BIOSENSOR

Introduction

A sensor is a converter that measures a physical quantity and convert it into a signal which can
be read by an observer or by an instrument.

Biosensor is an analytical device containing an immobilized biological material (enzyme,

antibody, nucleic acid, hormone, organelle or whole cell) which can specifically interact with an
analyte and produce physical, chemical or electrical signals that can be measured. (or)

A biosensor is an analytical device that combines a biological recognition element with a

physicochemical transducer to detect and quantify specific analytes. These devices are
designed to convert a biological interaction—like enzyme-substrate binding or antigen-antibody
recognition—into a measurable signal, often electrical.

Biosensors basically involve the quantitative analysis of various substances by convertong their
biological actions into measurable signal.

The desired biological material is usually in the form of an enzyme. By a process known as the
Electroenzymatic approach, which is a chemical process of converting the enzymes into
corresponding electrical signals (usually current) with the help of a transducer.

Components:

Bioreceptor – A biological element like an enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid, or even a whole cell
that specifically interacts with the target analyte. This interaction is highly selective, ensuring the
sensor responds only to the intended substance.

Transducer – Converts the biorecognition event into a measurable signal. The physical or
chemical change resulting from the biorecognition event (e.g., pH shift, electron transfer, heat
release, electrical, optical, thermal) is converted into a quantifiable signal by the transducer. This
signal is then amplified and processed for display.

Signal Processor or detector– This signal is then amplified and processed for display.
One of the commonly used Biological responses is the oxidation of the enzyme. Oxidation acts
as a catalyst and alters the pH of the biological material. The change in pH will directly affect the
current carrying capacity of the enzyme, which is once again, in direct relation to the enzyme
being measured.

Output of the transducer, i.e., the current, is a direct representation of the enzyme being
measured. The current is generally converted into voltage so that it can be properly analyzed and
represented.
They are widely used in:

●​ Medical diagnostics (e.g., glucose monitoring),

●​ Pharmaceutical analysis (e.g., drug screening),
●​ Environmental monitoring (e.g., detecting toxins or pathogens),
●​ Food safety (e.g., allergen detection).

Characteristics of biosensor:

1.​ Specificity – The bioreceptor must selectively recognize the target analyte, even in the
presence of similar molecules.
2.​ Sensitivity – It should detect very low concentrations of the analyte, making it useful for
early diagnosis or trace detection.
3.​ Linearity – The output signal should be directly proportional to the analyte concentration
over a defined range.
4.​ Stability – Both the bioreceptor and transducer should maintain performance over time,
resisting degradation from temperature, pH, or contaminants.
5.​ Reproducibility – The biosensor should give consistent results across multiple tests and
samples.
6.​ Response Time – A fast reaction time is crucial, especially in clinical or point-of-care
settings.
7.​ Portability and Miniaturization – Many modern biosensors are compact and
user-friendly, ideal for field or home use.
8.​ Cost-effectiveness – Materials and fabrication should be affordable, especially for
disposable or large-scale applications.
9.​ Regenerability – Some biosensors can be reused after regeneration of the bioreceptor
surface, improving cost-efficiency.
 10.​Biocompatibility – Especially important in implantable biosensors, where materials must
not trigger immune responses.

Working of Biosensors

Biorecognition- At the heart of the biosensor is the bioreceptor—this could be an enzyme,

antibody, DNA strand, or even a whole cell. It specifically binds to the target analyte (like
glucose, a toxin, or a drug molecule). This interaction is highly selective, ensuring the sensor
responds only to the intended substance.

Signal Generation- Once the analyte binds to the bioreceptor, a biochemical change
occurs—such as a redox reaction, pH shift, or mass change.

Transduction- The transducer converts this biochemical change into a quantifiable

signal—typically electrical, optical, thermal, or piezoelectric. For example, in an electrochemical
biosensor, the enzyme reaction might produce electrons, which generate a current.

Signal Processing or detector- signal from the transducer are passed to a microprocessor where
they are amplified and analyzed. The daya is then converted to concentration unit and transferred
to a display or/and data storage device.

Output Display

Finally, the processed signal is displayed in a readable format—like a digital readout showing
glucose levels or a color change on a test strip.

This seamless integration of biology and electronics allows biosensors to deliver real-time,
sensitive, and specific measurements.

The raw signal is then amplified and processed by electronic circuitry. Noise is filtered out, and
the signal is calibrated to reflect the concentration of the analyte.
The combination of a biological sensitive element and a transducer will convert the biological
material into a corresponding electrical signal. Depending on the type of enzyme, the output of
the transducer will be either current or voltage.
If the output is voltage, then well and good. But if the output is current, then this current should
be converted into equivalent voltage (using an Op-Amp based current to voltage converter)
before proceeding further.

The output voltage signal is usually very low in amplitude and superimposed on a high
frequency noise signal. So, the signal is amplified (using an Op-Amp based Amplifier) and then
passed through a low-pass RC Filter.

This process of amplifying and filtering the signal is the job of a Signal Processing Unit or a
Signal Conditioning Unit. The output of the signal processing unit is an analog signal that is
equivalent to the biological quantity being measured.
Types of Biosensors:

There are different types of Biosensors based on the sensor devices and the biological materials,
and some of them are discussed below.

Electrochemical Biosensor

An Electrochemical Biosensor is a simple device. It measures the measurement of electronic

current, ionic, or by conductance changes carried by bio-electrodes.

Electrochemical biosensors are classified into four types

●​ Amperometric Biosensors
●​ Potentiometric Biosensors
●​ Impedimetric Biosensors
●​ Voltammetric Biosensors

Amperometric Biosensor- Measure current from redox reactions (e.g., glucose biosensors).

The Biosensors are based on the movement of the electron, i.e., electronic current determination
as a reaction of the enzyme-catalyzed redox reaction. Generally, a normal contact voltage
passes through the electrodes to be analyzed. In the enzymatic reaction which produces the
substrate or product can transfer electrons to the surface of the electrodes to be reduced.
Potentiometric Biosensor- Measure voltage changes (e.g., ion-selective electrodes).

In this type of Biosensors, changes in the concentration of ionic are determined by the
ion-selective electrodes in this pH electrodes are used most commonly. Hence, a large number of
enzymatic reactions are involved in the release of hydrogen ions. Ammonia-selective and
Corbondioxide selective electrodes are some other important electrodes.

Voltammetric Biosensor- Detect changes in electrical conductivity.

In the biological system, there are several reactions that change the ionic species. The electronic
conductivity can be measured with the help of anionic species. The example of the
conductometric Biosensor is the urea Biosensor which utilizing the immobilized areas. The
following reactions show the urea catalyzes.

The given reaction is associated with the drastic alteration in ionic concentration and they are
used for monitoring urea concentration. In generally, during dialysis and renal surgery, the urea
Biosensor is very useful.

Impedimetric Biosensors- biological interactions at the sensor surface cause measurable changes
in electrical impedance, which are detected using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).

An impedimetric biosensor is constructed by immobilizing biological recognition elements onto

an electrode surface. It reports, through measurement and/or monitoring, the targeted analyte
through the output of an electrical impedance signal made proportional to analyte activity. The
techniques of Impedimetric have been executed to differentiate the invention of the biosensors as
well as to examine the catalyzed responses of enzymes, lectins, nucleic acids, receptors, whole
cells, and antibodies.

Physical Biosensor
The physical biosensors are classified into two types namely piezoelectric biosensor and
thermometric biosensor.

Piezoelectric Biosensors- Detect mass changes on a surface due to analyte binding.

Piezoelectric biosensors are a group of analytical devices working on the principle of affinity
interaction recording. A piezoelectric platform or piezoelectric crystal is a sensor part working
on the principle of oscillation changes due to a mass bound on the piezoelectric crystal surface.

A piezoelectric biosensor for organophosphorus insecticide has been developed incorporating

acetylcholine esterase. Likewise, a biosensor for formaldehyde has been developed by
incorporating formaldehyde dehydrogenase. A biosensor for cocaine in gas phase has been
created by attaching cocaine antibodies to the surface of piezoelectric crystal.
Thermometric Biosensor- Measure heat changes from biochemical reactions.
There are various types of biological reactions that are connected with the invention of heat, and
this makes the base of thermometric biosensors. These sensors are usually named as thermal
biosensors

The thermometric biosensor is used to measure or estimate the serum cholesterol. As cholesterol
obtains oxidized through the enzyme cholesterol oxidize, then heat will be produced, which can
be calculated. Similarly, assessments of glucose, urea, uric acid, and penicillin G can be done
with these biosensors.

Optical Biosensor- is a type of biosensor that uses light-based detection to monitor biological
interactions, such as the binding of an analyte to a bioreceptor. These sensors convert changes in
light properties—like intensity, wavelength, or refractive index—into measurable signals.
Fluorescence (light emission),
Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) (refractive index shifts),
Interferometry (light wave interference),
Colorimetry (visible color change).
Optical fibers play an important role in Optical Biosensors. The optical fibers allow detection of
the sensing elements based on the different properties of light like absorption, scattering, and
fluorescence. The reaction causes changes in either of the above-mentioned properties as a result
of the change in the refractive index of the interacting surface. For example, if the biological
elements are antibodies and are bound with a metal layer, the refractive index of the medium
which comes in contact with this layer will be varied.
Optical biosensors permit a secure, non-electrical, inaccessible sensing of equipment. An extra
benefit is that these frequently do not need reference sensors, because the comparative signal can
be produced by using a similar light source like the sampling sensor. The optical biosensors are
classified into two type’s namely direct optical detection biosensor and labeled optical detection
biosensor.

Immuno-Biosensors:
Immuno-biosensors or immunochemical biosensors work on the principle of immunological
specificity, coupled with measurement (mostly) based on amperometric or potentiometric
biosensors. There are several possible configurations for immuno-biosensors and some of them
are depicted in Fig. 21.18, and briefly described hereunder.
1. An immobilized antibody to which antigen can directly bind (Fig. 21.18A).

2. An immobilized antigen that binds to antibody which in turn can bind to a free second antigen
(Fig. 21.18B).

3. An antibody bound to immobilized antigen which can be partially released by competing with
free antigen (Fig. 21.18C).

4. An immobilized antibody binding free antigen and enzyme labeled antigen in competition
(Fig. 21.18D).
IDEAL PROPERTY OF BIOSENSOR​
Biosensors should be:

1.​ Highly specific

2.​ Independent of physical parameters like temperature, pH
3.​ Biocompatible
4.​ Economic
5.​ Precise and accurate
Glucose biosensor:

Glucose reacts with glucose oxidase to form gluconic acid and a reduced form of glucose oxide.
Two electrons and two protons are also produced. The glucose oxide (reduced form) reacts with
surrounding oxygen to form H2O2 and glucose oxidase. Now this Glucose oxidase can react
with more glucose. Higher the glucose content, higher the oxygen consumption. H2O2
concentration is detected by the platinum electrode, which gives the glucose content/
concentration.

Advantages of Biosensors

●​ High specificity and sensitivity – They can detect minute concentrations of analytes
with great accuracy.
●​ Rapid response time – Ideal for real-time monitoring and point-of-care diagnostics.
●​ Portability – Many biosensors are compact and suitable for field or home use.
●​ Minimal sample requirement – Only small volumes are needed, reducing waste and
invasiveness.
●​ Cost-effective – Especially in mass production, biosensors can be more affordable than
traditional lab tests.
●​ Versatility – They can detect a wide range of substances, from glucose to pathogens to
toxins.
●​ Potential for continuous monitoring – Especially in wearable or implantable formats
for personalized healthcare.

Disadvantages of Biosensors

●​ Limited lifespan – Biological components like enzymes or antibodies can degrade over
time.
●​ Environmental sensitivity – Performance may be affected by temperature, pH, or
humidity.
●​ Calibration and standardization issues – Ensuring consistent results across devices can
be challenging.
●​ Biofouling – Accumulation of unwanted biological material can interfere with sensor
function.
●​ Complex fabrication – Some biosensors require sophisticated manufacturing techniques.
●​ False positives/negatives – Especially in complex samples, interference can affect
accuracy.

Applications of biosensors:
Medical and Clinical Applications

●​ Blood glucose monitoring (e.g., glucometers)

●​ Cancer biomarker detection (e.g., PSA, CA-125)
●​ Infectious disease diagnostics (e.g., COVID-19, HIV, tuberculosis)
●​ Therapeutic drug monitoring (e.g., vancomycin, lithium)
●​ Hormone level detection (e.g., insulin, thyroid hormones)
●​ Genetic disorder screening using DNA biosensors
●​ Neurotransmitter tracking in neurological research
●​ Wearable biosensors for real-time health monitoring
●​ Implantable biosensors for chronic disease management

Environmental Monitoring

●​ Detection of heavy metals (lead, mercury, arsenic) in water

●​ Monitoring pesticides and herbicides in soil and crops
●​ Pathogen detection in water sources (e.g., E. coli, Salmonella)
●​ Air quality monitoring
●​ Pollution detection
●​ Biological oxygen demand (BOD) sensors for wastewater treatment
 ●​ Climate monitoring via microbial biosensors

Food and Agriculture

●​ Foodborne pathogen detection (e.g., Listeria, Salmonella)

●​ Spoilage detection (e.g., ammonia, histamine)
●​ Allergen detection (e.g., gluten, peanuts)
●​ Pesticide residue monitoring in produce
●​ Fermentation control in dairy, brewing, and winemaking
●​ Soil nutrient analysis for precision agriculture
●​ Smart packaging that signals spoilage or contamination

Industrial and Bioprocess Control

●​ Real-time fermentation monitoring in bioreactors

●​ Enzyme activity tracking in detergent and textile industries
●​ Quality control in pharmaceutical manufacturing
●​ Toxic byproduct detection in chemical synthesis
●​ Biocatalyst performance monitoring in green chemistry

Defense and Security

●​ Biowarfare agent detection (e.g., anthrax, ricin)

●​ Explosive detection (e.g., TNT, nitroglycerin)
●​ Chemical threat monitoring in public safety
●​ Wearable biosensors for soldier health and exposure tracking

Research and Drug Discovery

●​ High-throughput drug screening

●​ Protein-ligand interaction studies
●​ Gene expression monitoring
●​ Synthetic biology circuits with biosensor feedback

Emerging Technologies

●​ Lab-on-a-chip diagnostics
●​ Biosensors in space missions for astronaut health and contamination control
●​ Biosensors in robotics for environmental sensing
●​ Bioelectronic noses and tongues for flavor and odor profiling