerdgian – Tithonian) section is expressed as basinal dark gray and dark brown shale, with
some gray, finely crystalline foraminifera – bearing limestone, of the Garbaharrey Formation,
which attains a maximum thickness of 350 m.

In south-central Somalia, the lower Cretaceous crops out as a series of gypsum and limestone
with inter-bedded shale. In the subsurface a fore-reef limestone and medium-depth neritic shale
make up the Cotton Formation, which is entirely of Early Cretaceous age (dated by
foraminifera). At Marai Asha (S1 in Fig. 1), the section is 130 m thick and is in unconformable
contact with both the Upper Jurassic and Upper Cretaceous rock.

Upper Cretaceous

At Marai Asha (S1 in Fig 1), the Upper Cretaceous is represented by 1,025 m of deep-water grey
shale and marl (Sagaleh Formation) and the section thins seaward. Farther to the south, at the
Marka Well (S8 in Fig 1), the entire Upper Cretaceous column was not penetrated, but 360 m of
dark gray shale of that age with interbedded splitic basalt flows were recovered. In Southern
Somalia, the Upper Cretaceous section is approximately the same thickness as at Marai Asha, but
consists of open marine sandstone and siltstone with shale intercalations. The Sageleh Formation
is rich in foraminifera.

Paleocene

Paleocene rock is abundant in boreholes of the Somali Coastal Basin. In the Marai Asha Well
(S1 in Fig 1), the Sagaleh Formation – a foraminifera-bearing deep-water gray shale and marl –
continues into the Paleocene from the Upper Cretaceous; Paleocene thickness of the unit is ~100
m. Overlying the shale is a 200-m thick transitional zone, the fossiliferous (foraminifera) Marai
Asha Formation, betw…

Key Features of the Somali Coastal Basin:

Passive Margin:

The basin developed on a passive margin, where a continental plate is moving away from
another, leading to the formation of a sedimentary basin.

Sedimentary Sequence:

The basin contains a thick sequence of sediments, including shales, sandstones, siltstones, and
limestone, ranging in age from Jurassic to recent.

Sub-Basins:

The basin is subdivided into three major sub-basins: the Mid-Somalia High, Mogadishu, and
Jubba Deep, which extends into the Lamu Basin in Kenya.
Tectonic Influence:

The formation of the basin is linked to the opening of the Indian Ocean and the movements of
the Somali plate and the African plate.

Potential for Hydrocarbons:

The thick sedimentary sequence in the basin, particularly the Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous rocks,
is considered to have potential for hydrocarbon accumulation.

Significance of the Somali Coastal Basin:

Geological History:

The basin provides insights into the geological history of the region and the opening of the
Indian Ocean.

Economic Resources:

The basin's potential for hydrocarbons makes it a target for oil and gas exploration.

Sedimentary Processes:

The basin's sedimentary sequence provides a record of past sedimentary environments and
processes.

Tectonic Evolution:The basin's structure and sedimentary fill offer clues to the tectonic evolution
of the region.

1.6: Methodology

This chapter outlines the research methodology used for hydrocarbon exploration in sedimentary
basins, focusing on seismic data acquisition, processing, and interpretation techniques.

1.6.1. Seismic Data Acquisition

Seismic surveying is the primary method for imaging subsurface geology in hydrocarbon
exploration. It involves generating controlled seismic waves using sources such as vibroseis
trucks (onshore) or air guns (offshore). These waves travel through the Earth and reflect off
geological boundaries with contrasting rock properties. Geophones or hydrophones record the
returning signals at the surface. Acquisition design depends on the survey type (2D, 3D, or 4D)
and objectives, balancing resolution and coverage.

1.6.2. Seismic Data Processing

Raw seismic data undergo processing to enhance signal quality and remove noise and multiples.
Processing steps include deconvolution, velocity analysis, stacking, and migration, which
collectively produce clearer subsurface images suitable for interpretation. Proper processing is
critical to accurately delineate geological structures and stratigraphy.

figure 3

1.6.3. Seismic Interpretation

Interpreters analyze processed seismic sections to identify structural features (faults, folds, thrust
belts) and stratigraphic patterns (seismic facies, depositional sequences). Advanced techniques
like seismic attribute analysis, amplitude versus offset (AVO), and spectral decomposition help
detect potential reservoirs and hydrocarbon indicators such as bright spots or flat spots.
1.6.4. Integration with Well and Geological Data

Seismic interpretations are calibrated with well logs, core samples, and geological mapping to
validate lithology, reservoir quality, and fluid content. Vertical seismic profiling (VSP) may be
used to tie seismic data to borehole measurements, improving accuracy.

figure 4

1.6.5. Exploration Workflow

Reconnaissance Survey: Initial broad geophysical surveys (gravity, magnetic) to identify areas of
interest.

Semi-detailed Survey: Targeted seismic surveys over promising zones.

Detailed Survey: High-resolution 3D seismic acquisition for precise structural and stratigraphic
mapping.Borehole Drilling and Testing: Drilling wells to confirm hydrocarbon presence and
reservoir properties.
Permits and Environmental Considerations

Obtaining necessary permits and adhering to environmental regulations are integral to seismic
operations. Measures to minimize ecological impact, especially in marine environments, include
controlled source levels and monitoring marine life.

1.6.6. seismic Stratigraphy:

The basin’s seismic data reveal thick Late Cretaceous–Early Tertiary deltaic and pro-delta sand
sequences, especially in the Jubba Deep area. These sediments form excellent reservoir rocks as
indicated by seismic facies showing deep-marine channel and fan sands. The presence of a thick
mobile shale layer (Mid-Cretaceous) acts as a source rock and a detachment surface for
deformation, crucial for hydrocarbon generation and migration.

1.6.7. Structural Features:

The basin hosts major thrust belts like the Kismayo Thrust Belt (KTB) and the Baraawe Thrust
Belt (BTB), formed by regional gravity collapse. These thrusts create large structural closures—
anticlines and fault traps—that are prime hydrocarbon traps. Seismic amplitude anomalies, flat
spots, and AVO responses within these thrust-related structures suggest trapped hydrocarbons.

The Mid Somalia High features an extensive Jurassic carbonate platform with reefs and shoals
interpreted from seismic data, providing potential carbonate reservoirs trapped in rotated fault
blocks.

The structural complexity from folding, faulting, and thrusting enhances trap diversity and
improves seal integrity, increasing the likelihood of hydrocarbon accumulation. However,
younger and shallower structures in the BTB may have higher risks related to trap timing and
seal effectiveness compared to the older KTB.

Volcanic intrusions identified in seismic data in the Mogadishu Deep Basin complicate reservoir
quality and reduce prospectivity there, illustrating how structural and stratigraphic factors
interplay to affect hydrocarbon potential.
Chapter 2: Literature Review

Study Area: Somali Coastal Basin – Mogadishu Area

2.1 Introduction

The Somali Coastal Basin, particularly around the Mogadishu area, is a sedimentary region with
significant geological, hydrological, and natural resource potential. This chapter reviews
previous studies and relevant literature on the basin’s stratigraphy, groundwater conditions,
hydrocarbon potential, and environmental context. The goal is to establish a scientific foundation
for understanding the region’s georesources and sustainability challenges.

2.2 Geological and Stratigraphic Framework

The Somali Coastal Basin is part of the larger East African rifted margin and was formed during
the breakup of Gondwana in the Mesozoic. Studies indicate that the stratigraphy in the
Mogadishu area is characterized by Jurassic to Quaternary sequences, with dominant lithologies
including limestone, sandstone, marl, and shale (UNDP, 1984; Schluter, 2008).

Bosellini (1992) and Schlumberger (2019) reported that the sedimentary column in this basin
reaches depths of up to 5,000 meters offshore and is marked by transgressive-regressive marine
sequences. The limestone units, particularly near Jazeera and Daynile, suggest a shallow marine
depositional environment in the past.

Stratigraphic Unit Age Lithology Environment

Quaternary deposits Recent Sands, clays, beach sediments Coastal, aeolian, fluvial

Tertiary (Eocene–Miocene) 23–56 Ma Limestones, marls, reef carbonates

Shallow marine

Cretaceous 66–145 Ma Sandstones, shales, marine limestones Deltaic to shallow

marineJurassic145–201 Ma Thick carbonate platforms, dolomitesShallow shelf to reefal
2.3 Hydrogeology and Groundwater Resources

Groundwater is the primary freshwater source for Mogadishu’s population. According to FAO-
SWALIM (2012), the main aquifers are unconfined to semi-confined and occur within limestone
and sandstone formations. The depth to water ranges from 10 to 30 meters in most parts of the
city.

Todd & Mays (2005) describe coastal aquifers as vulnerable to saltwater intrusion, especially
where pumping exceeds natural recharge. In the Mogadishu area, over-abstraction and poor
sanitation practices have led to localized contamination and salinization (ICRC, 2014; SWALIM,
2021).

2.3.1 Aquifer Systems

Shallow unconfined aquifers in alluvial and coastal sands

Deeper confined aquifers in fractured limestone and sandstone units

Groundwater movement is influenced by porosity and permeability of these sediments

2.3.2 Water Resources in Muqdisho

💧 Groundwater

Primary source of water for households, especially via:

Shallow dug wells (5–20m)

Deep boreholes (>50m)

Stored in:

Unconsolidated sands (high permeability)

Limestone aquifers (fracture-controlled flow)

⚠️ surface water

No permanent rivers in Muqdisho itself

Shabelle River lies ~30–40 km inland; indirect influence via the Shabelle Basin

Seasonal runoff collects in depressions or drainage channels during rains

Artificial ponds (berkads), small reservoirs used in rural outskirts

2.4 Hydrocarbon Potential

While no wells have been drilled directly in Mogadishu, the coastal basin forms part of a broader
offshore petroleum province. The Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources (2020) and
Spectrum Geo (2015) have identified structural traps, source rocks, and reservoir systems in the
offshore southern Somali basin, which includes the waters off Mogadishu.

Geological assessments suggest that Jurassic and Cretaceous formations contain organic-rich
marine shales that may serve as hydrocarbon source rocks (Schlumberger, 2019). These findings
have renewed interest in Somalia’s offshore oil potential, especially with the division of
exploration blocks and licensing rounds.

2.5 Natural Resources and Economic Potential

Mogadishu’s coastal belt is rich in construction materials such as limestone and sand, as well as
fisheries resources. According to UNEP (2012), the limestone in Jazeera is used extensively for
building and cement production. However, unregulated mining poses risks to coastal stability
and aquifer recharge.

The marine ecosystem offers economic opportunities through fishing and seaweed farming,
though overfishing and pollution threaten long-term sustainability (FAO-SWALIM, 2015).

2.6 Climate, Environment, and Coastal Vulnerability

The climate in Mogadishu is classified as semi-arid, with mean annual rainfall of 400–500 mm
and high evaporation rates. The region experiences two rainy seasons: Gu (April–June) and Deyr
(October–December) (SWALIM, 2020).
UN-Habitat (2020) reports increasing climate-related impacts such as:

Coastal erosion

Flooding during heavy rains

Sea-level rise

Saltwater intrusion into shallow wells

These trends are worsened by rapid urban expansion, loss of vegetation cover, and poor waste
management practices.

2.7 Research Gaps

Despite growing interest in Somalia’s natural resources, there is a lack of updated geological and
hydrogeological data for the Mogadishu area. Most studies are outdated (e.g., UNDP 1984) or
focus on offshore regions. There is a pressing need for local-scale field studies and groundwater
monitoring to support resource planning.

2.8 Summary

The Somali Coastal Basin in Mogadishu presents a complex but resource-rich environment
shaped by sedimentary geology and coastal dynamics. Previous research highlights the
importance of limestone aquifers, potential hydrocarbon systems, and coastal environmental
challenges. This literature provides a basis for evaluating the sustainable management of natural
resources in the area.

Sediments include Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous carbonates and clastics, with potential
source rocks in Jurassic shales and reservoirs in sandstones and reefal carbonates.

The coastal area near Mogadishu features bioturbated quartzose sands and skeletal sands overlain
by well-sorted quartzose sands, indicating marine depositional environments.

Geological Setting:

The basin extends from south of Mogadishu to the Kenyan border and includes coastal and
offshore areas. It features thick Mesozoic to Tertiary sedimentary sequences deposited in a
passive margin setting. The basin is structurally complex, with major features such as the
Kismayo Thrust Belt (KTB) and Baraawe Thrust Belt (BTB) formed by gravity-driven
deformation during the Paleocene to Pliocene. The Mid Somalia High, a structural high within
the basin, hosts an extensive Mid–Late Jurassic carbonate platform with reef and shoal facies
that are potential hydrocarbon reservoirs.

Hydrocarbon Potential:

The Jubba Deep area within the basin contains thick Late Cretaceous–Early Tertiary deltaic and
pro-delta sands, which are excellent reservoir candidates. These sands are trapped in thrust
anticlines of the KTB and are sourced by Mid-Cretaceous mobile shales, indicating a working
petroleum system with significant hydrocarbon potential. Seismic amplitude anomalies and AVO
responses suggest the presence of trapped hydrocarbons in these structural traps.

The Mogadishu Deep Basin, part of the Somali Coastal Basin near Mogadishu, has a thick
sedimentary section but lacks the thick deltaic deposits seen in the Jubba Basin. It also contains
volcanic rocks, which complicate but do not preclude hydrocarbon prospectivity. Hydrocarbon
shows from wells in this area confirm the presence of gas and minor oil in Cretaceous and
Tertiary sandstones, although commercial production has yet to be established.

The Mid Somalia High features carbonate reefs and shoals with good porosity, analogous to
productive reservoirs in other regions. These reefs are shallower than many deep carbonate
reservoirs elsewhere, potentially enhancing reservoir quality and accessibility.

Exploration Status and Challenges:

Most wells drilled to date have been onshore in continental sedimentary environments with
abundant gas shows but limited liquid hydrocarbons. Offshore marine environments, particularly
in deeper waters, are expected to have better potential for commercial liquid hydrocarbons as
exploration advances. Security issues and limited infrastructure have historically hindered
exploration activities in Somalia.
Chapter 3: Discussion and Results of the Somali Coastal Basin

This chapter presents an analysis of the geological, geophysical, and exploration data related to
the Somali Coastal Basin, focusing on its hydrocarbon potential and structural characteristics.

4.1 Geological and Structural Overview

The Somali Coastal Basin extends along Somalia’s southeastern coast and offshore areas,
characterized by thick Mesozoic to Tertiary sedimentary sequences deposited in a passive margin
setting. The basin features major structural elements such as the Kismayo Thrust Belt (KTB) and
the Baraawe Thrust Belt (BTB), formed by regional gravity collapse during the Paleocene to
Pliocene. These thrust belts create large structural closures (anticlines and fault traps) capable of
trapping hydrocarbons.

The Mid Somalia High within the basin hosts a Mid–Late Jurassic carbonate platform with reef
and shoal facies, interpreted from seismic data as potential carbonate reservoirs. The basin’s
sedimentary fill includes Late Cretaceous–Early Tertiary deltaic and pro-delta sands, particularly
in the Jubba Deep area, which are excellent reservoir candidates sourced by Mid-Cretaceous
mobile shales.

Hydrocarbon Potential and Exploration Results

Exploration wells drilled onshore and nearshore have predominantly targeted continental
sedimentary environments, yielding abundant gas shows but limited liquid hydrocarbons. Wells
closer to the coastline and marine depositional environments have shown oil and gas traces,
suggesting a working petroleum system.

The Jubba Deep Basin, part of the Somali Coastal Basin, shows strong hydrocarbon potential
with seismic amplitude anomalies, flat spots, and AVO responses indicating trapped
hydrocarbons in thrust-related structures. The KTB area is particularly prospective due to its
large structural traps and thick reservoir-quality sands.

The Mogadishu Deep Basin, while having a thick sedimentary section, lacks the thick deltaic
deposits of the Jubba Basin and contains volcanic intrusions that complicate reservoir quality.
Hydrocarbon shows in this basin confirm gas and minor oil presence but with less commercial
potential compared to the Jubba Deep.

4.2 Seismic Interpretation and Hydrocarbon Indicators

Seismic surveys, including the 2014 Soma Oil and Gas 2D seismic acquisition, have been
instrumental in delineating basin structure and stratigraphy. Seismic stratigraphy reveals deep-
marine channel and fan sands in the Late Cretaceous section, and seismic attribute analysis
highlights potential reservoirs and hydrocarbon indicators such as bright spots and flat spots
consistent with hydrocarbon presence.

4.3 Challenges and Future Prospects

Despite promising geological and geophysical evidence, exploration in the Somali Coastal Basin
remains limited due to security concerns and infrastructural challenges. Most wells drilled have
been onshore with limited testing of deeper marine environments, where commercial liquid
hydrocarbons are expected to dominate.

The basin remains relatively underexplored, especially offshore, representing a frontier region
with significant potential. Ongoing and future exploration efforts, supported by improved
seismic data and modern interpretation techniques, are likely to enhance understanding and
unlock commercial hydrocarbon resources.

Summary:

The Somali Coastal Basin exhibits significant hydrocarbon prospectivity, particularly in the
Jubba Deep area with its thick deltaic reservoirs and large structural traps. Seismic data confirm
the presence of potential reservoirs and hydrocarbon indicators, while exploration wells have
verified gas and minor oil shows. Structural complexity from thrust belts enhances trapping
mechanisms, though volcanic activity in some areas may reduce reservoir quality. Continued
exploration, especially offshore, is essential to fully assess and develop the basin’s hydrocarbon
resources.
This discussion synthesizes geological, seismic, and exploration data to provide a comprehensive
assessment of the Somali Coastal Basin’s hydrocarbon potential and highlights the need for
further exploration in this underexplored region.

This methodology ensures a systematic approach to hydrocarbon exploration, combining seismic

technology with geological expertise to maximize the chances of discovering commercially
viable reservoirs.

Chepter 4 : CONCLUSION

Somalia has the longest national coastline (3025 km) inAfrica with an estimated shelf area (depth
0±200 m) of32 500 km2. The country is divided into the northern coastal plain of Guban, which
has a semi-arid terrain; thenorthern highlands with rugged mountain ranges con-taining the
countryÕs highest peak (2407 m); and the Og-aden region which descends to the south from
thehighlands and which consists of shallow plateau valleys,wadis and broken mountains. The
latter region continuesto the Mudug plain in central Somalia.From Ras Caseyr to the Kenya
border, the coast runsnorth-east to south-west, coinciding with the displacementcaused by the
Mesozoic marginal subsidence. This generalstructure is complicated by sedimentary troughs
crossingthe Horn of Africa, and by large sedimentary basins,cutting the coastline and extending
inland into SouthernSomalia and Northern Kenya (Juba±Lamu embayment,Mogadishu basin).
Offshore, the western Somali Basinextends from Socotra to the Comores. The open
shelfenvironments developed along the Somali coast are aconsequence an extensive marine
transgression, con-nected to coastal subsidence or inland uplift.

The rocks along the southern coastal belt are Pliocene±Pleistocene, and are characterized by a
sequence of bothmarine and continental deposits of skeletal sands, coralbuild-ups, eolian sands
and paleosols. As well as eolianand biogenic sedimentary processes, sea-level
¯uctuations,Holocene climatic changes and neotectonic movementshave combined to produce
the modern coastline. A notable feature is an ancient dune ridge complex, known as theMerka
red dune, which rims the coast extending beyond the Kenyan border and which separates the
narrow coastal belt from the Uebi Shebeli alluvial plain. Two features ofnote are the Bajuni
Archipelago, which consists of islands,islets and skerries, forming a barrier island separated from
the coast by a narrow marine sound, and a braided, channelized coastal area, which originated
from the drowning of a paleo¯uvial net. The southern Somali coast, with that of Kenya
andTanzania, forms part of the Somali Current Large Ma-rine Ecosystem, encompassing 700
000 km2, and extend-ing 800 km between Dar es Salaam and Ras Hafun.Abundant biomass
develops here due to upwelling1986 Bosellini, 1989), continue inland toward the south-west, to
the southern part of the Rift Valley System.According to Kent (1982), both coastal faulting and
inland rifting are related to the same tectonic control.Compressive phases, which originated
along north-east±south-west fracture zones are linked to oceanic systems of transform faults.
These developed in connection with a change in the stress regime, which occurred between the
end of the Madagascar Rift about 120 Ma ago and the beginning of sea-¯oor spreading of the
Mascarene Basin Province about 80 Ma ago. According to Bocca-

letti et al. (1988), asymmetric sedimentary basins with increasing thickness from east to west
developed during the Cretaceous in connection with these tectonic move-ments.Offshore, the
Western Somali Basin extends from Socotra to the Comores and is bordered eastwards by the
mid-ocean Owen Fracture Zone and the Chain Ridge The structural setting and the sedimen-tary
features of the Somali Basin, described by Francis et al. (1966) and Bunce et al. (1967), have
been more recently investigated by ODP oceanographic surveys. A

site located 170 miles o€ the coast at the base of the continental rise in 4505 m water depth,
recorded 470 m of Quaternary±Upper Oligocene deep water facies,

overlying a 704 m section of Middle Eocene±Upper Cretaceous sediments, also of deep water
environment.In Somalia and Kenya the main marine transgression

took place during the Oligocene, whereas the wide-spread inland extension of marine water took
place in the Lower and Middle Miocene. According to Kent

(1974), the persistence of open shelf environments along the east African coast during the
Neogene is a conse-quence of an extensive marine transgression which is partially world-wide,
but can be connected as well to coastal subsidence or inland uplift. The Pliocene is not well
documented in the Somali coastal area because of the absence of outcrops and of data deriving
from hydrocarbon exploration. The development of late sedimentary basins between structural
highs are docu-mented in coastal Tanzania and Kenya (Kent et al.,
1971; Nyagah, 1995) by means of seismic works and boreholes.

present Day Geomorphic Features of the Coastal Zone

The rocks outcropping along the coast from Mog-adishu to the Kenya border represents the top
of the Pliocene±Pleistocene sequence known (Piccoli et al.,1986) as the Merka formation (Fig.5).
These are de-posits of skeletal sands, coral build-ups, eolian sandsand paleosols, whose pattern is
controlled by both eo-lian and biogenic sedimentary processes. These, with sea-level
¯uctuations, Holocene climatic changes and neotectonic movements combined to produce the
mod-ern coastline. A notable feature of the area is an ancient dune

ridge complex (Merka red dune) which rims the So-mali coast from 6°N extending beyond the
Kenyan border and separates the narrow coastal belt from the
Uebi Shebeli alluvial plain. The wide coastal region extending from Kisimayo to the Kenyan
border con-tains the Bajuni archipelago and three channels linked

to the sea through three large outlets named, from north to south, Lac Badana, Lac Anole, and
Lac Busc Three villages, Istanbul, Kudai and Burgao are located on these channels. The Bajuni
Archipelago consists of a series of islands, islets and

skerries parallel to the coast at a distance of 2±4 km. Toward the coast, they separate a sound up
to 10 m deep, where carbonate sedimentation takes place. The¯at coastal belt shows a reefal
substratum forming a marine terrace 4±6 m high, covered by reddish soils and dunes near the
shoreline and by alluvial and

marshy deposits inland. Rivers and the alluvial plain The countryÕs only permanent rivers
anvironments. Near Mogadishu, cli€s and quarry walls, 4±6

m thick, show a sheltered facies of a well developed fringing reef (Carbone et al., 1984; Carbone
and Mat-teucci, 1990), with coral colonies in growth position

(massive Porites, Lobophyllia and Galaxea knobs and Acropora thickets) overlying sandy beach
deposits containing small bivalves (Donax, Atactodea, Gafrari-um) and gastropods (Gibbula).
This marine sequence istopped by regressive rhodolith deposits and skeletal rubbles mainly
consisting of coral fragments, generally encrusted by red algae, in places showing a spur and
groove morphology. It is likely that reefal limestone extend tens of meters below the present sea
level, and data from a well, ca 50 m deep located close to the

shoreline 15 km south of Mogadishu (Dal PraÕ and Salad, 1986) shows a sequence of sandy
layers con-taining variable amounts of skeletal remains which are typical of shallow water
coastal environments.

The reef complex also outcrops in the Kisimayo region, where reefal bodies are found in
di€erent places. Crusty-massive and massive types prevail in the coral

community (Favia, Favites, Gonyopora, Porites). The colonies are loose in coarse skeletal
sediment. The top of the reef terrace is generally altered by calichi®cation processes, showing
several cavities ®lled with reddish
sandy sediments. At many sites this marine terrace is conformably overlain by strongly
calichi®ed eolianite, bearing a rich continental gastropod assemblage

(Achatina and Georgia). In places, along the coast, the Pleistocene reefal limestone is overlain by
a seawarddipping beachrock. The Bajuni barrier island

The Bajuni archipelago shows many features of a barrier island complex (Hoyt, 1967; Schwartz,
1971; Purser and Evans, 1973). The islands consist of elongate

ridges parallel to the coast and separated from it by a narrow and shallow marine sound The
origin of this barrier island is linked to the migration of the coastaldune ®eld towards the
continental shelf edge during the

last glacial sea-level lowering. Islands, islets and skerries, separated by inlets, have allowed a
widespread coral colonization of the shelf. High carbonate sediment production from coral reefs
and seagrass meadows causes

the build-up of sandy bodies in the shape of bars and tails, which emerge during the low tide
These bodies run from the islands towards the sound, forming

wide protected intertidal ¯ats, where ®ne sediment deposits are intensely bioturbated by infauna.

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