CLASS: BCCA – I (SEM I)

SUBJECT:
COMPUTER APPLICATION AND BUSSINESS

Unit I
Introduction to Computers: Generation of Computers, Block
Diagram, Working of Computer, Hardware and Software,
Programming and Flow Charts concepts, Operating systems
(MS DOS, Windows, UNIX, Linux), Networking concepts.
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
In the modern era, computers are an essential part of our everyday existence. That means
computers are present in almost every field, making our day-to-day tasks easier and faster.
Nowadays, computers can be seen in banks, shops, schools, hospitals, railways, and many more
places, including our home. As they are such an essential part of our lives, we must know about
the basic computer introduction. Let us start with defining the computer first:
What is Computer?
A computer is an electronic device that can receive, store, process, and output data. It is a
machine that can perform a variety of tasks and operations, ranging from simple calculations
to complex simulations and artificial intelligence.
Computers consist of hardware components such as the central processing unit (CPU),
memory, storage devices, input/output devices, and peripherals, as well as software
components such as the operating system and applications.

According to the definition, "A computer is a programmable electronic device that

takes data, perform instructed arithmetic and logical operations, and gives the output."

Whatever is given to the computer as input is called 'data', while the output received after
processing is called 'information'.

Today, computers are widely used in various industries such as education, finance,
healthcare, and entertainment, and they have revolutionized the way we live, work, and
communicate. They have also given rise to a new era of technology such as the internet, cloud
computing, and mobile devices, which have further transformed our daily lives.
Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It processes the input
according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output
quickly. A Computer can perform the following set of functions:
 Accept data
 Store data
 Process data as desired
 Retrieve the stored data as and when required
 Print the result in desired format.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
1. Speed: Computers work at a great speed. The speed with which it performs is way beyond human
capabilities. Computers are not only fast, they are very accurate and reliable also. For us, the smallest
unit of time is a second but for a computer, a second is not the smallest unit rather it can be divided into
a millisecond, microsecond, nanosecond and picosecond. When we refer to the speed of computers, we
talk in terms of milliseconds (hundredth of a second), microsecond (millionth of a second), nanoseconds
(billionth of a second), and even picoseconds (trillionth of a second.). A powerful computer is capable
of performing about 4-5 million simple instructions per second.

2. Accuracy: In addition to the great speed, computers are also accurate. Errors that may occur in
computer are almost human errors (such as inaccurate data, poorly designed system or faulty
instructions/programs written by the programmer etc.) rather than technological weaknesses. GIGO
(Garbage in Garbage Out) is a term used to specify Accuracy; that if our input is wrong the output will
also be wrong.

3. Memory: Today's computers can store large volumes of data. Depending upon its capacity, a
computer has a big memory and it can store and recall any amount of data. Unlike human memory,
where small and unimportant information is forgotten as the time passes, a piece of information once
stored in the computer memory, can never be forgotten and can be recalled whenever we want in a very
less time, Information can, therefore, be retained as long as desired.

4. Diligence: Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. Since a computer is a machine
hence it is free from monotony, tiredness, lack of attention, etc. and therefore, can work for hours
constantly with the same speed. They do not suffer from human traits of boredom and tiredness resulting
in lack of concentration. Computers, therefore can perform voluminous, repetitive and any type of jobs
consistently.

5. Versatility: Computers are versatile machines and are capable of performing any task as long as it
can be broken down into a series of logical steps. This means that them
capability is, once again, limited only be hurman intelligence. A computer can perform several and
varied functions at the same time. At a particular point of time, it may be processing the examination
result and at the same it may be computing salaries of the employees and in between, it may be searching
an important document from its memory. It can work in any field.

6. Reliability: Computers are extremely reliable machines. Most errors are caused by humans, not by
computers. Computers are capable of storing enormous amounts of data that can be located and
retrieved very quickly. The capability to store and retrieve volumes of data is at the core of the
Information Age.

7. Programmed machine: A computer is a machine without its own intelligence. It can perform only
those functions for which it is programmed. A computer does not do what we want it to do; rather it
does things as per the coded instruction given to it. A computer cannot think and feel.

8. Reduced Cost: With the ever-increasing advances made in computers, the cost of computer and the
peripherals has dropped drastically over the years. Hardware cost has been decreased at an estimated
annual rate of 30%.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS:

Advantages of Computers:
 Computers can work much faster than humans.
 Computers never get tired or need a rest.
 Computers can do jobs that it would be dangerous for a human to do.
 Computers can store large amounts of information in a very small space.
 Computers can find information very quickly.
 Computers never lose or misplace information.
 Allows us to share files easily.
 Facilitate to provide training to multiple people at and when at a time (e-learning).
 Facilitate in communicating across the world.
 We can search information, purchase items online using Internet.

Disadvantages of Computers:
 Fear of Virus, Hacking, etc.
 If something goes wrong, the whole network could go down.
 Frequent and prolonged computer sessions may pose physical health risks.
 Computer cannot take decisions on its own.
 Computers, unlike humans cannot learn by experience.
 Students may feel isolated in e-learning.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER:

(Computer Organization/ Architecture of Computer)
The Computer system consists of three important parts viz, input device, central processing
unit (CPU) and output device. The CPU itself consists of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and
the Control Unit. The solid lines indicate flow of instruction and data, and dotted lines represent
control initiated by the control unit. It has following functional units:
INPUT UNIT: Input Unit performs the process of transferring data and instructions from the
external environment into the computer system. Instruction and data entered through the input
unit depends upon the particular I/P device (keyboard, mouse, scanner, card reader, etc.). I/P
unit converts these instructions and data into binary code and then supplies it to the computer
system for further processing. Input Unit performs following functions:

 It accepts instructions and data from the outside world.

 It converts these instructions and data in to computer readable form
 It supplies the converted instruction and data to computer system for further promising.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU): The Central Processing Unit or CPU is known as
the brain of the computer. Just like the human brain controls all human activities, the CPU also
takes care of all the tasks. The CPU is responsible for performing all the arithmetic and logical
operations within the computer. All the major calculations, operations, and comparisons are
performed inside the CPU.
Some of the main functions of a CPU are -

 All the components of a computer system, software, and data processing are controlled
by the CPU.
 The Input devices provide data to the CPU which is then executed and then the CPU
sends the output to the Output devices.
 All the operations including the arithmetical and logical are processed by the CPU.

A) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).

ALU perform arithmetic and logic operations: When the control unit encounters an
instruction that involves an arithmetic operation add, multiply, divide) or a logic/comparison
operation (equal to less than, greater than, it passes control to the ALU. The intermediate results
generated in the ALU are temporarily stored is primary storage.

 Arithmetic Logical Unit is the main component of the CPU

 It is the fundamental building block of the CPU.
 Arithmetic and Logical Unit is a digital circuit that is used to perform arithmetic and
logical operations.

B) Control Unit: As the name suggests, the Control Unit (CU) is the controller of all the
activities, tasks, and operations. All these operations are performed inside the computer.
It controls and coordinates all activities of computer. it obtains instructions from the
program stored in the main memory, interprets them, and controls other units to
generate desired order.

It performs work like a manager in computer system. Control unit acts as a nervous
system of computer, like a human body. So, the control unit ensures that all tasks inside
the computer work together smoothly, coordinating with the input and output units.

C) Storage Unit: Data and instructions can be inputted into computer system using input
devices that need to be stored inside the computer before actual processing starts
Similarly the results generated by computer need to be stored in to the computer system
for further processing. This type of work is done by storage unit. The storage unit
provides space for storing data and instructions, intermediate results and the processed
data. The storage unit performs following task:

 It stores data and instructions

 It stores intermediate results
 It stores result of processed data

Storage unit of computers are of two types:

 Primary memory: The primary memory cannot store a vast amount of data. Hence, it
is only used to store recent data which is temporary. Once the power is switched off,
the data stored can be erased. Hence it is also called temporary memory or main
memory. An example of primary memory is Random Access Memory (RAM). This
memory is directly accessible by the CPU and is used for reading and writing purposes.
The data has to be first transferred to the RAM and then to the CPU for processing.
  Secondary memory: Since the primary memory stores temporary data it cannot be
accessed in the future. So, for permanent storage purposes, secondary memory is used.
It is also known as permanent memory or auxiliary memory. An example of secondary
memory is the hard disk. The data does not get erased easily even in case of a power
failure.

OUTPUT UNIT: Once the information sent to the computer is processed, the user receives
the results through the output unit. Examples of output units are devices such as printers,
monitors, projectors, etc.
The output unit presents the data either as a soft copy (on the screen) or as a hard copy (on
paper). The printer is for the hard copy. The monitor is for the display. The output unit
receives data in binary form from the computer and converts it into a readable format for
the user.

The Output Units perform these functions-

 The Output Unit accepts all the data and information from the main memory of a
computer system in binary form.
 The Output Unit also converts the binary data into a human-readable form for a better
understanding.

EXPLANATION FOR BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

Every student while learning the Block Diagram of a Computer must be aware of how the data
flows inside the computer. Below we have discussed step-by-step working of how data is
received and displayed on the computer.
Step 1: Input devices allow the users to provide data and commands to the computer. The data
inserted manually is collected by input devices like keyboard, mouse, scanners, and others.
These devices generate electrical signals or data packets representing the input.
Step 2: The data generated by input devices is sent to the computer’s input interface/Memory
Unit which processes and formats the data for further use by the computer.
Step 3: The processed input data is then sent to the computer’s Central Processing Unit (CPU)
which temporarily stores this data in memory (RAM) for immediate processing. The CPU
executes instructions related to the input data.
For example, if you’re typing a document, the Central Processing Unit (CPU) processes the
keystrokes and stores them in memory. The control unit schedules all the activities for the
smooth working of the computer.
Step 4: After processing, the CPU sends the results or instructions to the computer’s output
interface where the data is formatted for transmission to the output devices.
Step 5: Then the output unit receives the final processed output. Output devices such as
monitors, printers, speakers, and others receive the formatted data. Monitors display visual
information, printers produce hard copies, and speakers play audio, based on the data they
receive.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS:
Generations of Computer: The modern computer took its shape with the arrival of your
time. It had been around the 16th century when the evolution of the computer started. The
initial computer faced many changes, obviously for the betterment. It continuously improved
itself in terms of speed, accuracy, size, and price to urge the form of the fashionable day
computer.
In computers, we use the term “generation” to show the evolution of technology. Earlier, the
generation term was used to distinguish the computers in terms of varying hardware but now
it all together includes the hardware and software which makes up a computer system. After
centuries of evolution that began in the 16th century, the contemporary computer has taken its
current form. There are 5 Generations of computers and all of them have been discussed below
along with their features.
FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS: (1940s – 1956) Vacuum Tubes
The technology behind the primary generation computers was a fragile glass device,
which was called a vacuum tube. These computers were very heavy and really large. These
weren’t very reliable and programming on them was a tedious task as they used low-level
programming language and used no OS. First-generation computers were used for
calculation, storage, and control purpose. They were too bulky and
large that they needed a full room and consume a lot of electricity.
Punch cards were used for improving the information for external
storage. Magnetic card used. Machine and assembly language is
developed.
Examples of some main first-generation computers are mentioned
below.
 ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built
by J. Presper Eckert and John V. Mauchly was a general-
purpose computer. It had been cumbersome, and large, and
contained 18,000 vacuum tubes.
 EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
was designed by von Neumann. It could store data also as instruction and thus the speed
was enhanced.
 UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer was developed in 1952 by Eckert and
Mauchly.

Characteristics of 1st Generation Computers

 These computers were designed using vacuum tubes.
 Programming in these computers was done using machine languages.
 The main memory of 1st Generation Computers consisted of magnetic tapes and
magnetic drums.
 Paper tapes and Punched cards were used as input/output devices in these computers.
 These computers were very huge but worked very slowly.
 Examples of 1st Generation Computers are IBM 650, IBM 701, ENIAC, UNIVAC1,
etc.

Advantages of First Generation Computer

 Increased Calculation Speed
 Automation of Complex Tasks
 Reliable Results
 Enhanced Research Capabilities
 Military and Government Use

Disadvantages of First Generation of Computers

 Computers were larger.
 They consumed an outsized quantity of energy.
 They heated terribly shortly because of thousands of vacuum tubes.
 They weren’t terribly reliable.
 Constant maintenance was needed.
  Not transportable.
 Costly business production.
 Very less work potency.
 Limited programming capabilities

SECOND GENERATION (1956-1964): TRANSISTORS

The Second generation computers use transistors in place of vacuum tube. Transistors
were developed in 1947 by three physicists Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley at Bell Telephone
Laboratories.
Transistors are essentially semiconductor devices made of silicon. They control the
power and voltage flow. They are also used to amplify or switch electrical signals easily.
Transistors are tiny, deceptive simple device that would replace the bulky vacuum tubes.
The transistors were superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become
smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy- efficient and more reliable than first generation
computers. Transistor generates less heat than vacuum tube; but still it could damage the
computer.
Second generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output. It uses binary as well as assembly language.
Ex. IBM 7030/7094, CDC 1604, Honeywell 400 Philco, GE, and RCA
Characteristics of Second-Generation Computers
 The Second Generation computers used the
technology of Transistors.
 Machine language and Assembly Languages were
used for these computers.
 Magnetic core and magnetic tape/disk were used for
memory storage.
 The Second Generation Computers were smaller in
size, consumed less power and generated less heat.
 Magnetic tape and punched cards were used as
input/output devices.
 It uses binary and assembly language.
 Some of the examples are PDP-8, IBM1400 series, IBM 7090 and 7094, UNIVAC
1107, CDC 3600, etc

Advantages of Second Generation Computer

 They were smaller in size as compared to the first-generation computers.
 They were more efficient and reliable.
 They generated less amount of heat and hence required fewer cooling systems.
 They were portable due to their smaller size.
 They weighed much less than the first-generation computers.
 Their computation speed was faster.
 They performed computation in microseconds.
  They were relatively cheaper.
 They had less hardware failure and maintenance costs were reduced.

Disadvantages of Second-Generation Computer

 A large number of cooling systems were still required.
 They required continuous maintenance for proper functioning.
 They could only be used for particular objectives and not commercially.
 The use of punch cards for input made them somewhat slow.
 Even though they were cheaper than first-generation computers, they were still costly.
 They consumed a significant amount of electricity.

THIRD GENERATION (1964-1971): INTEGRATED CIRCUIT BASED

Third generation computers are advance from first and second-generation computers.
Third generation computers start using integrated circuits instead of transistors. The
integrated circuit (IC) is a semiconductor material, that contains thousands of transistors in
it. The IC contain only ten to twenty components. This technology was named as Small Scale
Integration (SSI) and later it contains about 100 component called as Medium Scale
Integration (MSI).
With the help of IC, the computer becomes more reliable, fast, required less
maintenance, small in size, generates less heat, and is less expensive.
It was developed by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby (American electrical engineer) of
Texas Instruments in 1958. So due to ICs, the third-generation computers are much faster,
efficient, reliable, less maintenance, and small in size as compared to first- and second-
generation computers.
Third generation computer uses less electricity but still, they are little expensive and also use
the air conditioner for cooling.

Characteristics of Third Generation Computers:

 As compared to previous generations, the
third generation computers were more
reliable, fast, efficient, less expensive, and
smaller in size.
 In third generation computers, high-level
programming languages were used such as
BASIC, PASCAL, ALGOL-68, COBOL,
FORTRAN – II, PASCAL PL/1.
 The punch cards were replaced with mouse
and keyboards.
 The integrated circuit technology replaces
the use of individual transistors.
 The computers have high storage capacity.
Advantages of Third Generation Computers:
 Computer required less space due to the use of integrated circuits (IC). A single
integrated circuit (IC) contains transistors, resistors, condensers, condensers, etc. on
a piece of the silicon semiconductor substrate.
 It produces less heat and required less energy during operations. Due to this third
generation computers have less hardware failure as compare to previous generations.
 In third generation computers, the punch cards were removed and the input was taken
with the help of a mouse and keyboards.
 They have high storage capacity and give more accurate results, which helps to store
and compute and calculate more precise operations.
 The computers were portable and offer better speed.

Disadvantages of Third Generation Computers:

 These computers still required air conditioning.
 To manufacture IC, highly sophisticated technology was required.
 Maintaining IC chips were difficult.

FOURTH GENERATION (1971- PRESENT): MICROPROCESSOR BASED

The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation
used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits or Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI).
VLSI and ULSI can integrated thousand and millions of circuit in a single silicon chip.
It can fit the circuitry of the entire computer on a single silicon chip called as Micro
Processor. The computer that uses these chip is called as microcomputer. First 4-bit
microcomputer was developed by Intel in 1971. Now 8-bit, 12-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and 64-bit
microprocessors are available. The ability to fit so much processing capability in a smaller area,
helped to reduce the size and price of computer.
As computers increased in computing power, it was possible to link them in network or
internet. Fourth generation computers also used GUI facility, mouse and other handheld
devices. Ex. Apple-II, TRS80, Vax9000, CRAY 1, CRAY X-MP and CYBER 205, Intel486,
Intel Pentium, AMD. Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable,
and affordable.

Characteristics of Fourth-Generation Computers

 These computers were built using Integrated Circuits (ICs).
 High-level programming languages were used for
programming on these computers.
 Large magnetic core and magnetic tape/disk were
used for memory storage.
 Magnetic tape, monitor, keyboard, printer, etc
were used as input/output devices.
 Some of the examples of Third Generation
Computers are IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, NCR
395, B6500, UNIVAC 1108, etc.
Advantages Fourth Generation of Computer
 They were designed to be used for a wide range of purposes (general-purpose
computers).
 Smaller and more dependable than previous generations of computers.
 There was very little heat generated.
 In many circumstances, the fourth-generation computer does not require a cooling
system.
 Portable and less expensive than previous versions.
 Computers from the fourth generation were significantly quicker than those from
previous generations.
 The Graphics User Interface (GUI) technology was used to provide users with better
comfort. During this time, PCs became more inexpensive and widespread.
 Repair time and maintenance costs are reduced.
 They were also created with the intention of being used in commercial production.
 In this form of computer, any type of high-level language can be employed.

Disadvantages of the Fourth Generation of Computer

 The fabrication of the ICs necessitated the use of cutting-edge technologies
(Integrated Circuits).
 Only ICs can be made with a high-quality and reliable system or technology.
 Microprocessors must be manufactured using cutting-edge technology, which
necessitates the use of a cooler (fan).

FIFTH GENERATION COMPUTER (Present and Beyond)

(ARTIFICAL INTELLIGENCE)
In 1982, the fifth-generation computer system was begun by Japan's Ministry of
International Trade and Industry. In this generation, the VLSI technology has advanced and
become ULSI technology, stands for Ultra Large-Scale Integration. That means ten million
electronic components were used in the production of microprocessor chips.
The computer made in the fifth generation was created with the help of logic
programming and massively parallel computing. This generation of computers was based upon
parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. Artificial intelligence
has the ability to illustrates the means and method of making computers think the same as
human beings. In this generation, all kinds of high-level languages such
as C and C++, .Net, Java and more are used.

The communication between man and machine will become easy and direct speech,
pictures or writing can be used. The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop devices
that respond to natural language input. They will also have huge amount of knowledge stored
in them. In short, they will be truly "Intelligent" machine. For ex. Voice Recognition system,
AI, Decision making, etc. Ex, Intel iPSC-1, MP-1 from MasPar, IBM SP/2, Param 10000

Characteristics of fifth generation computer

 The ULSI (ultra large scale integration) technology is used in this generation of
computers.
 Natural language processing is now in its fifth phase of development.
 In this generation’s computers, artificial intelligence has progressed.
 The fifth-generation computer includes more user-friendly interfaces and multimedia
 functions.

 Computers that are more portable and powerful.

 Computers are dependable and less expensive.
 It’s easier to manufacture in a commercial setting.
 Desktop computers are straightforward to operate.
 Mainframe computers are extremely efficient.

Advantages of Fifth Generation of Computer

 These computers are far quicker than previous generations.

 These computers are simpler to repair.
 These computers are substantially smaller in size than other generation computers.
 They are lightweight and easy to move.
 True artificial intelligence is being developed.
 Parallel Processing has progressed.
 Superconductor technology has progressed.

Disadvantages of Fifth Generation of Computer

 They’re usually sophisticated but could be difficult to use.

 They can give businesses additional power to monitor your activities and potentially
infect your machine.

DIFFERENCE OF ALL GENERATIONS:

 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE:
Hardware: The physical components of computer is known as Hardware. Hardware cannon
perform any task. It requires instructions to carry out any tasks. Computer hardware are useless
without programs or software.
• Computer hardware is a collective term used to describe any of the physical components
of a computer.
• The term hardware distinguishes the tangible aspects of a computing device
from software, which consists of written, machine-readable instructions
or programs that tell physical components what to do and when to execute the
instructions.
• Hardware and software are complementary. A computing device can function
efficiently and produce useful output only when both hardware and software work
together appropriately.
• Computer hardware can be categorized as being either internal or external components.
Generally, internal hardware components are those necessary for the proper functioning
of the computer, while external hardware components are attached to the computer to
add or enhance functionality.

Computer Hardware Parts

• These hardware components are further divided into the following categories, which
are:
1. External Components
2. Internal Components

EXTERNAL COMPONENTS:
1. INPUT DEVICES: Input devices are those devices with the help of which the user
interacts with the computer. Or, in other words, with the help of input devices, the user
enters the data or information into the computer. This information or data is accepted by
the input devices and converted into a computer-acceptable format, which is further sent to
the computer system for processing.
• Keyboard: It is the most common and main input device for computers. The data is
inputted by typing on the keyboard. It consists of 104 keys in total. It contains numeric
keys, alphabet keys, and different function keys as well.
• Mouse: A mouse is a kind of pointing device which is rolled over to control the cursor
on the screen and it has functional keys like left, middle, and right buttons. Using these
functional keys, on by the click of which an object is selected or to open a file by just a
click of a mouse.
• Scanner: As the name suggests, it scans images, documents, etc., and converts them
into digital form and that can be further edited and used. It works just like a Xerox
machine.
• Light Pen: It is a light-sensitive device and it is touched to the CRT screen where it
can detect, a raster on the screen as it passes by and, with the help of this user can draw
anything like lines, figures, or any objects.
• Microphone: It is a kind of voice input system that can be attached to a computer
system to record sounds. It converts human speech or voice into electrical signals. This
electrical signal is processed by the computer and the word is recognized.
2. OUTPUT DEVICES: These are the devices that are used to display the output of any task
given to the computer in human-readable form.
• Monitor: The monitor is the main output device. It is also called VDU (visual display
unit) and it looks like a TV screen. The Monitor displays the information from the
computer. It is used to display text, video, images, etc.
• Printer: A printer is an output device that transfers data from the computer in a printed
format by using text or images on paper. There are both colored and black & white
printers.
• Plotter: It is similar to a printer but potters are large in size. A plotter is used to generate
large drawings, architectural blueprints, etc. on paper and these are high-quality images
and drawings and large in size.
• Speakers: It is a very common output device and it gives sound as an output. Speaker
is generally used to play music or anything having sound.
3. STORAGE DEVICES
• There are some devices that are used for storage purposes and are known as secondary
storage devices. Some of them were discussed below:
• 1. CD (Compact disc): A CD is circular in shape and made up of thin platted glass and
plastic polycarbonate material. It has a storage capacity of 600 MB to 700 MB of data.
• 2. DVD (Digital Video/Versatile Disc): A DVD is the same as a CD but with some
more features. A DVD comes in single and dual-layer formats. It has much greater
storage capacity in comparison to CD.
• 3. Hard Disk: An hard disk is a non-volatile storage device that uses its read/write
heads to store digital data on a magnetic surface of a rigid plate. It is generally 3.5
inches in size for desktops and 2.5 inches in size for laptops.

INTERNAL COMPONENTS:
1. CPU (Central Processing Unit): The CPU is also known as the heart of the computer.
It consists of three units, generally known as the control unit, Arithmetic Logical Unit
(ALU), and the memory unit.
2. Motherboard: It is the main circuit board inside a computer and it contains most of
the electronic components together. All the components of the computer are directly or
indirectly connected to the motherboard.
3. RAM (Random Access Memory): It is also known as temporary or volatile memory.
It holds the program and data, which are currently in process or processing. All the data
is erased as soon as the computer is turned off or in case of a power failure. Data stored
in this memory can be changed.
4. Hard drive: Hard disk drives are physical storage devices that store both permanent
and temporary data in different formats, including programs, OSes, device files, photos,
etc.
5. Network interface card (NIC). A NIC is a circuit board or chip that enables the
computer to connect to a network; also known as a network adapter or local area
network adapter, it typically supports connection to an Ethernet network.
SOFTWARE: Software is basically the set of instructions grouped into programs that can be
used to carry out certain task from the hardware. The term software refers to a set of computer
programs, procedures and associated documents (flowcharts, manuals, etc.) describing the
programs, and how they are to be used. Software are intangible entities i.e. we cannot touch,
feel it.
Software is a group of programs that solve a specific problem or perform a specific type of job.
For ex. word processing is software; designed to perform only specific type of task.
In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tell a
computer what to do. In other words, the software is a computer program that provides a set of
instructions to execute a user’s commands and tell the computer what to do. For example
like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.

TYPES OF SOFTWARE
It is a collection of data that is given to the computer to complete a particular task. The chart
below describes the types of software:
1) System Software
• Operating System
• Language Processor
• Device Driver
2) Application Software
• General Purpose Software
• Customize Software
• Utility Software

1) SYSTEM SOFTWARE
• System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and provides
the basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to operate smoothly.
Or in other words, system software basically controls a computer’s internal functioning
and also controls hardware devices such as monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc.
• It is like an interface between hardware and user applications, it helps them to
communicate with each other because hardware understands machine language (i.e. 1
or 0) whereas user applications are work in human-readable languages like English,
Hindi, German, etc. so system software converts the human-readable language into
machine language and vice versa.

Types of system software:

a) Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer
system ON it is the first software that loads into the computer’s memory. Basically, it
manages all the resources such as computer memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and
provides an interface to the user, which helps the user to interact with the computer
system. It also provides various services to other computer software. Examples of
operating systems are Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft Windows, etc.
b) Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-readable
language into a machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the
language processor. It converts programs written in high-level programming
languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc. (known as source code), into sets of
instructions that are easily readable by machines (known as object code or machine
code).
c) Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and
 helps that device to perform its functions. Every device like a printer, mouse, modem,
etc. needs a driver to connect with the computer system eternally.

2) APPLICATION SOFTWARE
• Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more than
the basic operation of the computer is known as application software. Or in other words,
application software is designed to perform a specific task for end-users. It is a product
or a program that is designed only to fulfill end-users’ requirements. It includes word
processors, spreadsheets, database management, inventory, payroll programs, etc.

Types of Application Software:

There are different types of application software and those are:

a) General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a variety of
tasks and it is not limited to performing a specific task only. For example, MS-Word,
MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
b) Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed to
perform specific tasks or functions or designed for specific organizations. For
example, railway reservation system, airline reservation system, invoice management
system, etc.
c) Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the computer
infrastructure. It is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and maintains the system,
and take care of its requirements as well. For example, antivirus, disk fragmented,
memory tester, disk repair, disk cleaners, registry cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.

Relationship between Hardware & software:

To produce useful output; its hardware and software must work together. Hardware cannot do
anything without software and also software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.

For ex. a television set purchased from the shop is hardware and the various entertainment
programs it receives, is its software. Similarly, to get a job done by a computer, the
corresponding software has to be loaded in the hardware first and then executed.

Thus while hardware is necessary, software is vital. Thus relationship between hardware and
software is depicted in following points:

1. Both hardware and software are necessary for a computer to do useful job. Both are
complementary to each other.

2. Same hardware can be loaded with different software to make a computer perform different
types of jobs just as different programs can be watched with the same television.

Hardware is onetime expense, whereas software is continuing expense. For ex. we need to pay
for channels.
 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE:

Set of instructions is known as 'program' which is used to instruct to the hardware to perform
particular operation and generate required result (output). The Computer Programming
Languages are the languages which are used to write program

A computer language is a language that can be understood by the computer. It is the computer's
native language. Computer languages serve the same purpose as human languages. They are a
means of communication. A natural or human language is the language that we speak daily, like
English, Marathi, Hindi, French, German, etc. It is made up of words and rules known as lexicon
(dictionary) and syntax respectively. These words are joined to make meaningful phrases,
according to the rules or the syntax. A computer language consists of characters, symbols and
rules of usage, that allow the user to communicate with the computer.

The main difference between a natural language and computer language is that natural languages
have a large set of words (vocabulary) to choose, while computer languages have a limited or
restricted set of words.

Each and every problem to be solved by the computer needs to be broken down into discrete
logical steps before the computer can execute it. The process of writing such instructions in a
computer or programming language is called programming or coding. It is nothing but a Problem
Solving Technique".

Development of programming languages:

Just as computer hardware has improved over the years, programming languages have also
moved from machine-oriented languages (that uses binary numbers 0s and 1s) to problem-
oriented languages (that uses common English like words and symbols). All computer
languages can be classified under the following categories:

 Machine Language (First Generation Language)

 Assembly language (Second Generation Language)

 High level language. (Third Generation Language)

MACHINE LANGUAGE/LOW LEVEL LANGUAGE/BINARY

LANGUAGE (FIRST GENERATION LANGUAGE):
Computers can be programmed to understand many different computer languages, but there is
only one language understood by the computer without using a translation program. This
language is known as "Machine Language'.

 The machine language of a computer is normally written as strings of binary 1's and 0's.
First generation computers used programs written in machine language.

 Machine language is very difficult to use, difficult to understand, tedious and time
consuming, for the programmer. Error tracing and debugging is very difficult process.
  It requires thousands of machine language instruction to perform even simple jobs like
addition of two numbers.
 The circuitry of a computer is wired in a manner which can recognize the machine
language instructions, and converts them into electrical signals so that it will execute.

 Every instruction in machine language is composed of two parts. The first part of an
instruction is known as 'operation code' or opcode (like add, multiply, move, etc.), which
tells the computer what function to perform, and the second part is the 'operand', which is
the address of the data or instructions that has to be manipulated.

The number of operands varies from computer to computer; therefore, these programs are
machine dependent (computer dependent).

Hence, each instruction tells the computer what operation to perform, and the length & locations
of the data fields, which are involved in the operation. Every computer has a set of operations
codes, called its instruction set. Each operation code in the instruction set is meant for
performing a specific basic operation or function.

Advantages:

 No need of translation, as computer can understand binary digits.

 It can directly interact with hardware i.e. machine dependent.
 Machine language program is very fast.
 Efficient use of hardware resources.

Disadvantages:

 Machine language program uses only binary numbers i.e. 1s and O s. So it is very
difficult to use, difficult to understand, and time consuming, for the programmer. It
requires thousands of machine language instruction to perform even simple jobs like
addition of two numbers.
 Error tracing and debugging is very difficult process.
 It is machine dependent (not portable).
 Programmer needs to write numeric codes for the instructions in the computers
instruction set.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE/MIDDLE LEVEL LANGUAGE (SECOND

GENERATION LANGUAGE):
Assembly language programming was introduced in 1952. It is uses mnemonics (symbolic
codes) to represent operation codes and strings of characters to represent addresses
  Assembly language was designed to replace each machine code by an understandable
mnemonic and each address with a simple alphanumeric string.
 For ex. ADD instead of 1110 (Binary) to add, SUB instead 1111 (Binary) to subtract, etc.
 In assembly language, storage locations are represented by alphanumeric code instead of
numeric code
 For ex. memory locations 1000, 1001 and 1002 may be represented as FRST, SCND and
ANSR respectively.
 Assembly language is machine dependent to match with the processor structure of a
particular computer. That means the programs written for particular computer model will
not execute on another computer.
 Assembly language was developed to overcome the limitations of machine language
programming.
 A program written in assembly language needs to be translated into machine language
before the computer can execute it. Assembler is used to convert assembly language
program into equivalent machine code.

Advantages:

 The mnemonic codes make assembly language easy to understand and program
effectively.
 Faster than High Level Language.
 Representation of storage location using alphanumeric code helps programmer to
remember and use storage locations effectively.
 By providing additional instructions, called pseudo, in the instruction set we can instruct
to the hardware.
 Mnemonic codes are easy to understand, write and use makes programming easy.
 It uses memory efficiently.

Dis-Advantages:

 It is Machine Dependent.
 Computer can understand only binary digits; so it is necessary to translate into machine
understandable code using Assembler.
 Programmer need to remember mnemonic codes.
 It is error prone and debugging is very difficult.
 Programmer need to know the internal structure of computer so that he/she can use
instruction set and storage location, etc.

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE/ NATURAL LANGUAGE/ HUMAN

READABLE LANGUAGE (THIRD GENERATION LANGUAGE)

 High Level Language is based upon the 'natural language' and it uses English like word
and symbols instead of binary digits and mnemonics.
 High level languages permit programmers to describe task in a form which is problem
oriented rather than computer oriented. A programmer can formulate problems more
efficiently in a high-level language. Programmer need not have detail knowledge about
the architecture of computer to write program.
 The program written in High Level Language need to be translated into machine
 understandable form using translator program viz. Compiler or Interpreter.
 Examples of High Level Languages are Fortran, Cobol, Pascal, VB6, VB.Net, Java, etc.

Advantages:

 Program written in HLL are Portable; which can run on any machines without
modification.
 They use English like words and symbols like 'natural languages'; so it is easy to write
program.
 Programmer need not have any knowledge of internal structure of computer to write
program in HLL.
 Programs written in HLL are easy to understood, maintain and expand.
 Error tolerance and debugging is very easy.
 It has rich set of instructions, symbols, operators, functions, etc.
 They are user oriented i.e. user can understand and write program easily.
 Available with many functionality including GUI facility, controls, etc.

Dis-Advantages:

 Program written in HLL need to translate into binary code before execution.
 They are slower than LLL and MLL.
 They are having limited functionality i.e. it cannot directly instruct to the hardware. They
are user oriented that means computer cannot understand program written in HLL.
FLOWCHART
Flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. Programmers often use it as a program-
planning tool to solve a problem. It makes use of symbols which are connected among them to
indicate the flow of information and processing.
The process of drawing a flowchart for an algorithm is known as “flowcharting”.

Basic Symbols used in Flowchart Designs

Here are the five most common shapes used in a flowchart.
 Oval (Terminal symbol)
 Rectangle (Process symbol)
 Arrow (Arrow Symbol)
 Diamond (Decision symbol)
 Parallelogram (Input/output symbol)

Rules for Creating Flowchart:

A flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm.it should follow some rules while
creating a flowchart
Rule 1: Flowchart opening statement must be ‘start’ keyword.
Rule 2: Flowchart ending statement must be ‘end’ keyword.
Rule 3: All symbols in the flowchart must be connected with an arrow line.
Rule 4: The decision symbol in the flowchart is associated with the arrow line.

Advantages of Flowchart:
 Flowcharts are a better way of communicating the logic of the system.
 Flowcharts act as a guide for blueprint during program designed.
 Flowcharts help in debugging process.
 With the help of flowcharts programs can be easily analyzed.
 It provides better documentation.
 Flowcharts serve as a good proper documentation.
 Easy to trace errors in the software.
 Easy to understand.
 The flowchart can be reused for inconvenience in the future.
 It helps to provide correct logic.

Disadvantages of Flowchart:
 It is difficult to draw flowcharts for large and complex programs.
 There is no standard to determine the amount of detail.
 Difficult to reproduce the flowcharts.
 It is very difficult to modify the Flowchart.
 Making a flowchart is costly.
 Some developer thinks that it is waste of time.
 It makes software processes low.
 If changes are done in software, then the flowchart must be redrawn

Example: Draw a flowchart to input two numbers from the user and display the largest
of two numbers
 OPERATING SYSTEM

 Operating System lies in the category of system software. It basically manages all the
resources of the computer. An operating system acts as an interface between the
software and different parts of the computer or the computer hardware. The operating
system is designed in such a way that it can manage the overall resources and
operations of the computer.
 Operating System is a fully integrated set of specialized programs that handle all the
operations of the computer. It controls and monitors the execution of all other programs
that reside in the computer, which also includes application programs and other system
software of the computer. Examples of Operating Systems are Windows, Linux, Mac
OS, etc.
 An Operating System (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware
resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system
is the most important type of system software in a computer system.

WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM USED FOR?

The operating system helps in improving the computer software as well as
hardware. Without OS, it became very difficult for any application to be user-
friendly. The Operating System provides a user with an interface that makes any
application attractive and user-friendly. The operating System comes with a large
number of device drivers that make OS services reachable to the hardware
environment. Each and every application present in the system requires the
Operating System. The operating system works as a communication channel
between system hardware and system software. The operating system helps an
application with the hardware part without knowing about the actual hardware
configuration. It is one of the most important parts of the system and hence it is
present in every device, whether large or small device.

FUNCTIONS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM

 Resource Management: The operating system manages and allocates memory,
CPU time, and other hardware resources among the various programs and
processes running on the computer.
 Process Management: The operating system is responsible for starting,
stopping, and managing processes and programs. It also controls the scheduling
of processes and allocates resources to them.
 Memory Management: The operating system manages the computer’s primary
memory and provides mechanisms for optimizing memory usage.
 Security: The operating system provides a secure environment for the user,
applications, and data by implementing security policies and mechanisms such as
access controls and encryption.
 Job Accounting: It keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs or
users.
 File Management: The operating system is responsible for organizing and
managing the file system, including the creation, deletion, and manipulation of
files and directories.
 Device Management: The operating system manages input/output devices such
as printers, keyboards, mice, and displays. It provides the necessary drivers and
interfaces to enable communication between the devices and the computer.
 Performance Monitoring: The operating system provides tools for monitoring
and optimizing system performance, including identifying bottlenecks,
optimizing resource usage, and analyzing system logs and metrics.
 Time-Sharing: The operating system enables multiple users to share a computer
system and its resources simultaneously by providing time-sharing mechanisms
that allocate resources fairly and efficiently.
 Error-detecting Aids: These contain methods that include the production of
dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error-detecting methods.

OBJECTIVES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

Let us now see some of the objectives of the operating system, which are mentioned below.
 Convenient to use: One of the objectives is to make the computer system more convenient
to use in an efficient manner.
 User Friendly: To make the computer system more interactive with a more convenient
interface for the users.
 Easy Access: To provide easy access to users for using resources by acting as an
intermediary between the hardware and its users.
 Management of Resources: For managing the resources of a computer in a better and
faster way.
 Controls and Monitoring: By keeping track of who is using which resource, granting
resource requests, and mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users.
 Fair Sharing of Resources: Providing efficient and fair sharing of resources between the
users and programs.

1) MS-DOS OPERATING SYSTEM

DOS stands for Disk Operating System, which is an operating system that was popular till
1995 in IBM PCs.

It is a single-tasking OS i.e.; it can perform one task at a time.

It is based on a command-line interface where one has to provide instructions to the computer
in the command form.

It runs from hard disks, floppy disks, or any other storage devices and thus provides an
environment for the execution of programs.

It occupies less memory. It was originally released only to OEMs (Original Equipment
Manufacturers) who added support for their hardware. It was eventually released to the public.
Functions of DOS (Disk Operating System)
1. It takes commands from the keyboard and interprets them.
2. It shows all the files in the system.
3. It creates new files and allots space for programme.
4. It changes the name of a file in place of old name.
5. It copies information in a floppy drive and hard disk.
6. It helps in locating a file. 7. It searchers where the file is located in the disk.
8. If we want the information in the file to be printed, it gives printout of the information.
9. It hides the files and directories so as not to be seen by others.
10. It permanently removes the file.

FEATURES OF MS DOS

 MS-DOS does not offer GUI (Graphical User Interface) and doesn't accept mouse inputs. It is a
character-based interface system where all commands are entered in the text at the command-line
prompt.
 A disk operating system manages files, folders and allows program loading and execution. It can
control hardware devices such as disk, memory and allocate resources.
 MS-DOS offers a file system to organize, read and write files to the disk storage.
 It is a single-user operating system and performs various tasks to ensure the proper operation of
systems.
 MS-DOS does not support a multiuser operating system, and it is less secure and does not have a
concept of user roles.
Limitations of MS-DOS
Here are the following limitations of the disk operating system, such as:

 Built-in security: DOS does not have built-in security, such as file ownership and permissions.
 No multiuser or multitasking: It also does not support multiuser or multitasking. It can only
run one program at a time, but it provides direct access to the basic I/O system and underlying
hardware.
 Challenging interface: A user must type in commands and remember commands to run
programs and other OS tasks.

Types of MS-DOS Commands

An instruction given to a computer to perform a specific task is known as a command. The MS-DOS has
many commands to perform each task, and these commands are stored in the DOS directory of the disk.
The MS-DOS commands are of two types, internal command, and external command.

 Internal Commands – DIR, CLS, VER, VOL, DATE, TIME, COPY, TYPE, REN, DEL, CD,
MD, RD These commands are automatic loaded into the memory when operating system is
loaded into the memory. Thus these are also called memory‐resident commands. The commands
available are all combined together and are stored in Command.com file, which is a executable
command file. These internal commands are further grouped according to their properties.
Commands Description

break It is used to enable or disable the computer's breaking capability.

call It is used to call the batch file from another file.

cd This command is used to modify the system directory.

chdir It is used to modify the system directory.

cls This command is used to clear the system screen.

cmd It is used to open the command interpreter.

color It is used to modify the foreground and background color of the window screen.

command It is used to open the command interpreter.

copy It is used to copy one or more files to a different position.

date It is used to see or change the system date.

del It is used to delete one or multiple files.

delete It is used to delete the file.

dir It is used to list the contents of one or multiple dictionaries.

drivparm It allows overwriting of original device drivers.

echo It is used to show messages and enables and disables echo.

md This command is used to make a new directory in the system.

mkdir This command is used to make a new directory in the system.

mklink This command is used to create a symbolic link.

move It is used to move one or multiple files from one directory to another.

path It is used to view and modify the path location of the system.

rd It is used to remove an empty directory from the system.

ren This command is used to rename a file in the system.

rename This command is used to rename a file in the system.

rmdir It is used to remove an empty directory from the system.

 External Commands
There are various external disk operating system commands. Some of the external commands are as
follows:

Commands Description

append It enables open files in a different directory as if they were in the current
one.

arp It is used to display, add, and remove arp data from network devices.

assign It is used to assign a drive letter to a different letter.

at It is used to set a time for commands to be executed.

attrib It is used to show and modify the file attributes.

bcdedit This command is used to change the boot configuration data store.

cacls This command is used to see and change file ACL's.

chcp It supplements the international keyboard and character set knowledge.

chkdsk It is used to check the hard drive running FAT for errors.

chkntfs It is used to check the hard drive running NTFS for errors.

choice It is used to define a listing or various options within a batch file.

clip It is used to redirect the command line output to the windows clipboard.

comp It is used to compare the files.

compact This command is used to compress and uncompress the files.

control It is used to open control panel icons from the DOS prompt.

convert It is used to convert FAT to NTFS.

 LINUX OPERATING SYSTEM

 The Linux Operating System is a type of operating system that is similar to Unix, and it
is built upon the Linux Kernel. (core part of OS and It acts as a bridge between
software applications and the hardware of a computer)
 The Linux Kernel is like the brain of the operating system because it manages how the
computer interacts with its hardware and resources.
 It makes sure everything works smoothly and efficiently. But the Linux Kernel alone is
not enough to make a complete operating system.
 To create a full and functional system, the Linux Kernel is combined with a collection
of software packages and utilities, which are together called Linux distributions.
 These distributions make the Linux Operating System ready for users to run their
applications and perform tasks on their computers securely and effectively.
 Linux is a free and open-source family of operating systems that is resilient and flexible.
 The system’s source code is accessible to everyone for anyone to look at and change,
making it cool that anyone can see how the system works.
 Developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991, the Linux operating system is a powerful and
flexible open-source software platform.
Advantages of Linux
 The main advantage of Linux is it is an open-source operating system.
 In terms of security, Linux is more secure than any other operating system. The software
updates in Linux are easy and frequent.
 Linux is freely available to use on the internet.
 It has large community support.
 It provides high stability. It rarely slows down or freezes and there is no need to reboot it
after a short time.
 It maintains the privacy of the user.

Disadvantages of Linux
 It is not very user-friendly. So, it may be confusing for beginners.
 It has small peripheral hardware drivers as compared to windows.
 WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM
Windows Operating System (OS) is a graphical user interface (GUI) based operating
system developed by Microsoft Corporation.
It is designed to provide users with a user-friendly interface to interact with their
computers. The first version of the Windows Operating System was introduced in 1985, and
since then, it has undergone many updates and upgrades.
Windows Operating System is compatible with a wide range of hardware and software
applications, making it a popular choice for both personal and business computing.
It has a built-in security system to protect the computer from malware and viruses and
provides a comprehensive file management system that makes it easy for users to organize and
access their files. Windows Operating System also allows users to run multiple applications
simultaneously, making it easy to work on multiple tasks at the same time.

FEATURES OF WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

Here are some features of the Windows Operating System:

1. Control Panel: The control Panel is a centralized location within Windows where users can
manage various system settings, including security and privacy, display, hardware and sound,
and programs. It provides users with access to a range of tools and settings, making it easy to
customize the Windows experience.

2. Internet Browser: An Internet Browser is a software application that allows users to access and
browse the Internet. Windows provides a built-in internet browser called Microsoft Edge, which
includes features such as tabbed browsing, search suggestions, and web notes.

3. File Explorer: File Explorer is a file management tool that allows users to browse, open, and
manage files and folders on their computers. It provides a user-friendly interface for users to
view and manage files and includes features such as search, copy, move, and delete.
4. Taskbar: Taskbar is a horizontal bar that appears at the bottom of the Windows desktop. It
provides quick access to frequently used applications and displays open windows and programs.
The taskbar also includes system icons such as volume, network, and battery status.

5. Microsoft Paint: Microsoft Paint is a graphics editing software that allows users to create and
edit images. It provides users with basic drawing tools such as a pencil, brush, and eraser, and
allows users to add shapes, text, and images to their designs.

6. Start Menu: Start Menu is a menu that appears when users click the Start button on the
Windows taskbar. It provides access to frequently used applications, settings, and files, and
includes a search bar that allows users to quickly find files and applications.

7. Task Manager: Task Manager is a system tool that allows users to view and manage running
applications and processes. It provides users with information about CPU and memory usage and
allows users to end unresponsive programs and processes.

8. Disk Clean-up: Disk Clean-up is a system tool that allows users to free up space on their hard
drives by removing unnecessary files and data. It scans the system for temporary files, cache,
and other unnecessary data, and provides users with the option to remove them.

VARIOUS VERSIONS OF WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

Here are some of the major versions of the Windows Operating System:

1. Windows 1.0: This was the first version of the Windows Operating System, released in 1985. It
was a graphical user interface (GUI) for MS-DOS and included features such as a calculator,
calendar, and notepad.

2. Windows 2.0: This version was released in 1987, and introduced features such as support for
VGA graphics, keyboard shortcuts, and improved memory management.

3. Windows 3.0: This version was released in 1990, and was the first widely successful version of
the Windows Operating System. It introduced features such as Program Manager, and File
Manager, and improved support for graphics and multimedia.

4. Windows 95: This version was released in 1995, and was a major milestone for Windows. It
introduced the Start menu, taskbar, and support for plug-and-play devices. It also included the
Internet Explorer web browser.

5. Windows 98: This version was released in 1998, and included improvements to the Start menu
and taskbar, as well as support for USB devices.

6. Windows 2000: This version was released in 2000, and was designed for business use. It
included features such as Active Directory, improved network support, and support for the NTFS
file system.

7. Windows XP: This version was released in 2001, and was a major overhaul of the Windows
interface. It introduced a new visual style, improved performance, and support for wireless
networks.
8. Windows Vista: This version was released in 2006, and included a new interface called Aero, as
well as improved security features.

9. Windows 7: This version was released in 2009, and included improvements to the Start menu,
taskbar, and Aero interface. It also introduced new features such as Jump Lists and Libraries.

10. Windows 8: This version was released in 2012, and was designed for touchscreens and tablets.
It introduced the Start screen, as well as new apps and features such as Charms and Snap.

11. Windows 10: This version was released in 2015. It includes a redesigned Start menu, support for
virtual desktops, and new apps and features such as Cortana and the Edge browser.

UNIX OPERATING SYSTM

 Unix is an Operating System that is truly the base of all Operating Systems like
Ubuntu, Solaris, POSIX, etc.
 It was developed in the 1970s by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others in the
AT&T Laboratories. It was originally meant for programmers developing software
rather than non-programmers.
 Unix and the C were found by AT&T and distributed to government and academic
institutions, which led to both being ported to a wider variety of machine families than
any other operating system.
 The main focus that was brought by the developers in this operating system was
the Kernel.
 Unix was considered to be the heart of the operating System.

The system Structure of Unix OS are as follows:

 UNIX is a family of multitasking, multiuser computer operating systems developed in

the mid-1960s at Bell Labs.
 It was originally developed for mini computers and has since been ported to various
hardware platforms.
 UNIX has a reputation for stability, security, and scalability, making it a popular choice
for enterprise-level computing.
 The basic design philosophy of UNIX is to provide simple, powerful tools that can be
combined to perform complex tasks.
 It features a command-line interface that allows users to interact with the system
through a series of commands, rather than through a graphical user interface (GUI).

Some of the key features of UNIX include:

1. Multiuser support: UNIX allows multiple users to simultaneously access the same system
and share resources.
2. Multitasking: UNIX is capable of running multiple processes at the same time.
3. Shell scripting: UNIX provides a powerful scripting language that allows users to automate
tasks.
4. Security: UNIX has a robust security model that includes file permissions, user accounts,
and network security features.
5. Portability: UNIX can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms, from small embedded
systems to large mainframe computers.
6. Communication: UNIX supports communication methods using the write command, mail
command, etc.

Advantages of UNIX:
1. Stability: UNIX is known for its stability and reliability. It can run for long periods of time
without requiring a reboot, which makes it ideal for critical systems that need to run
continuously.
2. Security: UNIX has a robust security model that includes file permissions, user accounts,
and network security features. This makes it a popular choice for systems that require high
levels of security.
3. Scalability: UNIX can be scaled up to handle large workloads and can be used on a variety
of hardware platforms.

4. Flexibility: UNIX is highly customizable and can be configured to suit a wide range of
needs. It can be used for everything from simple desktop systems to complex server
environments.
5. Command-line interface: UNIX’s command-line interface allows for powerful and efficient
interaction with the system.

Disadvantages of UNIX:
1. Complexity: UNIX can be complex and difficult to learn for users who are used to
graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
2. Cost: Some UNIX systems can be expensive, especially when compared to open-source
alternatives like Linux.
4. Limited software availability: Some specialized software may not be available for UNIX
systems.

COMMANDS OF UNIX

 cat --- for creating and displaying short files

 chmod --- change permissions
 cd --- change directory
 cp --- for copying files
 date --- display date
 echo --- echo argument
 ftp --- connect to a remote machine to download or upload files
 grep --- search file
 head --- display first part of file
 ls --- see what files you have
 lpr --- standard print command (see also print )
 more --- use to read files
 mkdir --- create directory
 mv --- for moving and renaming files
 ncftp --- especially good for downloading files via anonymous ftp.
 print --- custom print command (see also lpr )
 pwd --- find out what directory you are in
 rm --- remove a file
 rmdir --- remove directory
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LINUX AND UNIX
LINUX UNIX
The source code of Linux is freely The source code of Unix is not freely available
available to its users general public
It has graphical user interface along It only has command line interface
with command line interface
Linux OS is portable, flexible, and can Unix OS is not portable
be executed in different hard drives
Different versions of Linux OS are Different version of Unix are AIS, HP-UX,
Ubuntu, Linux Mint, RedHat Enterprise BSD, Iris, etc.
Linux, Solaris, etc.
Linux is an open-source operating Unix is a proprietary operating system that was
system that was first released in 1991 originally developed by AT&T Bell Labs in the
by Linus Torvalds. mid 1960s.
Linux has much broader hardware Unix was originally designed to run on large,
support than Unix. expensive mainframe computers, while Linux
was designed to run on commodity hardware
like PCs and servers.
User Interface of Linux is Graphical or User Interface of unix is text-based.
text-based.