TOPIC 4

VECTOR CALCULUS
4.0. VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION
Learning Outcomes
- Define vector function and scalar point function
- Determine the derivatives of a scalar function of a single and two real
variable
- Determine the derivatives of a vector function of a single and two real
variables
- Define and compute the tangent, normal and binormal vectors
- Define and determine tangent plane and normal line, directional derivative
of a scalar field
- Define and compute the gradient of a scalar field, divergence, curl and
Laplacian of a scalar or vector field
- Determine vector valued functions between different coordinate systems
(cylindrical, spherical)
4.1. Introduction

Vector Calculus is concerned with differentiation and integration of vector and

scalar fields. In this topic we shall introduce the concepts of vector and scalar fields
of a single or two real variables and those of their limits and differentiability. The
techniques of differentiation will be applied in obtaining the derivatives of the scalar
and vector fields. The physical interpretation of the derivatives of these fields shall
be given at the end of the topic. Moreover, cylindrical and spherical co-ordinates
systems will be used for the fields in two or three dimensions.

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A field is a just but a function of a certain variables, for example in cartesian
coordinates, ( , , ) or cylindrical co-ordinate , ( , , ), or spherical co-
ordinate system, ( , , ).

4.2. Vector functions of real variables

A vector quantity may be given in terms of a single variable or two or more variables
and will have different values or components at different points in space.

A vector field is a function of two or three variables mapping to a vector i. e A vector

field has a vector given for each point in space. A vector field on two- or three-
dimensional space is a function ⃗ that assigns to each point (x, y) or (x, y, z) a two
(or three) dimensional vector given by ⃗ ( , ) or ⃗ ( , , ) with a definite
magnitude and direction, both of which changes continuously from point to point
throughout the field region.

For example, the electric field of a point charge is large near the charge and it
decreases as we got farther away from the charge. So, we can say that the electric
field here is the physical quantity that varies from point to in space and it can be
expressed as a continuous function of the position of a point in that region of space.
Now the term field is defined as the region in which at every point some physical
quantity (temperature, electric field, etc.) has a value. So, by field, we mean both the
region and the value of the physical quantity in that region.

Graphically vector fields are represented by lines known as field or flux lines. These
lines are drawn in the field in such a way that tangent at any point of the line gives
the direction of a vector field at that point. To express the magnitude of the vector
field at any point first draw an infinitesimal area perpendicular to the field line. The
number of field lines passing through this area element gives the magnitude of the
vector field. One more important thing here to note is that the lines representing

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vector fields cannot cross, because if they cross, they would give non-unique field
direction at the point of interaction.

4.2.1 Vector function of a single variable, t

Consider a function ( ) = ( )+ ( )+ ( ) where t is a real variable.

Then, ( ) is called a vector function of the real variable t.

Examples of vector functions of a single real variable t

i) The velocity at any point in a moving fluid, ( )= ( )+ ( )+

( ). As an example, consider a fluid flowing along a tube of varying
cross-section. In this case, if we specify the fluid velocity at each point, we
obtain a vector field, which may be dependent on time if the pressure
difference across the tube is varied with time.
k

……………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………..
j

……………………………………………………………………………

i) The gravitational force on a particle in space, ( ) = ( )+ ( )+

( )
ii) The path of a moving particle, ( ) = ( )+ ( )+ ( ), etc

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 4.2.2. Vector functions of two real variables, u and v

Consider a function ( , ) = ( , )+ ( , )+ ( , ), where u and v

are continuous real variables. Then, ( , ) is called a vector function of two real
variables u and v.

Example

The vector equation of the Gaussian surface in space or in three dimensions in

terms of curvilinear co-ordinates given as ̅ = ̅ ( , ) = ( , )+ ( , )+
( , ), here the real variables are u and v. For example

̅= !" + + !" is a vector function of real variables

of u and v representing the vector equation of a sphere of radius
4.3. Ordinary derivatives of vector fields of a real variable

This is the rate of change of a vector function i. e finding the gradient function,
derived function or differential coefficient of a vector function . All the techniques
of differentiation will be applied to obtain the derivatives of vector functions.

Let ( ) = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) be a vector function whose values depend on

a single scalar variable t. Then , the derivative of ( ) from first principles of
differentiation is denoted by
#$ ∆$
= lim
#% ∆%→+ ∆%

,( $ (%-∆%).$ (%)
) = lim
%.%0
if the limit exists
∆%→+

#$ #1$
#% #% 1
Similarly , the second derivative of is denoted as provided it exists. Thus,
( ) is said to be differentiable at t. Since ( ) is a function of a single variable,
then will get the ordinary derivative.
Some rules of differentiation of vector functions
If and 2 are two vector functions of scalar variable , then

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 # #6 #7
3 ±25= ±
#% #% #%
i) (sum-difference rule)
# #7 #6
ii)
#%
3 .2 5 = . #%
+ 2.
#%
(dot product rule)
# #7 #6
3 ×25= × +2×
#% #% #%
iii) (cross product rule)
iv) If is a continuous function of a scalar variable : and : is a continuous
function of another scalar variable , then
#6 #6 #%
= .
#% #% #;
(chain rule)

Example 1

a) Find the velocity and acceleration of a particle which moves along the curve
̅=2 3 + 2 !" 3 + 8
b) Find also the magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration

Solution
#?̅
a) Velocity, = = 6 !" 3 − 6 3 +8
#%
#B # 1 ?̅
acceleration, = = = −18 3 − 18 !" 3
#% #% 1

b) Magnitude of = | | = E(6!" 3 ) + (−6 3 ) + (8)

= √36!" 3 + 36 3 + 64
= E36(!" 3 + 3 ) + 64
= √36 + 64 = √100 = 10

Magnitude of = | | = E(−18 3 ) + (−18!" 3 )

= √324 3 + 324!" 3 = √324 = 18

Example 2

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Given I⃗ = + !" + , find

#JI⃗ # 1 JI⃗ #JI⃗ # 1 JI⃗

iii) K K iv) K K
#% #% 1 #% #% 1
i) ii)

solution

#JI⃗
= !" − +
#%
i)
# 1 JI⃗
=− − !"
#% 1
ii)
#JI⃗
K K = E(!" ) + (− ) + 1 = √!" + + 1 = √1 + 1 =
#%
iii)

√2
# 1 JI⃗
K K = E(− ) + (−!" ) = √ + !" = √1 = 1
#% 1
iv)

Example 3

A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are = L .% , =

2!" 3 , = 2 3 , where is the time.

(a) Determine its velocity and acceleration at any time.

(b) Find the magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration at = 0.

Solution

a) The position vector r of the particle is ̅ = + + = L .% +

2!" 3 + 2 3
#?⃗
= = −L .% − 6 3 M + 6!" 3 N
#%
Then the velocity,
#B # 1 ?⃗
= = = L .% − 18!" 3 − 18 3
#% #% 1
And the acceleration is
#?⃗ # 1 ?⃗
= − + 6N, = − 18M, then
#% #% 1
b) At t=0,
#?⃗
Magnitude of v at t=0 is K K = E(−1) + 6 = √1 + 36 = √37
#%

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 # 1 ?⃗
Magnitude of a at t=0 is K K = E1 + (−18) = √1 + 324 = √325
#% 1

Example 4

If QR = 5 + − and S = − !" , find

(Q̅. S)
#
#%
(a)

(QR × RS)
#
#%
(b)

(QR . Q̅)
#
#%
(c)

solution

a) Q̅. S = (5 2
+ − 3
). ( − !" )=5 2
− !"
T
(5 2
− !" ) = 10 + 5 2 !" − !" +
T
= 5 2 !" + 11 − !"
M N
b) QR × RS = U 5 2
− 3 U = − 3 !" − 3
+ (− 5 2 !" − )
− !" 0
#
(− !" − + (− 5 !" − ) ) = (t sin t − 3t cos t) [ −
#%

(t cost + 3t sin t) \ + (5t sin t − l It cost − sin t) ^

c) QR . Q̅ = (5 2
+ − 3
). (5 2
+ − 3
) = 25 4 + 2
+ 6

T
(25 4 + 2
+ 6
) = 100 +2 +6 _
T

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Exercise 4.1

1. A particle moves along the curve = 2 , = − 4 , = 3 − 5,

where t is the time. Find the components of its velocity and acceleration at time
= 1 in the direction − 3M + 2N.
2. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by ⃗ = !" ` + `
where ` is a constant. Show that (a) the velocity v of the particle is perpendicular
to ⃗, (b) the acceleration is directed toward the origin and has magnitude
proportional to the distance from the origin, (c) ⃗ × = constant vector.

Tangent, normal and binormal vectors

I⃗
a − I⃗
e

⃗
−

−
If
if ⃗ = ( ) + M ( ) + N ( ) is a space curve, then the rate of change of ⃗ with
respect to is defined as the general tangent to the space curve i. e A tangent vector
is the rate of change of the path moved by a particle from a fixed point. It is denoted
by aI⃗ given by;

I⃗ = #?⃗
a
#%
I⃗
bc

The corresponding unit tangent vector is given by ⃗ = bd

I⃗
bc
K K
bd
I⃗ is a vector in the direction of the normal to the curve i. e
A normal vector e
II⃗
bg
I⃗ =
I⃗
#f
e and the unit normal vector to the curve, C is given by I⃗ = bd
#% II⃗
bg
h h
bd

A binormal vector S I⃗ is perpendicular to both the tangent vector and normal vector
to the curve.
I⃗ = a
S I⃗ × e
I⃗

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Example
Find the tangent, normal and binormal vectors to the curve at the point p on the curve
where = 1 + , = 4 − 3 and = 2 − 6 . Determine the unit tangent vector
to the curve at the point where = 2
Solution
Let the curve be defined by vector , ⃗ = + M + N
Then,
⃗ = (1 + ) + (4 − 3)M + (2 − 6 )N
The tangent vector is given by; aI⃗ = #?⃗ = 2 + 4M + (4 − 6)N
#%

I⃗ =
I⃗
#f
Normal vector , e =2 +4
#%
M N
I⃗ = a
Binormal vector, S I⃗ × e
I⃗ = U2 4 4 − 6U = 16 − 12 − 8
2 0 4
I⃗
bc

Then the unit tangent vector , ⃗ =

%i-jk-(j%.l)m %i-jk-(j%.l)m
bd
I⃗ = =
bc
K K E( %)1 -j 1 -(j%.l)1 √j% 1 - l- l% 1 .jn%- l
bd
At = 2,
4 +4 +2 2 2 1
⃗= = + +
√36 3 3 2

Ex.1. Given the space curve = , = , = 3 , find the tangent, normal and
binormal vector at the point where = 1.

4.4. Partial derivatives of two real variables

When a vector function is expressed in terms of two or more real variables, then each
of the variables change partially with the dependent vector quantity considered.
Thus, partial derivatives.

If (̅ , ) is any vector function of two real variables u and v, then the partial
derivatives of (̅ , ) from first principles of differentiation is denoted as follows;

p(o-∆o,B).p(o,B)
lim
∆o
if it exists is called the partial derivative of u. Thus,
∆o→+

qp̅ p(o-∆o,B).p(o,B)
= lim
qo ∆o→+ ∆o

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Similarly,

is the partial derivative of (̅ , ) with respect to

qp̅ p(o,B-∆B).p(o,B)
= lim
qB ∆B→+ ∆B

Note: The physical interpretation of these partial derivatives of vector functions

shall be given later in the topic

Example 5
R = (2
If r − j
) + (L st − ) + !" , find:
qr
qs
a)
qr
qt
b)

q1 r
qs 1
c)

q1 r
qt 1
d)

q1 r
qsqt
e)

q1 r
qtqs
f)

Solution

q
((2 2
− 4
) + (L − ) + 2
!" ) = (4 −4 ) +
qs
a)

( L − !" ) + 2 !"
q
((2 2
− 4
) + (L − ) + 2
!" )=2 2
+( L − ) −
qt
b)
2

q1 r q qv̅ q
c)
qs 1
= u w = qs x(4
qs qs
−4 ) +( L − !" ) + 2 !" y=

(4 − 12 ) +( L st + ) + 2!"

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 q1 r q qv̅ q
d)
qt 1
= u w = qt x2
qt qt
2
+( L − ) − 2
y= L st − !"
q1 r q qv̅ q
e)
qsqt
= u w = qs (2
qs qt
2
+( L − ) − 2
)=4 +( L st +

L st − !" ) −2
q1 r q qv̅ q
f)
qtqs
= u w = qt z(4
qt qs
−4 ) +( L − !" ) + 2 !" {=4 +

( L +L − !" ) −2
R
q1 r R
q1 r
=
qsqt qtqs
Note: that i. e the order of differentiation does not matter. This is

R has at least continuous partial derivatives of the second order.

true if r

Example 6

q• $⃗
⃗ = x2 y2 z2 i − x2 y4 z j + xy3 z3 k, find at the point (2, −1,1)
qtqsq‚

Solution

q• $⃗ q1 q$⃗ q1
qtqsq‚
= u w = qtqs (2x2 y2 i
qtqs qƒ
− x2 y4 j + 3xy3 z2 k)

q q q
„ (2x2 y2 i
qt qs
− x2 y4 j + 3 xy3 z2 k)… =
qt
(4 −2 j
M + 3y3 z2 k) = 8 −

8 M+9 N

q• $⃗
At (2, −1,1), = 8(2)(−1) − 8(2)(−1) + 9(−1) (1)
qtqsq‚

= −16 + 16 + 9

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