HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS

DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT CEP PROGRAM

Computer Application in Management Course Module

Course code: Mgmt2091

Credit hours: 2 ECTS: 3

Target Group (Year II Term I)
CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Definition of a Computer

Definition 1:
Computer is an Electronic data processing device which is capable of performing
Arithmetic and Logical operations. More than that a computer can choose, copy, move, position
and perform other non-arithmetic operations on the many alphabetic, numeric and other symbols
that humans use to represent things.

Arithmetic operations are:

Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division, etc.

Logical operations are:

And, Or, Not, Compare, etc.

Definition 2:
An electronic symbol manipulating system that’s designed and organized to automatically
accept and store input data, process them and produce the output, that results under the direction
of a detailed step-by-step stored program.

Definition 3: Artificial Intelligence the fast growing computer research division defines the same
computer as
“Computer is similar to human being but, without thinking power ".
That means computer can think equivalent to human being in certain aspects, the major
difference between computer and human being is thinking power, by giving this power as set of
instructions to computer, called ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, human can find solution to any
of his problems.

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 In general, computer is a fast electronic device that processes the input data according to
the instructions given by the programmer/user and provides the desired information as an output.
Data is a collection of raw unprocessed facts, figures, and symbols. Information is data that is
organized, meaningful, and useful. To process data into information, a computer uses hardware
and software. Hardware is the electric, electronic, and mechanical equipment that makes up a
computer. Software is the series of instructions that tells the hardware how to perform tasks.
To sum up, computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user
and processes it under the control of set of instructions (called program), gives the result (output),
and saves it for the future use.
1.2 Working Principle of Computer
Computer is an electronic device that accepts the input, process the data and produces the output.

Input: Input is the raw information (Data) entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the
collection of letters, numbers, images etc.
Process: Process is the operation on the data as per the given instruction. It is totally internal
process of the computer system.
Output: Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is also called
as Result. We can save these results in the storage devices for the future use.
In general, any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

Takes data as input.

Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.
Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Generates the output
Controls all the above four steps.

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1.3 Computers Vs. Human beings
Humans have rather poor memory, he needs certain support apart from his abilities and
capacities. Because of poor memory and mental tiredness humans lack in accuracy, speed, and
reliability, that is why, human needs computer as their additional support.

Differences between Human Attitude and computer Attitudes

Human Computer
Can Think Cannot think by itself
Gets Mental Tiredness Never gets Tiredness
May do mistake Can’t do mistake by itself
Has limited speed Very High Speed
Has limited Memory More Amount of memory
Accuracy may be missing Never missing
“Ability of a Human to do anything a computer can do but a computer cannot do everything a
human can do” is a true statement based on the following table.

Operations Performed Corresponding Actions

by a Computer Performed by a Human
Hold instruction in internal storage Remember a set of instructions
Read data in machine readable form Read data in written or printed form
and memorize it or file it.
Perform arithmetic Computations Can perform arithmetic operations
Make comparisons Can make comparisons
Retrieve any data from internal Remember data or retrieve data
memory or secondary storage from file
Output the results on an output device Speak or Write the result on paper

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1.4 Importance of Computer
Computers play a vital role for processing of data in an organization. Computer: help in
processing the volumes of data efficiently and accurately within a short time.
Computers are very important in every aspect of our lives.
Computer usage is growing and bounds in business, industry, government, colleges,
schools and other places.
The offices where we work, the stores in which we shop, the schools we attend, the banks
that handle our money, even the device we use in our homes are being radically altered by
computers.
Computers are now used in all aspects of education, both administration and teaching.
Whether it is for school or home, work or play, computer can save your time and money,
increase your productivity, and process information with speed and accuracy.
A computer has the following characteristics which make it so important for an organization:
1. Fast: A computer is so fast that it can perform the given task (arithmetical or logical) in
few seconds as compared to man who can spend many months for doing the same task. A
computer can process millions of instructions per second.
2. Accurate: While doing calculations, a computer is more accurate than man can make
mistakes in calculations but a computer does not make mistakes, if it is provided accurate
instructions.
3. Diligence: A computer does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and boredom.
Man will be tired and bored while doing millions of calculations but a computer, being a
machine, does this job very efficiently and without any tiredness and boredom.
4. High Memory: A computer has much more memory or storage capacity than human
being. It can store millions of data and instructions, which can be retrieved and recalled
even after a number of years. This is not possible in case of human brain.
5. No Intelligence: A computer is a machine and obviously has no intelligence of its own.
Each and every instruction must be given to the computer for doing a task. Man has an
intelligence and it is the man who invented computer and gives it all the instructions and
logic to work. A computer cannot take decisions on its own and it is the main drawback of
computer.

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1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer

1.5.1 Advantages

Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's arena.

1) High Speed

Computer is a very fast device.

It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even
the picosecond.
It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to
man who will spend many months for doing the same task.

2) Accuracy

In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

The calculations are 100% error free.
Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct
input has been given.

3) Storage Capability

Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
It can store large amount of data.
It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many
others.

4) Diligence

Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and

lack of concentration.
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 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.

5) Versatility

A computer is a very versatile machine.

A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the
very next moment it may be playing a card game.

6) Reliability

A computer is a reliable machine.

Modern electronic components have long lives.
Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

7) Automation
Computer is an automatic machine.
Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.
Once a program is given to computer i.e., stored in computer memory, the
program and instruction can control the program execution without human
interaction.

8) Reduction in Paper Work

The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to

reduction in paper work and results in speeding up a process.
As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the
problem of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.

9) Reduction in Cost

Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it

substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.
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 1.1.5 Disadvantages

Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of computers in today's arena

1) No Intelligence Quotient( I.Q )

A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

Each instruction has to be given to computer.
A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

2) Dependency

It functions as per a user’s instruction, so it is fully dependent on human

being.

3) Environment

The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable.

4) No Feeling

Computers have no feelings or emotions.

It cannot make judgement based on feeling, taste, experience, and
knowledge unlike a human being.

1.6 What Computers can do for us?

Accounting:
 General Ledger preparation
 Payroll preparation
 Accounts payable, invoicing.

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 General Shops:
 Small calculations like Billing
 Stock maintenance
Airlines and Railways:
 Time Keeping
 Reservation of Tickets
Hospital:
 To store patient information
 To store doctors information
 Medicine information
Colleges and Universities:
 Students Details Maintenance
 Staff Details Maintenance
 Students Attendance Calculation
Education:
 Learning through games
 Educational tutorials
Etc.

1.7 History of Computers

1. The earliest mechanical computing device was the Abacus, named after the Chinese
scientist Abacus, during 1200 A.D.

2. Later during 1614 a Scottish nobleman John Napier developed a tool called Napier’s Bones
as an aid for multiplication.

3. By 1642, the French philosopher and mathematician, Blaise Pascal developed a rotating
wheel calculator, the predecessor of the later desk calculator.

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 4. During the period 1792 – 1871, a British mathematician and engineer, who is considered
to be the Father of today’s computer – Charles Babbage built a working model of a machine
– the Difference Engine. Later the design of the Difference Engine was developed as
Analytical Engine.

5. During 1880s, a statistician Herman Hollerith designed and developed Hollerith machine
for processing the census data. The Hollerith machines used punched cards for data
processing.

6. The first Electronic Calculator was developed by John Vincent Atanasoff in the late 1930s
and along with Clifford Berry a prototype of the Atanasoff-Berry computer was
constructed during 1939.

7. A fully electronic computer, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator)
was built during 1943 to 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania.

8. In 1953, IBM announced a medium sized computer, IBM650.

9. In the Middle of 1960s, the Digital Equipment Corporation released its first PDP-1
computer.

1.8 Generations and Classification of Computers

1.8.1 Generations of Computers
People have been processing data and information in some form since prehistoric times.
However, it was the development of the computer that revolutionized information processing. The
first large scale electronic computer the grand parent of today’s hand held machines, was the
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer/Calculator (ENIAC), which became operational in
1946. ENIAC contained approximately 18000 light bulb size electronic vacuum tubes, weighed
30 tons and occupied about 1500 square feet of floor space. From the start, computers have been
developed through four so called generations or stages, each characterized by smaller size, more
powerful and less expensive than its predecessor.

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FIRST GENERATION (1944 – 1958)
Computers of this generation were manufactured using vacuum tubes. These computers
were highly unreliable as the vacuum tubes failed very frequently. Punched cards were used for
input and output. These computers were very huge in size, produced enormous amount of heat,
very slow and very, very expensive. ENIAC and UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer)
were the examples of first generation computer. ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes for producing
the results.

SECOND GENERATION (1959 – 1963)

By the early 1960s, transistors were developed and used in manufacturing computers.
Transistor is an electronic switching device that alternatively allows or does not allow electronic
signals to pass and it was comparatively smaller than vacuum tube. Transistors consumed less
power and produced less heat when compared to the vacuum tubes. This second generation
computer tended to be smaller in size, more reliable, and considerably faster than first generation
of computers. Magnetic cores and disk packs were introduced as storage devices. Programming
languages like BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, etc. were used.

THIRD GENERATION (1964 – 1970)

During this period, the Integrated Chips very popularly known as ICs, started replacing the
usage of individual transistors in manufacturing computers. I` ntegrated Circuit is a
complete circuit packed with hundreds of transistors and other electronic components on a small
silicon chip. The size of the computers still got reduced with improved reliability and speed when
compared to the previous generation of computers. The usage of RA`M (Random Access
Memory) and magnetic disks as the storage media became wide spread.

FOURTH GENERATION (1971 – Now)

Due to the technological development the Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and Very Large
Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits were developed which contained thousands to millions of
transistors on a tiny chip. In 1971, Intel developed the microprocessor, which contained the entire
CPU (the Control Unit, Memory Unit, and ALU) on a single chip, leading to the process of

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miniaturization – the development of sq maller and smaller computers. As a result, the computers
main memory capacity increased, the cost got decreased and speed also increased, which directly
affected the types and usefulness of software that could be used.

Software applications like Word Processing, Electronic Spreadsheets, Database Management

Programs, Painting and Drawing programs, and so forth became commercially available giving
more people reasons to use a computer.

FIFTH GENERATION
The fifth generation computers are under development. These computers function with the
Artificial Intelligence provided to it. Due to the artificial intelligence the computer will have the
ability to learn by itself, can reason and make decision with the knowledge it posses.

1.8.2. Classification of Computers

Computers have come long way since the first operational computer in 1940s. Divisions
among the types are increasing as technology improves. Let us classify the computers into two
major categories as given below
I. Based on the application of computers
II. Based on the capacity and size of the microprocessor

I. Classification – Application wise

Based on the application of computers for various purpose the computers can be classified
into three types
(a) Analog computers
(b) Digital computers
(c) Hybrid computers

a) Analog Computers
Computers that use analog signals for calculating and transmitting data are called Analog
computers. It can be defined as “A device that operates on data in the form of continuously varying
physical quantities”. The values of the analog signals are continuously changing with states in

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between high and low. Analog data is calculated using the concept of “measuring values” like
magnitude in terms of voltage, length, current. The analog data is transmitted in a continuous form
that closely resembles the information it represents. Electrical signals on a telephone line are
nothing but analog data representing the original voice. SLIDE RULER is an example of analog
computers.

b) Digital Computers
The computers that use digital signals to calculate and transmit data are called Digital
Computers. The word digital is derived from the word “digit”. The word digit simply means
numeral. The digital signal has only two states in which it can be represented. They are ON and
OFF or HIGH and LOW or 1 and 0. Digital data is calculated using the concept of “counting
values”. The result obtained from the digital computer is more accurate when compared to the
analog computers. These computers manipulate digital data and perform arithmetic and logical
operations. To facilitate the performance of digital computers intermediate languages such as
BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, PASCAL, C, C++, JAVA etc., has been developed.

Digital Computers are classified as

 General purpose computers
 A general purpose computer is one that has the ability to store different programs
of instructions
 Performs a variety of operations
 It is designed to do a wide variety of jobs rather than perform a specific activity.
 It is also called personal computers (PC’s)

 Special purpose computers

 Designed to perform one specific task
 Instructions is built into, or permanently stored in the machine
 Specialization results in the given task being performed very quickly and efficiently
 It is inflexible and cannot be easily used to perform other operations.
 Past, it was expensive.

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  Now-a-days, for example, new cars have such devices installed to monitor and
control fuel, ignition and other system.

c) Hybrid Computers
Computer systems that use both analog and digital mechanisms are called Hybrid
Computers. Desirable features of analog and digital computers are combined to develop a hybrid
computer. In a hospital, the intensive care unit, an analog device measures a patient’s heart
function, temperature and other vital signs, these measurements are then converted into numbers
and supplied to a digital component that monitors the patient’s vital signs and signals to a nurse’s
station.

II. Classification – Capacity and size of Microprocessor

Computers are also classified into different types mainly based on processing and storage
capacity. A Computer that is capable and used for general purpose business applications like
billing, accounting, maintaining stock information ,……. cannot be used for very advanced
applications like forecasting and analysis of weather phenomena, oil exploration, aircraft design
etc. And those computers used for the latter purpose mentioned above are not necessary to be used
for the former purpose, for the reason, they are highly advanced and very expensive.
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

Sr.No. Type Specifications

PC (PersonalIt is a single user computer system having moderately
1
Computer) powerful microprocessor
2 WorkStation It is also a single user computer system which is similar to
personal computer but have more powerful
microprocessor. It is a multi-user computer system
which is capable of
3 Mini Computer Supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.
It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of
4 Main Frame supporting hundreds of users simultaneously. Software
technology is different from minicomputer.

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 It is an extremely fast computer which can execute
hundreds of
5 Supercomputer millions of instructions per second
a) Microcomputers(PC) – are the smallest category of computer and also called as Personal
Computers (PCs). These computers that can either fit next to a desk (called the Desktop)
or can be carried around (called the Laptop and Notebook). Microcomputers use
microprocessor as its important device. Microprocessor is a chip used to perform
arithmetic and logical operations. These computers can be used either as a standalone
machine or connected to a network. Microcomputers are used for general purpose business
applications such as invoicing, accounting etc.

Figure 1:Personal Computer

b) Minicomputers are bigger in size, faster in speed, have more memory capacity and
expensive when compared to the microcomputers. Minicomputers can be used for general
purpose applications and as a server for small networks. These computers are relatively
small but expensive computer with somewhat limited input and output capabilities.
Minicomputers use large hard-disk units as online secondary storage.
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users
simultaneously.

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Figure 2:Mini Computer
c) Mainframe computers are more powerful in processing, faster in speed, have large
memory, and very expensive when compared to the micro and mini computers. The word
mainframe refers to mean the “Central Processor”. Their size varies depending on how
many concurrent users they are serving – from a few hundreds to thousands when used in
networks and has the capacity to support many powerful peripheral devices. Mainframe
computers are used by multinational companies or by companies have many branches all
over the country like banks, airlines, insurance, etc.
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting
hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many
programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous execution of programs

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Figure 3: Mainframe Computer

d) Super computers are the largest, fastest, most expensive and very powerful computers
available when compared to the types of computers discussed earlier. They occupy
specially designed air-conditioned rooms and are often used for research and to process
complex scientific applications like weather forecasting, oil exploration, aircraft design,
mathematical research etc. Unlike microcomputers, which generally have only one CPU,
super computers have hundreds of processors. CRAY-I is an example of super computer.
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are
very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research,
electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

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Figure 4: Super Computer
1.9 Data Processing
Definition1: Data Processing can be defined as ‘one or more operations performed on data to
achieve a desired objective is called as Data Processing’
 Is the activity of converting raw facts [ data ] into information.
 Therefore, Information is data that have been processed using the data processing
functions.
 Difference between DP and IP IS ‘In data processing the various functions apply to raw
data, But, in information processing the same functions apply to information ‘
That is,
 Data to one person, may be information to another person, once the data have been
processed even a little, they become information.
 Therefore, finally we can say, Data Processing is the activity converting raw facts into
information. Information is the result of processing data so that they become useful.

Functions Of Data Processing

 Data Collecting
Data Recording
Sorting
 Classifying

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  Calculating
 Storing and Retrieving
 Summarizing
 Communicating
Processing Methods
Information system uses two Processing Techniques
 Batch Processing
 Real Time Processing

Batch processing:
 Where data to be processed is accumulated over a period of time. The accumulated batch
of transaction is processed periodically.
 Otherwise, Gathers transactions and saves them for processing all at once.
 Very efficient but always delay in Processing.

Online Processing [ Also \Online Real-Time Processing ]

 Each transaction is processed as soon as it is received. There is no waiting to accumulate.
Such as, a computerized Reservation system where an immediate responsible is useful.
 Otherwise, by contrast, Process transaction as they occur, Ex: Air Line reservation system

Time Sharing
 Is the concurrent use of a single computer system by many users, each of which has an I/O
device and can access the same computer at the same time.
 The computer gives each user a small, but frequently repeated, since of the time, so that
each user gets almost immediate response.
 Therefore, if a computer is shared by many unscheduled users simultaneously it is called
TIME SHARING

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CHAPTER TWO: COMPUTER SYSTEM

2.1 What is a system?

Recall from your previous studies that you know systems like Digestive system, Circulatory
system and so on. What similarity can you understand from these systems? For example digestive
system is composed of a group of components like mouth, stomach, intestine and so on. You can
also see that the output of one of the components will become the input of the other component.
For example in digestive system, mouth partly digests, lubricates and pushes the food to the
stomach as input. The stomach then performs digestion and sends its output to the intestine which
in turn does the same. From this you can understand that the components work together in
coordination in such a way that the input of one component is the output of the other until a
common goal is achieved. For example: in digestive system, the common goal is digestion of food.
Likewise, a computer system is also composed of physical components (hardware) and non-
physical component (software) that work together in coordination to achieve a common goal (data
processing). The common goal of computer system (i.e., data processing has been discussed in
chapter one) and some of computer system components will be discussed in this chapter hereafter.
In general, a system is a group of components that work together in coordination to achieve a
common goal.

2.2 Components of Computer System

Computer system is a system that has two fundamental components: Hardware component and
Software component. The primary purpose of computer systems in most businesses today is to
transform data into information that can be used by people to make decisions, sell products, and
perform a variety of other activities. Data can be considered the raw material - whether in paper,
electronic, or other form - that is processed by the computer. In other words, data consists of the
raw facts and figures that are processed into information. Information is summarized data or
otherwise manipulated (processed) data. For example, the raw data of employees' is hours worked
and wage rates are processed by a computer into the information of paychecks and payrolls.

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Actually, in ordinary usage, the words data and information are often used synonymously. After
all, one person's information may be another person's data. The "information" of paychecks and
payrolls may become "data" that goes into someone's yearly financial projections or tax returns.

Hardware is the physical component of the computer system that we can see, touch and sense. It
includes devices the computer system use to interact with the external world, to process the data it
has received, to store the data it has received and processed. Software, on the other hand, is the set
of instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task. Without software, the hardware is
useless. Hardware and Software are analogous to Flesh and Soul of human beings respectively.

2.3 Hardware Component

2.3.1 Input devices
The function of input devices is to accept data and convert it into a form suitable for computer
processing. In other words, input hardware allows people to put data into the computer in a form
that the computer can use. It may include: keyboard, mouse, scanner and so on.

2.3.1.1 Keyboard

A computer keyboard is a peripheral modeled after the typewriter keyboard. Keyboards are
designed for the input of text and characters and also to control the operation of a computer.

Physically, computer keyboards are an arrangement of rectangular or near-rectangular buttons, or

"keys". Keyboards typically have characters engraved or printed on the keys; in most cases, each
press of a key corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires
pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence; other keys do not produce any
symbol, but instead affect the operation of the computer or the keyboard itself. Roughly 50% of
all keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters). Other keys can produce actions
when pressed, and other actions are available by the simultaneous pressing of more than one action
key.

The keys on the keyboard are grouped according to their functions as follows:

 Alphanumeric keys

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The group of keys that comprises the alphabets, punctuation marks, and digits. These keys are used
to enter text, digit, and punctuation marks.

 Function keys

The group of keys found at the top of keyboard labeled from F1 to F12. These keys execute
different commands based on the applications that are running.

 Numeric keypad

Found at the right most of the keyboard, is the numeric keypad. These keys work with the special
key called NumLock – located at the left-top corner of the numeric keypad. when NumLock is on,
the numeric keypad is used to enter digits and arithmetic operators. However, when NumLock is
off, the numeric keypad is used as cursor movement keys.

 Cursor movement keys

Cursor movement keys: The Cursor, also called the insertion point, is the symbol on the display
screen that shows where data may be entered next. The cursor movement keys, or arrow keys, are
used to move the cursor around the text on the screen. These keys move the cursor left, right, up
or down. The keys labeled Page Up and Page Down move the cursor, the equivalent of one page,
up or down on the screen. Similarly, the keys labeled Home and End move the cursor to the
beginning and end of the same line respectively.

 Editing keys

Editing keys are the keys which are used to make our text stylish. They change what has been
entered. Editing keys include: Spacebar, Enter (Return), Delete, Backspace, etc.

 Special keys

Special keys are keys that are used to execute some commands. They also work in combination
with other keys to execute commands. These keys include: Shift, Alt, Ctrl etc.

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 2.3.1.2 Mouse

A mouse is a device that is rolled about on a desktop to direct a pointer on the computer’s display
screen. The pointer is a symbol, usually an arrow that is used to select items from lists (menus) on
the screen or to position the cursor. The cursor, also called an insertion point, is the symbol on the
screen that shows where data may be entered next, such as text in a document.

Mouse consists of:

o Primary button (Left button)
o Secondary button (Right Button)
The following operations can be performed using the mouse.
o Selection (Single click)
o Giving Commands (Double click)
o Dragging Objects (By pressing mouse button and moving
the mouse)
o Dropping Objects (By releasing mouse button)

2.3.1.3 Scanner

Scanners - which are often used in desktop publishing - translate images of text, drawings and
photos into digital form. The images can then be processed by a computer, displayed on a monitor,
inserted in documents, stored on a storage device, or transmitted to another computer. Scanners
are useful for data entry in that they save time wasted for typing and also they avoid errors that
may occur during typing.

2.3.1.4 Joystick
Joystick is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle mounted on a base containing one
or two buttons. The vertical handle of the joystick can be rotated around 360 degrees. As the
handle is rotated the cursor also moves on the screen. Joystick is often used for playing games.

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 2.3.1.5 Microphone
The word "microphone" (Greek mikros "small" and phone "voice" or "sound") originally referred
to a mechanical hearing aid for small sounds. Therefore, microphones have a great role in inputting
sound or voice data into the computer for processing. Without the microphone computers could
not have produced any sound nor could they have been used to manipulate music and sound.

2.3.1.6 Touch screen

Touch screens or touch panels or touch screen panels are display overlays which have the ability
to display and receive information on the same screen. The effect of such overlays allows a display
to be used as an input device, removing the keyboard and/or the mouse as the primary input device
for interacting with the display's content.

Fig. 1 An Example Display in Touch Screen

Touch screens have become commonplace since the invention of the electronic touch interface in
1971 by Dr. Samuel C. Hurst. They have become familiar in retail settings, on point of sale
systems, on ATM (Automated Teller Machines) and on PDA (Personla Digital Assistant) where a
stylus is sometimes used to manipulate the GUI (Graphic User Interface) and to enter data. Touch
screen can also be considered as output device as it displays selectable commands.

2.3.1.7 Touch pad

In Touchpad the cursor is controlled with the fingers. About the same size as a mouse, touchpad
is a flat, rectangular device. As fingers are moved over the surface of the touchpad the cursor

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moves on the screen. The click operation is performed by tapping the fingers on the surface of the
pad.

2.3.1.8 Track ball

Track Ball is another pointing device and a variant of the mouse. It contains a rotating ball on top
of the stationery device. On rotating the ball the cursor moves on the screen. The track ball also
contains two buttons and the operations are as similar for the mouse. It requires less desk space
when compared to the mouse.

2.3.1.9 Light pen

The Light Pen is a light sensitive stylus or pen like device, connected by a wire to the computer.
There is a button in the Light Pen. When the user brings the pen to the desired location in the
screen and presses the button, the computer identifies the command and executes accordingly. It
is mainly used for CAD (Computer Aided Design) applications.

2.3.2 Processing devices

2.3.2.1 CPU

Fig. 2 typical CPU

Abbreviation of central processing unit, and pronounced as separate letters. The CPU is the brains
of the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the processor or central processor, the CPU is
where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important
element of a computer system. Many people wrongly call the system case (chasis) as CPU. But
the chasis is a housing for devices like CPU, RAM, disks, motherboard and expansion cards.

25
On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal computers and
small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single chip called a microprocessor.

CPU has three components, namely:

 The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic (addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division) and logical (comparison,
negation, conjunction, and disjunction) operations.
 The control unit, which extracts instructions from memory and decodes
and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.
 The Memory unit or registers, which store intermediate results of ALU

2.3.3 Storage devices

2.3.3.1 Storage Capacity Measurement

Bit (Binary Digit): A bit of storage is like a light switch; it can be either on (1) or off (0). A single
bit is a one or a zero, a true or a false, a "flag" which is "on" or "off", or in general, the quantity of
information required to distinguish two mutually exclusive states from each other. Gregory
Bateson defined a bit as "a difference that makes a difference".

The bit is the smallest unit of storage used in computing.

Byte: A byte is a contiguous sequence of a fixed number of bits. In recent years, the use of a byte
to mean 8 bits has become nearly ubiquitous.

KB (Kilo byte): A kilo byte is 210 bytes = 210 x 8 bits

MB (Mega byte): A mega byte is 220 bytes = 220 x 8 bits

GB (Giga byte): A giga byte is 230 bytes = 230 x 8 bits

TB (Tera byte): A tera byte is 240 bytes =240 x 8 bits

Example: If a storage device is 23 GB, find the memory capacity in

26
 a. byte
b. bit

Solution:

a)

1 GB = 230byte

23 GB = y

y = 23 GB x 230 byte/1 GB

y = 23x230 byte

b)

1GB = 8 x 230 bit

23 GB = y

y = 23 GB x 8 x 230 bit/1 GB

y = 23 x 8 x 230 bit

2.3.3.2 Primary storage

2.3.3.2.1 Cache memory
Small memories on or close to the CPU chip can be made faster than the much larger RAM (main
memory). Most CPUs since the 1980s have used one or more caches, and modern general-purpose
CPUs inside personal computers may have as many as half a dozen, each specialized to a different
part of the problem of executing programs.

2.3.3.2.2 RAM (Random Access Memory)

Generally, RAM in a computer is considered main memory or primary storage: the working area
used for loading, displaying and manipulating applications and data. This type of RAM is usually

27
in the form of integrated circuits (ICs). These are commonly called memory sticks or RAM sticks
because they are manufactured as small circuit boards with plastic packaging and are about the
size of a few sticks of chewing gum. These days, most personal computers have slots for adding
and replacing memory sticks. RAM is also volatile, losing the stored information in an event of
power loss, and quite expensive.

Fig. 3 Typical RAM stick

2.3.3.2.3 ROM (Read-only Memory)

Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage media used in computers and other electronic
devices. Because it cannot (easily) be written to, its main uses lie in the distribution of firmware
(software that is very closely related to hardware and not likely to need frequent upgrading).

Modern semiconductor ROMs typically take the shape of IC packages, i.e. "computer chips", not
immediately distinguishable from other chips like RAM but for the text printed on the chips.
"ROM" in its strictest sense can only be read from, but all ROMs allow data to be written into
them at least once, either during initial manufacturing or during a step called "programming".
Some ROMs can be erased and re-programmed multiple times, although they are still referred to
as "read only" because the reprogramming process involves relatively infrequent, complete erasure
and reprogramming

Types of ROM

Classic mask-programmed ROM chips are written to during production and cannot change content
afterwards. But there are other types of non-volatile solid-state memory:

 PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory) can be written to (programmed) via a special

device, a PROM programmer. The writing often takes the form of permanently destroying

28
 or creating internal links (fuses or anti fuses) with the result that a PROM can only be
programmed once.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) can be erased by exposure to
ultraviolet light then rewritten via an EPROM programmer. Repeated exposure to
ultraviolet light will eventually destroy the EPROM but it generally takes many (greater
than 1000) exposures before the EPROM becomes unusable. EPROM can be easily
identified by the circular 'window' in the top which allows the UV light to enter. Once
programmed, this window is typically covered by a label to prevent accidental erasure.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) allow the entire
ROM (or selected banks of the ROM) to be electrically erased (flashed back to zero) then
written to without taking them out of the computer (camera, MP3 player, etc.). Flashing is
much slower (in milliseconds) than writing to RAM (in nanoseconds) (or reading from any
ROM).

2.3.3.3 Secondary storage

In computer storage, secondary storage, or external memory, is computer memory that is not
directly accessible to the central processing unit of a computer, requiring the use of computer's
input/output channels. Secondary storage is used to store data that is not in active use. Secondary
storage is usually slower than primary storage, or internal memory, but also almost always has
higher storage capacity and is non-volatile, which makes it perfect for the preservation of stored
information in an event of power loss.

 Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a non-volatile storage medium consisting of a magnetic coating on a thin plastic
strip. Nearly all recording tape is of this type, whether used for video, audio storage or general
purpose digital data storage using a computer. It has large storage capacity but it is slow to access
because it is sequentially accessed.

 Magnetic disk
o Floppy Disk

29
A floppy disk is a data storage device that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible ("floppy")
magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic shell. Floppy disks are read
and written by a floppy disk drive. Floppy disk is cheap, and portable, but it has small storage
capacity (1.44 MB) and is unreliable.

o Hard disk
A hard disk drive (HDD, also commonly shortened to hard drive and formerly known as a fixed
disk) is a digitally encoded non-volatile storage device which stores data on rapidly rotating
platters with magnetic surfaces. Strictly speaking, "drive" refers to an entire unit containing
multiple platters, a read/write head assembly, driver electronics, and motor while "hard disk"
(sometimes "platter") refers to the storage medium itself.
Hard disks were originally developed for use with computers. In the 21st century, applications for
hard disks have expanded beyond computers to include video recorders, audio players, digital
organizers, and digital cameras. In 2005 the first cellular telephones to include hard disks were
introduced by Samsung and Nokia.
 Optical disk
o CD-R
A CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable) is a variation of the Compact Disc invented by Philips and
Sony. CD-R is a write once, read-only optical magnetic media commonly known as optical disc
(though the whole disk does not have to be written in the same session) and retains a high level of
compatibility with standard CD readers (unlike CD-RW which can be rewritten but has much
lower compatibility and the discs are considerably more expensive).

o CD-RW (Compact Disc ReWritable)

CD-RW is a rewritable optical disc format. Known as CD-Erasable (CD-E) during its
development, CD-RW was introduced in 1997.

o DVD(Digital Versatile Disc)

DVD (sometimes called "Digital Versatile Disc", or "Digital Video Disc") is an optical disc
storage media format that can be used for data storage, including movies with high video and sound

30
quality. DVDs resemble compact discs as their physical dimensions are the same but they are
encoded in a different format and at a much higher density.

 Flash Memory
USB flash drives -thumb drives, handy drives-, which are used for general storage and transfer of
data between computers. It has also gained some popularity in the gaming market these days. Flash
memory is highly portable and it can store much data but it is expensive.

2.3.4 Output devices

2.3.4.1 Display devices – softcopy output
CRT: Abbreviation of cathode-ray tube, the technology used in most televisions and computer
display screens. A CRT works by moving an electron beam back and forth across the back of the
screen. Each time the beam makes a pass across the screen, it lights up phosphor dots on the inside
of the glass tube, thereby illuminating the active portions of the screen. By drawing many such
lines from the top to the bottom of the screen, it creates an entire screenful of images. It is large in
size and requires a lot of space. Moreover, it consumes much power. But it produces a sharp output.

LCD: Short for liquid crystal display, a type of display used in digital watches and many portable
computers. LCD displays utilize two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution
between them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that
light cannot pass through them. Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing light to
pass through or blocking the light.

2.3.4.2 Printer – hardcopy output

Printer is a device that prints text or illustrations on paper. There are many different types of
printers. In terms of the technology they utilize, printers fall into the following categories:
Daisy-wheel: Similar to a ball-head typewriter, this type of printer has a plastic or metal wheel
on which the shape of each character stands out in relief. A hammer presses the wheel against a
ribbon, which in turn makes an ink stain in the shape of the character on the paper. Daisy-wheel
printers produce letter-quality print but cannot print graphics.

31
 Dot-matrix: Creates characters by striking pins against an ink ribbon. Each pin makes a dot, and
combinations of dots form characters and illustrations.

 Ink-jet: Sprays ink at a sheet of paper. Ink-jet printers produce high-quality text and graphics.

 Laser: Uses the same technology as copy machines. Laser printers produce very high quality
text and graphics.
 LCD & LED: Similar to a laser printer, but uses liquid crystals or light-emitting diodes rather
than a laser to produce an image on the drum.

 Line printer: Contains a chain of characters or pins that print an entire line at one time. Line
printers are very fast, but produce low-quality print.

 Thermal printer: An inexpensive printer that works by pushing heated pins against heat-
sensitive paper. Thermal printers are widely used in calculators and fax machines.

2.3.4.3 Plotter – hardcopy output

A Plotter is also a printer that produces hard copy output. Plotters produce high
quality color graphics output by using pens for creating images. Plotters help to
draw maps from stored data. Plotters are ideal for Engineering, Drafting and
many other applications that require intricate graphics.

2.3.4.4 Speaker – voice output

Speaker is an electro-acoustic transducer that converts electrical signals into
sounds loud enough to be heard at a distance. It is used in computer system to
produce sound or voice output. The sound is input from external world into
computer system via microphone and is output to external world via speaker.

2.3.4.5 Robot – physical output

Robot is the most intriguing output device. Robotic device consists of arms that
can perform a preprogrammed task. Robots are mostly used in manufacturing

32
 tasks such as spray painting or assembling parts. Advanced robots are used in
scientific research such as space and undersea exploration.

2.4 Software Component

Computer software is a set of step-by-step instructions given to the computer in the form of
programs or procedures or routines in order to accomplish any specified task or to process the raw
data and convert it into meaningful information. In short the software is the intelligence of the
computer. Software is “Soft” because you can’t touch the instructions, the way you touch the
computer equipment – the “hard” ware.
If software is stored on non-volatile storage such as integrated circuits, it is usually referred to as
firmware.

2.4.1 System software

System software is a generic term referring to any computer software that is an
essential part of the computer system. An operating system is an obvious example,
while device driver and language software are less obvious examples.

2.4.1.1 Operating system

An operating system (OS) is a computer program that manages the hardware and software
resources of a computer. At the foundation of all system software, the OS performs basic tasks
such as controlling and allocating memory, prioritizing system requests, controlling input and
output devices, facilitating networking, and managing files. It also may provide a graphical user
interface for higher level functions. The operating system is considered as the boss of the whole
system.
Basic functions of operating system are:

o input /output management

Controls spooling and buffering, multitasking and overlapping, time sharing
and network.

o memory management

33
 Control the allocation of RAM for various purposes like background and
foreground program execution priorities and virtual memory system.

o file management
Under which files are stored on secondary storage devices, where can be copied,
sorted, displayed and removed among other functions.

o job control (process scheduling)

Which include executing programs on demand from the user using utilities and
other programs, and developing batch programs of command statement for
automatic execution for the OS function.

2.4.1.2 Device driver

Computers and their operating systems cannot be expected to know how to control every device,
both now and in the future. To solve this problem, operating systems essentially dictate how every
type of device should be controlled. The function of the device driver is then to translate these OS
mandated function calls into device specific calls. In theory a new device, which is controlled in a
new manner, should function correctly if a suitable driver is available. This new driver will ensure
that the device appears to operate as usual from the operating systems' point of view.

In short, device driver is a type of system software that introduces a new device to the operating
system and facilitates the communication between the operating system and the device.

2.4.1.3 Language software

 Languages
Languages are used for writing instructions or software. Basically,
computer languages range from very complicated to human but clear to
computers to very easy for human but un-understandable by computers.
The following are some of the examples.
o Machine Language

34
 Machine language is the only language the computer directly understands. It is in the form of
strings of binary numbers. A machine language instruction has at least two parts:
o opcode – function code which specifies the function performed and
o operand address – which specifies location of data and other instructions
Though it is the only language the computer understands, machine language is not only tedious
but also difficult to debug and maintain for human beings.

o Assembly Languages
Assembly language is easier to use than machine language. It is done by representing some of
the most commonly used instruction codes with some symbols. But it needs special translating
program. It is machine dependent.

o High Level Languages

High level languages resemble some human languages such as English and are easier for
human programmers to write. It allows users to write in a familiar notation, rather than numbers
or abbreviations. It includes application and system development languages, report generators,
or AI system development languages. Most of high level languages are machine independent.
e.g. FORTRAN, BASIC, Pascal, C, C++, Java …

 Language translators
Depending on the language, the translator for high level languages is either a compiler or an
interpreter. However, code written using assembly language is translated to machine language
by a program called assembler. Compiler and interpreter are discussed as follows:
Compiler – execute later: a compiler is a language translator that converts the entire program
of a high level language into machine language before the computer executes the program. The
programming instructions of a high level language are called source code. The compiler
translates it into machine language, which in this case is called the object code. The object
code can be saved. Thus, it can be executed later (as many times as desired).
Examples of high level languages using compiler are: FORTRAN, Pascal, C, C++, and Java.
Interpreter – execute immediately: an interpreter is a language translator that converts each
high level language into machine language and executes immediately, statement by statement.

35
No object code is saved, as with compiler. Therefore, interpreted code generally runs more
slowly than compiled code. However, code can be tested line by line
Examples of high level languages using interpreter are BASIC, and Visual Basic

2.4.1.4 Utility software

Utility Programs are generally used to support, enhance or expand existing
programs in a computer system. Examples of utility programs are
 Backup – to duplicate the data or information for safety.
 Data Recovery – to restore data that is physically damaged or
corrupted.
 Virus Protection – Antivirus software which will eliminate viruses
from affected files or protect files from being infected from viruses.
 Data Compression – used to compress huge files and save memory
storage.

2.4.2 Application software

Unlike system software, application software, consists of are programs that help the
end-user to perform specific, productive tasks, such as word processing or image
manipulation. Basically, there are four categories of application software.
 Productivity Software: The purpose of this software is to make the
users more productive at performing general tasks. For example,
word processing, spread sheets, presentation, database managers,
accounting etc.
 Home / Personal software: The purpose of this software is mainly
for domestic and personal use. For example, cook books, medical
guide, gardening, etc.
 Education / Reference software: The purpose of this software is
mainly to learn any subject or to refer for additional information.
For example: Encyclopedia, Dictionaries, Computer Based Tutorials (CBT), etc.
 Entertainment software: The purpose of this software is for
entertainment and time passing. For example games.

36
 Chapter Three
Number System
The decimal number system with which everyone is familiar uses the number 10 as its base or
radix and has 10 symbols or digits 0-9. For example, a decimal number X is written as
an an-1… a1 a0.a-1a-2… a-m, where a’s are one of 10 possible digits.
The standard form (general form) and usual interpretation of this number is:

10n… 101 100. 10-110-2... 10-m

An… a1 a0 . a-1 a-2 … a-m

Therefore, the general form of the given number is:

X= an x 10n + … + a1x101+a0x100 + a-1 x 10-1 + … + a-m x 10-m

n

= ∑ ai x 10i
i= -m

Example:
The general form of the decimal number 852.37 is equal to
8x102 +5 x101+ 2x100 +3x10-1 + 7x10-2
Likewise, substituting any base in place of 10 will give the general form of a number to that
radix or base.
In general, the standard form of a number (anan-1an-2…a1a0)m where n, n-1, n-2, …1 and 0 is the
position or weight of the digits an, an-1, an-2, … a1, and a0 respectively and m is the base of the
number is equal to:
an x mn + an-1 x mn-1 + an-2 x mn-2 + … + a2 x m2 +a1 x m1+a0 x m0
Example
(3462)8=3x83 + 4x82 + 6x81 + 2x80
In computer science, there are four commonly used bases - namely: base 2, base 8, base 10 and
base 16. And the number systems in these bases are binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal
respectively. The following table summarizes these bases, their respective number systems and the
possible digits (symbols) for each base.

37
 Base Number System Possible Symbols(digits)
2 Binary 0 and 1
8 Octal 0-7
10 Decimal 0-9
16 Hexadecimal 0-9 and A-F
Summary of Number systems

Note that: base n number system has n possible digits and the digits are 0 to n-1

Decimal Binary Octal Hexa-decimal

0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
Equivalence of the number systems

38
 Conversion from One Base to Another

A. Conversion of any-base Number to a Decimal Number

A number that is represented in any base can be converted to decimal using the following steps:
Step 1. Represent the given number in its general form
Step 2. Using decimal arithmetic simplify the general form

Example: convert the following numbers to decimal

a) (101.1)2

Solution
(101.1)2 = 1x22 + 0x21 +1x20+1x2-1
= 1x4 + 0x2 + 1x1 + 1x ½
= 4 + 0 + 1 + 0.5
= 5.5
b) (101011)2
Solution
(101011)2=> 1 x 20 = 1
1 x 21 = 2
0 x 22 = 0
1 x 23 = 8
0 x 24 = 0
1 x 25 = 32
(43)10
c) (724)8
Solution
(724)8 => 4 x 80 = 4
2 x 81 = 16
7 x 82 = 448
(468)10

39
 d) (ABC)16
Solution
(ABC)16 => C x 160 = 12 x 1 = 12
B x 161 = 11 x 16 = 176
A x 162 = 10 x 256 = 2560
(2748)10

Note: A number expressible with finite number of digits in one base may not
necessarily transform into a finite number of digits in another bases

B. Conversion from Base 10 to Another Bases

A decimal number might have two parts: integral (left of the point) and fractional (to the right
of the point) parts. Converting these two parts from base 10 to any other base involves the
following steps:

Step 1. Converting the integral part of the decimal into integral part in the desired base
Step 2. Convert the fractional part of the decimal to a fractional number part in the desired
base
Step 3. The number in the desired base consists of the integer obtained in step 1 followed by
a base point (dot) and then followed by the fractional number part obtained in step 2

Step 1 Explained:
To convert a decimal integer to a base B integer number
1. Divide the given integer by the base B
2. Repeat step 1 until a 0 quotient is obtained, using at each stage the quotient from the
previous stages as dividend and the base B as divisor.
The successive remainders (starting from the least significant end) are the successive digits of
the number in base B

40
Example: Convert
a) 125 to binary
Solution

(125)10 = 2 125
2 62 1
2 31 0
2 15 1
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 1

(125)10 = (1111101)2
b) 1234 to Octal
Solution

(1234)10 =

8 1234
8 154 2
8 19 2
8 2 3
0 2

1234 = (2322)8

c) 1234 to hexadecimal
Solution

41
 (1234)10 =

16 1234
16 77 2
16 4 13 = D
0 4

1234 = (4D2)16

Binary- to-Octal
Group the binary digits in triplets (three bits) starting at the binary point to the right and to the
left and convert each of these to its octal equivalent
o you can add 0’s on the right for fractional part and left for the integral part, if
necessary, to form a complete triplet
Example: Convert the following binary numbers to octal
a) (1011010111)2
Solution

(1011010111)2 = 1 011 010 111

1 3 2 7
(1011010111)2 = (1327)8

b) (110 011.010 110)2 = (63.26)8

Octal-to-Binary
Write the binary triplets for each octal digits

42
 Example: Convert the following octal numbers to binary

a)(705)8 =
7 0 5

111 000 101

(705)8 = (111000101)2

b) (63.26)8 = (110 011.010 110)2

c) (65.61)8 = (110 101.110 001)2
Binary-to-Hexadecimal
Group the binary digits in quadriplets (four bits) starting at the binary point to the right and to
the left and convert each of these quadriplets to its hexadecimal equivalent
o you can add 0’s on the right for fractional number or left for integral number, if
necessary, to form a complete quadriplets
Example: convert the following binary number to hexadecimal

a)(1010111011)2 = 10 1011 1011

2 B B
(1010111011)2 = (2BB)16
b) (11 0011.0101 10)2 = (33.58)16
c) (11 1100 1011.1001 1)2 = (3CB.98)16
Hexadecimal-to-Binary
Write the binary quadruplet for each hexadecimal digits
Example: convert the following hexadecimal numbers to binary

43
 a)(10AF)16 1 0 A F
=

0001 0000 1010 1111

(10AF)16 = (0001000010101111)2

b) (33.58)16 = (0011 0011.0101 1000)2

c) (4E93)16 = (0100 1110 1001 0011)2
Octal-to-Hexadecimal
This is equivalent to converting octal-to-binary and then to-hexadecimal
Example: convert (1076)8 to hexadecimal

1 0 7 6

001 000 111 110

2 3 E
10768 = 23E16

Hexadecimal-to-Octal
This is equivalent to converting hexadecimal-to-binary and then to-octal
Example: convert (1F0C) 16 to octal

Solution

44
 (1F0C) 16 =

1 F 0 C

0001 1111 0000 1100

1 7 4 1 4

(1F0C)16 = (17414)8

Miscellaneous Examples:

1. Find the value of y if (123y)16= (11074)8

Solution
1x163 + 2x162 + 3x161 +yx160 = 1x84 + 1x83 +0x82 +7x81 +4x80
 1x4096 + 2x256 + 3x16 + yx1 = 4668
 4096 + 512 + 48 +y = 4668
 4656 + y = 4668
 y = 4668 – 4656
 y =12
 y=C

2. Find the value of y if (1110)3=(124)y

Solution
1x33 + 1x32 + 1x31 + 0x30 = 1xy2 + 2xy1 + 4xy0
 1x27 + 1x9 +1x3 + 0x1 = y2 + 2y + 4
 27 + 9 + 3 + 0 = y2 + 2y + 4
 y2 + 2y + 4-39 = 0
 y2 + 2y - 35 = 0

45
  (y – 5) (y + 7) = 0
 y = 5 or y = -7
Therefore, since the base cannot be negative, the answer is y = 5

Exercise: For the following exercises, convert from the given base to the required base.

No. Question Answer

1. 192 to base 2 (11000000)2
2. 192 to base 8 (300)8
3. 192 to base 16 (C0)16
4. (1110.11)2 to decimal 14.75
5. (100010101110.11011101)2 to octal (4256.672)8
6. (100010101110.11011101)2 to hexadecimal (8AE.DD)16
7. (ABEBE)16 to decimal 704190
8. (ABEBE)16 to binary (10101011111010111110)2
9. (ABEBE)16 to octal (2537276)8
10. ( 256)2 to octal Not Applicable
11. (256.75)10 to binary (100001001.011)2
12. (256.75)10 to hexadecimal (109.6)16
13. (29y)16 = 672 y=F

46
CHAPTER – 4
NETWORK AND INTERNET

4.1 NETWORK – AN INTRODUCTION

A Network is a system of interconnected computers that can communicate with one
another. Networks allow users to share peripheral devices (peripheral devices are nothing but
input – output devices connected to the computer), program and data. A Network need not be only
of interconnected computers but, even interconnected telephone or any communication device that
can communicate to each other and share the existing resources.

Many computer Networks are served by a host computer (or simply host) called Server. A
“Server” is a computer shared by several users in a network. A “Node” is a device that is attached
to a network. A node may be a microcomputer through which a user can communicate with the
server and share the resources. A node may also be resources like storage device or any peripheral
device.

There are also computer networks connected as Peer – to – Peer. The word Peer denotes
- one who is equal in standing with another. This type of Network does not have any computer as
Server or Node. Microcomputers in a peer-to-peer network, communicated directly with one
another without relying on a server.

4.1.1. Advantages of Networks

a) Sharing of peripheral devices: Laser Printers, Hard disk drives and Scanners are examples of
peripheral devices. All these devices cannot be connected to each and every computer as they are
very expensive. Hence, these devices can be shared by many users through a network.

b) Sharing of Programs and data: In many organizations, people use almost the same software
and access the same data. If these software and data were made available for individual users
separately, then it is wastage of memory. Hence, by sharing the software and data the usage of
memory can be minimized, thereby minimizing the expense.

47
c) Better Communication: In the digital world, information can be transferred within fraction of
a second over long distances. And one of the greatest features of networks is Electronic Mail (E-
Mail) system. Thus, a company can eliminate the delays encountered with standard postal services
or with telephone tag, by using E-Mail services.

d) Security of information: Before networks became a common place, an individual employee

was storing information in his or her desktop computer which was not secured. But today, such
data or information could be backed-up or duplicated on a network storage device, shared by
others.

4.1.2. Types of Network

Based on the size, the Networks are classified into three types:

(a) Local Area Networks (LAN)

(b) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
(c) Wide Area Network (WAN)

a) Local Area Network very popularly called as LAN and is a privately owned network that
serves users within a single building as an office, or a group of buildings close together as a college
campus. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics
i. Size
ii. Transmission technology
iii. Topology.

b) Metropolitan Area Network, very popularly called as MAN is a communication network

covering a large geographic area when compared to LAN, like a city or suburb. A MAN can
support both data and voice, and might even be related to the local cable television network.
Cellular phone systems are also those systems that come under this type of Network. A MAN is
basically bigger version of a LAN covering a group of nearby corporate offices in a city and might
be either private or public.

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c) Wide Area Network, very popularly called as WAN is communication Network spanning a
huge geographical area like a state, country or a continent. It contains a collection of machines
intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. The Internet links together hundreds of
computer WANs.

4.1.3. Network Topology

Networks can be laid out in different ways. The Physical layout or shape of a Network is
called Topology. The different network topologies are

(a) Star topology

(b) Bus topology
(c) Ring topology

a) A Star topology is one in which all microcomputers and other communication devices (nodes)
are connected to a central hub, such as a Server or a Host computer via cables. This creates a fault
tolerant system, that is able to survive if one or two of the workstations develops a bad link. But
just like any system, a topology is only as strong as its weakest link. If the central hub or server
malfunctions, the entire network fails. The advantage of a star topology is that, if a connection
fails, the rest of the devices on the network will continue to operate. The disadvantage of a star
topology is that the information is centralized.

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 Computer

Computer Computer

Server

Computer Computer

Printer

b) The Bus topology is the simplest of the network configurations. The development of computer
system architecture, give rise to the concept of a bus, or highway approach to information transfer.
It requires less cable than any other topology. In Bus topology all microcomputers and devices
are connected through a common channel using co-axial cables. This layout forces every signal
to be equally available to every device; thus, high traffic use will cause the network to slow. In
this topology, if any connection to the node fails the entire network fails.

Computer Computer

Printer
Computer

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c) A Ring topology is the one in which all microcomputers and other communication devices are
connected in a continuous loop. Electronic messages are passed around the ring in one direction,
with each node serving as the repeater, until they reach the right destination. Since, all messages
are flowing in only one direction; failure of a single node can compromise the entire network.

Computer

Computer Computer

Computer Computer

4.2. INTERNET
Internet or simply “the Net” is an international network connecting more than 140,000
smaller networks in more than 170 countries. These networks are formed by educational,
commercial, nonprofit, government and military organization. On a given day 163 million
computers in 200 countries get connected to the Internet.

4.2.1. What is Internet?

The term InterNet has been coined from two terms, Interconnection and Network.
A Network is simply a group of computers that are connected together for sharing
information and resources. Several such networks have been joined together across the globe to
form what is called as the Internet? Thus, Internet is nothing but a Network of networks.
There is no single, generally agreed-upon answer to the question because the Internet is
different for each of us:

 It is a set of computers talking over fiber optics, phone lines, satellite links, and other media.

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  It is a place where you can talk to your friends and family around the world.
 It is a place to get cool game demos.
 It is an ocean of resources waiting to be mined.
 It is a place to do research for your thesis or a business presentation.
 It is unlimited commercial opportunity.
 It is a worldwide support group for any problem or need.
 It is a gold mine of professionals in all fields sharing information about their work.
 It is hundreds of libraries and archives that are open to your fingertips.
 It is the ultimate time-waster.
 It is the technology of the future that will help make our lives, and those of our children,
brighter.
4.2.2. History of Internet
 In 1969, the U.S. Defense department built the Internet under the name ARPAnet (ARPA
– Advanced Research Project Agency) to serve two purposes.
 The first was to share research among military, industry and university sources.
 The second was to provide a system for establishing communication among
military units in the event of a nuclear attack.

 Soon after, other private networks came up following the design of ARPAnet.
 In 1998 the NSF (National Science Foundation) created NSFnet a network with FIVE super
computers as a help to establish effective communication amongst universities.
 Although the Internet was originally meant for research purposes, it has now changed
drastically and is mainly used for commercial purposes.
 Although there are organizations that help to manage different parts of the network, but
there is no single body that owns the Internet.

4.2.3. Who Owns Internet?

No single entity owns the Internet. Any single person, service, corporation, university, or
government does not fund it. Every person who makes a connection, every group who’s Local
Area Network (LAN) becomes connected, owns a slice of the Internet. Because we have grown

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used to the model of centralized, cooperative utilities, such as the phone companies and the electric
companies, we can comfortably compare the Internet to a utility.

The owner of the connected equipment therefore “owns” a piece of the Internet. The
telephone companies “own” the pieces that carry the packets (blocks of information). The service
providers “own” the packet routing equipment. So, while no one person or entity owns the
Internet, all who use it or supply materials for it play a part in its existence.

4.2.4. Protocols
Protocols are the rules that the networks all use to understand each other. The various
protocols are sets of technical specifications that let computers exchange information, no matter
what kind of computers they are, or what kind of technology hooks them together. Ventures of
software and hardware want their products to be useful on the Internet, and so they make sure
those products understand the Internet protocols and operate with in them. The term
interoperability has been coined to describe the ability of disparate type of hardware and software
to work together under a common set of rules. Interoperability is a hot market commodity today,
and so you’ll see the term in the advertising and product reviews for all kinds of computer products.
These connected networks usually use the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) communications suite. TCP/IP and the various protocols that are used on the Internet
are important underlying concepts for the Net.
4.2.4. Applications of Internet
As rightly mentioned earlier the Internet was originally meant for research purposes, and
now it has drastically changed for commercial purposes. Due to this drastical change the
applications of Internet are increasing day by day. Following are the few applications of Internet.

a) Accessing and obtaining Information.

The faster growing part of the Internet is the World Wide Web (WWW). The World Wide
Web or simply the Web consists of an interconnected system of sites called Websites. To access
a website, web browser software like Microsoft’s Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator has to
be used. It is very difficult to conceive how much information is available on the web. Any
information can be obtained from the web, say for example, about travel agent, financial

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investment groups, restaurant guides, mail-order shopping sites,……… etc. Online versions of
newspapers and magazines are also available. How to search and find such information?

By using Web search engines information of interest can be obtained. Search engines are
nothing but tools to search and find information from the web. These search engines are software
called “Spiders” to crawl around the Web for searching information. Examples of some popular
search engines are
 Alta vista
 Info seek
 Yahoo
 Google

b) Communication
The World Wide Web is getting all the headlines, but for many people the main attraction
of Internet is the Electronic Main or E-Mail – the fastest way of sending messages from one user
to another. It hardly takes few fractions of a second to transfer a message. There are several
websites offering this service. For example,
yahoo.com
hotmail.com
rediffmail.com
freemail.com

c) Marketing and Business on the Web

Many people are now putting their business online. To do this, one needs to develop a
website with online order forms. This concept is developing very fast day by day. Of course, it
costs money to make more money.

4.3. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS FOR NETWORKS

In most (Wide Area) Networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components:
 Transmission lines

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  Routing Elements

Transmission lines (also called circuits, channels, or trunks) move bits between machines.

The (Routing Elements) Switching Elements are specialized computers used to connect two or
more transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose
an outgoing line to forward them on. Unfortunately, there is no interchangeable, especially when
discussing hardware on a client/server network. You may notice that the term client can also refer
to software or applications.

Network medium
Network medium is the general term used to describe all of the cabling and other materials that
can be used to connect a network. The most common network medium is cabling. Dozens of
cable types are available, but only four are in widespread use:
 Coaxial Cables
 Fiber-Optic
 STP (Shielded Twisted-Pair)
 UTP (Unshielded Twisted-Pair)
But networks are not limited to physical cabling; many wireless media are used as well. These
include Infrared and Laser devices, radio and cellular connections, microwave antennas, and
digital satellites. These media may increase the range of a network, and are often much more
expensive than their physical counterparts, and are susceptible to more types of interference.

Network Interface Card (NIC)

 A NIC is the expansion card that is added to a computer to enable it to communicate on a
network. The NIC translates the signals from the network into a form the computer can
understand and vice versa for outgoing data.
 The NIC connects a computer with the network medium. A NIC can be a standard
expansion card, a PCMCIA card, or even an external device connected through a
communications port (such as a serial or parallel port).

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  NIC usually have a memory buffer where information is temporarily stored and is
transmitted to or from the network. This buffer enables the NIC to handle information
bursting and chunking without bogging down the attached computer.

Modem
Modems are the devices used to communicate data over telephone lines. Modems get their name
from their function, Modulation-Demodulation. This function is the translation of digital computer
data into a signal that can be transmitted over a phone line and vice versa. Similar to a NIC,
modems enable computers to communicate over the connection medium of the telephone system.
Networks can be created using modems instead of NICs, but, more often, they are used to provide
temporary connections for remote users.
Hubs
Hubs are also called as concentrators. They are network devices that are used to connect multiple
network connections into more manageable configurations. The benefits of hub include the
following:
 Simplification of cabling
 Increased reliability
 Trouble shooting is simplified for communication problems.

Server
Nodes
Hub

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Hubs can either be simply cable connecting devices or intelligent hubs. Intelligent hubs can
perform additional tasks, such a fault tolerance, remote management, and re-broadcasting. The
term repeater refers to an intelligent hub that can re-send or repeat garbled data.

Bridges, Routers, and Gateways

Bridges, routers, and gateways are devices that enable one network to communicate or connect
with another network. These specialized devices are required to link networks that use different
connection media, NOS, or platforms. They are also used to link networks located at different
locations, whether in the same building, city, country, or planet.

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Chapter – 5
Information and Society

We live in an information society where knowledge workers channel [focus] their energies to
provide a cornucopia of computer based information service. The knowledge worker’s job function
revolves around the use, manipulation, and dissemination of information. In an information
society, the focus of commerce becomes the generation and distribution of information. A
technology revolution is changing our way of life; the way we live, work, and play. The
cornerstone of this revolution, the computer, is transforming the way we communicate, do
business, and learn and an explosion of computing advances is speeding this change.

5.1 Virtual Society

The ability of each party in the information society during a transaction to ascertain the identity of
the other party - in the non-electronic world, we use our signature. If bank, by e-mail system avoid
the need for signatures on checks they insure for their customers by using proper authentication
that their transaction will be protected. In private networks the source of the request for payment
can be recorded and proved. There are 3 ways a computer system can verify whether the user have
authorized right of access. System try to authenticate user’s identify by determining
 What you have?
 What you know?
 What you are?
Authentication mechanism are used to satisfy the user that entities – people, data, applications or
computers – are actually what they claim to be. One of the most commonly used mechanism for
authenticating people has been the password. Passwords are expected to be known only by the
owner. However, passwords can be guesses or learnt by intruders through interception of
communications networks or re-use of encrypted passwords. Re-use of passwords can be
prevented by time stamping or by using passwords only once. Another mechanism is the challenge-
response system in which the host throws a random ‘challenge’ to the entity being authenticated,
which in turn has to send an appropriate ‘response’ for validation at the distanced computer.

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Smart cards are similar to credit cards except that they have chips embedded in them. These cards
can be used to store value and carry authentication information. Other technologies that are being
used to provide authentication services include recognition of fingerprints, voice and handwriting,
retinal scan and resultant measurements of the signing event such as typing rhythm and pressure
exerted during input. Digital signature is also a very popular method for providing authentication
based on two-key cryptosystems.

VIRTUAL IDENTITY
Identification theft: stealing your good name – TOI – Theft of Identity – is a crime in which
thieves hijack your Name and identity and use your good credit rating to get cash or to buy
things. To do these, what they need is – full name and social security number. With the help
of these two information, add PIN number, employer driving license number, mother’s maiden
name, and so on, they are off to the races, gambling, applying credit facility every where often
– however, thieves simply mail order what ever they want. They have
 No face-to-face contact
 No weapons
 No finger prints

HOW DOES IDENTITY THEFT START?

Wallet Theft
 Earlier money now PIN/SSN only that they want and rest, they will make. Not to put
your ATM – PIN No., SSN, other Password on a slip of paper
Mail Theft
 Thieves – wants. Mailbox as a fair game, Yield them bank statements new bank check
books, tax forms, and other personal information.
Mining the Trash
 Throwing credit card offers portions of bills with details
 Old bank books cancelled, some thieves – target – trash cans – garbage box.
 Tear up – any discarded mail
 Waste for you may be useful for others
Telephone Solicitation

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  Prospective thieves – call up and ask your bank – credit card Company, government
agency – attempt to collect data about you.
 You cross check and be safe

VIRTUAL STORE FRONT

Internet facilities like e-commerce, is creating new channels for marketing, sales and customer
support by eliminating middleman in buying and selling transactions. There are many different
business models for e-commerce on the internet including virtual store front. Virtual store
front – sells physical goods or services on-line instead of through a physical storefront or retail
outlet.

VIRTUAL UNIVERSITY
Distance learning is the use of computer and/or video networks to teach courses to students outside
the conventional classroom. Until recently, distance learning has been largely outside the
mainstream of campus life. That is, it concentrates principally on part time students, those who
cannot easily travel to campus, those interested in noncredit classes, or those seeking special
courses in business or engineering. However, part timers presently make up about 45% of all
college enrolments. This says very clearly “anytime, anywhere education holds special appeal.”

VIRTUAL SUPER MARKET

Virtual super market is sure to change the way we shop. This interactive online approach helps
take the hassle and the mystery out of grocery shopping. We can view items by category [snack
foods], by item [cookies], or by brand. We can even pursue the items on sale. We can request that
items be arranged alphabetically by brand, by price per unit, by package size, or we can even
request a listing by nutritional value.

In the minds of the busy people who shop online, the cost of the e-service is easily offset by other
savings [better prices, less spent on travel and so on]. These savings do not consider the extra
personal time shoppers recover by shopping online.

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VIRTUAL OFFICE
Now big foreign companies are eliminating office and allowing employees to work from any
location they choose. Employees are supposed to work in virtual offices in any place, car, train,
plane, or home where their work can be done. Virtual offices are possible because of cellular
telephones, fax machines, portable computers, and other mobile computing and communication
devices. Virtual offices help
1. To reduce office space
2. answer from home
3. Eliminate office infrastructure and cost
4. Eliminate real estate costs
5. Eliminate unwanted traveling time to office
6. etc.

Virtual office employees have more flexibility and control over their own time. But, is the
virtual office a better way of working? What is its impact on individual?
1. Identity
2. Worker’s job satisfaction
3. and where is their corporate community

Some employees fear the virtual office will lead to downsizing, part time work and eventually
the loss of their jobs.
1. Other respond to the loss of daily social contacts
2. Loss of morality and integrity due to their virtual
3. Less the interaction with their colleagues, superiors and other co-workers

Organizations use networks for linking people, ideas to create and distribute products and
services, not being limited by traditional organizational boundaries or physical locations.

5.2 Issues and Ethics in IT

Issues in IT can be classified into four categories
1. Security issue

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Security issues go right to the basic workability of computer and communications system in
the information society. Some threats to IT environments are
 Errors and accidents
 Natural and other hazards
 Crime against computers and communications
 Crime using computers and communications
 Worms and viruses
 Computer criminals

2. Quality of Life issue

Quality of life issues related to IT are
 Environment problems
o Pollution
o Radiation
 Mental Health problems
o Isolation
o Gambling
o Net addiction
o Stress
 Work place problems
o Misuse of technology
o Information overload

3. Economical Issue
May people worry that the effects of IT are reducing jobs, they also worry that it is
widening the gap between the haves and have-nots.
It will give the opportunity to worry about
 Technology the job killer or job creator
 Gap between rich and poor

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 If your job is replaced by computer that means human is not fittest for that job, it is not
worthy for human that is what the interpretation should be, not in the other way.

4. Privacy issue
Privacy is the right of people not to reveal information about them.
New communication and information technologies have enabled many organizations and
people to collect, organize, and sell information about other people and organizations, both
quickly and cheaply. The easy availability of personal information makes banking,
education, health care, and sales much more convenient for both consumers and sellers.
Credit card and automated teller machine (ATM) systems would be impossible without
large databases of information available on demand. Scanners in the supermarket rapidly
and accurately record every item that passes over them, making grocery checkouts faster
and error free. Companies maintain huge mailing lists of customers that record not only
their names, addresses, and phone numbers, but also major recent purchases, credit ratings,
and demographic information (such as sex, age, income, and educational level) that helps
the companies identify target markets for specific products.

The negative side to all this shared information is that there is little control over who sees
or uses this personal information. Medical records are shared not only by doctors’ offices
and by hospitals but are regularly made available to insurance companies as well. Auto
insurance companies obtain information about traffic violations from state and local police
departments. Credit report errors occur often and can be very damaging to a person's
financial situation. Many Americans worry that having so much of their personal
information available to so many others may hurt their privacy.

Privacy refers to how personal information is collected, used, and protected. The privacy
issue has not arisen because of computers; at one time, the taking of photographs caused
serious concern about invasion of personal privacy. In IT need of privacy is amplified
because of its enormous capabilities.
Because if a person gives an information for school admission.
 Where then information now?
 Who has control of it?

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 Who has access to it and for what purpose?
 Is there a chance the data are being used in ways the student did not intend or have not
authorized?
 Who knows about that student’s personal history because they have access to data that
student has provided?
Since privacy applies to IT, privacy refers to how personal information is collected, used,
and protected. However, the enormous capabilities of IT to store and retrieve data have
amplified the need for the protection of personal privacy. Earlier privacy protection was
only the consumer issue. Now it is to the whole society.

Privacy Legislation: To protect individual privacy, national legislatures and parliaments

of some countries have passed several important pieces of legislation. Some of the privacy
legislation, that US is following are
1. Fair credit reporting Act
2. Freedom of information Act
3. Privacy Act
4. Electronics Communications Privacy Act
US government also released a publication titled “A code of Fair Information Practices” as
a set of rules for protecting personal privacy within government agencies which became
guide for all other countries.

Important guidelines contained in the code state that

1. There must be no personal data record keeping system whose very existence is a secret
2. There must be a way for people to access the information about them in record and find
out how that information is used.
3. There must be a way for people to prevent information about themselves obtained for
one purpose from being used or made available for other purposes without their
consent.
4. There must be a way for people to correct or amend a record of information about them.

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 5. Any organization creating maintaining, using, or disseminating record of identifiable
personal data must ensure their reliability and must take reasonable precautions to
prevent misuse of the data.

ETHICS - Can be defined as a branch of philosophy dealings with the determination of what is
right or wrong, good or bad. Simply if we define” ethics are moral standards that help to guide,
behavior, actions, and choices. Ethics are grounded in the notion of responsibility and
accountability.

The standard of conduct and moral behavior that people are expected to follow. Personal ethics
pertain to an individual’s day-to-day activities; societal ethics pertain to the actions of people in
their various social activities including the way in which they deal with colleagues, customers, and
anyone else society with whom the society interacts.

The difference between ethical behavior and legal behavior is important. Ethics are the actions
expected of people. In contrast, laws deal with required actions. An action may be legal but not
ethical, or ethical but not legal. Business societies are challenged by many questions of ethics
surrounding the widespread use of information technology. Not limited to IT professionals, these
issues involve anyone in the business society who provides data to or uses information from the
business society systems. Therefore, IT users must count on a company’s ethical policies for
protection of private information.

ETHICS IN AN INFORMATION SOCIETY

Ethical choices are decisions made by individual who are responsible for the consequence of their
actions. Basic concepts of ethics are
 Responsibility
Accepting the potential costs, duties and obligations for the decisions one makes
 Accountability
The mechanisms for assessing responsibility for decisions made and actions taken
 Liability

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 The existence of laws that permit individuals to recover the damages done to them by
other actors, systems, or organizations
 Due process
A process in which laws are well known and understood and there is an ability to appeal to
higher authorities to ensure that laws are applied correctly.

5.3 Computer Crimes

The term computer crime includes any unauthorized use of a computer system – including software
piracy – or theft of system resources for personal use – including computer processing time and
network access time. Actions intended to alter data and programs or to damage or destroy data,
software, or equipment is also crimes. Most common types of computer crimes are
DATA DIDLING Changing data and information before they enter a system
DATA LEAKAGE Erasing or removing data and files from a system without
indicating that they were removed or leaving any trace, they ever
existed.
LOGIC BOMB A program designed to execute when certain conditions occur.
Designed to sabotage system data, programs or processing [refer
time bomb]
PIGGY BACKING Gaining access to a system or process by using the passwords or
access codes of an authorized system user. Alternatively, taking
over a terminal or worker station in use by an authorized user,
perhaps while he or she has stepped away from the system shortly.
SALAMI DATA Developing or modifying software to capture small amounts
SLICING [slices] of money in a transaction and redirecting them to a hidden
account. The amounts are so small they go unnoticed. However,
accumulate to substantial amounts in large volume transaction
processing systems.
SCAVENGING Searching trashcans, either figuratively through a computer
system icon or literally in a computer center, to find discarded

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 data and information program details. Used to obtain confidential
information or to learn the structure of a program
TIME BOMB A program designed to execute on a specific date and time. The
program monitors the computer’s internal clock or calendar.
When the preset date arrives, the program comes to life causing
its damage.
TRAPDOOR An illicit and unknown point of entry into a program or network
that can be used to gain access to the system
TROJAN HORSE A program that appears to do one thing, but actually does
something very different. Named after Trojan horse of ancient
Greek lore because the program masquerades as a harmless
application and then does its damage after it is loaded onto a disk
or into computer memory.
WIRETAPPING Using any device to capture data transmission electronically or to
listen in on network conversations, especially those transmitted
using wireless methods or over copper cables.
ZAPPING Damaging or erasing data and information or programs. Usually
possible because the criminal is able to bypass security systems.

All these crimes are committed through intrusion, forced and unauthorized entry into the system.
Computer crime through intrusion can occur by following ways.
1. Hackers
2. Crackers
3. Viruses

Hackers
A hacker is a person who gains access to a system illegally. Hackers usually gain access to a
system through a network, but sometimes they will physically enter a computer or network facility.

Skilled technicians also called themselves, which does not mean their ability to break into
computers and networks, but rather to their technical skill for computer programming and making

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a system perform in innovative and productive ways. Hackers who break into systems also have
good technical skills, but have chosen to apply them in undesirable [often-illegal] ways. The
increased frequency of hacking, coupled with the newness of the problem as an issue of law, has
led many governments to publish legislation in place to deal with this form of computer crime.
 INDIA passed a bill “the information technology act 1998”
 US congress passed the “Computer Fraud and Abuse Act in 1984”

Protection against intrusion by hackers

There is always the possibility that the individual responsible for a computer crime are disgruntled
former employees. Hence good security means looking inside company as well as outside
company.

Preventing unauthorized access to a system entails having good physical security. Hiring honest,
reliable people is an obvious starting point.
Techniques helpful in deterring intrusion by hackers
1. Change access passwords frequently
2. Allow workers access to only the system functions they need to use
3. Permit workers to access only the data that they need to use
4. Establish physical security systems
5. Separate critical processing functions so that more than one person must be involved
6. Encrypt data by scrambling or coding information.
7. Adopt procedural controls
8. Keep staff well informed through education programs
9. Audit system activities
10. Keep a log of all transactions and user activities

Some expert security organizations use additional methods to supplement these techniques. When
caller dial into the system, they provide the telephone numbers from which they are calling. The
system may also sense the calling number automatically. The user then hangs up and the system,
after verifying that the telephone number is valid and authorized to call. Then it calls back the user.
This is called call back security adds another layer of protection to the above techniques.

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Despite these precautionary measures, some hackers do manage to break into even the best-
guarded systems. When a kicker has penetrated a system, it is important to determine whether any
damage or theft has occurred and to know that there is a trapdoor – that is an undetectable way of
entering the system bypassing the security system.
Crackers
Crackers also gain unauthorized access to information technology but do so for malicious
purposes. Crackers attempt to break into computers and deliberately obtain information for
financial gain, shut down hardware, pirate software, destroy.

5.4 Computer Viruses and Worms

VIRUS: A hidden program that alters, without the user’s knowledge the way a computer operates
or modifies the data and program stored on the computer.

Computer intrusion occurs by way of software in the name of virus. The virus is written by
individual’s intent on causing damage or wreaking havoc in a system. It is called virus because it
reproduces itself, passing from computer to computer when disks are shuttled from one computer
to another. A virus can also enter a computer when a file to which it has attached itself is
downloaded from a remote computer over a communications network an infected disk or diskette
will continue to spread the virus each time it is used

Each virus has its own characteristics – its own signature. Some destroy irreplaceable data by
writing gibberish over the disk they infect. Others take control of the operating system and stop it
from functioning. Still others embed commands into the operating system, causing it to display
messages on the computer screen. The worst forms of virus are much more subtle, moving through
data and changing small amounts of detail in selected files, so unnoticeable they are difficult to
detect.

WORMS: A Worm is a program that copies itself repeatedly into memory or onto a disk drive
until no more space is left.
A virus is a typical program that attaches itself to a computer system and destroys or corrupts data.

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Viruses are passed in three ways
1. By diskette [copying ]
2. By network [data sharing]
3. By internet [ e-mail ]
Some worms erase, destroy, and change the data

Methods of virus detection

All types of computers are vulnerable to viruses. To protect against them, companies must buy and
use virus detection software. There are three methods of virus detection.
 Scanning programs – search the computer and main memory to detect a virus
 Detection Programs – monitor processing activities and signal the user when a virus tries to
infect the system
 Digital signature encryption – uses a mathematical coding scheme designed to foil a virus’s
attempt to attack programs and data. Alternatively, we can say published programs are encoded
with mathematical key, making it difficult for virus to attack data or programs. Also makes
detection of alterations caused by viruses easier.

Names of some viruses are

 Stoned
 Christmas or X-Mas
 Friday the 13th
 Falling letters
 Disk killers
 Mis-Speller
The issues discussed above are real and affecting every individual directly or indirectly. The most
important point to take from these information are simple, with the use of IT comes the need to
1. User should be aware of possible misuse
2. User should be capable to take responsibility for safeguarding the resources under our
control
CHAPTER – 6(LAB PART OR PRACTICAL)
MICROSOFT WORD

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INTRODUCTION
Word Processing software (sometimes just called a word processor) allows you to create,
edit, format, print and save documents like letters, memos, reports, manuals and other text with
much greater ease and efficiency than using a typewriter.
MS Word, a component of MS OFFICE, is such word processing software which includes many
features like

 Creating Headers and Footers

 Tables of Contents and indexes
 Checking Spelling and Grammar
 Inserting Graphics and other objects
 Creating form letters merged with address list
 Editing text like Copy, Cut, Paste and move
 Search, Find and Replace text for editing
 Formatting a document from a gallery of formats
 Automatic correction of Spelling mistakes while typing
 Preview a document before printing
 Etc.

Starting MS Word
Step 1: Click the Start button.
Step 2: Select All Programs option in the Start menu
Step 3: Select and Click Microsoft Word
As soon as the MS Word is launched the screen that appears consists of the following elements:

Elements Description
Application Title Bar Displays the name of the application and the Minimize,
Maximize/Restore and Close buttons. If the document window
is maximized, the name of the document also is displayed in the
application title bar.

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 Main Menu Bar Contains menu options. To use the menu, click an option to
display a drop-down menu and then click an option on the drop-
down menu and then click an option on the drop-down menu to
perform a command, view another menu, or view a dialog box.
Standard Tool Bar Contains buttons for accomplishing commands like open a file,
open a new document, save a file, print a file, preview etc.
Formatting Tool Bar Contains buttons and controls for formatting text like selecting a
font, selecting a font size, make a portion of the text as bold,
italic, underline; align the text to left, right or justify, etc.
Ruler Displays the settings for the margins and tabs. The ruler can also
be used to make these settings.
Insertion point Identifies the position with a blinking vertical line where a letter
can be inserted when a key is pressed in the keyboard.
Vertical and Scrolls the screen vertically and Horizontally.
Horizontal Scroll Bars
Status Bar Displays information about the current document, including the
page number and the position of the insertion point.

The Main Menu of MS Word contains the following Menu items

 File
 Edit
 View
 Insert
 Format
 Tools
 Table
 Window
 Help

Now let us start discussing the various options available in the above said menu items.

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How to Create New Microsoft word Document?
Step 1: Start Microsoft Word.
Step 2: Click the File option in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the menu item New.
Step 4: Click the option Blank document.
Step 5: Start typing your document.

How to Save New Microsoft word Document?

Step 1: After typing your document.
Step 2: Click the File option in the main menu.
Step 3: Select the Save Menu item.
Step 4: Enter a name for the file.
Step 5: Click the Save button.

How to Open an existing Microsoft word Document?

Step 1: Click the File option in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the menu item Open.
Step 3: Select the document from the File dialog Box.
Step 4: Click the Open button.

How to Save an existing Microsoft word Document in another Name?

Step 1: Open an existing document.
Step 2: Click the File option in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the Save as Menu item.
Step 4: Enter another name for the document.
Step 5: Click the Save button.

How to Close an Opened Microsoft word Document?

Step 1: Click the File option in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the Close menu item

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How to copy a portion of the document to another place?
Step 1: Select the portion of the text which you want to copy using SHIFT and arrow
keys or using mouse
Step 2: Click the Edit option in the main menu and select the menu item called copy or
press CTRL + C
Step 3: Move the cursor to the location where actually you want to copy.
Step 4: Click the Edit option in the main menu.
Step 5: Select the menu item Paste in the Edit menu or press CTRL + V.

How to move a portion of the document to another place?

Step 1: Select the portion of the text which you want to move using SHIFT and arrow
keys or using mouse
Step 2: Click the Edit option in the main menu and select the menu item called cut or
press CTRL + X.
Step 3: Move the cursor to the location where actually you want to move.
Step 4: Click the Edit option in the main menu.
Step 5: Select the menu item Paste in the Edit menu or press CTRL + V.

How to Select the entire document?

Step 1: To Select the entire document either press CTRL + A or using mouse, drag
down.

How to insert page numbers?

Step 1: Click the Insert option in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Page Numbers…in the Insert menu.

How to insert Date and time?

Step 1: Click the Insert option in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Date and Time…in the Insert menu
Step 3: Select the required date format.
Step 4: Click OK button.

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How to insert Symbols?
Step 1: Click the Insert option in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option symbol…in the Insert menu.
Step 3: Select the symbol to be inserted.
Step 4: Click the Insert Button.
Step 5: Then Click the Close Button.

How to insert picture?

Step 1: Click the Insert option in the main menu.
Step 2: Select the option Picture in the Insert menu.
Step 3: Select the option From File…in the Picture menu.
Step 4: From the Insert Picture window, select the picture to be inserted.

Step 5: Click the Insert button.

How to change the Font type?

Step 1: Select the portion of the text from the typed document.
Step 2: Click the Format option in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the Font…option in the Format menu.
Step 4: Select any one of the Font Name from the list.
Step 5: Click the OK Button.

OR

Step 1: Select the portion of the text from the typed document.
Step 2: Click the Font pull down menu in the format tool bar.
Step 3: Select any one of the Font Name from the list.

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How to change the Font size?
Step 1: Select the portion of the text from the typed document.
Step 2: Click the Format option in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the Font…option in the Format menu.
Step 4: Select the appropriate Font Size.
Step 5: Click the OK Button.

OR

Step 1: Select the portion of the text from the typed document.
Step 2: Click the Font Size pull down menu in the format tool bar.
Step 3: Select the appropriate Font Size.

How to change paragraph alignment?

Step 1: Select the portion of the text from the typed document.
Step 2: Click the Format option in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the Paragraph…option in the Format menu.
Step 4: Select the Alignment type [Left, Centered, Right, Justified].
Step 5: Click the OK Button.

OR

Step 1: Select the portion of the text from the typed document.
Step 2: Click any one of the Alignment type icon in the format tool bar [Left, Center,
Right, Justify].
How to check the spelling and Grammar?
Step 1: Select the portion of the text from the typed document.
Step 2: Click the Tools option in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the option Spelling and Grammar…in the Tools menu.
Step 4: Select the appropriate suggestion.
Step 5: Click the Change button.

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How to insert a table to your document?
Step 1: Click the Table option in the main menu.

Step 2: Select the option Insert in the Table menu.

Step 3: Click the option Table…
Step 4: Enter the number of rows and columns.
Step 5: Click the OK button.

How to delete a table?

Step 1: Select the entire table to be deleted.
Step 2: Click the Table option in the main menu.
Step 3: Select menu option Delete in the Table menu.
Step 4: Click the option Rows.

How to insert a Row?

Step 1: Select a Row in the table, where another row is to be inserted.
Step 2: Click the Table option in the main menu.
Step 3: Select the option Insert.
Step 4: Click the option Rows Above or Rows Below.
[One row either above or below to the selected row is inserted.]

How to insert a Column?

Step 1: Select a Column in the table, where another column is to be inserted.
Step 2: Click the Table option in the main menu.
Step 3: Select the option Insert.
Step 4: Click the option Columns to the Left or Columns to the Right.
[One column either to the Left or Right to the selected column is inserted.]

How to delete a Row?

Step 1: Select the Row to be deleted in the table.

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Step 2: Click the Table option in the main menu.
Step 3: Select the option Delete.
Step 4: Click the option Rows.

How to delete a Column?

Step 1: Select the Column to be deleted in the table.
Step 2: Click the Table option in the main menu.
Step 3: Select the option Delete.
Step 4: Click the option Columns.
How to sort a Table?
Step 1: Select the portion of the table that is to be sorted.
Step 2: Click the Table option in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the option Sort in the Table menu.
Step 4: Select the Column number using which the table is to be sorted.
Step 5: Select the type of data – whether Text or Number or Date.
Step 6: Select the option Ascending or Descending.
Step 7: Click the OK button.

How to get Microsoft word help?

Step1: Click the Help option in the main menu.

Step2: Click the option Microsoft Word Help in the Help menu.
Step3: Enter the question in the box.
Step4: Click Search Button.

How to Exit from Microsoft Word?

Step 1: Click the File option in the main menu.
Step 2: And click the Exit option in the File menu.

Exercises:
1. Type the text given below using MS Word.

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a) Special Purpose Keyboard contains limited number of keys and they are used for specific
applications.
For Example: 1. Billing Machines
2. ATM in Banks
etc.

b) General Purpose Keyboard is connected to the personal computer and look like a typewriter
keyboard to which some additional keys are added. There are different categories of keys available
in the keyboard.

Standard tying keys are in the same familiar QWERTY arrangement of letter, number and
punctuation keys found on any typewriter. QWERTY refers to the alphabet keys in the top left
row on a standard typewriter keyboard.
The Space Bar, Shift, Tab and Caps Lock keys do the same things on the computer that
they do on a typewriter.
An Exception is the “Enter” (bent left arrow) key. The Enter key, sometimes called as the
“Return” key, is used to accept the commands given into the computer. In addition it is also used
to begin a new paragraph in word processing system.

Cursor movement keys: The Cursor, also called the insertion point, is the symbol on the display
screen that shows where data may be entered next. The cursor movement keys, or arrow keys, are
used to move the cursor around the text on the screen. These keys move the cursor left, right, up
or down.
The keys labeled Page Up and Page Down move the cursor, the equivalent of one page, up
or down on the screen.

Numeric keys: A separate set of keys, 0 through 9 known as the numeric keypad, is laid out like
the keys on a calculator.

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Function keys are the keys labeled with an F and a number, such as F1 and F2. Personal Computers
have normally 12 Function keys.

B. Non-Keyboard Devices – Pointing Devices

Pointing devices are Non-Keyboard devices used to control the position of the cursor on the screen.
Pointing devices include:

(a) Mouse, Track Ball, Joystick and Touchpad

(b) Light Pen and Digitizing Tablet

a) Mouse, Track Ball, Joystick and Touchpad

Mouse is a small, handy pointing device containing two buttons:
 Primary button (Left button)
 Secondary button (Right Button)

Format the typed text by

1. Set the headings as Bold, Italic and Underline with font size of 14.
2. Set the font to Arial Narrow.
3. Justify the body of the text.

2. Create a table with 6 columns and 8 rows. Type the following sample data as given below and
sort them using the Student Id Column.

Student Student Name Date of Permanent Course Name CGPA

Id Birth Address
101 Bailu 12.12.75 Harar Accounting 3.45
272 Bekele 18.06.78 Dire Dawa Accounting 2.56
345 Leywork 15.08.76 Alemaya Accounting 3.15
413 Adem 14.11.75 Addis ababa Accounting 3.78
252 Solomon 17.12.74 Harar Accounting 2.79
612 Gadissa 19.10.73 Dire Dawa Accounting 3.01

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007 Yinebab 08.09.75 Alemaya Accounting 2.10

MS-WORD – MENU WISE EXERCISES

EXERCISE – 1 [ 10 MINUTES]

1. START MS-WORD
2. SELECT BLANK DOCUMENT OPTION
3. TYPE THE FOLLOWING IN DIFFERENT LINES
[ Hint : After typing every line use Enter key to go to next line, if any error on the left side
erase by using Back space key, if any error in the right side of the cursor control use ‘Delete
key’]
a. ATO. ZELALUM
b. FACULTY OF LAW
c. ALEMAYA UNIVERSITY
d. ALEMAYA -ETHIOPIA

4. After typing go to File Menu a Drop down menu will come select ‘Save As’ menu item, type
your name in the Save As dialog box. Press Save Button
5. Go to File Menu again; Select Exit option to come out of Ms-Word.

EXERCISE – 2 [10 MINUTES]

1. START MS-WORD
2. GO TO FILE MENU
3. SELECT OPEN MENU ITEM. - OPEN DIALOG BOX WILL COME
4. CHOOSE THE FILE NAME WHICH YOU SAVED IN EXERCISE 1
a. [ YOUR NAME IS USED AS FILE IN THE PREVIOUS EXERCISE, SO SELECT
YOUR NAME, AND CLICK OPEN BUTTON]
5. NOW SAVE IT IN YOUR FATHER NAME BY USING SAVE AS OPTION IN THE
SAME FILE MENU.

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 a. SELECT FILE MENU
b. CHOOSE SAVE AS OPTION
c. TYPE YOUR FATHER NAME
d. PRESS SAVE BUTTON
e. SEE THE FILE NAME IN THE TITLE BAR WHICH IS IN YOUR FATHER NAME.
6. NOW CLOSE THE FILE BY USING FOLLOWING HINTS
a. GO TO FILE MENU
b. SELECT CLOSE ITEM

EXERCISE – 3 [20 MINUTES]

1. OPEN THE EXISTING FILE WHICH YOU SAVED IN YOUR NAME
a. MARK THE FIRST LINE
i. PLACE THE CURSOR ON THE LEFT SIDE OF THE FIRST LINE – FOR
THAT CLICK ONCE ON THE LEFT MOST SIDE OF THE FIRST LINE.
ii. PRESS THE MOUSE BUTTON MOVE BY HOLDING CALLED- DRAG
ON - TILL THE END OF THE FIRST LINE
iii. RELESE THE MOUSE BUTTON – IT IS HIGHLIGHTED
iv. GO TO FORMAT TOOL BAR
v. CHANGE FONT – SEE THE EFFECT
vi. CHANGE THE FONT SIZE SEE THE EFFECT
vii. TOUCH THE BOLD BUTTON – SEE THE EFFECT
viii. TOUCH AGAIN THE BOLD BUTTON – SEE THE EFFECT
ix. SIMILARLY TOUCH THE ITALIC – BUTTON SEE THE FFECT
x. SIMILALY TOUCH ALL THE FOLLOWING
1. UNDERLINE [ TWO TIMES]
2. LEFT ALIGN
3. RIGHT ALIGN
4. CENTRE ALIGN
5. JUSTIFY
6. NUMBERING
7. BULLETS

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 8. RIGHT INDENT [ THREE TIMES]
9. LEFT INDENT [ THREE TIMES]
xi. RELEASE THE MOUSE BUTTON BY CLICKING IN THE NON
DOCUMENT AREA OF THE DOCUMENT
xii. MARK ALL THE LINE OF THE DOCUMENT AND TRY ALL THE
OPTION FROM iv TO x
xiii. SAVE THE FILE IN YOUR GRAND FATHER NAME

NOTE
After completion of the above three exercise Students should make sure whether they
understood the following:
a. Choosing a blank document [ to prepare new document in Ms-Word]
b. File menu
c. New item of the File Menu to open a blank document
d. Open option, To open an Existing Document
e. Close option to Close the existing file, which we saved already
f. Save option to save the file
g. Save As option to save the current document in a new file name
h. Exit option to get out of the Ms-Word.
i. And complete options of the Format Bar and its features

EXERCISE – 4 [10 MINUTES]- copy and paste

1. Open the File already saved in your name in the previous exercise.
2. Mark your address completely with help of mouse
a. [ To mark you can use mouse – Drag on method
b. [or Press Shift Key in the key board, hold it and use right arrow  or Down arrow key
↓ TO MARK the document ]
3. After Marking all the lines Go to Edit menu
4. Select copy option by clicking once the left mouse button
5. Go to the bottom of the document, click once left mouse button [ to mark the place where we
have to copy]

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 6. Go to edit menu choose paste option once – see the effect
7. Do as many times as you need to learn copy and paste option of the edit menu.
8. Save the file in the name ‘copypaste’ by using save As option.

EXERCISE – 5 [10 MINUTES]- cut and paste

1. Open the File already saved in your name in the previous exercise.
2. Mark your address completely with help of mouse
a. [ To mark you can use mouse – Drag on method
b. [or Press Shift Key in the key board, hold it and use right arrow  or Down arrow key
↓ TO MARK the document ]
3. After Marking all the lines Go to Edit menu
4. Select Cut option by clicking once the left mouse button [document will disappear – wait and
see]
5. Go to the document, click once left mouse button [ to mark the place where we have to cut]
6. Go to edit menu choose paste option once – see the effect
7. Do as many times as you need to learn cut and paste option of the edit menu.
8. Save the file in the name ‘cut&paste’

NOTE
After completion of the above two exercise Students should make sure whether they understood
the following:
a. Purpose of Edit menu
b. How to copy a part or complete document
c. how to paste it in other part of the document
d. how to cut a part or full document and it pasting
e. difference between cut and paste, copy and paste

EXERCISE – 6 [10 MINUTES]- Find and Replace

1. Open the existing document which you saved in your Father’s name
2. Save it by using Save As option –
a. Give file name as – Find and replace

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 3. Go to Edit Menu
a. Select Find option – Find and Replace – Dialog box will appear
b. Type your name in the Find What? box
c. Select Replace option in the same dialog box
d. Type your father name in the Replace With? Box after clicking the mouse once within
that box.
e. Select Replace All Button
f. See the effect
g. Practice the same as many times as possible to understand by providing different
find[s] and replace[s]
h. Save the file in the same file.

NOTE :
After completion of the above exercise Students should make sure whether they understood the
following:
 Purpose of Find and Replace option in Edit menu

EXERCISE – 7 [10 MINUTES]

1. Open a blank document and save it in the name ‘Haramaya Uty’
2. Type the following sentence
a. Haramaya University is the one of the best university in Ethiopia. Earlier it was an
agricultural University, Now it is an university with so many faculties, recently it
starts functioning with Faculty of Law and Faculty of business and Economics also.
3. After typing the above document copy it by using Copy option in Edit menu and Paste it
10 times by clicking mouse 10 times.
4. Use Find and Replace option – change the word ‘Haramaya’ as find option and replace
it by ‘Addis Ababa’ – see the effect after clicking Replace All? Option.
5. Go to insert menu select Page Number and click Ok button see the effect, whether page
number is inserted or not.
6. Place the cursor at the bottom of the document by scrolling the mouse wheel downward.
Click once to place the control at the bottom of the document

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 7. Go to insert menu select Date and Time option and click Ok button see the effect whether
Today’s date is added or not.
8. Save it in the name ‘Addis Ababa Uty’
9. Go to Tools menu select
a. Spelling and Grammar option
b. Use change option as per requirement

NOTE:
After completion of the above exercise Students should make sure whether they understood the
following:
 How to use Copy and Paste option in Edit menu
 Purpose of Find and Replace option in Edit menu
 How to insert a page number in a document
 How to insert a Date and Time in a document

INSERT MENU EXERCISES

Note : After completion of this INSERT MENU EXERCISES students should be able to
understand the following concepts
1. How to insert a page Break and its necessity
2. how insert a page number
3. how to insert a Date and Time in different format
4. How to insert a symbol in a document
5. How to insert a picture in a word document

EXERCISE – 8 [ 20 MINUTES]
1. In the MS-word Open a Word Blank Document and save it in the name
‘INSERTPRACTICE’
2. Type the following message as
In the insert menu exercise I am going to learn how to insert a break, date and time,
page number to a complete document in different places, and symbol insertion, and
finally how to add a picture in a word document also.

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3. After typing, Just drag on the typed message either by using mouse or by operating
multiple key operations,
a. Typed messages will be marked
4. After marking by applying/using Edit menu’s Copy and Paste command, paste it [
utilize icon-paste in the format tool bar through mouse] in the same document, more than
10 to 15 times, so that you will get two to three page document for practicing.[ just matter
of clicking again and again on the paste icon simply]
5. [How to Insert a Page Break] Click on the middle page of the first page and do the
following
a. Select – Insert Menu
b. Select – Break option by clicking
c. Break Dialog Box will appear
d. Select Page Break Radio button by clicking once over it
e. Click Ok Button
f. See the effect bottom of the document is taken to the next page due to break option.
g. Similarly Go to the II page half of the document, click again and try the above
a,b,c,d,e, operations and see the effect of break in Insert menu. So Break will break
the pages into two pages – Try to understand
6. [how to Insert a Page Number] Click On Insert Menu and select Page number option
a. Page number dialog box will appear
i. Select the appropriate position and
ii. Select the appropriate alignment
iii. Click on Show page number on first page
iv. Click on OK button also

7. See the effect of the Page number according to your selection of position and alignment in
your multi Page document. And also try by ticking and un-ticking Show Page number
first page option in both the way [with tick or without tick] understand the effect.

8. [How to Insert Date and Time] Go to the bottom of the document through mouse
a. Go to Insert menu and click

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 b. Select Date and Time option
i. Date and Time Selection list will come
c. Choose the appropriate format of the date from the choice list
d. Click on Ok button
e. Find the date format which you have chosen
f. Try again at the top of the page again and try to understand how to insert date in
document in a different place as per requirement.

9. [How to insert a Symbol in a Document ] Go to the bottom of the document

a. Go to insert menu and click
b. Select Symbol Option
i. Symbol dialog box will appear
ii. Choose symbols title once
iii. Place the mouse on the required symbols and click once over them
iv. Click on insert button to insert the symbol in the appropriate place
v. Do the same 9th step two to three times to insert different symbols

10. [How to insert a Picture in a Ms-Word document ] Go to the bottom of the document
a. Go to Insert Menu and click
b. Select Picture option of the menu
i. Another sub menu will come
c. Select From File option
i. Lot of picture collection will come
d. Select any one of the picture by clicking over it.
i. See the effect picture is inserted.
ii. You can resize it by pushing or pulling in the corner.
e. Practice two to three time for picture insertion from a file.

11. [How to insert a Diagram in a Ms-Word Document ] Go to the bottom of the document
a. Go to Insert Menu and click
b. Select Diagram option of the menu

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 i. Diagram gallery Sub menu will come
c. Select diagram among them by clicking once over them
d. Click Ok Button

EXERCISE FOR FORMAT MENU

EXERCISE - 9
1. Open a new word document and save it in the name as ‘Practice1’ by using Save As option
a. type the following in small letters
this is alemya university alemaya university, addis ababa university, bahirdar
university, jimma university

2. Mark the typed document

3. Drag on by using mouse or by holding shift button, move arrow keys
a. typed information will be marked
4. Click on Format menu
5. Select Border and Shading option
a. Border and Shading Dialog Box will open
6. Click on Box option
7. Click on Ok button - see the effect on the screen
a. Border to your matter is given
8. Again drag the same matter
a. Matter is marked
9. Go To Format Menu select Change Case option
a. Change case button box will appear with following option
i. Sentence case
ii. Lower case
iii. Upper case
iv. Toggle case
v. Title Case
10. select any one of the radio button and click on oK button
a. See the effect on marked document

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11. select one by one and see the effect of the case changes
a. try to practice by selecting all option one by one and try to understand the
differences [ not to waste the time]
12. mark the whole document by using Drag method
a. the whole document is marked
13. Press ‘Del’ key once – document will be deleted [Don’t worry]
a. Now your document disappears, you got a blank document.
14. In the same document move the mouse on the bottom of the document and type the
following text, out of the border [don’t waste time, do it as fast as possible]
a. ‘Now I am going to practice how to make two column document as in the printed
text books
15. mark the above two sentences only by using mouse drag,
16. By using Edit menu’s Copy and paste method, copy it 10 times
a. now you got one full page document [ to save time, and practice more]
17. Now mark the whole document by using dragging method [ make sure marked ]
18. Select Format Menu, Click on Column Option
a. Column Dialog Box will appear
19. Select the ‘Two’ column option and Click Ok Button
a. See the effect now you got two column document like a text book
b. Try to practice other options such as
i. Two, three, left, right,
c. See the effect and understand how to create two column text.
20. Again mark the whole document by dragging
a. Whole document is marked
21. Select Format Menu, Click on Back Ground option
a. Back Ground Dialog box will appear with a lot of color options
b. Select a suitable color for documents back ground and click over it
i. Now see the effect your document got a background color
c. Check which back ground will be good for document
i. Don’t waste time – [just for practice, go to next work]

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Note
1. Under stand the purpose of Format Menu
2. Understand the border and shading option to provide a box border to a document or a
portion of a document.
3. Identify the options to make two column, three column, text as text books
4. Change Case option to change upper case to lower case, or other cases
5. Back Ground option to provide color back ground to a complete document
6. if not able to follow do the same exercise again and again to understand, without wasting
time.
7. Also how to delete a document by using ‘Del’ Key after marking.

TABLE MENU : EXERCISE: 10

Exercise for Table menu
1. Open a blank document
2. Save it in the name of ‘Practice2’
3. Select the Table menu
4. Choose Insert Option
5. Choose Table Sub menu Option
a. Insert table dialog box will appear
b. Select Number of column as ‘2’ [by increasing/decreasing thru mouse]
c. Select number of Rows as ‘4’ [by increasing or decreasing thru mouse]
d. Select the Auto fit Behaviour as Auto fit Content click once
e. Select Ok Button – see the effect in your blank document.
i. Effect will be a table with two column and four rows
f. Type the following
COURSES HOURS
COMPUTER 40
LAW 25
ENGLISH 25
6. Mark the top row of the Table and Select Bold from the Format menu
7. Mark all the numbers and select right alignment, centre alignment, left alignment

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 a. see the effect of how to align the table contents
8. Save it as in the name ‘My first table’

MICROSOFT EXCEL

INTRODUCTION
MS Excel – a component in MS Office is a tool used for organizing, calculating analyzing
and displaying numerical data. MS Excel is Electronic Spreadsheet software. Work area in MS
Excel is known as a Worksheet. An Excel Worksheet has 256 columns and 65536 rows, for a
whopping total of 16,777,216 cells. Each column is named and identified by alphabets. Each row
is named and identified by numbers. Each cell is identified by its corresponding column and row
number. An Excel worksheet is actually a page in a Workbook file. By default a new workbook
file has three worksheets, but additional worksheets can be added if needed.

IMPORTANCE OF MS EXCEL
MS Excel can be used for record checking account transactions, plan a budget, prepare a
bid, control inventory, track sales or create an expense report. MS Excel is software that
bookkeepers and accountants use.

More than storing numbers or data, MS Excel can be used to perform calculations,
recalculate formulas when numbers are changed, analyze data, and create charts and maps from
the data that is entered. Many of the text features available in the word processing program are
also available in MS Excel. For example checking spelling of words, use text styles, add header
and footer, and insert graphics and other objects.

8.2 MENU OPTIONS

Before discussing about the various menu options available in MS Excel, let us list down
the steps involved in starting and exiting MS Excel.

How to start Microsoft Excel?

Step 1: Click the Start button.

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Step 2: Select the option All Programs in the Start menu.
Step 3: Click the Microsoft Excel in the All Programs menu.

How to exit Microsoft Excel?

Step 1: Click the option File in the main menu.
Step 2: Click option Exit in the File menu.

When Microsoft Excel software is launched the main screen contains the following components

Element Description
Application title bar Displays the name of the application and the Minimize,
Maximize/Restore, and Close buttons. If the document
window is maximized, the name of the workbook also
displayed in the application title bar.
Document title bar Displays the name of the workbook file and Minimize,
Maximize/Restore, and close buttons. If the window is
maximized, there is no document title bar and the document
buttons are displayed in the menu bar.
Menu bar Contains menu options. To use the menu, click an option to
display a drop-down menu, and then click a command on the
drop-down menu to perform the command, view another
menu, or view a dialog box.
Standard tool bar Contains buttons for accomplishing commands. To use the
toolbar, click the button for the command to be performed.

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 Formatting tool bar Contains buttons and controls for formatting. To use the
toolbar, click the button for the command to be performed or
click a drop-down list arrow to make a selection.
Formula bar Displays the cell address and the contents of the active cell.
Also used to enter and edit formulas.
Active cell Marks the cell where data will be entered with a black border.
Scroll bars Vertical and Horizontal Scroll bars scroll the screen vertically
and horizontally.
Worksheet tabs Display the names of the worksheets in the current workbook.
Clicking a tab displays the worksheet.
Worksheet scroll buttons Scroll the worksheet tabs (if there are too many worksheets
to be displayed).
Status bar Displays information about the current workbook. The Mode
indicator displays on the far left side of the Status bar.
Row numbers Indicate the numbers associated with the rows.
Column numbers Indicate the letters associated with the columns.
Cell The intersection of a column and a row, referred to with an
address that combines the column letter(s) with the row
number, such as A1, AA223, and so on.
Mode Displays on the left side of the status bar and shows a word
that describes the current working condition of the workbook.
For example, the word “Ready” means that the worksheet is
ready to receive data or execute a command. Other modes
include Edit, Enter, Point, Error and Wait.

How to Create New Microsoft Excel Workbook?

Step 1: Start Microsoft Excel
Step 2: Click the option File in the main menu.

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Step 3: Click the option New in the File menu.
Step 4: Select the option Blank workbook.
Step 5: Start entering your data.

How to Save New Microsoft Excel Workbook?

Step 1: Click the option File in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the option Save in the File menu.
Step 4: Enter a file name for the workbook.
Step 5: Click the save button.

How to open an existing Microsoft Excel Workbook?

Step 1: Click the option File in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Open in the File menu.
Step 3: Select the file/workbook from the Box.
Step 4: Click the open button.

How to save an existing Microsoft Excel Workbook in another Name?

Step 1: Open the existing file/workbook using the steps mentioned above.
Step 2: Click the option File in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the option Save as in the File menu.
Step 4: Enter another name for the workbook.
Step 5: Click the save button.

How to Close Microsoft Excel Workbook?

Step 1: Click the option File in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Close in the File menu.

How to copy a part of the data to other place? [Copy & Paste]
Step 1: Select the cells which you want to copy using SHIFT and arrow keys
or by using the mouse
Step 2: Click the option Edit in the main menu and Select the option Copy

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 or press keys CTRL + C.
Step 3: Move the cursor to the cell where actually you want to copy it.
Step 4: Click the option Edit in the main menu.
Step 5: Select the option Paste in the Edit menu or press the keys CTRL + V.

How to move a part of the data to other place? [Cut & Paste]
Step 1: Select the cells which you want to move using SHIFT and arrow keys
or by using the mouse
Step 2: Click the option Edit in the main menu and Select the option Cut
or press keys CTRL + X.
Step 3: Move the cursor to the cell where actually you want to move it.
Step 4: Click the option Edit in the main menu.
Step 5: Select the option Paste in the Edit menu or press the keys CTRL + V.

How to find a given word in the sheet?

Step 1: Move the cursor to the beginning of the sheet.
Step 2: Click the option Edit in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the option Find in the Edit menu.
Step 4: Enter the word to search in the box Find what.
Step 5: Click the button Find Next.

How to replace a word?

Step 1: Move the cursor to the beginning of the sheet.
Step 2: Click the option Edit in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the option Replace in the Edit menu.
Step 4: Enter the word to be replaced in the box Find what.
Step 5: Enter the word to be replaced with in the box Replace with.
Step 6: Click the button Replace.

How to select the entire sheet?

Step 1: Press CTRL + A to Select the entire Worksheet.

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How to clear the part of sheet?
Step 1: Select the range of cells which you want to clear.
Step 2: Click the menu option Clear in the Edit menu.
Step 3: Click the option All.

How to clear the entire document?

Step 1: Select the entire document by pressing the keys CTRL + A.
Step 2: Click the option Edit in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the option Clear in the Edit menu.
Step 4: Click the option All.

How to insert a row?

Step 1: Move the cursor to the place where actually you want to insert a row.
Step 2: Click the option Insert in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the option Rows.

How to insert columns?

Step 1: Move the cursor to the place where actually you want to insert a Column.
Step 2: Click the option Insert in the main menu.
Step 3: Click the option Columns.

How to insert a worksheet?

Step 1: Click the option Insert in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Worksheet.
How to insert Symbols?
Step 1: Click the option Insert in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Symbols.
Step 3: Select the symbol that is to be inserted.
Step 4: Click the Insert Button.
Step 5: Click the Close Button.

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How to insert Picture from a file?
Step 1: Click the option Insert in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Picture.
Step 3: Select the option From File.
Step 4: From the window, select the picture to be inserted.

Step 5: Click the Insert button.

How to change font size?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Cells…
Step 3: Click the option Font.
Step 4: Select the appropriate size.
Step 5: Click OK button.

How to make font Bold?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Select the option Cells…
Step 3: Click the option Font.
Step 4: Select the Font style as Bold.
Step 5: Click OK button.

How to change cell color?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Select the option Cells…
Step 3: Click the option Patterns.
Step 4: Select the color of your option.
Step 5: Click OK button.

How to change cell to percentage format?

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Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Cells… in the Format menu.
Step 3: Select the option Number in the menu tab.
Step 4: Select the Percentage category in the list of options.
Step 5: Click OK button.

How to change cell to date format?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Cells… in the Format menu.
Step 3: Select the option Number in the menu tab.
Step 4: Select the Date category in the list of options.
Step 5: Click OK button.

How to align the text at center?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Select the option Cells…
Step 3: Click the option Alignment.
Step 4: Select the horizontal alignment as Center.
Step 5: Click OK button.

How to display all the text on multiple lines in the cell?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Cells…
Step 3: Click the option Alignment.
Step 4: Select the option Wrap text.

How to increase a row height?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Row.
Step 3: Click the option Height.

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Step 4: Enter the new height of the row.
Step 5: Click OK button.

How to increase a column width?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Column.
Step 3: Click the option Width.
Step 4: Enter the new width of the column.
Step 5: Click OK button.

How to hide a row?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Row in the Format menu.
Step 3: Click the option Hide.

How to unhide a row?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Row in the Format menu.
Step 3: Click the option Unhide.

How to hide a column?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Column in the Format menu.
Step 3: Click the option Hide.
How to unhide a column?
Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Column in the Format menu.
Step 3: Click the option Unhide.

How to hide a sheet?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Sheet in the Format menu.
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Step 3: Click the option Hide.

How to unhide a sheet?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Sheet in the Format menu.
Step 3: Click the option Unhide.

How to change the sheet name?

Step 1: Click the option Format in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Sheet in the Format menu.
Step 3: Click the option Rename.
Step 4: Enter the new name for the sheet.

Exercises:
1. For the sample data given below analyze the student admission in Haramaya University by
generating a Column Chart using MS-Excel.

HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY – STUDENT ADMISSION

Sl.No. Department 2000 2001 2002 2003

1. Economics 40 45 60 75
2. Cooperative 60 50 55 60
3. Computer Science 0 40 60 90
4. Management 50 60 75 90
5. Accounting 75 60 50 90

2. Using MS-Excel, apply formula and calculate Simple Interest for the sample data given below.

Commercial Bank

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 A B C D E F
Sl.No. Name Principle No. of Years Rate of Interest Simple Interest
1. Behailu 1000 3 9
2. Gadissa 1500 2 9
3. Birhane 1750 3 9
4. Leywork 1000 5 9
5. Yinebab 2000 3 9
6. Asegid 2500 2 9
7. Bekele 1500 3 9
8. Solomon 3000 3 9
9. Yosef 2000 4 9
10. Mohamed 1250 4 9

MICROSOFT POWERPOINT

INTRODUCTION
Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation graphics program that can be used to prepare slide
shows and present them with style and impact. PowerPoint can be used to prepare and print
handouts for the audience, speaker notes to aid presentation delivery and OHP (Over Head
Projector) transparencies to be used when no computer is available.

IMPORTANCE
Presentations are collections of related slides that summarize key points of a report or act
as a visual aid during an oral presentation. Whether slides are displayed in the computer screen or
projected onto a flat surface like wall or used as transparencies to present slide images, power point
is used to develop presentations.

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 A presentation may contain numerous slides. And a slide is the basic unit of a presentation.
Each slide in a presentation can be compared as a page in a document of MS-Word, as a worksheet
in a workbook of MS-Excel and as a record in a database of MS-Access.

Before starting to prepare a presentation, the following points, has to be taken into
consideration, to prepare an effective presentation.

a) Why the presentation is given? The message that is to be communicated to the

audience has to be determined.

b) Who will be the audience for the presentation and how many people? Whether it
will be a group of managers or corporate executives or sales people or peers?

c) Where the presentation is given? Consider the size of the room, acoustics of the
room, location of the speaker platform and other factors.

d) When the presentation will take place? Identify the time of day, placement of the
presentation in relation to other presentations and so on.

e) What materials to be used with the presentation? Whether it is slides or handouts

or notes or over head transparencies?

A presentation designed and developed after considering the above mentioned factors, will be an
effective and successful presentation that best conveys the purpose of the presentation.

STARTING AND EXITING POWERPOINT

Switch on the computer and follow the following steps to start Microsoft PowerPoint
software.

Step 1: Click the Start button.

Step 2: Point to “All Programs” in the Start menu.

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 Step 3: Point to Microsoft PowerPoint and click.

Now the Microsoft PowerPoint is started and the main screen contains the following components.

Screen Component Description

Menu bar Provides access to commands used to perform taks.
Title bar Identifies the application name and contains the application
icon, Maximize/Restore, Minimize and Close buttons.
Standard tool bar Contains buttons that serve as short cuts for performing
common menu commands, displaying special tool bars, or
changing screen features.
Formatting tool bar Displays buttons and list boxes to access the most frequently
used formatting commands.
Drawing tool bar Displays tools for creating and formatting drawn objects.
Status bar Displays information about the program status, instructions for
performing selected tasks, active key information, functions of
the tool bar buttons when you point to them and trouble
messages.

Follow the steps given below to exit from Microsoft PowerPoint

Step 1: Click the option File in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option Exit in the file menu.
CREATING A PRESENTATION
The following steps are involved in creating a presentation.
1. Selecting a Slide Layout.
2. Selecting a Slide Design – Design Template
3. Entering the information on the slide for the presentation.
4. Setting the effects for individual elements through Custom Animation.
5. Setting the effects for the entire slide through Slide Transition.

Selecting a Slide Layout

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 Step 1: Click the option File in the main menu.
Step 2: Click the option New in the File menu (the Task Pane appears).
Step 3: Click the option “Blank Presentation” in the Task Pane.
Step 4: Click the Presentation menu button in the Task Pane.
Step 5: A menu appears and click the option Slide Layout.
Step 6: Select the appropriate slide layout for the appropriate contents.
Selecting a Slide Design – Design Template
Step 1: After Selecting a Slide Layout, Click the Presentation menu button
in the Task Pane.
Step 2: A menu appears and click the option Slide Design – Design Template.
Step 3: Select the appropriate Slide Design – Design Template.

Entering the information

Information like Text, Pictures, Motion Pictures, etc. can be entered on the slide according
to the layout selected.

Custom Animation is used to provide Presentation effects for the individual elements included in
the slide.

Step 1: Click the Presentation menu button in the Task Pane and the menu
appears.
Step 2: Click the option Custom Animation in the Presentation menu.
Step 3: Select the item for which the effect is to be given in the slide.
Step 4: The pull down menu Add Effect gets activated and click it.
Step 5: A menu appears and the click the option Entrance in it.
Step 6: Select the appropriate effect in the list.
Step 7: The Speed of the effect can be controlled by selecting the appropriate
option.
Step 8: Set the appropriate Direction or Property for the effect selected.

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Exercise: Using MS-PowerPoint prepare a presentation about Haramaya University in 3 slides
applying suitable effects by custom animation and slide transition. Select each slide in such a way
that, the first slide contains the title and a subtitle, the second slide contains only the text, and the
third slide contains both text and picture.

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