| a < LEARNING ° : PROCESSES | SA RAR ARAL S ‘Scanned with |CamScannerLEARNING. _. We are in the age of learning, Evérybody wants to learn. Learning begins from bith ti Il we die, We are here.on the campus to learn. There is no end to learnitig. We ‘shall. firgt define. learning, Learning is often misunderstood by many. To some it is the acquisition’ of knowledge, to others it is reading and writing, yet some refer to leaming as ability to remember and put into practice, It 8 simply defined ‘as a'ielatively permanent change in behavior as result of experience. The change in behaviour may be actual or latent which persists for" “some time. The change in behavior is relatively permanent and must come from i ae The eepeieice is whit happens to us duting our. lifetime. It can f can’t be referred to as ss learning, eg. cy. hinges occur at old age due to maturity. e are’ not learning. Young ducklings’, his is.called imprinting; which occurs due to Scanned with |\CamScannereople goto school, and undergo courses of training cs that’ they ‘an carry out the idea if in their offices or society: The transfer ot leaming Skill from oné place to another is called transfer of learning or toaining.~ “Transfer of Jeatning' is the spread of learning. According to! Level (1973) transfer of training i is the effects, which sothe particular course of training has or learning or execution or a second performance. Itis an adaptation of principles Iearht in one situation. Basically, it is the effect of influence of learning injone situation on another: Transfer: of ‘training can-occur: between English lahguage and law, biology and agriculture,” sociology :-and personnel’ mianagemértt, . mass communication and: Journaliemy eter. e Positive transfer can-occur from good ‘behavior‘as well as bad behavior, "e.g. positive transfer can occur from stéaling of small thing. to robbery; or + * from drinking alcohol to drug abuser. t Positive transfer. of-learning in one situation facilitates learning invanother situation eg: knowledge ‘of: bicycle: and machine :to, motorbike to car, biology to nursing, nursing tp medicine. © Negative transfer: This is when learning of oné task hinders, eg, training in football inhibits, prevents or disrupts performance of another, i disrupts performance jn handball; knowledge of Greek can hinder learning of Latin and vice-versa. ‘Scanned with @camscanner: . ap e hag no influence at all on *) Zap transfer pe ee na ne between mathematics the subsequent one. For instance there is no tran: bern “and history, comitnated anid CRK,medicine and see © Lateral’ transfer: According 'to.Gangne (1965): lateral transter iS the transferability of what has'been learned tonew situations across, It can, be "positive ornegative, eg. transfer:fromi law school to court. The child learns . that two sticks plus two sticks // + //=//// and transfer the concept to'N2 +2 N40, Lateral transfer occurs at the same ‘level or Plain inva Hovizontat way.A civil servant may be.transferred from one: town to another to: sue | Sohis! skills'in''the samte office: ‘A. nurse “may ‘be transfe: 1 depattment to another or leave one élinic to another. . | Vetcal wanster: This is the effect or indice of learning at one level x. ° Bilateral tanstér: Training received by one part of te dy is aie Le to another e.g. playing of football with the tight leg, ‘Scanned with GcamScanner. PRINCIPLES OF TRANSFER a © must practice with the original task or. material, over and over, : become familiar and use to the techniques, | Practice yields little . transfer, so that we can « Principles and: the material. Little aaa Practice can be done. by- doing révision, assigniiients, homework practical ete. - We have to identity the dlear-out objectives and decide what t9 do. We may ‘undersiand, the key facts and differences”. We must take. mote of Concreté: examples, and illustrations, Teaching insta used by the instructor can Set a stage for transfer, REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING: - The terms remembering and forgetting are related to how memory functions in ._ terms of how much information-or facts-we can recall at'a-given time. If we cannot remember - anything -from:.out “experiences; we" can. learn, nothing. Remembering involves learning, retraining and recalling, Forgetting occurs only when learning. has: taken. place.’ Without inability to Zecall, reproduce or recognize what has been learned. What is memory? It is the power of keeping facts or relating capacity and being able to recall back, Ik is unwaitten record of some past events Ik is an active, system that receives ‘sore, corganizey Altes and ecovets information, In ary learning situation, memory involves these Stages. STORAGE ~ RETRIEVAL recall from memory ENCODING Put in memory maintain in memory : When 4 teachet introduces a topic, the students first deposit the information in 2 memory form of transferred code that mi t .d: places it there. This is ry n that memory accepts and places | i ‘Scanned with arming, there..is"no forgetting, It'is ” ' f h rn EE EE @camscanneror retain the tion till needed ¢ codin; ; ore: i information ti . second stage is to st retain ven ing stage, s ip fegtoreer on smpt is made to recover or recall it from-the storage, this is calie ded. Attempt is ! d Memory caii fail any.of these stages and forgetting will occur. retrieval stage: ‘ lane mer ble to recall back; It is the power of keeping’ facts or retaining capacity and Being: al is ” Spelling G. (1960) argued that, there: are’ rat least three stages. memory, namely, 1. Sensory: memory: Thi memory hholds an exact copy or what is seen’ or _ heard fora few’ ‘seconds or Jess. The sensation that we see are called Iconic. | memory and” t hose that we hear: are called 6 echivic: memory, Sensory S ong endugh to “transfer to the second ry training’ over the information: that: memory. elds inforination. * mematy" system: There i is ‘no: enters this "memory system, Sex ory, memory. allows ‘us to do several things. Tt ‘makes'our ‘visual woul mooth’and continuous: “uninterrupted: Seon “Blinking? eyes. When’ we! blink, our... vision is temporarily ‘Momient ‘or’ two ‘or determines ig the © Ny ecatise the name ig Still active in: thé ; mening fal hours later, ‘We find it ifficult to'recall such namé again, Ieis forgotten. A teacher many ask his students to repeat Words after him and t . they are‘able to do. 80, but hours later, when ‘asked; students are. unable to’. 5 retrieve" the Tesson Team This short. term’ memories in Which’ ‘Scanned with |CamScanneryple we meet daily and names of places but as soon as we leave them, = : e forget. Also in the classroom, the students may enjoy and understand ito short term memory via sensory memory. First of all, information is selected and encoded into the memory. This means that most of what we are exposed to never enters and will not Be , available for retrieval. In encoding, inforthation STM, the information is also deposited in certain formal conditions like verbal materials, digests, letter, words than visual code. The most striking fact about. STM: is that it has.a limited capacity of holding information. On the average, itis limited to seven items give and take two (7+2) some people can store as.few as five while others can hold - nine items. This is determined by exposuré of subjects to all-adults have a capacity of 7 + 2. Forgetting as many as memory spans. Virtually, occurs items fade away. STM is seen as temporary storage of a limited lacement explains ‘how an amount of information. The principle of displ till the limit is is lost from STM as list of items'enter STM it grows additional item enters has to'displace the existing one, item reached. Each new this means that the forefront of aur memory in “STM gives way to subsequent information. : : oc retrieval in STM jis very easy: becaus “dig it out” but is right t However, ge the information is snes. “Hence you don’t need to available conscious wn that STM plays important role i jous here. Researchers have sho’ in conscious @camScanner ‘Scanned with‘ a : sing the capacit, 1 thoughts, e.g. when we, attempt to, solve @ me ee time, try it needed fo store-a list of number, eg. G + while ante ole “remember'a phone number, 7451739, will result into a con interference. The two activities compete for the same mental resources. 3.° Long term iemor Long-term memory involves information that has been retained for intervals as brief for few. minutes or for a long time. Information are stored with meaning, eg. if quick were on the original list, you may mistakenly récall “fast” + meaning,“e.g* instead. Information are encoded with “A teacher beats a: student for stealing of N20 could be storéd by another student, ‘Generally, information are encoded in form of pictures, voices, taste, smell ‘etc. researchers show that pictures are-more permanently co ded than sentences. . Whilé coding in LTM is dominated by meanings, i ing a book in a large library: . 3 eS Failure to find the book (item) does not mean that it is not there, The book may. be. misplaced. and therefore inaccessible, ~examination hall only to ‘remeniber the information latter. &g. students forget some fading in Forgetting in LIM ‘Scanned with G camScannerSTM LIM Information Forgetting The relationship is that information first enters into a limited STM where it is either maintained by. rehearsal or lost by displacement. Information has to be transferred from STM into LTM in order to be encoded. This is called dual memory theory ie. information is transferred into LTM. Forgetting Forgetting is common among students and teathers. We find that students fofget most of the materials or lessoris learned after a time lapse. The basic question is why do we forget? Forgetting occurs only when learning has taken place as we noted earlier. What is fongetting? It simply means failure to:keep of retain in memory what has been learned. Ina simple sentence, it-is the loss’ of remembrance or inability fo recall, recognize and reproduce what has’ been learned previously. : Causes of forgetting en On the basis of experiments, psychologists have come ‘out with. factors responsible for forgetting. : © Decay of memory trace or disuse: The theory holds that forgetting occurs with fading away of time; when the’ memory is not effectively and 1 Scanned with |CamScanner™i is means that the memory is continually engaged in learning activities. This a oe used but “disused” and hence there is-decay ©: Se ee people and forget their names after a long time because ee seeing them constantly. But those around us we see them . ets remember their names. Lessons learned inform one are forgotte B atrophy later when not in use. The theory of memory decay is based on atrophy e.g. we meet theory that some chemical cause metabolic change in the storage system, to brings decay-aind final disappearance of the memory traces, i.e. when we fal to practice foigetting dccurs. However, this theory has béen criticized 0 the grounds that time is only a dimension and not a cause of forgetting. It means that any lapse of time “should produce’ of forgetting, This theory chas been disapproved by .- phenomenon of Spontaneous recovery. Further, this theory is criticized on — the grounds that there aré instances.of retention with Passage of time, e.g), swimming, and other skills. : Systematic distortion of memory. trace: Ttis postulated that forgetfulness is due’ -to systematic distortion’ of memory ‘trace. This results in - “modification: of the information. by: the leainer and omitting other Segmients, eg. when we have: fist information, we later distort the information or Segment occurrences. Eg. memory verse in poems, memory . traces becomes distorted, The:source of distortion may be: *. Attempt to level up. in- order to make up a Particular incident of » information ‘better. In that process, the’ individual tends to Testructure the Particular £vents, information ete. ‘Scanned with G camScannerworking of the nervous system, we can no-longer remember anything learnt, even one’s own name, time or place this is becaiise amnesia has occurred. Emotion is another cause of forgetting: Emotion situations can ‘prevent recall effectively, e.g. high anxiety, worries, nervousness, fear,.etc. tend to interfeze with the recall of learned materials. Teachers have worked with students whose excessive-worry at the timé of examination cause poor performance. Teacher should encourage students to relax completely and be confident in examination hall, Teachers should avoid threatening students that examinations will be hard. Sample revision question can‘ be given to ‘recue examination terision. Zelgaring effect: Zelgaring (1927), conducted a ‘esearch on memory involving completing and incompleting tasks. Subjects were allowed’ to were forced to abandon it complete certain interesting task while others to recall the when they were near completion. “Subjects were more able e than complete ones. This is because in the competed in the other group, they were still attracted incomplet task, motivation was satisfied. While i to the unfinished task. 10 Scanned with |CamScanner™jeval failure is another cause o¢ ee ee ilability of appropriate cue aes ne Lee iL De pe at the time of "present at the time of leaming art pias i clas According to TOT forgetting is temporary oe than permanent, E.g. we attempt to recall an information or a uu ~ could not at that time but when conditions are different, the information or name comes back spontaneously e.g. examination situation, TECHNIQUES OF PREVENTING © FORGETTING’ -AND PROMOTION REMEMBERING LE, MEMORY TRAINING Teachers have the responsibility of improving the student retention capacity. The following are some Strategies of training niemory and thereby reducing forgetting. Practice that continues after perfect recall has been Scored, Over learning occiirs by: Tevision. ‘Scanned with |CamScannerject matter meaningful. It has been demonstrated that Fetention, ig better with 7 meaningfil items compared to ponsense. syllables. Generally, meaningful materials are easy to learn and retain because the word OF sentences, are more practiced and better organized. © 4 The leaning material should not only. be ese organized’ in increasing order of difficulty. The level: of organization determines how. well materials ‘will, be retained. The’ organization should reflect the learners 5 meaninigfiltiess, inspiration, order and relationships,’ ei ° Using mnemonic devices: This is using’ formula: to; aid:memory. in retention of learned matinées.,With:mnemanic, otie item is ‘contiected’cr linked with another. There may'besnilltiple ways of onsecting “one item another exsinple to” ; to another, ‘eg. house-door: parloud bedroom, * ‘et femember the seven colours of ‘rainbow. by Read Over Your Geography Books in Vocation ig Read Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet It involves keyword method ‘of -Jearning. ‘Another, -example’ is the mathematics formula for SINE, COSINE, TARGENT by. using SoD, SAO, TOA where’ O-Opposite, Side, “AsAdjatent; ’H=Hypotenuse © ‘sine is Opposite side by hypotenuse. “Leccion dormida, leccion satlda” ‘meaning Scanned with |CamScanner™+ ES greater after = “Jesson’ teamed. cual is fresh from Retention is far relaxing, 5 helpful that a lesson Sept on is a’ the brain. “period of sleep because such indivi jon: Psychologists lieve “that self-recitation ae ins it for some tiv This is force that’ energizes behavior and sustains a \ ‘students, using the appropriate motivationa \ ual aids; etc. retention is : “« Motivation: ‘time. When teachers: motival e: immediate feedback; praise; vis nition and - greater Paztidipation is another method used to-improve rete ‘emembering. Students are learn and remem, more, when. ai for othe student: With’ ‘the-use of mnemonic, information are with the ak fuse: Of: mnemonic, {information are” transformed into more’ / Theaningful * fae eer inclusive whole There’ a are cells, tissues, systems, members, . organising which are again ‘tego. into ‘species, crdét, in. poetry, Pupils Gn earn stnza by sta PS : ‘When learning i is made meaningful to “be. ‘comprehensible is there'is still question of Spacing and pacing the ° Distribution. of learning activities: Teaming ; activities: ‘Learning’ vefficiency varies’ with length. of study of {9 : 3 ‘Scanned with @camScannering periods. Distribution of study Practice is more than massed practice. The study time should be spaced out or ; t intervals than view long period jammed together. With distribution fra Pacing of study time, monotony, boredom is reduced, However, interference can occur especially, retroactive an Proactive inhibition when the subjects that follow each other are similar’ * Sleep and rest: Studies have shown: that Tecall is better after: rest or sleep. There is an Old’ Spanish proverb that says “Leccich dormida, leccion satida” meaning that a lesson. slept on is a lesson learned. Retention is far greater after a period of sleep because such individual is fresh from relaxing the brain. e Recitation: Psychologists believe that self-1 recitation is helpful when combined. i . * .Motivation: This is a force that energizes behavior and stistains it for some time. When teachers miotivate students, using the appropriate motivational techniques like immediate feedback, praise, visual aids; etc. retention’ is greater. Participation is another-method used to improve retention and increase remembering. Students actively learn and: remember more, when they themselves actively invélved. Henée the teacher has to make the’ lesson interesting and make room for student participation.» LEARNING eo It is simply defined as a relatively permanent, change in behavior as résult-of experience. 14 1 Scanned with |CamScanner™. Types of learning : .-Trial'and Error: learning from one Signal ‘learning: learning that is facilitated by signs: ’s mistakes Insight learning: Jearning by sudden discovery ; Chain learning: the-learning ‘situation in which understanding of one A step automatically leads to the understanding of the next step. Route learning; leaning By following a specified procedure. Discriminatory leaming: learning to differentiate between one thing a a and the other. 7. Stimulus-Response learning: learning that occurs as reaction to ‘environmental factors, “Condition of leaning: these incluide énvitonmental factors and heredity ” THE PURPOSE.OF LEARNING ‘The goal of any leaining is to produce desirable change in behavior that can be _Hansteered from one situation to anoth: a The | Purpose ‘of earning i is to equi will help him make'adjustments in life e Ieamer with skills ‘and knowledge that ° Positive transfer: learning i in one situation facilities. learning i in another situation | 8g. knowledge of bicycle &machine to motorbike to car. ; "Negative transfer this is when leaming of one task hinders, inhibits, prevents or, : disrupts performance of another, eg. training in football disrupts performance in. : handball. : 15 Seonned with @camScannerstory. Lateral t i ransfer according to Gangnée (1965) lateral transfer is the transferability of what has been learned to new situation across, It can be positive or negative, e.g. transfer from law school court. Vertical transfer this is the effect or influence of learning at one level or another level in a vertical dimension. It can be upward or downward. For instance, learning in primary school should facilitate learning in secondary school. ° Bilateral transfer training received’ by one ‘part of the body is transferred’ to another e.g. playing of football with the right leg can be transferred to the left lest Factors that influence transfer of learning «. Similarity: transfer: can occur where they are common factors in the content or procedure inthe execution of the two tasks, e.g. content and proceduie in Mathematics is useful to problems in chemistry; statistics etc. «Lengthy training: the amount of time spent learning or receiving training has effects.on transfer. © Over learning: without learning there can beno transfer. e Intelligence: the intelligent people are more likely to spot the relationship between the previous Jearning and the new situation. FER © ; PRINCIPLES OF TRANS ea 1, We must practice with the original task or material, n become familiar. 3 jecti \d. 2. We have to identify the clear-cut objectives an ‘ that we cal 16 Scanned with |CamScanneri atons; 3, We must take note of concrete examples and illustr 4. Teaching method used by the instructor can set a stage for transfer, . Teaching . What is memory? It is the power of keeping facts or relating capacity and being able to recall back. In any learning situation memory involves these stages, i Retrieval Encoding = Storage Se “Types of memory maintain in memory 1, Sensory. memory: this memory holds an exact copy or what is seen or recover from memory heard for a few seconds or less, 2. Short term memory: this is short term memory in which information are remembered for few seconds or minutes. They are not stored for longer time but casily forgotien, The most striking fact about S. T. M. is that it has a limited capacity of holding information. On the average, it is limited to seven items give and take two (7+2) some People can store as few as five while others.can hold as many as nine items, i. 3, Long term Memory: long term. memory involves information that has been retained or intervals brief for few minutes ot for a long time. RELATIONSHIP. BETWEEN SHORT TERM AND LONG TERM MEMORIES Stimuli ST™M. LIM Information - Forgetting The relationship is that information first enters into a limited §, T. M. where it is either maintained by rehearsal or lost by displacement, Information have fo be transfered from $-7.M. into LITA, in order to be encoded, This is called dual memory theory. ie. information is transferred not L.TM, Seonned with @camScannerFORGETTING Hsimple means failure to keep or retain in memory what has been ledined. CAUSES OF FORGETTING : Decay of memory trace or discuses::this means that the memory is not used but “discussed” and hence there is decay-of memory, e.g. we meet People and forget their names after a long time because ‘We have not been seeing them constantly. Systematic distortion of memory trace: it i postulated: that forgetfulness is due. to systematic distortion of. memory, trace.:. This results in modification of the information by» the learner and omitting other segments. ‘ : Physical accidents: when accidents: occur and tempers: with the normal working of the nervous systems, we can.no longer: remember anything learnt, even one’s.own name,:time “place this.is because amnesia has occurred. » Emotion is another cause of forgetiing:. emotion situations can’ prevent recall effectively, e.g. high anxiety, worries, nervousness; fear, eté. tend to interfere with the secall of learned snaterials. © Zelgaring effect: subjects were mote. able to recall: the incomplete than complete tasks. ‘ ¢ Tip'of the tongue (T.O-T)} this theory aésumés thet non-availability oof i is wailable appropriate cue that were, present.at the time of learning are not a i at the time of recall, there is forgetting. 18 Scanned with |CamScanner™7 AND PROMOTING ES. OF PREVENTING. FORGETTING A ‘TECHNIQUES. OF ; {ORY TRAINING ; REMEMBERING IE. MEMO} fete ways to increase retention is through, ious: Over-learning: one: of the most*ol ‘over learning..: * , learned “Over Tearning occurs by: repeated use of the materials already are “Meaningfulness and. organization ofsubject matter: all peychologists agree that making the subject matter To it improve poeta meaningful aids retention, ee onic devices: this is us ig. formula to aid memory in retention of Using mn é learned, one hee ait learning) this involves learning the key o Disteibution’ of. leiniig ReHVAtiss hen learning is made meaningful to be comprehensible is ther learning ai activities: “question of spacing’ and pacing the own that recall is better after Test or sleep. elieve © that self. "recitation is helpful were.” combined.:- Motivation: this is & force | tener; izes behavour and ‘sustains it for some time." ‘Scanned with GcamScannerMOTIVATION. What is motivation? 7 The tei ivati ; i Tm motivation comes from the Latin word Movere, meaning to move: Motivation is the word derived from the word ‘motive’ which means needs, ° desires, wants or drives within the individuals. m psychological terms, a motive is the tendency to dedire and seek out Positive incentives or rewards and to avoid negative outcome. This means that we are motivated to avoid aversive states and to seek more pleasant state. When we experience the motive of hunger, we eat to avoid this aversive feeling, Because we are generally motivated to avoid pain and other aversive states, our motives always serve to protect us. Without the motivation to eat, we could suffer from malnutrition or even starvation. Without thirst, we could be. face dehydration. Our motives tend to direct our behavior in ways that benefit us. there are exceptions to these rule. Sometimes our motivation are in conflict, and we can end up been motivated to engage in behaviours that are detrimental fo our wellbeing e.g. we may over eat to the point of gaining excess weight, some of us may take drugs that compromise our health and safety, we ignore our studies even though this may lead to academic failure. In short, we are not always motivated to dot the right thing. ; Motivation is the force that initiates guides and maintains goal- whether to grab a snack to reduce oriented behaviours. It is what causes us to take action, lie be otivation 0 earn a degree. The forces that lie m hunger or enroll college t ; aetnne'd 6, can be biological, social, emotional or cognitive in natur 20 ‘Scanned with |CamScanner; int process that make: erson move toward a go, vi te Ie at makes a person mi g -- Motivation is an interna th SE a cant be directly observed. Instead, motivation can motivation, Aa ste person's behavior. In everyday usage, the term a. used to describe why a person does something. ~ Motivation plays a major role in the success of an individual. Without it, 3 re person will not have the will or drive to accomplish goals. TYPES OF MOTIVATION : “Motivation may be intrinsic, or extrinsic Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to act for the sake of the activity -alone. For example, people have intrinsic motivation to write Poetry if they do it simply because, they. ¢ ‘enjoy it. Extrinsic; motivation on the other hand, i is the motivation to act for external rewards. For exami le, People have ‘extrinsic motivation to write if they do so in published, being famous, or making money. ‘The Process of motivation consists of three stages: _ 1 Afeltineed or drive : 2A stimulus i in which; needs hag to be aroused ‘When needs are eatisfied, the satisfaction or accomplishment of goals, professionals have found the topic of Motivation ‘to be of t, and. ‘they pave developed a number of theories in an effort to d the Psychology Of motivation. To date, there are five ’ These theories provide an understanding of ‘and also provide an in-depth understanding ‘Scanned with |CamScannerHumanistic theory of motivation/Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1908-1970) . Humanistic theory of motivation suggests those human beings are able.to achieve anything that they want, unless obstacles should’ get in the way. Financial problems, illness and lack of education are examples of obstacles that may hamper a person's ability to be successful. This theory is famously illustrated in Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of. needs, which presents different motivations at different levels. 1. Physiological needs: people are motivated: to fulfill basic biological needs for food, shelter, air; and warmth. Once-the lower level needs - have been met, the primary motivator becomes the need for safety. Maslow believed people pay.attention to higher needs only when lower needs are satisfied. . Safety and security needs such as-having a safe place to live and XN security at work. Love and belongingness needs, the motivation to’be with others, to be loved and appreciated by others-people try to satisfy this’need for » attention acceptance and friendship. want to be held in esteem both by,themsélves arid by duces such satisfaction as power, prestige » Esteem: people others. This kind of need pro: statiss and self confidence. It includes both. i, Internal esteem factors like self respect, aut yy and achievement ji, External esteem factors such as recognition and attentis 2 ‘Scanned with @camScanner™rds this as the highest need in al low rega ‘ctualization Mas! ie is capable of becoming, - 5, Need for self a : a ” his hierarchy. It is the drive to become wie ne : th achieving one’s potential and sel Te includes growth a " a nai e's potential‘and to accomplish something ie -, doesn’t explain why higher needs often * Cuitic argue that Maslow’s theory doesn’t exp Cultie ary e isfied. motivate people even when lower needs are unsatis! Incentive theory of motivation © : ; t i do thing The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards, e.g. you might be motivated to go-work each day " “for the monetary: reward of being paid. Behavioural learning concepts such as association and “reinforcement: play’ ‘an: important’ role in this theory of tiotivation. ip “Drive theory of motivation According tothe drive’ theory, f motivation, people are motivated to take cettain actions in order to reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs, For example, you might be motivated to drink a glass of water in order to reduce the intemal state of thirst. Ths théory is useful in explaining behaviours that Fave a strong biological component, such as hunger or thirst. The problem with ‘the’ drive theory of motivation’ is that these behaviours are not always ' motivated purely by physiological’ rieeds: For ‘example, people often eat even ‘when they are not really hungry. Arousal theory of motivation The arousal theory of motivation Suggests that people take certain actions’ “of aro to either decrease’or increase | When arousal gets too low, for ‘Scanned with G camScannerels ge i . wi toute enon : Peres ae sass look for ways to motivated to maintain an optimal ley: ee | level of arousal, although this level can vary based on the individual or the situation. as Arousal theory is similar to the reduction theory in that a certain amount of arousal is needed in order for human beings to remain comfortable. Because human being wants to feel comfortable, they have a level of tension that drives them to accomplish this state-of-being. The difference comes from the fact that the reduction theory states that tension does not need to be entirely reduced to achieve.comfort. Rather, a healthy balance is necessary. ‘ INSTINCT THEORIES : According to instinct theories, people are motivated | to behave in certain ways because they are evolutionarily programmed to do so. An example of this in the animal world is seasonal migration. ‘These animals do not learn to ‘do this, itis instead an inborn pattern of behavior also a baby's ability to find its mother's, breast to eat and its rooting reflexes are motivated by the need to satisfy hunger. Other example of instinctual motivation include avoiding temperatures that are too hot or too cold. Searching for food and finding shelter. William James created a list of human instincts. that included such things as attachment. Play, shame, anger, fear; shyness, modesty and love. The main t it did not really explain were pushed aside in favor of other a it just problem with this theory is tha’ behavior, it jos described it. By the 1920s, instinct theories 24 Scanned wth |CamScannerists stil] i sychologists stil bi it contemporary evolutionary Psy‘ ree ‘otivational theories, town P i infl ce of genetics and heredity on human the influen ryone knows w! i sion e mind. In clear knows what attention is. It is taking possess by the Everyone : id o1 imultaneously possible obje, id vivid form of one out of what seem several simultaneously p and vivie 1 0 je iousness are of its 7 faerie trations, of conscit i shts. ‘Focalization concentra! or trains of thoughts: essence. : ATTENTION OPERATES 1.°Spollight model-the term spotlight was inspired by the work of William James who described attention as having a focus, a margin, and a fringe, The focus is an area that extracts information from the visual scene with a high’ resolution, the. geomantic center of which being. where visual attention is directed. Surrounding the focus is the fringe of attention which extract inforsation in a much more cruds fashion, This fringe extends out 0a specified area and this cut offs called the margin N i 3 g & z é 5 3 = 8 a 5 g z 3 E £ a ee describe such because attentional ‘sources are assumed to be fixed, then it follows that the Jarger the focus is, the slower Processing will be of that - region of the visual scene since this fixed resources will be distribute over a larger area, 25 i ‘Scanned with G camScanner- There are’ two ‘ag ot Se ae es Dyes = _3spects of how! our ids select items present in the 3 environment to Sen to. Overt attention is the act of source. Covert attention” is the: act. are senso simul 1 Scanned with |CamScanner™-—Opettonsl éefciten op a intelligence” isvehar j | According to Simon. ond 5; es, intelligence is the Hneligeass is deeoined by two fits, herediary and eavormen.-Thre is ¢ Delief that intelligence is innate-and fixed at birth That means that itis genetically determined. Tais belief jn fised intelligence came under sttack in nature-nurtize Controversy. There cnsved spirited debate and feverish investigation by both those 7 Who contended.thet intelligence is inherited (aatnre) and those who believe it is determined by environment(yusine). | ‘This school of thought believes that intelligence is innate and hereditary. Therefore it is transmitted along with the genes from Parents: to children, This means that intelligent parents will mateslly give birth to inillige hildren. But what of a rofissor’s chilé'Wtho io dali despite sil the efots of tis parents? The strong evidence for the hereditary school ef thoughts are ffoni related studies, 1. studies hava showm that intelligenos rans within a fimily’ This observation is based on ‘studies of conslating 1Q of parents and children. There was closer genetic oletionshi betveen ds 29 of prents and thir children. On the average, sch i ‘Scanned with GcamScannerchildren the 1Q of parents and their natural children is Aint ace is.25. This it al es cass EPEAT similarly the intelligent parents have chances of products args ahr evidence ithe ny oF colin of iets Ft 9 we hat of tial tins reared Togetir + 75: This tv ate mare li i ingest heer Furthermore, studies have shown thit fratemal twins are even raore alike: in intelligence than ordinary children. The 1Q correlation of ratemal twins is 62, while that oF ornay children reared togithetis 34 ‘This suggests that fraternal twins'are "even lost ia that of ordinai children. The sume elated studies of identical twins reared apart by Deffies (1980) suggest further ‘evidence’ that despite the difference environmental factors, identicél twins reared are reared together, This supports. the view that hereditary fictors are more important than environmental in determining the level of intelligence : a ae Goddard's (1912) report on Kallika family is' ag evident of hereditary factors.in- setting the mit of intelligeice, Kaltes ty descentis from two' different: wives. One them was feeble minded womaa, ‘The ote? was! af abtionmal-woman> ‘Fhe cero iearon men oasis + © Supporting Goddard, Dugal (1910) po sine mpaten tas Baas Oa found to have high incidence of criminality, destitution and mental sub-normality, A. YS fallow up of five generation generation shows that anly very few of the descents were ‘normal. ENVIRONMENTAL INFLENCE ON INTELLIGENCE i | What happens to individual during his course of ‘devélopment determines ‘his intelligence, The popular saying among psychologists is that “e child is bornblanke a5 4@ slote and the envionment writes on it", The environment Witch provides the experience, begin to aftion the’ child right fim conception» Thus... the, environmental influence oi” itelligense is “Both pre and “postnatal «The-” : envionment eco! of thought believes that exvfoament is mors impoitans than genetic factors in detennining intelligence’ of sctiool silen, T ave te following arguments to suoport their views: Deine | 4 | Scanned with @ camScannerStudies have sho 2 wt that LY OF inaviduRs im te same enviTonmeM wut equa opportunities tend to be similar even for trelated people. Hence those who go through the some institutions, under the same teachers, materials, ete, tend to perform fairly similer-on 1Q test compared to their mate i, other sister institutions. : . eee 2, Another strong evidence is that of identical twins reared apart, When identical twins are separated and reared in different environments, for example, one went to Federal Govemnment Schoo! in the North and the other went to « Community Secondary School inthe Southrdifferences in the 1Q test will be obsérved due to environmental effects. ; Support for the view that environment exerts a significant infueree on 19.8 revealed {2 a study by Skodale and Skeels (1975) which found that 1Q of children in foster homes mothers, The boost in 1Q of childrea wes due to better social environment. Also Dennis (1960) reared three groups of babies in separate orphanages, but those who were frequently touched and held in the murse’s ann while been fed affection. contact, motivation and reassurance. Their environment, ‘was more favourable, 43, Environmental factors that contribute: positively or negatively to « chile's intellectual development} nutrition, health of the child, greatly influenced development. st can promote intellectual development. Given two children with the same genes (for exaraple identical twins) sha ‘one gitién better pre- and post- of secured stimuliting environments the former wil peo bet on 1 test compact he Iter isl in dep environment, : : have clearly demoustrted that chiléven of high socio-economic status parents progressively perforta better on jnteloctual tests tian tHiose from poor socio-economic parents, Supporting tif, Freeman's study (1928) showed that four vo i client ems 10 poi en me le HE is nnd bis yed that the homes recorded $ points, Aiso Dennis wad bis collaborators (1973) prov children in Lebanese Orphanage developed 1Q slowly, on the average of 53 | cared wt a rms yn dtp eal A AE | f Related studies 80. . 3 Scanned wth |CamScanner’intelligence. For sronnmnnt has effects Om ; Feaa vein tae 38 618, dastion: Silay; tose. rh, end gain over those who TREE 4, Froin daily experiences; example, thosb'Hib"kaw secoatlary over those wito have no euch forraal special schools and progsumes have intellect! traditional education. ‘From the aib8Tdn 6 fa, tere isa clear dispute over controversy eth fu x “aura” dete eigence. Tho dispatats ask questions, 7a ig, che, relative inflienot sed iifpcttance of inherited. characteristics -j development of intelligence, To whut exieat can etvironment* influence intelligence”, From the evidence before us, inteligenne is the product of hereditary at birth and subsequent ceavirbnainl? The two ex, tsseparable, Nonavis les, important than the other. The heréditity provides the potentialities.and scts the-ligit-but the environment is subj to fluctuations and changes. To us, environment is more important becanse. we cannot add or subtract what has been inherited. However, we have a duty to provide stinhiiltitig environment to our children: ~ t tei 3 event ox We ‘can establish aa interactive effect on bot,hereditary and, intelligence ad conclusicn to their relative inp te ai : © oti | The dove graph represents Iypotetil efits efeetary gad exvrcanns on ineligence, An individual with hgh genic potential intligence bas 1 of 79 envitonméit his IC isoreases sharply over 200. Lice A mad ae Qin be Scanned with |\CamScanneros intelligence on Whitersan’ against the blacks, dohetchla The tacts ane Rises . Further in the ™ . e Past racial end etkate mincsity ee educational opportmit ity groups have not had. tie’ same 8 tad their becky 7 "6 ‘rokyround played important roles ithe Black man’s perfonnaaec. Thensfore, the dizferences is due », the differ to environmental conditions such us economic, scci ‘ernon ‘omic, seciel and educational backgrounds. Ve (1979) argued that the diffarencen due to genetic effect ae ean simpered F «and % en " one to experience provided *y environment, It has been known that white lower class oe blacks have lower IQs than white middle class group due to standard of living and educational opportunities (Pericias, 1974). 4, Other investigations have found hereditability as low as 35 which is contrary to 80 established by Jensen. The lower stinates assume at the variance is attributable to genetic environment interaction. 5, Also children bora of in racial macriages ' gffect the child more than genetic begtts 1Q than when the mother is black Furthermere, study of illegitimate children ave found that thre is no differen between children whose fathers are white because they were reared in the same envionment (Eyferth and Others, 1960). suggest that maternal environment dren of white jnlothers had.higher** In conclusion, some have agreed that there is 0 4iJerencé between blacks and whites " because of hereditary, others argue that the diffon. ces is explained in environmental terms, However, it is not possible to dravy valle. jnferences about the innate racial differences in intelligence. We must bear in mind that cultural and psychological differences between blacks and whites is complox and no study hins succeeded to establish or eliminate ther effects,” : @camScanner zt 38 ‘Scanned withi | “one * whites. He buttressed his argument with Celeman’s report (1966) that American and rich environment. The deprive enviroment which is naasel B SAE 0 gan B and A : because influence of hereditary is clearly marked, vuln raised in deprived and average environment ic Nae. ‘Cini " IVTELLIGENCE AND RACE ‘Are whites more intelligent than black? whites are Imown to be Jntelligent. The question is whether blacks ar equally intelligent as whites. White 05 ¢ group have mado a lot of achievements and sdvances in technology, medicine and space travel Do they inherit this intelligence or not?” 7 Recently, the issue of genetic contributions to intelligence has:focused on the ‘possibility of inherited racial differences in intelligence. That is whether blacks are innately less intelligent than whites. + 2 (On a standard test, blacks as a group, score 10-15 points lower than white Americans as a group. This fact is not debatable, More so, Author Jensen, a Harvard * Psychologist raised # storm of controversy in his scholarly publication that IQ difference between whites and blacks is due to hereditary or genetic differences. In ‘his studies, th ighitr.-incidence,f IQ below .75 among blacks than Indians scored below the blacks and later: below the whites, He,estimated the heritability of 1Q to about .80,.He strongly argued that lower intelligence and achievement of Blacks is influenced: by genetic. factor. This could lead to racial prejudice and hostility between blaoks and whites. This direct assault on nafure-nurture controversy of racial differences. ,The lower performance of blacks on whiteman’s tests and heritability of IQ has been interpreted as follows: ¥ 1. Most intelligent tests have been standardised on white population and they are not culture fair. Whites and blacks grow in different environment and'the content 2 A black child mar react dfeenty to being tested by a white examiner than a white child. The black child may become'nervous. Therefore estimating a black Scanned with @ camscannerlative permed behaviour as'resull femperenés. ‘Scanned with |CamScanner. ‘ 3%. Le; is learning in another si . facilitates as ituation ©-8. knowledge of bicycle & machine + motorbike to car, an + cycle & machine to- ming in one situation ° Negative Transfer: wea This is when iearning of one tasic hinders, fo ouS, Prevents or disrupts performance in handball. Zoro Transfer: This is when ‘learning’ of one'task has ao _influence at all on subsequent one. For ‘instance there is no transfer between Mathematics and History. ansfer is the transferability ‘of what /has-been learned to -riew Lateral Transfer: According to Gangne (1965)'lateral tr situations across. It cari ‘be positive or negative, e.g. transfer from law school.to court. . : . 2 Vertical Transfer: This is the effect of influence ‘of learning at one level or another level in vertical dimension. It can ‘be iapward.or downward. For instance, learning in pritnary school should facilitate learning in secondary school. - ¢ Bilateral Transfer: Training received by one part of the body is transferred to another e.g. playing of football with the right » Jeg can be transferred to the left leg, é F Seanned with |\CamScanner™BORE ERE ae INCE TR, ING ‘FACTO: ‘S: THAT INFLUENCE TRANSFERE OF TEORNIN, : it Transfer canoccur where they are common factors in the content or procedure in the execution of the two tasks. egi content and procedure in Mathematics “is useful’ to problems in chemistry, Statistics ete. ; Lengthy ‘Training: ‘The amount ‘of time spent learning or receiving training has effects on transfer. paar Over Le farning:.Without learning there canbe no transfer. : Intelligence: The intéil igerit, people are more likely. to-Spot!the ‘relationship ‘between: the _ Previous’ learning. and the new. task or materi ee ‘ war : We have’ 0. identify the clear-cut objectives and decide’, We must'take note’ of concrete exainples and illusiratiéris: : Teachin, method ‘used by ‘the ‘ingtrictor gan sét a lstage Toei ‘Scanned with |CamScanneri { f What ‘is memory? i oe ry? It.is the-power of keeping facts or relattag eing able to recall back..In any: learnis eens soa a ENCODING : STORAGE . RETRIVAL Put in memory * intain in mi ry maintain in memory recover from memory Types of Memory ee 1, Sensory memory:. This ‘memory holds an‘exact copy or what is seen or. heard for a few seconds or less. i 2. Short-Term Memory: This is short term memories in which information. are remembered ’for-few seconds ot minutes. They are not stored for lorigér time but’ easily forgotten. The miost striking fact about S.TM. is: that it has a limited capacity. of. holding information. On the average; it is:limited to Seven items give and take two’ (7+2) some people can:store as few as five while others can hold. as many as.nine items: . . 3. Long Term Memory: Long term memory information that has. nites of for -a‘long been retained for intervals ‘as ‘brief for. few min time. : sgh RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHORT TERM AND LONG TERM MEMORIES 3 Stimuli, Scanned with |CamScanner™emeine 0 uM eae Forgetting Pe elationship is that Scoumation first enters into a limitec e ‘Te : in " SoTM. where. it.is ‘either “fiaintained by. rehearsal: or lost by displacement Information. have to be transferred from S.T.M. into L.T.M. in order to’be encoded: This is called:dual memory theory i.e, information is transferred imto.L:7.M.° es Forgetting L It simply inéans failur been learned.’ 2 _ Causes of Forgetting “~ |. Decay: of ‘Memory Trace vor: Disuse: this, mearis that the *.smemory 8 no’ cused: by “distised” and hence :'theré’ is decay. of memory, e.g. we: ‘meet, people” and. forget their ‘names after a long eing them constantly. time because. we shave not beer Sé = omitting other segments, > Physical. 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