BCV654 B Module-1

MODULE-1
Fundamentals of GIS
Introduction to GIS.
Basic spatial concepts.
Coordinate Systems.
GIS and Information Systems – Definitions– History of GIS.
Components of a GIS – Hardware, Software, Data, People,
Methods Proprietary and open-source Software.
Types of data – Spatial, Attribute data- types of attributes.
Scales/ levels of measurements.

Geographical Information System (GIS) is a technology that provides the means to collect and
use geographic data to assist in the development of Agriculture. A digital map is generally of
much greater value than the same map printed on paper as the digital version can be combined

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with other sources of data for analyzing information with a graphical presentation. The GIS
software makes it possible to synthesize large amounts of different data, combining different
layers of information to manage and retrieve the data in a more useful manner. GIS provides
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a powerful means for agricultural scientists to better service to the farmers and farming
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community by answering their queries and helping in better decision-making to implement
planning activities for the development of agriculture.
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Overview of GIS A Geographical Information System (GIS) is a system for capturing, storing,
analyzing and managing data and associated attributes, which are spatially referenced to the
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Earth. The geographical information system is also called as a geographic information system
or geospatial information system. It is an information system capable of integrating, storing,
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editing, analyzing, sharing, and displaying geographically referenced information. In a more

generic sense, GIS is a software tool that allows users to create interactive queries, analyse
spatial information, edit data, and maps, and present the results of all these operations.
Geographical Information Systems can be used for scientific investigations, resource
management, asset management, environmental impact assessment, urban planning,
cartography, criminology, history, sales, marketing, and logistics. For example, agricultural
planners might use geographical data to decide on the best locations for location-specific crop
planning, by combining data on soils, topography, and rainfall to determine the size and
location of biologically suitable areas. The final output could include overlays with land
ownership, transport, infrastructure, labour availability, and distance to market centres.

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GIS is defined as “A System of capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating,

analysing and displaying data which are spatially referred to earth”.
OR
“A GIS is a computer-based system that provides the following four sets of capabilities to
handle geo-referenced data:
1. input;
2. data management(data storage and retrieval);
3. manipulation and analysis; and
4. output.”

Basic Spatial Concepts of GIS

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are based on fundamental spatial concepts that help

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represent and analyze geographic data. These concepts include:
1. Space and Location
• Absolute Location: A fixed position on the Earth's surface, defined by coordinates
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(latitude and longitude).
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• Relative Location: A position described in relation to other locations (e.g., "north of
the river").
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2. Coordinate Systems
• GIS uses coordinate systems to define locations accurately.
• Geographic Coordinate System (GCS): Uses latitude and longitude.
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• Projected Coordinate System (PCS): Uses mathematical transformations (e.g., UTM,

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Mercator).
3. Spatial Data
• Vector Data: Represents features using points, lines, and polygons.
• Raster Data: Represents data as a grid of cells (pixels), useful for continuous data like
elevation or temperature.
4. Spatial Relationships
• Topology: Defines spatial relationships between features (e.g., connectivity, adjacency,
containment).
• Proximity: Measures how close features are to each other.
• Overlay: Combines multiple spatial datasets for analysis.
5. Scale and Resolution
• Scale: The ratio between a map’s distance and real-world distance (e.g., 1:50,000).
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• Resolution: The level of detail in spatial data, especially in raster images (higher
resolution = more detail).
6. Spatial Attributes and Data Models
• Spatial Data: Location-based information (e.g., roads, rivers).
• Attribute Data: Descriptive information about spatial features (e.g., city population).
• Data Models:
o Raster Model: Grid-based representation.
o Vector Model: Uses points, lines, and polygons.
7. Spatial Analysis
• GIS allows spatial analysis techniques such as:
o Buffering: Creating zones around features.
o Interpolation: Estimating values at unsampled locations.

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o Network Analysis: Studying connectivity (e.g., shortest path analysis).

Coordinate System
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A coordinate system in GIS is a reference framework used to define the location of geographic
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features on the Earth's surface. It consists of mathematical rules that specify how coordinates
are assigned to points.
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Types of Coordinate Systems

There are two main types of coordinate systems used in GIS:
1. Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)
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2. Projected Coordinate System (PCS)

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1. Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)

A Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define
locations on the Earth. It is based on:
Components of GCS:
• Latitude and Longitude:
o Latitude: Measures north-south position (0° at the Equator, ±90° at the poles).
o Longitude: Measures east-west position (0° at the Prime Meridian, ±180°).
• Datum: A mathematical model representing the Earth's shape (e.g., WGS84, NAD83).
• Prime Meridian: The reference meridian (0° longitude) is used to define east and west
directions.

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Common Geographic Coordinate Systems:

• WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984): Used globally, including in GPS.
• NAD83 (North American Datum 1983): Used mainly in North America.

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• ED50 (European Datum 1950): Used in Europe.
Advantages of GCS:
✔ Globally consistent and widely used.
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✔ Essential for GPS and global datasets.
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Disadvantages of GCS:
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✖ Distortion occurs when measuring distances or areas due to Earth's curvature.

✖ Not suitable for precise spatial analysis or mapping at a local scale.

2. Projected Coordinate System (PCS)
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A Projected Coordinate System (PCS) is a two-dimensional representation of the Earth's

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surface, created by projecting geographic coordinates onto a flat surface.

Components of PCS:
• Projection Method: A mathematical formula used to flatten the Earth’s surface.
• Origin Point: The reference point where the coordinates start (e.g., equator and central
meridian).
• Units of Measurement: –Typically meters or feet instead of degrees.
Common Projection Methods:
1. Cylindrical Projections:
o Mercator Projection: Preserves direction, and distorts size (e.g., used in
navigation).
o Transverse Mercator: Used for small areas with minimal distortion (e.g., UTM
zones).
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2. Conic Projections:
o Lambert Conformal Conic: Used for mid-latitude regions like the U.S.
3. Azimuthal (Planar) Projections:
o Stereographic Projection: Used for polar regions.

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Common Projected Coordinate Systems:
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• UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator): Divides the world into 60 zones, each 6°
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wide.
• State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS): Used in the United States for high-accuracy
mapping.
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Advantages of PCS:
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✔ Accurate for measuring distances and areas in local or regional maps.

✔ Allows for consistent spatial analysis.

Disadvantages of PCS:
✖ Distortion increases as the map moves away from the centre of the projection.

✖ Different projections are required for different regions.

History of GIS
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have evolved over time from traditional cartography
and spatial analysis methods to advanced computer-based systems. The development of GIS is
closely linked to advancements in geography, remote sensing, computing, and data
management.

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Early Beginnings (Before 1960s)

Before the advent of digital GIS, spatial data was managed using paper maps, manual
measurements, and statistical analysis. Early influences on GIS include:
• Cartography: The art and science of map-making, which dates back thousands of
years.
• Surveying and Geodesy: The measurement of the Earth's shape and land features,
critical for accurate mapping.
• Remote Sensing: The use of aerial photography (starting in the early 20th century) to
analyze landscapes.
The Birth of Modern GIS (1960s - 1970s)
The foundation of GIS as a computerized system was laid in the 1960s. Key developments
include:

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a) The Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) – 1960s
• Developed by Roger Tomlinson, known as the "Father of GIS."
• Designed to store, analyze, and manage Canada’s land use data.
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• One of the first systems to use layers in GIS.
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b) Harvard Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis (1960s-1970s)
• Developed SYMAP, one of the first digital mapping software programs.
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• Introduced raster and vector data structures.

• Influenced the development of GIS software in later years.
Growth of GIS (1980s - 1990s)
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Advancements in computing technology led to the widespread use of GIS:

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a) Commercial GIS Software Emerges

• ESRI (Environmental Systems Research Institute) launched ARC/INFO (1981), a
pioneering GIS software.
• Development of MapInfo (1986) and Intergraph GIS solutions.
b) Advances in Spatial Data and Standards
• Introduction of Global Positioning System (GPS) in the 1980s improved spatial
accuracy.
• Development of remote sensing technologies such as Landsat satellites.
• Establishment of GIS data standards (e.g., OGC - Open Geospatial Consortium).
GIS in the Internet Era (2000s - Present)
With the rise of the internet and cloud computing, GIS has become more accessible and
powerful.
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a) Web-based and Open-Source GIS

• Development of Google Earth (2005) and Google Maps revolutionized GIS
accessibility.
• Open-source GIS software such as QGIS (Quantum GIS) gained popularity.
• Online GIS platforms like ArcGIS Online allow real-time data sharing and analysis.
b) Integration with Big Data and AI
• GIS now integrates with Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning for spatial
analysis.
• Cloud-based GIS services enable large-scale geographic computations.
• Drone technology and LiDAR improve high-resolution mapping capabilities.

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Components of GIS
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GIS enables the user to input, manage, manipulate, analyze, and display geographically
referenced data using a computerized system. To perform various operations with GIS, the
components of GIS such as software, hardware, data, people and methods are essential. A
working GIS integrates five components: Hardware, Software, Data, People, and Methods.
1. Hardware
Hardware refers to the physical equipment required to run a GIS. It i–ncludes:
a) Computers and Servers
• Workstations & PCs: Used for data processing, analysis, and visualization.
• Servers: Store and manage large spatial databases, allowing multiple users to access
data remotely.
b) Input Devices
• Scanners: Convert paper maps into digital format.

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• Digitizers: Used to trace maps and convert them into vector data.
• GPS Devices: Collect precise location data from satellites.
• Drones and LiDAR Sensors: Capture high-resolution spatial data.
c) Output Devices
• Monitors & Screens: Display GIS maps and analysis results.
• Printers & Plotters: Produce high-quality printed maps.
2. Software
GIS software provides the tools to analyze, visualize, and manage spatial data. It includes:
a) GIS Software Types
• Desktop GIS: Installed on a single computer (e.g., ArcGIS Pro, QGIS, MapInfo).
• Web GIS: Cloud-based GIS accessible via the internet (e.g., ArcGIS Online, Google
Maps).

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• Enterprise GIS: Large-scale GIS for organizations, integrated with databases and
cloud storage.
b) Key GIS Software Functions
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• Data Input & Editing: Import, digitize, and edit spatial data.
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• Spatial Analysis: Perform buffering, overlay, and network analysis.
• Visualization & Mapping: Generate maps, 3D models, and reports.
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• Database Management: Store and retrieve spatial and attribute data.

c) Examples of GIS Software
• Proprietary Software: ArcGIS, MapInfo, AutoCAD Map 3D.
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• Open-source Software: QGIS, GRASS GIS, GeoServer.

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3. Data
Data is the most important component of a GIS. It provides the foundation for analysis and
decision-making.
a) Types of GIS Data
1. Spatial Data: Represents the location and shape of geographic features.
o Vector Data: Points (e.g., cities), lines (e.g., roads), polygons (e.g., land use
areas).
o Raster Data: Grid-based data like satellite images, elevation models.
2. Attribute Data: Descriptive information about spatial features (e.g., population of a
city, road name).
b) Sources of GIS Data
• Remote Sensing: Satellite imagery, aerial photography.
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• GPS Data: Location points collected from GPS devices.

• Survey Data: Collected through land surveys and field studies.
• Government Databases: Census data, topographic maps, land records.

4. People
GIS requires skilled users who can manage and interpret spatial data effectively.
a) GIS Users and Roles
• GIS Analysts: Perform spatial analysis and mapping.
• Cartographers: Design and create maps.
• Surveyors & Field Data Collectors: Gather geographic data using GPS and remote
sensing tools.
• GIS Developers: Create custom GIS applications and tools.

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• Decision-makers & Policy Makers: Use GIS outputs for planning and management.
b) Importance of People in GIS
• People ensure GIS data is properly collected, analyzed, and applied.
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• Trained professionals interpret GIS results and make informed decisions.
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5. Methods
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Methods refer to the procedures and techniques used to collect, analyze, and manage GIS data.
a) GIS Workflow
1. Data Collection: Gathering spatial and attribute data from various sources.
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2. Data Processing: Cleaning, transforming, and storing data in a GIS database.

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3. Analysis & Interpretation: Performing spatial analysis such as buffering, overlay, and
interpolation.
4. Visualization & Presentation: Creating maps, reports, and dashboards for decision-
making.
5. Data Sharing & Management: Storing and distributing GIS data efficiently.
b) Standardization & Best Practices
• Using OGC (Open Geospatial Consortium) standards for data interoperability.
• Following geospatial metadata guidelines to maintain data accuracy.
• Implementing quality control measures for consistent GIS analysis.

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Proprietary and Open Source GIS Software
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GIS software is essential for storing, analyzing, and visualizing spatial data. GIS software is
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categorised into two main types:

1. Proprietary GIS Software – Developed and maintained by private companies,
requiring a license for use.
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2. Open Source GIS Software – Free to use, modify, and distribute, with source code
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available to the public.

1. Proprietary GIS Software
Proprietary GIS software is commercial software developed by companies that require users to
purchase a license for access. These applications offer professional support, advanced features,
and regular updates.
a) Features of Proprietary GIS Software
✔ User-friendly interface with professional support.

✔ Advanced spatial analysis tools and high performance.

✔ Regular updates, bug fixes, and security patches.

✔ Integration with enterprise systems and cloud-based services.

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b) Examples of Proprietary GIS Software

Software Developer Features
ArcGIS ESRI Advanced spatial analysis, 3D visualization,
cloud GIS (ArcGIS Online)
MapInfo Pitney Bowes Business mapping, spatial analysis, geocoding
Professional
AutoCAD Map Autodesk CAD and GIS integration, used for engineering
3D and infrastructure
Global Mapper Blue Marble LiDAR processing, raster and vector analysis
Geographics
ERDAS Hexagon Geospatial Remote sensing, image processing,
IMAGINE photogrammetry

c) Advantages of Proprietary GIS Software

✔ Professional technical support and training. .IN
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✔ More stable and optimized for large datasets.
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✔ Integration with other commercial software and databases.
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d) Disadvantages of Proprietary GIS Software

✖ High cost due to licensing fees.

✖ Limited customization and modification.

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✖ Vendor dependency for updates and support.

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2. Open Source GIS Software

Open-source GIS software is freely available, allowing users to modify and distribute the
code. It is widely used for research, education, and government applications.
a) Features of Open Source GIS Software
✔ Free to use, modify, and distribute.
✔ Active community support and frequent updates.

✔ Highly customizable for specific needs.

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b) Examples of Open Source GIS Software

Software Developer Features
QGIS (Quantum Open Source Community User-friendly, plugin support, advanced
GIS) spatial analysis
GRASS GIS Open Source Geospatial Raster and vector processing,
Foundation geostatistics, remote sensing
GeoServer Open Source Geospatial Web GIS, map server, spatial data sharing
Foundation
PostGIS PostgreSQL Community Spatial database extension for
PostgreSQL
GvSIG gvSIG Association GIS and remote sensing analysis, 3D
visualization

c) Advantages of Open Source GIS Software

✔ No licensing fees, reducing costs. .IN
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✔ Customizable source code for specific requirements.
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✔ Large community support and continuous improvements.
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d) Disadvantages of Open-Source GIS Software

✖ Limited official technical support (depends on the user community).
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✖ Steeper learning curve for some applications.

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✖ May require additional plugins for advanced features.

3. Choosing Between Proprietary and Open-Source GIS

The choice between proprietary and open-source GIS depends on:
• Budget: If cost is a concern, open-source GIS is preferable.
• Functionality: Proprietary GIS may offer more advanced features and stability.
• Support Needs: If professional support is needed, proprietary software is a better
option.
• Customization: Open-source GIS is ideal for users needing flexibility and
modifications.

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Types of Data in GIS

GIS (Geographic Information System) handles two primary types of data:
1. Spatial Data – Represents the location, shape, and geometry of geographic features.
2. Attribute Data – Provides descriptive information about spatial features.

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1. Spatial Data
Spatial data, also known as geographic data or geospatial data, represents the physical
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location and shape of objects on Earth.

a) Types of Spatial Data Representations
Spatial data can be stored in different formats:
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1. Vector Data
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Vector data represents geographic features using:

• Points: Represent discrete locations (e.g., cities, trees, wells).
• Lines: Represent linear features (e.g., roads, rivers, railways).
• Polygons: Represent areas (e.g., land parcels, lakes, buildings).
Advantages of Vector Data:
✔ High precision in representing features.

✔ Efficient storage for attribute data.

✔ Suitable for topological analysis (e.g., network analysis, spatial relationships).
Disadvantages of Vector Data:
✖ Complex calculations for overlay operations.
✖ Requires more processing power for large datasets.

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2. Raster Data
Raster data represents geographic features as a grid of cells (pixels). Each cell has a value
representing a geographic property (e.g., elevation, temperature).
Examples:
• Satellite images (e.g., Landsat, Sentinel).
• Aerial photographs.
• Digital Elevation Models (DEM) for terrain representation.
Advantages of Raster Data:
✔ Best for continuous data like elevation, temperature, and rainfall.

✔ Simple data structure (grid format).

✔ Suitable for image processing and remote sensing.
Disadvantages of Raster Data:

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✖ Large file sizes due to high resolution.
✖ Less precise in defining feature boundaries.
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✖ Requires resampling for different spatial resolutions.
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3. TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network)

• Represents terrain using a network of triangles.

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• Used in 3D GIS applications for elevation modeling.
4. GRID Data Model
• Uses a matrix of square cells like raster data.
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• Stores elevation, land cover, and climatic data.
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2. Attribute Data
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Attribute data provides descriptive information about spatial features. It is stored in tables
and linked to spatial data.
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a) Types of Attribute Data

Attribute data is classified into four types based on the levels of measurement (scales of
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measurement):
Attribute Description Example
Type
Nominal Categorical data without a Land use type (residential, industrial), soil
Data numeric value. type.
Ordinal Ranked data with an order but no Road classification (highway > street >
Data fixed difference. lane), risk levels (low, medium, high).
Interval Numeric data with a fixed Temperature (°C, °F), pH level.
Data difference but no true zero.
Ratio Data Numeric data with a true zero, Population, area size, distance, rainfall.
allowing meaningful ratios.

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b) Attribute Data Storage

Attribute data is stored in tables using a Relational Database Management System
(RDBMS). Each row represents a spatial feature, and each column stores attribute values.
Example of an Attribute Table:

ID Name Type Population Area (sq.km)

1 City A Urban 500,000 250

2 City B Suburban 200,000 100

3 City C Rural 50,000 300

4 City D Metro 10,00,000 10000

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3. Relationship Between Spatial and Attribute Data
GIS integrates spatial and attribute data to perform analysis and visualization.
a) Linking Spatial and Attribute Data
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• Spatial data provides the location (Where is it?).
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• Attribute data provides details (What is it?).
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• They are linked using a unique identifier (ID or Key) in a GIS database.
Example:
• A building (spatial data) has an address, owner, and height (attribute data).
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b) Spatial Analysis Using Both Data Types

• Querying Data: Finding all schools (attribute) within a city boundary (spatial).
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• Buffer Analysis: Identifying areas within 500m of a highway.

• Thematic Mapping: Coloring land parcels based on land use type.

Scales/Levels of Measurement in GIS

In GIS, attribute data (descriptive information about spatial features) is categorized based on
measurement scales. Stevens’ Levels of Measurement classify data into four types:
1. Nominal Scale (Categorical)
2. Ordinal Scale (Ranked Order)
3. Interval Scale (Numeric, No True Zero)
4. Ratio Scale (Numeric, True Zero)

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Each level determines the type of analysis and statistical operations that can be applied in

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GIS.
1. Nominal Scale (Categorical Data)
• Definition: Categorizes data without any numerical ranking or order.
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• Characteristics:
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✔ Labels only (no mathematical operations).

✔ Each category is unique but not ordered.

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Examples in GIS:
• Land Use Types: Residential, Commercial, Industrial.
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• Soil Types: Clay, Sand, Loam.

• Country Names: USA, India, Canada.
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Operations Allowed:
✔ Classification

✔ Thematic Mapping

✖ No arithmetic operations (e.g., addition, subtraction).

2. Ordinal Scale (Ranked Data)
• Definition: Data is ranked in a meaningful order, but differences between values are
not equal.
• Characteristics:
✔ Data has a logical order (hierarchy).
✔ The difference between ranks is not measurable.

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Examples in GIS:
• Road Hierarchy: Highway > Main Road > Street > Lane.
• Risk Levels: High, Medium, Low.
• Land Suitability: Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor.
Operations Allowed:
✔ Ranking & Sorting

✔ Thematic Mapping (Choropleth Maps)

✖ No arithmetic operations (e.g., addition, mean calculation).

3. Interval Scale (Numeric Data, No True Zero)
• Definition: Numeric values with equal differences, but no true zero point.
• Characteristics:
✔ Differences between values are meaningful.

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• ✔ Zero does not indicate the absence of the attribute.
Examples in GIS:
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• Temperature in °C or °F.
• pH Values (Acidity levels).
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• Year of Construction for buildings.
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Operations Allowed:
✔ Addition, Subtraction

✔ Mean, Standard Deviation

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✖ No meaningful Ratio (e.g., 40°C is not twice as hot as 20°C).

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4. Ratio Scale (Numeric Data, True Zero Exists)

• Definition: Numeric values where zero means "absence" of the attribute.
• Characteristics:
✔ Data has equal intervals and a true zero.

• ✔ Supports all mathematical operations.

Examples in GIS:
• Population Count.
• Distance (meters, kilometers).
• Area (square km).
• Elevation above sea level.

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Operations Allowed:
✔ All arithmetic operations (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division).

✔ Ratios are meaningful (e.g., 100 km is twice as long as 50 km).

Comparison Table of Measurement Scales

Scale Description Example Allowed Operations

Nominal Categorical, no order Land use types, soil types Classification

Ordered, ranking but no fixed

Ordinal Risk levels, road types Ranking & Sorting
difference

Numeric, equal intervals, no true Temperature (°C, °F), pH

Interval Addition, Subtraction
zero values

Numeric, equal intervals, true All arithmetic

Ratio Population, area, distance

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zero operations
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Importance of Measurement Scales in GIS

• Helps in choosing the right GIS analysis (e.g., distance calculations require ratio
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data).
• Ensures correct statistical operations (e.g., averaging ordinal data is incorrect).
• Affects visualization techniques (e.g., choropleth maps for ordinal data, proportional
symbols for ratio data).

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