General Physics

• Classical Mechanics
1. Newtonian Mechanics
Applied to particles, rigid bodies, Elastic systems,
and fluids
2. Hamiltonian Mechanics

• Electromagnetism

• Thermodynamics/ Statistical Mechanics

• Quantum Mechanics

• Special Relativity
Central Elements of Studies for Physics Students

• Classical Mechanics
• Electrodynamics
• Statistical Mechanics
• Quantum Mechanics
Physics

Physical Mental
(body) (mind)
Sound,
sight,
touch, Intuition
smell,
taste

Instruments + Math

Measurements
+ Physical Sciences
Rigorous Analysis
Measurements

• Physical Quantities

• Base Quantities Base Units (SI or MKSA)

• Length m
• Mass kg
• Time s
• Current A

• Derived Quantities
• Area, Volume, Velocity, Momentum, etc.
Derived Quantities e.g. Area
l2 l2 l2

l1 l1 l1

area = l1  l2 area = l1  l2

l1 1
area = l1  l2
2
l2

area = ? Integration
Derived Quantities e.g. Velocity

1. Motion in one dimension with a constant speed

x
Velocity at any time t v (t ) =
t

2. Motion in one dimension with a varying speed

Velocity at time t v (t ) = ?

Differentiation
 Differentiation
Calculus
Integration

f ( x) x : the variable f : a function of x

Difference x  f = f ( x + x) − f ( x)
Note: x and f are finite (i.e. not infinite and not infinitesimal).

x → 0  differentials dx, df = f ( x + dx) − f ( x)

Note: dx and df are infinitesimal.

df f ( x + dx) − f ( x) f ( x + x) − f ( x)
However , = = lim can be finite.
dx dx x → 0 x
df

f ( x) = is called the first derivative of f .
dx
"To obtain derivatives of f " is called "to differentiate f ".
d
: differentiation operator
dx
 f ( x) Geometrical Meaning of Differentiation

f ( x0 + x ) − f ( x0 ) f ( x0 + dx ) − f ( x0 )
lim =
x → 0 x dx
f ( x0 + x )

f ( x0 )
x
x0 x0 + x Slope of the curve at x0

Some Examples of Differentiation:

df ( x )
f ( x ) = 3x 2 + 2 x + 1  = 6x + 2
dx
df ( x ) df ( x )
f ( x ) = sin x  = cos x f ( x ) = cos x  = − sin x
dx dx
df ( x ) df ( x ) 1
f ( x ) = exp( x ) = e 
x
= exp( x ) f ( x ) = ln x  =
dx dx x
Some Rules of Differentiation:

df ( x ) df ( x ) df ( x )
1. f ( x ) = a1 f1 ( x ) + a2 f 2 ( x )  = a1 1 + a2 2
dx dx dx
d
e. g. [3sin x + 5cos x ] = 3cos x − 5sin x
dx

df ( x ) df ( x ) df ( x )
2. f ( x ) = f1 ( x )  f 2 ( x ) = f 2 ( x) 1 + f1 ( x ) 2
dx dx dx
d 2 d d d
e. g. [ x − 1] = [( x + 1)( x − 1)] = ( x − 1) [ x + 1] + ( x + 1) [ x − 1] = 2 x
dx dx dx dx

df ( x ) df1 ( y ) df 2 ( x )
3. f ( x ) = f1 ( f 2 ( x ))  = y = f2 ( x ) 
dx dy dx
d d
e. g. [12 x 2 + 12 x + 5] = [3(2 x + 1) 2 + 2]
dx dx
d d
= [3 y + 2] y =2 x +1  [2 x + 1] = 24 x + 12
2

dy dx
 Definite Integration
Integration Indefinite Integration

Geometrical Meaning of Definite Integration

( x2 − x1 ) n −1

f ( x) let x = , S =  f ( x1 +i  x )  x
n i =0

 S is the total area in the rectangles

f ( x1 + x )
If n →   x → dx
f ( x1 ) n −1
x 
x2
….. →
x1
i =0
x2

x S= f ( x )dx
x1
x1 x2 is the area under the curve from x1to x2 .
 d
Indefinite Integration is the  dx f ( x )dx = f ( x ) + c
counter-action of differentiation c : an arbitrary constant

df ( x )
Note : If g ( x ) = then the definite integral of g ( x ) between x1 and x2
dx
x2 x2 df ( x ) x2 f ( x + dx ) − f ( x )
x1 g ( x )dx = x1 dx dx = x1 dx
dx

= [ f ( x1 + dx ) − f ( x1 )] + [ f ( x1 + 2dx ) − f ( x1 + dx )] + + [ f ( x2 ) − f ( x2 − dx )]
= f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )

x2
 x1
f ( x )dx =  f ( x )dx x = x2 −  f ( x )dx x = x1
To calculate the area under a curve f(x) :
1. calculate the indefinite integral of f(x) g ( x) =  f ( x)dx
x
2. The definite integral  f ( x )dx = g ( x2 ) − g ( x1 )
2

x1

e. g.
1. f ( x ) = 6 x + 2  f ( x )dx = 3x 2 + 2 x + c
1
  f ( x )dx = (3 + 2 + c ) − ( c ) = 5
0

2. f ( x ) = 3exp( x )  f ( x)dx = 3exp( x) + c

1
  f ( x )dx = [3exp(1) + c] − [3exp(0) + c] = 3( e − 1)
0

2
3. f ( x ) =
x  f ( x)dx = 2 ln x + c
3 3
 f ( x )dx = [2 ln 3 + c] − [2 ln 2 + c] = 2(ln 3 − ln 2) = 2 ln( )
2 2
Some Examples of Using Calculus to solve physical
problems

I. Motion with constant speed in one dimension

dx
= v (a constant)  dx = vdt
dt
  dx =  vdt  x = vt + c
Let x (0) = x0  c = x0
 x (t ) = vt + x0
II. Motion with constant acceleration in one dimension

dv
= a (a constant)  dv = adt
dt
  dv =  adt  v = at + c
Let v(0) = v0  c = v0  v (t ) = at + v0
dx
= v (t ) = at + v0  dx = ( at + v0 )dt
dt
1 2
 dx =  (at +v0 )dt  x = 2 at + v0t + c
Let x (0) = x0  c = x0
1 2
 x (t ) = at + v0t + x0
2
 Scalars → magnitude only
Physical Quantities (one number)
Vectors →magnitude and direction
(more than one number)
e.g.
Scalars : mass, temperature…
Vectors: position, displacement, velocity, acceleration, force…

z
Vectors
A
A𝑧
A = A xiˆ + A y ˆj + A z kˆ = (A x ,A y ,A z )
A𝑦
in Cartesian Coordinates y
1
A = (A x 2 + A y 2 + A z ) 2 2 A𝑥

x
 A = A xiˆ + A y ˆj + A z kˆ = (A x ,A y ,A z )
B = Bxiˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ = ( Bx ,B y ,Bz )
C = C xiˆ + C y ˆj + C z kˆ = (C x ,C y ,C z )

Addition of Vectors
A + B = C  C x =A x +B x , C y =A y +B y , C z =A z +Bz

A 𝐵

𝐶Ԧ

Multiplication by a scalar
aA = B  Bx =aA x , B y =aA y , Bz =aA z , B =a A
 A
Multiplication by a vector (dot product)

A B=c c = A B cos 
𝐵

Multiplication by a vector (cross product)

iˆ ˆj kˆ 𝐶Ԧ

A  B = Ax Ay Az = C
Bx By Bz
C x = A y Bz − A z B y
C y = A z Bx − A x Bz
𝐵
C z = A x B y − A y Bx

C = A B sin  A
Note
1. A B = B A
2. A  B = − B  A
3. if A ⊥ B  A B = 0
4. if A B  A  B = 0
d A ˆ d A x ˆ dA y ˆ d A z
5. =i +j +k
dt dt dt dt
6.  Adt = iˆ  A x dt + ˆj  A y dt + kˆ  A z dt
 Some Examples of Using Vectors and Calculus to solve
physical problems y
v0
I. Projectile Motion
0
a = − gjˆ = (0, − g ,0) x
v (0) = v0 = v0 cos  0iˆ + v0 sin  0 ˆj = ( v0 cos 0 , v0 sin 0 ,0)
z
 dv x
 dt = 0 
   dvx = 0  v x (t ) + c1 = 0 c1 = −v0 cos 0  v x (t ) = v0 cos  0
dv  dv    
a=   y = − g    dv y = −  gdt  v y (t ) = − gt + c2   c2 = v0 sin 0   v y (t ) = − gt + v0 sin  0
dt  dt   v (t ) + c = 0  
  c3 = 0  v z (t ) = 0
 z dv   z
dv = 0 z 3

 dt = 0

r (t ) = ( x (t ), y (t ), z (t ))
r (0) = ( x (0), y (0), z (0)) = (0,0,0)
 dx
 dt = v0 cos  0  x (t ) = ( v0 cos  0 )t
 Note: t = ( v0 cos  0 ) −1 x
dr  dy  1
v (t ) =   = − gt + v0 sin  0   y (t ) = − gt 2 + ( v0 sin 0 )t  y = (tan  0 ) x + ( −
g
) x2
dt  dt  2 2( v0 cos  0 ) 2

 dz  z (t ) = 0
 = 0 A parabola
dt
II. Uniform Circular Motion

y
𝑣Ԧ
ˆ ˆ y ˆ x ˆ
v = ( −v sin  )i + ( v cos  ) j = ( −v )i + ( v ) j
r r r
dv v dy ˆ v dx ˆ v

x a= = ( − )i + ( ) j = ( − v yiˆ + v x ˆj )
dt r dt r dt r
1 2
v v
a = [( −v y ) 2 + ( v x ) 2 ] 2 = Note
r r 𝑣𝑥 is negative

v2
a has a magnitude of and a direction pointing to the center
r
Centripetal Acceleration
 Chapter 5 Force and Motion

Mechanics
Force
Initial State Final State
e.g. ( r (0), p(0)) e.g. ( r (t ), p(t ))
 ( r ,0) ( r , t )

Newtonian Mechanics
Relativity
Classical Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics
Hamiltonian Mechanics
Newtonian Mechanics
Newton’s Laws of Motion

I. Newton’s 1st law :

dv
If Fnet = 0 then =0
dt
v is indepent of time.
i.e. The object is at rest or moving with a constant velocity.
II. Newton’s 2nd Law:

Fnet = ma

III. Newton’s 3rd Law:

FAB = − FBA
 Examples: 1. Select a
y coordinate
I. Find the system
forces between F m1 m2 x
m1 and m1.
FN 2
FN1

2. Draw Force F12 m2

F m1 F21
Diagrams

m1 g m2 g
3. Apply Newton’s Laws
2nd law: in the x-direction F − F21 = m1a F12 = m2a
in the y-direction FN1 − m1 g = m1  0 = 0 FN 2 − m2 g = m2  0 = 0

3rd law: F 12 = F21

F m2 F
a= , F12 = F21 =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
II. Projectile Motion y
v0
Initial State (r (0), p(0)) Force Fnet = −mgjˆ = (0, − mg ,0)
r (0) = ( x (0), y (0), z (0)) = (0,0,0) 0
p(0) = mv (0) = ( mv0 cos  0 , mv0 sin  0 ,0)
x
dvx dv y dv
Newton's 2nd Law: Fnet = ma  (0, − mg ,0) =(m ,m ,m z ) z
dt dt dt
 dvx =
p(0)
= ( v0 cos  0 , v0 sin  0 ,0)
 dt = 0
Since v (0)

   dvx = 0  vx (t ) + c1 = 0
m
 y
dv    v x (t ) = v0 cos  0
 = − g    dv y = −  gdt  v y (t ) = − gt + c2 , 
dt  v y (t ) = − gt + v0 sin  0
   v (t ) + c = 0
 dvz   z =  z  v z (t ) = 0
dv 0 
3

 dt = 0

 dx
 dt = v0 cos  0  x (t ) = ( v0 cos  0 )t
 
dr  dy 1
v (t ) =   = − gt + v0 sin  0 , and r (0) = (0,0,0)   y (t ) = − gt 2 + ( v0 sin 0 )t
dt  dt  2
 dz  z (t ) = 0
 = 0
dt

Final State ( r (t ), p(t ))

1
r (t ) = (( v0 cos  0 )t , − gt 2 + ( v0 sin 0 )t ,0)
2
p(t ) = ( mv0 cos  0 , −mgt + mv0 sin 0 ,0)
III. Simple Harmoinic Motion

k
m v0 Initial State (x (0), p(0)) = ( x0 ,mv0 )
Force Fnet = −kx
0 x
x0
d dx d 2x d 2x d 2x k
Newton's 2nd Law: Fnet = ma = m ( ) = m 2  m 2 = −kx  2 + x = 0
dt dt dt dt dt m
k d 2x
Let  =
2
, we have 2 +  2 x = 0 (a second-order linear differential equation)
m dt
Note:
The solutions of a second-order linear homogeneous differential equation
d 2 f ( x) df ( x)
a 2
+b +cf(x)=0
dx dx
form a 2 dimensional linear space (set of functions).
Any linear combination a1 f1 ( x) + a2 f 2 ( x) of solutions f1 ( x) and f 2 ( x) is also a solution.
If f1 ( x) and f 2 ( x) are linearly independent solutions, then the general solution is given by
f ( x) = a1 f1 ( x) + a2 f 2 ( x), where a1 and a2 are arbitrary constants.
To find two independent solutions, try x (t ) = e t .
d 2 t 2 t d t 2 t 2 t 2 t
2
e +  e = 0   e +  e = 0   e +  e =0
dt dt
  2 +  2 = 0   = i
 We have two indepent solutions x1 (t ) = eit , x2 (t ) = e − it
And the general solution is x(t)=c1eit + c 2e − it
dx
 v (t ) = = ic1eit − ic 2e − it
dt
Initial conditions x (0) = x0 , v(0) = v0 Note:
 c1 + c2 = x0 ei = cos  + i sin 
v0 v0 x0 / 2
c1 − c2 = = −i let cos = ,
i  x0 2
v 2
+ 02
x0 v0 x0 2 v0 2 − 1 v0 4 4
 c1 = − i = + 2 exp[−i tan ( )]
2 2 4 4 x0 v0 / 2
sin  =
x0 v x02
v 2
v x0 2 v0 2
c2 = +i 0 = + 0 2 exp[i tan −1 ( 0 )] + 2
2 2 4 4 x0 4 4
Note:
ei = cos  + i sin 
x0 / 2
let cos = ,
2 2
x0 v
+ 02
4 4
v0 / 2
sin  =
x0 2 v0 2 𝑥0 2 𝑣0 2
+ 2 4
+
4𝜔 2
4 4
𝑣0 Τ2 𝜔

𝑥0 Τ2
 x0 2 v0 2 −1 v0 x0 2 v0 2 −1 v0
x(t)= + 2 exp[ −i tan ( )]eit + + 2 exp[i tan ( )]e − it
4 4 x0 4 4 x0
x0 2 v0 2  −1 v0 −1 v0 
= + 2 exp[i (t − tan ( ))] + exp[ − i(t − tan ( ))] 
4 4  x0 x0 
v0 2 v0
= x0 2 + cos[t − tan −1 ( )]
2 x0
x0 2 v0 2 −1 v0 it x0 2 v0 2 v
v (t ) = i + 2 exp[ −i tan ( )]e − i + 2 exp[i tan −1 ( 0 )]e − it
4 4 x0 4 4 x0
v0 2 v v0 2 v0
= − x0 2 + 2 sin[t − tan −1 ( 0 )] Let xm = x0 2 + ,  = − tan −1
( )
 x0  2
x0

The final state: [x(t ), p(t )] = [ xm cos(t +  ), −m xm sin(t +  )]

Hamiltonian Mechanics
Hamilton’s Principle:
Of all possible paths between two known points a dynamical system passes in
the coordinate vs. time plot, the system takes the one that minimizes the action.
X(t)
t2,x(t2) t2 dx
Action S =  L{x(t ), x(t )}dt , where x(t ) =
t1 dt
Lagrangian L{x(t ), x(t )} = T ( x) − U ( x)
Path with the least action T:kinetic energy, U:potential energy.
t1,x(t1)
t
Some mathematical tools
df
1. If f ( x) has an extremum (maximum or minimum) at x0 , then =0
dx x = x0

2. Partial differentiation for a multiple-variable function f ( x, y )

f f ( x + dx, y ) − f ( x, y ) f f ( x, y + dy ) − f ( x, y )
= ; =
x dx y dy
f f x f y
If x = x(u , v) and y = y (u , v) then = +
u x u y u
Let x(t ) be the path that gives a minimum for the action S.
All paths connecting the two points [t1 , x(t1 )] and [t2 , x(t2 )] can be written as
x( , t ) = x(0, t ) +  (t ) , where  (t ) is any function satisfying  (t1 ) =  (t2 ) = 0.
t2
S ( ) =  L{x( , t ), x( , t )}dt
t1

dS
Since x(t ) is the path that gives a minimum for the action S, we have = 0.
d  =0

dS d t2 t2 L{ x ( , t ), x ( , t )}
= [  L{x( , t ), x( , t )}dt ] =  dt
d d t1 t1 
t2 L x L x
= ( + )dt
t1 x  x 
x x d
Since x( , t ) = x(0, t ) +  (t ), we have =  (t ) and =  (t ) = .
  dt
dS t2 L t2 L d
 =  (t )dt +  dt
d t1 x t1 x dt
 d  L  d L L d
Noting   (t )  =  ( t ) +
dt  x  dt x x dt
L d L d L
2 t
t2 t2
 dt =  (t ) −   (t ) dt
t1 x dt x t1
t1 dt x
t2 d L
= −   (t ) dt
t1 dt x
dS t2   L d L  
 =   (t )  −   dt , where x = x( , t ).
d t1
  x dt x  
dS L d L
= 0 for all  (t )  − =0, where x = x(0, t ) = x(t ).
d  = 0 x dt x

L d L
− =0 is the Lagrange equation of motion.
x dt x
 1 2
Note L{x(t ), x(t )} = T ( x) − U ( x) = mx − U ( x)
2
L
 = mx = p
x
L d L
and the Lagrangian equation − =0
x dt x
L d L d
 = = p= p
x dt x dt
p2
Define the Hamiltonian H = px − L = T + U = + U ( x)
2m
H p H  L
 = = x; = ( px − L) = − = − p (by Lagrangian equation)
p m x x x
H dU
H Note = = −F
=x x dx
p
H d 2x
H = − p  F = m 2 = ma
= −p x dt
x This reproduces Newton's 2nd law!
are the Hamilton's equations of motion.
 Chapter 6 Force and Motion II

Fundamental Forces: Some forces in the macroscopic world

GMm
Gravitational −mg , − 2
r
Electromagnetic Coulomb Normal Force,
Tension,
Weak spring force,
Friction,
Strong drag force,
……….
 T (tension)
FN (Normal Force)

T (tension) m
friction
v

Drag force mg
Fluid (Gravitational force)

Coefficient of static friction

Static frictional force f s ; f s   s FN Normal

force
Friction force
Kinetic frictional force f k ; f k = k FN
Coefficient of kinetic friction

Note: Without spinning the wheels,

the car is subject to STATIC friction that
cause it to accelerate.
𝑓Ԧ𝑠 𝑓Ԧ𝑠
 1
Fluid density r Drag force D = C r Av 2 ;
2
Drag force D A v C : drag coefficient
(typically 0.4~1.0)
Note: Consider the fluid of mass m and volume Al
that lies in the course of the object.
1 A m
mv 2
1 1  m
r Av 2 = Av 2 = 2
2 2 Al l 𝛥𝑙
1
mv 2 is the kinetic energy of the fluid seen by the object.
2
If a fraction C of such energy is used to do work on the object
1 1
by drag force D, then C mv 2 = Dl. Terminal Speed vt : Fg = C r Avt 2
2 2
1 m 2 1
We have D = C v = Cr Av 2 2 Fg
2 l 2  vt =
Cr A
 Chapter 7 Kinetic Energy and Work

Definition of Work:
Ԧ 𝑟)
𝐹( റ 2
W = F l 𝑟റ d𝑟റ

1 𝑟+d
റ 𝑟റ
𝐹 𝑙
𝑥
0 𝑙
dW = F  dr
= ( Fx , Fy , Fz )  (dx, dy, dz )
1. When F is not parallel to l :
= Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz
W = F l 2
W12 =  F  dr
2. When F is a function of x: 1
x2 y2 z2
l
=  Fx dx +  Fy dy +  Fz dz
W =  Fdx x1 y1 z1
0
Newton's 2nd Law:
dv
i) in 1-D Fnet = ma = m
dt
x2 x2 dv v2 dx v2
 Wnet =  Fnet dx =  m dx =  m dv = m  vdv
x1 x1 dt v1 dt v1

v2
1 2 1 1
= mv = mv2 − mv12
2

2 v1 2 2
1 2
Define the kinetic energy K= mv
2
 Wnet = K 2 − K1 = K
i.e. The work Wnet done by the net force on an object
is equal to the kinetic-energy increase K for that object.
(Work-Kinetic Energy theorem)
 dv dvx dv y dvz
ii) in 3-D Fnet = ma = m  ( Fnet , x , Fnet , y , Fnet , z ) = (m ,m ,m )
dt dt dt dt
2 x2 y2 z2
 Wnet =  Fnet  dr =  Fnet , x dx +  Fnet , y dy +  Fnet , z dz
1 x1 y1 z1

x2 dvx y2 dv y z2 dvz
= m dx +  m dy +  m dz
x1 dt y1 dt z1 dt
vx ,2 dx v y ,2 dy vz ,2 dz
=  m dvx +  m dv y +  m dvz
vx ,1 dt v y ,1 dt vz ,1 dt
v
x ,2 vy ,2 v
z ,2
vx ,2 v y ,2 vz ,2 1 1 1
= m vx dvx + m  v y dv y + m  vz dvz = mvx 2 + mv y 2 + mvz 2
vx ,1 v y ,1 vz ,1 2 vx ,1 2 v y ,1 2 vz ,1

1 1 1 1 1 1
= ( mvx ,2 2 − mvx ,12 ) + ( mv y ,2 2 − mv y ,12 ) + ( mvz ,2 2 − mvz ,12 )
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
= m(vx ,2 2 + v y ,2 2 + vz ,2 2 ) − m(vx ,12 + v y ,12 + vz ,12 ) = mv2 2 − mv12
2 2 2 2
= K 2 − K1 = K
 Wnet = K Work-Kinetic Energy theorem
Example: Work done by a spring force
k
m m
x
Fnet = Fs = − kx xi xf
xf
xf xf 1 1 2 1
Ws =  Fs dx =  (−kx)dx = − kx 2 = kxi − kx f 2
xi xi 2 xi 2 2
If xi = 0 and v f = 0, what is vi ?
Note:
1
xi = 0  Ws = − kx f 2 Recall that, for a simple spring-and-mass system,
2 Initial state [x(0), p(0)] = ( x0 ,mv0 )
Final state: [x(t ), p(t )] = [ xm cos(t +  ), −m xm sin(t +  )]
By work-kinetic energy theorem,
v0 2 v0 k
1 1 ,where xm = x0 2 + ,  = − tan −1 ( ),  =
 x0
Ws = K = K f − K i = mv f 2 − mvi 2
2
m
2 2
v0 vi
1 xi = x0 = 0  xm = =
v f = 0  Ws = − mvi 2  
2 v f = 0  sin(t +  ) = 0  cos(t +  ) = 1  x f = xm

1 1 k  vi =  xm =  x f =
k
 − kx f 2 = − mvi 2  vi = xf m
xf
2 2 m
Power

dW F  dr dr
Power P = = =F = F v
dt dt dt
 Chapter 8 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
Force
Conservative force e.g. gravitational force, spring force, etc.
Nonconservative force e.g. frictional force, drag force, etc.

For a conservative force F , there exists a potential energy function U(r)

such that dW = −dU

Work done by 𝐹Ԧ Decrease of U

dU
(i) In 1-D dW = Fdx  Fdx = −dU  F = −
dx
(a) U ( x) =  dU = −  Fdx
x2 x2 dU U ( x2 )
(b) W12 =  Fdx = −  dx = −  dU = −[U ( x2 ) − U ( x1 )] = −U
x1 x1 dx U ( x1 )
Example: Elastic potential energy

(a) F = −kx
k
m
1
U ( x) =  dU = −  Fdx =  kxdx = kx 2 + C x
2
Let U (0) = 0  C = 0 (The reference point is set at x = 0)
1 2
 U ( x) = kx
2

(b)
 x2 x2
x
1 2 2 1 2 1 2
W12 = x Fdx = − x kxdx = − kx = kx1 − kx2
 1 1 2 2 2
 x1

 1 2 1 2 1 2
U ( x) = 2 kx  U = U ( x2 ) − U ( x1 ) = 2 kx2 − 2 kx1

 W12 = −U
(ii) In 3-D dW = F  dr = ( Fx , Fy , Fz )  (dx, dy, dz ) = F x dx + Fy dy + Fz dz
f f f
Note: df ( x, y, z ) = f ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) − f ( x, y, z ) = dx + dy + dz
x y z
      f f f
Define  = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ = ( , , )  df = ( , , )  (dx, dy, dz ) = f  dr
x y z x y z x y z
 dU = U  dr
dW = F  dr
Ԧ 𝑟)
𝐹( റ 2
 dW = −dU  F = −U 𝑟റ d𝑟റ

1 𝑟+d
റ 𝑟റ

(a) dU = −dW = − F  dr  U (r ) =  dU = −  F  dr
2 2 2 U U U
(b) W12 =  F  dr = −  U  dr = −  ( dx + dy + dz )
1 1 1 x y z
2
= −  dU = −[U (r2 ) − U (r1 )] = −U
1
Note:
1. Wa =  F  dr = −[U (r2 ) − U (r1 )] = −U b
a
a
2
Wb =  F  dr = −[U (r2 ) − U (r1 )] = −U Ԧ 𝑟)
𝐹( റ
b
d𝑟റ c
Wc =  F  dr = −[U (r2 ) − U (r1 )] = −U
c 𝑟റ
1
Work done by a conservative force on a particle 𝑟+d
റ 𝑟റ

moving from point 1 to point 2 is independent of the

path the particle takes between the two points.

2
d𝑟റ
2. W =  F  dr = W12 + W21 = W12 + (−W12 ) = 0
1
Ԧ 𝑟)
𝐹( റ

Work done by a conservative force on a particle 𝑟റ

𝑟+d
റ 𝑟റ
moving around any closed path is zero.
 Example: Gravitational potential energy

(a) F = (0, −mg , 0)

U ( x, y, z ) =  dU = −  F  dr = −  (0, −mg , 0)  (dx, dy, dz ) =  mgdy = mgy + C
Let U ( xi , yi , zi ) = 0  C = −mgyi (The reference point is set at y = yi )
 U ( x, y, z ) = mg ( y − yi )

(b) 2
y 𝑟റ d𝑟റ

 W = 2 F  dr = − y2 mgdy = −mgy y2 = mg ( y − y )
 12 1 y1 y1 1 2 1
mg
𝑟+d
റ 𝑟റ
x
U ( x, y, z ) = mg ( y − y )  U = U ( x , y , z ) − U ( x , y , z )
 i 2 2 2 1 1 1
z
 = mg ( y2 − yi ) − mg ( y1 − yi )

 = mg ( y2 − y1 )

 W12 = −U
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
f
𝐹Ԧ net(𝑟)
റ
Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem: Wnet = K = K f − K i
d𝑟റ
If Fnet is conservative  Wnet = −U = U i − U f
𝑟റ
𝑟+d
റ 𝑟റ
i
 K f − Ki = U i − U f
 K f + U f = K i + U i (when the net force is conservative)

Define Mechancal Energy Emec = K + U

 Emec , f = Emec ,i Consrvation of Mechanical Energy
(when the net force is conservative)

Note: U is determined by the force and the reference point through F = −U .
1 2 dv
K= mv is determined by the force and the initial velocity through F = m .
2 dt
Potential Energy Curve
dU
F =−
dx
U(x) Emec = K + U

Emec
F F

xT1 xA xB xC xT2 x

xT1,xT1 Turning Points;

xA,xC Stable Equilibrium Points
xB Unstable Equilibrium Point
Chapter 9 Center of Mass and Linear Momentum
Newton's 2nd Law for each particle
F1 = Fext ,1 +  Fi1 = m1a1
i 1

F2 = Fext ,2 +  Fi 2 = m2 a2
Fext ,1
i2 m1 Fext ,2
F12
F21
Fn = Fext ,n +  Fin = mn an F31 F13
F32
m2
in
F23
m3
F =  Fi =  Fext ,i +  Fji =  mi ai
i i i j i i Fext ,3
System
Newton's 3rd Law  Fji = − Fij   Fji = 0
i j i

d 2 ri d2 d2
 F =  Fext ,i =  mi ai =  mi 2 =  2 (mi ri ) = 2  (m r ) i i
i i i dt i dt dt i

d2 1
Let the total mass  mi = M  F = M 2 [  (m r )]
i i
i dt M i

1 d 2 rCOM d 2 1
Define center of mass rCOM i (mi ri )  aCOM = dt 2 = dt 2 [ M i (mi ri )]
=
M
1
M V
 F = MaCOM Note: For continuous mass distribution rCOM = r rdV ; M =  r dV
V
 z
(x,y,z)
Spherical coordinates (r ,  ,  )

r  x = r sin  cos 
 
y  y = r sin  sin 
 r sin   z = r cos 


(x,y,z)
Cylindrical coordinates ( r ,  , z )
 x = r cos 

z  y = r sin 
y  z=z
 r 

x
Note:
dV = dxdydz in Cartesian coordinates ( x, y, z )
dV = (dr )(rd )(r sin  d ) = r 2 sin  drd d in spherical coordinates ( r ,  ,  )
dV = (dr )(rd )(dz ) = rdrd dz in cylindrical coordinates (r ,  , z )
R dr
Examples:
I. The volumn of a cube of side length a
l
a a a a a a
V =  dxdydz =   dxdydz =  [  (  dx)dy ]dz = a 3
V 0 0 0 0 0 0

II. The volumn of a sphere of radius R

2  R 2  R
V =  r sin  drd d = 
2
  r sin  drd d =  [  sin  (  r 2 dr )d ]d
2
V 0 0 0 0 0 0

R 3 2  2 R 3 2 4 R 3
=
3 0
[  sin  d ]d =
0 3 0
d =
3
III. The volume of a cylinder of radius R and a length l
l 2 R l 2 1 2 R l l 2
(i) V =    rdrddz =  [  (  rdr )d ]dz =  [  R d ]dz =   R 2 dz =  R 2l
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0

R R 1
(ii) dV = 2 r  l  dr ; V =  dV =  2 rldr =2 l  rdr =2 l R 2 =  R 2l
V 0 0 2
 y
Note: Area of the cone:

( ) 2 R
2
(i ) Area =  R +h
2 2
 =  R R 2 + h2  M
2 R + h 2 2

R h 𝑅 2 + ℎ2 h
(ii ) tan  = ; cos  = 𝑑𝑦
h R 2 + h2 𝑑𝑦
cos𝜃
dy 2 R x
dA = 2  (h − y ) tan   = 2 R 2 + h 2 (h − y )dy R
cos  h z
2 R h 2 R 2 h
2
Area =  dA = 2 R + h  (h − y )dy = 2 R + h ( ) =  R R 2 + h 2
2 2 2

h 0 h 2
Center of Mass
M
= ; By symmetry xCOM = zCOM = 0.
R R +h 2 2

1 h 1 2 R h M 2 h
yCOM = 0 0  R R 2 + h2 h2
y dA = + − =  (hy − y 2 )dy
2 2
R h ( y
h y ) dy
M M h2 0

2 h3 1 1
= 2  = h  Center of Mass = (0, h, 0)
h 6 3 3
 dr
Define Linear Momentum p = mv = m
dt
dv d dp
Newton's 2nd Law Fnet = ma = m = (mv ) =
dt dt dt
dp
If Fnet = 0  = 0  The momentum p is constant.
dt

Consider a system of n particles

n n n
dri d n d 1 n
drCOM
P =  pi =  mi vi =  mi = ( mi ri )=M (  mi ri ) = M = MvCOM
i =1 i =1 i =1 dt dt i =1 dt M i =1 dt
dvCOM d dP d n
Since F =  Fext ,i = MaCOM , F ext ,i =M = ( MvCOM ) = = ( pi )
i i dt dt dt dt i =1
d n
F
i
ext ,i = ( pi )
dt i =1
 In a system of particles, if the sum of external force Fi
ext ,i is zero

d n n
then ( pi ) is zero and the sum of momentum  pi is constant.
dt i =1 i =1
 Examples: Collisions v1 f

m1
m1
v1i m1

v2i m2
m2
m2

System System System v2 f

before in after
collision collision collision

No external force is involved

d
F
i
ext ,i = 0  ( pi ) = 0   pi is constant
dt i i
n
(Note P =  pi = MvCOM ; So p i is constant  vCOM is constant)
i =1 i

Therefore, we have
m1v1i + m2 v2i = m1v1 f + m2 v2 f Momentum Conservation
Special Cases:
1. Elastic Collisions  Total kinetic energy is conserved
1 1 1 1
m1v1i + m2 v2i = m1v1 f + m2 v2 f 2 Kinetic energy conservation
2 2 2

2 2 2 2
2. Completely Inelastic Collisions  Two bodies merge
v2 f = v1 f

Typical Problem: Given m1 , m2 , v1i , v2i  Find v1 f and v2 f

1. Elastic collisions in one dimension

m1 − m2 2m2
m1v1i + m2 v2i = m1v1 f + m2 v2 f  v1 f = m + m v1i + m + m v2i
 1 2 1 2
1 1 1 1 2
m1v1i + m2 v2i = m1v1 f + m2 v2 f 
2 2 2
2m1 m2 − m1
2 2 2 2  v2 f = v1i + v2i
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
2. Completely inelastic collisions in one dimension
m1v1i + m2 v2i = m1v1 f + m2 v2 f  m1v1i + m2 v2i
vf =
v1 f = v2 f = v f  m1 + m2
Note: In a 1-D elastic collision,
m1 − m2 2m2 2m1 m − m1
v1 f = v1i + v2i ; v2 f = v1i + 2 v2i
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2

Some cases of special interest for a stationary target (i.e. v2i = 0)

(i) Equal Mass m1 = m2  v1 f = 0 ; v2 f = v1i
2m1
(ii) A massive target m2 m1  v1 f −v1i ; v2 f v1i
m2
(iii) A massive projectile m1 m2  v1 f v1i ; v2 f 2v1i
Collision in two dimensions
y

v1 f
m1

m1 m2
1 x
v1i
2
m2
v2 f
Glancing Collision
Momentum conservation
x-component m1v1i = m1v1 f cos 1 + m2 v2 f cos  2
y-component 0 = − m1v1 f sin 1 + m2 v2 f sin  2
Kinetic energy conservation
1 1 1
m1v1i 2 = m1v1 f 2 + m2 v2 f 2
2 2 2
Given one of the following 4 variables v1 f , v2 f , 1 ,  2
 problem can be solved
 Impulse

t2
Definition: Impulse J =  F (t )dt
t1

I. For a particle of mass m,

dv d (mv ) dp
Newton's 2nd Law Fnet = ma = m = =
dt dt dt
t2 p ( t2 )
Therefore, impulse by the net force J =  Fnet dt =  dp = p (t2 ) − p (t1 ) = p
t1 p ( t1 )

J = p Linear momentum-impulse theorem

II. For a system of particles,

d n
F
i
ext ,i = ( pi )
dt i =1
n n
J =  ( Fext ,i )dt = [ pi (t2 )] − [ pi (t1 )] = P(t2 ) − P(t1 ) = P
t2

t1
i i =1 i =1
Example I. As shown in the figure, n identical projectiles collide with a target
during time interval t. What is the average force exerted on the target?

v
Target

pt arg et = −p projectile for each collision. (momentum conservation)

Let p = p projectile
The impulse J on the target during t is J = −np
The average force Favg on the target is
J −np − n(mv ) (nm)v m
Favg = = = =− =− v
t t t t t
where v = v f − vi for the projectile; m = nm
Example II. A rocket of mass M (t ) traveling in a straight course is ejecting exhaust
products at velocity vrel relative to the rocket. (a) What is the acceleration a
of the rocket? (b) If the velocity is vi at time ti , what is the velocity v f at time t f ?

At time t , the rocket has mass M (t ) traveling with velocity v(t ).

Let the rocket at time t be the system of interest.
The momentum of the system at time t is therefore Mv.
At time t + dt , the rocket has mass M (t + dt ) traveling with velocity v(t + dt ).
Note that exhaust products of mass M (t ) − M (t + dt ) = −dM
dM M (t + dt ) − M (t )
(recall = ) were ejected during the time interval dt.
dt dt
So, the system at time t + dt includes the rocket and the exhaust products of mass − dM
ejected from t to t + dt. We also note v(t + dt ) = v(t ) + dv and the velocity of the exhaust
products is v(t ) + dv − vrel .
The momentum of the system at time t + dt is
M (t + dt )v(t + dt ) + (−dM )[v(t + dt ) − vrel ] = ( M + dM )(v + dv) + ( −dM )(v + dv − vrel )
= Mv + Mdv + vrel dM
dP = ( Mv + Mdv + vrel dM ) − Mv = Mdv + vrel dM

(A) In the outer space

No external force exerting on the system, dP = 0
dM dv
 Mdv + vrel dM = 0  −vrel =M = Ma
dt dt
dM
Let R = − (fuel consumption rate)
dt
We have Rvrel = Ma (1st Rocket Equation)
Define thrust T = Rvrel  T = Ma

1 vf Mf 1
Mdv + vrel dM = 0  dv = −vrel dM   dv = −vrel  dM
M vi Mi M

M
 v f − vi = −vrel (ln M f − ln M i ) = vrel (ln M i − ln M f ) = vrel ln i
Mf
Mi
 v f − vi = vrel ln (2nd Rocket Equation)
Mf
dP = ( Mv + Mdv + vrel dM ) − Mv = Mdv + vrel dM

(B) Firing vertically on the ground

dP = dJ = Fg dt = − Mgdt (linear momentum-impulse theorem)
dM dv dt
 Mdv + vrel dM = − Mgdt  −vrel =M + Mg = Ma + Mg
dt dt dt
dM
R=− (fuel consumption rate) g
dt
We have Rvrel = M (a + g )
Thrust T = Rvrel  T = M (a + g )

1 vf Mf 1 tf
Mdv + vrel dM = − Mgdt  dv = −vrel dM − gdt   dv = −vrel  dM − g  dt
M v i M i M ti

 v f − vi = −vrel (ln M f − ln M i ) − g (t f − ti ) = vrel (ln M i − ln M f ) − g (t f − ti )

Mi
= vrel ln − g (t f − ti )
Mf
Mi
 v f − vi = vrel ln − g (t f − ti )
Mf
 Chapter 10 Rotation
(Rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis)
Rigid body : relative positions between particles are fixed ( independent of time ) .
Degrees of freedom :
3  number of particles → 6(3 for position, 3 for orientation)
Position rCOM = ( xCOM , yCOM , zCOM ); Orientation  , , (Euler angles)

z y Motion in 6-dimensional space

z
𝛽 Special cases:
y (i) Rotation about a fixed axis
x x
𝛼 x𝛾 Variable  only→ one dimensional
motion.
𝑟Ԧ𝐶𝑂𝑀 (ii) Rolling: variables 𝑥𝐶𝑂𝑀 , 
Constraint: 𝑥𝐶𝑂𝑀 ,=R→ one
Axes of rotation: dimensional motion.
z→x→z
Rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis y

r
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉  s
r x
r
y

eˆt = − sin  iˆ + cos  ˆj

eˆr = cos  iˆ + sin  ˆj
r
d ds d d  d 2  x
s = r ;  =  = r ( ) = r ;  = = 2
dt dt dt dt dt
r = xiˆ + yjˆ = (r cos  )iˆ + (r sin  ) ˆj
dr d (r cos  ) ˆ d (r sin  ) ˆ d ˆ d ˆ
v= = i+ j = −r sin  i + r cos  j = −r sin  iˆ + r cos  ˆj
dt dt dt dt dt
ds
 v = (− r sin  ) 2 + (r cos  ) 2 = r (= )
dt
dv d (r sin  ) ˆ d (r cos  ) ˆ d d ˆ d d ˆ
a= =− i+ j = −( r sin  + r cos  )i + (r cos  − r sin  )j
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
= r (− sin  iˆ + cos  ˆj ) + r 2 (− cos  iˆ − sin  ˆj ) = r eˆt − r 2eˆr = at + ar
 at = r eˆt (tangential acceleration); ar = −r 2 eˆr (centripetal acceleration)
 Recall Motion with constant Rotation of a rigid body
acceleration in one dimension about a fixed axis with
constant angular
dv acceleration
= a (a constant)  dv = adt ( a one dimension problem)
dt
  dv =  adt  v = at + c d
=  (a constant)
Let v(0) = v0  c = v0  v (t ) = at + v0 dt
d (t )
dx =  (t )
= v (t ) = at + v0  dx = (at + v0 )dt dt
dt
Let  (0) = 0 ;  (0) =  0
1 2
 dx =  (at +v0 )dt  x = 2 at + v0t + c 
Let x (0) = x0  c = x0  (t ) =  t + 0
1 2 1 2
 x (t ) = at + v0t + x0  (t ) =  t + 0t +  0
2 2
Kinetic energy of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis. y

r
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉  s
r x
r

v = (−r sin  ) 2 + (r cos  ) 2 = r

For discrete distribution of mass
dK =
1 1 1
dm  v 2 = r dV  r 2 2 = (r 2 r dV ) 2 I =  mi ri 2
2 2 2 i

1 1 2
K =  dK = (  r 2 r dV ) 2 K= I .
V 2 V 2
Define rotational inertia I =  r 2 r dV
V
Note: r is the distance to
(moment of inertia)
the axis of rotation
1 2
We have K = I . (not the origin)!
2
Examples
I. A uniform solid sphere of radius R and mass M rotating about any diameter.
(Select a spherical coordinate system with origin at the center of the sphere.)
I =  (r sin  ) 2 r dV
V

dV = r 2 sin  drd d
2  R 2  R
 I = r   r sin  drd d = r 
4 3
 sin  (  r 4 dr )d d
3
0 0 0 0 0 0

R5 2  R5 2  1 
= r  (  sin  d )d =
3
r   (cos 3 − 9 cos  )  d
5 0 0 5 0
12 0
16 R 5 2 16 R 5 2 R 5 4
= r  d =2 r= r
12 5 0 12 5 5 3 rsin
M
For a uniform sphere r = R  r
4
 R3
3 M
2
 I = MR 2
5
II. A uniform solid cylinder of radius R and mass M rotating about
the central axis.(Select a cylindrical coordinate system .)
I =  r 2 r dV
V

dV = 2 rLdr
R R R
 I =  r r  2 rLdr = 2 L r  r 3dr
2 dr
0 0
r
4 4
R R
= 2 L r =  Lr L
4 2
M
M
For a uniform cylinder r =
 R2 L
1
 I = MR 2
2
Parallel-Axis Theorem ICOM I

Proof: Let the origin be

the center of mass. COM I = I COM + Mh 2
z Parallel-axis theorem
M

y h
COM

x
Proof : Let the origin be the center of mass.
1
 rCOM =
M V
r r dV = 0   x r dV =  y r dV =  z r dV = 0
V V V

y
Let the z-axis be the axis for I COM .  I COM =  ( x 2 + y 2 )r dV
V
(a,b,z) axis for I
h I =  ( x − a ) 2 + ( y − b) 2 r dV
V
(0,0,z) (x,y,z)
x =  ( x 2 + y 2 )r dV − 2a  xr dV − 2b  yr dV +  (a 2 + b 2 )r dV
V V V V

= I COM + (a 2 + b 2 )  r dV (Note: a 2 + b 2 = h ;  r dV = M )
V V

 I = I COM + Mh 2
Note: For a system of particles,
1 drCOM 1 dri 1
rCOM =
M i
 i i COM dt M
m r  v = =  mi
i dt M
= m v
i
i i

vi = (vi − vCOM ) + vCOM

1 1
K =  mi vi 2 =  mi [(vi − vCOM ) + vCOM ] [(vi − vCOM ) + vCOM ]
i 2 i 2

1 1 1
=  mi vi − vCOM +  mi vCOM +  mi 2(vi − vCOM )  vCOM
2 2

i 2 i 2 i 2

1 1
=  mi vi − vCOM + ( mi )vCOM +  mi (vi − vCOM )  vCOM
2 2

i 2 2 i i

1 1  
=  mi vi − vCOM + MvCOM +   mi vi  vCOM −  mi vCOM
2 2 2

i 2 2  i i 
1 1 1
=  mi vi − vCOM + MvCOM + M (  mi vi )  vCOM − ( mi )vCOM
2 2 2

i 2 2 M i i

1 1 1 1
=  mi vi − vCOM + MvCOM + MvCOM  vCOM − MvCOM =  mi vi − vCOM + MvCOM
2 2 2 2 2

i 2 2 i 2 2
1 1
=  mi vrel ,i 2 + MvCOM
2
, where vrel ,i = vi − vCOM
i 2 2
Example 
I = I COM + Mh 2
R 2
M = MR 2 + Mh 2
5
h 1 2 1 1
 K = I  = MR  + Mh 2 2
2 2

2 5 2

M
R
R M
M R

Note: vCOM = h ; vrel (r ',  ',  ') = r 'sin  ' 

M
R
1 2 1
K =  vrel r dV + MvCOM
2
V 2 2
1 2 1 1 1
= ( MR 2 ) 2 + M (h ) 2 = MR 2 2 + Mh 2 2
2 5 2 5 2
Angular Momentum and Torque
I. Definition of angular momentum for a particle: l = r  p
dl dr dp dp dp
=  p+r = v  (mv ) + r  =r
dt dt dt dt dt
Definitin of Torque:  = r  F
dp dp
By Newton's 2nd Law Fnet =   net = r  Fnet = r 
dt dt
dl
  net =
dt
II. A system of n particles
Total angular momentum for the system:
n n n
L =  li =  ri  pi =  {[rCOM + (ri − rCOM )]  mi [vCOM + (vi −vCOM )]}
i =1 i =1 i =1
n n
=  (rCOM  mi vCOM ) +  [rCOM  mi (vi −vCOM )]
i =1 i =1
n n
+  [(ri − rCOM )  mi vCOM ] +  [(ri − rCOM )]  mi [(vi −vCOM )]
i =1 i =1
n n n
= rCOM  ( mi )vCOM + rCOM  ( mi vi ) −  [rCOM  mi vCOM ]
i =1 i =1 i =1
n n n
+  (ri  mi vCOM ) −  (rCOM  mi vCOM ) +  [(ri − rCOM )]  mi [(vi −vCOM )]
i =1 i =1 i =1
n n
1
= rCOM  MvCOM + rCOM M(
M
m v )−r
i =1
i i COM  ( mi )vCOM
i =1

1 n n n
+ M (  mi r )  vCOM − rCOM  ( mi )vCOM +  [(ri − rCOM )]  mi [(vi −vCOM )]
M i =1 i =1 i =1

= rCOM  MvCOM + rCOM  MvCOM − rCOM  MvCOM

n
+ MrCOM  vCOM − MrCOM  vCOM +  [(ri − rCOM )]  mi [(vi −vCOM )]
i =1
n
= rCOM  MvCOM +  [(ri − rCOM )]  mi [(vi −vCOM )]
i =1
 n n
L =  ri  pi = rCOM  MvCOM +  [(ri − rCOM )]  mi [(vi −vCOM )]
i =1 i =1

For a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis (e.g. the z-axis)
n
L z = rCOM sin   MvCOM +  ( ri − rCOM sin i  mi vi − vCOM )
i =1
n
= rCOM sin   MrCOM sin    +  ( ri − rCOM sin i  mi ri − rCOM sin i   )
i =1
n
= M (rCOM sin  )  + [ mi ( ri − rCOM sin i ) 2 ]
2

i =1 z
= Mh 2 + I COM  = ( I COM + Mh 2 ) = I  𝜔 𝜔 𝑟Ԧ𝑖 − 𝑟Ԧ𝐶𝑂𝑀
𝜃𝑖
y
x
dLz d
 =I = I
dt dt 𝜃 𝑟Ԧ𝐶𝑂𝑀
dL d n n
dri dpi n
= ( ri  pi ) =  (  pi + ri  ) =  (vi  mvi + ri  Fnet ,i )
dt dt i =1 i =1 dt dt i =1
n n n n
=  ri  Fnet ,i =  ri  ( Fext ,i +  Fji ) =  ri  Fext ,i +  ri  Fji
i =1 i =1 j i i =1 i =1 j  i

Note: ri  Fji = ri Fji sin i = (ri sin i ) Fji = r0 Fji

rj  Fij = rj Fij sin  j = (rj sin  j ) Fij = r0 Fij mi

Fji
Fij
Fji = − Fij (Newton's 3rd Law) 𝑟0 𝛩𝑖
𝛩𝑗
mj
𝑟Ԧ𝑖
n
 ri  Fji = − rj  Fij   ri  Fji = 0 𝑟Ԧ𝑗
O
i =1 j  i

dL n n
 =  ri  Fext ,i =  ext ,i =  net (net external torque)
dt i =1 i =1
n
dLz
 =  ri sin i Fext ,i ,t = z
dt i =1

(Fext ,i ,t : tangential component of the net external force on the ith particle)
For a rigid body rotating about the z-axis (a one dimensional motion),
only the z-component of L and the z-component of  , that comes from
the tangential component of external force Fext ,i , are of interest.
dLz
L z = I  = I
dt
n
dLz
=  ri sin i Fext ,i ,t = z
dt i =1

For such one dimensional motions, we drop the subscript z:

L = I Analogy p = mv
 net = I (Newton's 2nd Law for rotation) Fnet = ma
n n n
Note:  ri sin i Fext ,i ,t =  dW =  dWi =  Fext ,i ,t dsi
i =1 i =1 i =1
n n 2
=  Fext ,i ,t [(ri sin i )d ] = [ ri sin i Fext ,i ,t ]d =  d  W12 =   d
1
i =1 i =1
Translation in 1-D Rotation with a fixed axis
position x angular position 
dx d
velocity v = angular velocity  =
dt dt
dv d
acceleration a = angular acceleration  =
dt dt
mass m rotaional inertia I
Newton's 2nd Law Fnet = ma Newton's 2nd Law  net = I
xf f
work W =  Fdx work W =   d
xi i

1 2 1 2
kinetic energy K = mv kinetic energy K = I 
2 2
dW dW
Power P = = Fv Power P = = 
dt dt
work-kinetic energy theorem work-kinetic energy theorem
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
K = mv f − mvi = Wnet K = I  f − I i = Wnet
2 2 2 2
 Chapter 11 Rolling Torque and Angular Momentum
Smooth rolling (no slipping or bouncing on the surface)
s = R R
ds d 
vCOM = =R = R COM
dt dt
s
𝑣𝐶𝑂𝑀 + 𝑅𝜔
= 2𝑅𝜔
𝑣𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 𝑅𝜔 𝑣𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 𝑅𝜔

Rolling viewed as
𝑣𝐶𝑂𝑀 − 𝑅𝜔 = 0 P
a pure rotation
Axis of rotation

I P = I COM + MR 2 (parallel axis theorem)

1
K= I PP2 (vCOM = R = RP  P =  )
2
1 1 1 1 1
 K = ( I COM + MR ) = I COM  + MR  = I COM  + MvCOM
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2
 z
Center of Mass → Center of Gravity
I. Torque of dV about the origin: d = r  r dV (− gkˆ) COM
𝑀
𝑑𝑉
 The total torque of the system about the origin:
ˆ 1
 net =  d = [  r r dV ]  (− gk ) = [  r r dV ]  (− Mgkˆ) 𝑟Ԧ𝐶𝑂𝑀 ℎ
V V M V

= rCOM  (− Mgkˆ) 𝑟Ԧ
y
x
II. Gravitational Potential
1
U =  dU =  zg r dV = g  z r dV = Mg[  z r dV ] = MgzCOM = Mgh
V V V M V

1
𝐿
Example 2
1 𝜃
The total torque of the system about the origin: LMg sin 
2
1 1
The total gravitational potential: Mg( L cos  ) = LMg cos 
2 2
 The Force of Rolling
Torque y
1) Apply a torque to a round object. 𝑅
e.g. wheels of a car aCOM = R 𝑎𝐶𝑂𝑀
x
𝑀
fs
y
2) Rolling down a ramp x

f s − Mg sin  = MaCOM , x 𝑅
fs
g sin 
Rf s = I COM   aCOM , x =− 𝑀𝑔sin𝜃
I
aCOM , x = − R 1 + COM2 𝜃 𝑀𝑔
MR

3) Yo-Yo y
T − Mg = MaCOM , y 𝑇
g
R0T = I COM   aCOM , y =−
I COM
aCOM , y = − R0 1+ 𝑅
MR0 2 𝑅0
𝑀
 Precession of a Gyroscope
dL
z  =
dt
 = r  (− Mgkˆ) = Mgrjˆ
 = Mgr ,
y
𝑟Ԧ also L = I  (about the axis of rotation)
𝐿 𝜏Ԧ
For a rapid spinning gyroscaope,
x the magnitude of L is fixed.
−𝑀𝑔𝑘෠
L(t ) = L(t + dt )
z dL
dL = Ld  d =
L
The precession rate :
y d 1 dL 1  dt
= = =
𝐿(t) 𝑑𝜙 dt L dt L dt
𝐿(t+dt)  Mgr Mgr
= = =
x d𝐿 L L I
Advanced derivation:
dL
= r  Mg , Let L = L2x + L2y + L2z be a constant and r =  L
dt 𝛺
𝐿(t)
iˆ ˆj kˆ
dL
 =  ML  g =  M Lx Ly Lz = − Mg ( Ly iˆ − Lx ˆj ) 𝜃
dt 𝛺𝑡
0 0 −g

 x
dL  d 2
L dL  d 2
Lx
 dt = −  MgL y  2
x
= −  Mg
y
 2 = − 2
M 2 2
g Lx
 dt dt  dt

 y
dL  d 2
L dL  d 2
Ly
 =  MgLx   =   = −
y 2 2 2

x
2
Mg 2
M g Ly
 dt  dt dt  dt
 dLz  
 dt = 0  
 L
 z ( t ) = Lz (0)  Lz (t ) = Lz (0)

Let Lx (0) = L sin  , Ly (0) = 0, Lz (0) = L cos   Lz (t ) = L cos 

d 2 Ly
+  2 M 2 g 2 Ly = 0
dt 2
(a 2nd-order homogeneous differentiation equation)
To find two independent solutions for the basis, try Ly (t ) = e t
  2 +  2 M 2 g 2 = 0   = i Mg
Ly (t ) = Aei Mgt + Be − i Mgt
Ly (0) = 0  B = − A  Ly (t ) = A(ei Mgt − e − i Mgt ) = 2 Ai sin( Mgt )
dLy 1 dLy
recall =  MgLx  Lx (t ) = = 2 Ai cos( Mgt )
dt  Mg dt 𝛺
𝐿(t)
L sin 
Lx (0) = L sin   A = , Let  =  Mg 𝜃
2i
𝛺𝑡
 Lx (t ) = [ L sin  ]cos(t )
 Mgr Mgr
  Ly (t ) = [ L sin  ]sin(t ) Note: r =  L   =  Mg = =
 L (t ) = L cos  L I
 z
Chapter 12 Equilibrium and Elasticity

For an object in
1) equilibrium  P = a constant and L = a constant,
2) static equilibrium  P = 0 and L = 0.

 Requirements of Equilbrium:
dP
Fnet =  Fext ,i = =0
i dt
dL
 net =  ex t ,i = = 0 (about any possible point)
i dt
 z
Center of Mass → Center of Gravity
I. Torque of dV about the origin: d = r  r dV (− gkˆ) COM
𝑀
𝑑𝑉
 The total torque of the system about the origin:
ˆ 1
 net =  d = [  r r dV ]  (− gk ) = [  r r dV ]  (− Mgkˆ) 𝑟Ԧ𝐶𝑂𝑀 ℎ
V V M V

= rCOM  (− Mgkˆ) 𝑟Ԧ
y
x
II. Gravitational Potential
1
U =  dU =  zg r dV = g  z r dV = Mg[  z r dV ] = MgzCOM = Mgh
V V V M V

1
𝐿
Example 2
1 𝜃
The total torque of the system about the origin: LMg sin 
2
1 1
The total gravitational potential: Mg( L cos  ) = LMg cos 
2 2
 EXAMPLE

i) F
i
ext ,i =0
F1
The gravitaional force effectively F2
COM
acts at the center of mass.
l1 l2
F1 + F2 − Mg = 0

ii) 
i
ext ,i =0
Mg
To simplify the calculation, select a point, that one of the forces acts at,
to be the point about which we calculate the torques.
Mgl1 − F2 (l1 + l2 ) = 0

Mgl2 Mgl1
F1 = ; F2 =
l1 + l2 l1 + l2
Elasticity
Rigid body (ideal) ➔ Elastic (reality)
Tensile/Compressive Stress and Strain 𝐹

F L 𝐴
Stress = ; Strain =
A L 𝐿 𝐿 + Δ𝐿
F L 𝐹
=E ; E : Young's modulus 𝐴
A L
𝐿 𝐿 − Δ𝐿 Tensile
Shearing Stress and Strain 𝐹
F x Compressive
Stress = ; Strain = 𝐹
A L 𝐴 𝛥𝑥
F x 𝐹
= G ; G : Shear modulus 𝐿
A L
𝐹
Hydraulic pressure (stress)
V
P=B ; P : pressure; V : volumn; B: Bulk modulus
V
Stress = Modulus  Strain
Stress
Consider a volume element dV = dxdydz
dF
Stress = ; where dA = dxdy, dydz , or dzdx
dA
Notation: X y is the force per unit area applied
in the x-direction to a plane with normal in the y-direction.
 tensile/compressive stresses X x , Yy , Z z
shearing stesses X y , X z , Yx , Yz , Z x , Z y z
Zz
Static Equilibrium
Fnet = 0  Stress components appear in pairs.
Yx
 net = 0  X y =Yx ; Z x = X z ; Yz = Z y Xy
Xy
Six independent stress components : Yx y

X x , Yy , Z z , Yz , Z x , X y
Zz
x
Strain
Deformation:
r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ → r ' = [ x +  (r )]iˆ + [ y +  (r )] ˆj + [ z +  (r )]kˆ
Consider two points P = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ
1

P2 = ( x + dx)iˆ + ( y + dy ) ˆj + ( z + dz )kˆ
The vector from P1 to P2 is dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ
After deformation
P1 = [ x +  ( x, y, z )]iˆ + [ y +  ( x, y, z )] ˆj + [ z +  ( x, y, z )]kˆ
P2 = [ x + dx +  ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz )]iˆ
+ [ y + dy +  ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz )] ˆj
+ [ z + dz +  ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz )]kˆ
The vector from P1 to P2 becomes
[dx +  ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) −  ( x, y, z )]iˆ
+[dy +  ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) − ( x, y, z )] ˆj
+[dz +  ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) −  ( x, y, z )]kˆ
= [dx + d  ( x, y, z )]iˆ + [dy + d ( x, y, z )] ˆj + [ dz + d  ( x, y, z )]kˆ
     
= [dx + dx + dy + dz ]iˆ + [dy + dx + dy + dz ] ˆj
x y z x y z
  
+[dz + dx + dy + dz ]kˆ
x y z
The change of vector P1P2 due to deformation is
     
[ dx + dy + dz ]iˆ + [ dx + dy + dz ] ˆj
x y z x y z
  
+[ dx + dy + dz ]kˆ
x y z
Compared to the original vector P P : dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ
1 2
 
dx

The tensile/compressive strain in the x-direction: exx = x =
dx x

dy
y 
The tensile/compressive strain in the y -direction: eyy = =
dy y

dz

The tensile/compressive strain in the z -direction: ezz = z =
dz z
 
dz dy
y  
The total shearing strain in the y-z plane: eyz = z + = +
dz dy z y
 
dx dz
x  z  
The total shearing strain in the z -x plane: ezx = + = +
dx dz x z

dy  dx
y  
The total shearing strain in the x-y plane: exy = + x = +
dy dx y x
Six strain components
  
exx = ; eyy = ; ezz =
x y z
     
eyz = + ; ezx = + ; exy = +
z y x z y x

Hooke's Law
 X x   C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16   exx 
Y    
 y  C21 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26  eyy 
 Z z  C31 C32 C33 C34 C35 C36   ezz 
 =    Symmetrical Matrix C = C
 Yz  C41 C42 C43 C44 C45 C46   eyz 
 Z x  C51 C52 C53 C54 C55 C56   ezx 
    
 X y  C61 C62 C63 C64 C65 C66   exy 
Stresses = Moduli  strains
Chapter 13 Gravitation
Newton's law of gravitation
m1m2
F =G 2 G = 6.67  10−11 m3 / kg  s 2
r
Principle of superposition:
Individual gravitational forces are not altered by each other.
n
m0 mi
Fnet =  G 2 rˆi
i =1 ri
Shell theorem
Mm
Fg = 0 Fg = −G 2 rˆ
r
𝑚

r 𝑚

𝑀 𝑀
 z
Proof: 𝑚

1) At an external point 𝛼 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟′
Ԧ
𝑟Ԧ
Let the z-axis be in the direction of r .
𝑑𝑉′
dV ' = r '2 sin  ' dr ' d ' d '
𝜃′ 𝑟′
Ԧ
mr dV ' r − r ' y
dFg = −G (Newton's gravitational force law)
r −r ' r −r '
2
𝑅1

By symmetry, Fg = Fg , z kˆ and therefore x 𝑅2 𝑀

only the z-component of dFg is of interest.

mr dV ' r − r ' ˆ m r dV '
dFg , z = dFg kˆ = −G ( k ) = −G cos 
r −r ' r −r ' r −r '
2 2

Let r − r ' = s
s 2 + r 2 − r '2 r '2 + r 2 − s 2
By cosine law, we have cos  = ; cos  ' =
2 sr 2r ' r
 cos 
Fg = Fg , z kˆ = kˆ  dFg , z = −Gm r kˆ  dV '
r −r '
V' 2

 2 r '2 cos  sin  '

= −Gmr kˆ 
R2

R1  
0 0
r −r '
2
d ' d 'dr '

ˆ R2 
2 r' s +r −r'
2 2 2 2

= −Gmr k     2 (sin  ' d ')  d 'dr '
R1 0
 0 s 2 sr 
r '2 + r 2 − s 2 r '2 + r 2 − s 2
Noting that cos  ' =  d (cos  ') = d ( )
2r ' r 2r ' r
s ds
 sin  ' d ' =  r ' is considered constant
r 'r
when calculating the integral in the bracket.
s is a function of  '.
2  r + r ' r '2 s 2 + r 2 − r '2 sds 
 Fg = −Gmr kˆ 
R2

R1 
0  r − r ' s 2
 2 sr 
r 'r 
d 'dr '
 2  r + r ' r '2 s 2 + r 2 − r '2 sds 
Fg = −Gmr kˆ 
R2

R1 
0  r − r ' s 2
 2 sr 
r 'r 
d 'dr '

ˆ R2  r'
2 r +r ' r 2 − r '2 
= −Gmr k    2 r −r ' (1 + s 2 )ds  d 'dr '
R1 0
 2r
R2 2  r ' r +r '
r' 2 r +r ' 1 
ˆ
= −Gmr k    2 r −r ' 2r 2
+ − r −r ' s 2  d 'dr '
2
ds ( r r ' ) ds
R1 0
 2r
R2 2  r ' r' 1 1 
ˆ
= −Gmr k    2 (2r ') + 2 (r 2 − r '2 )( − )  d 'dr '
R1 0
 2r 2r r −r' r +r' 
R2 2  r ' 
ˆ
= −Gmr k    2 (2r '+ 2r ')  d 'dr '
R1 0
 2r 
4 Gmr ˆ R2 2 4 Gmr ( R23 − R13 ) ˆ
=− 2
k  r ' dr ' = − 2
k
r R1 3r
m  4 4 3  ˆ mM
= −G 2  r ( R23 − R1 )  k = −G 2 kˆ
r  3 3  r
mM
 Fg = −G 2 kˆ at an exterior point
r
2) At an internal point
Consider an infinitesimal shell
mr dV1 ' mr dr ' da1 mr dr ' s12 d  mr dr ' d 
dFg ,1 = −G ˆ
e = −G ˆ
e = −G ˆ
e = −G eˆs1
s1 cos  cos 
2 s1 2 s1 2 s1
s1 s1
mr dV2 ' m r dr ' da2 mr dr ' s22 d  mr dr ' d 
dFg ,2 = −G ˆ
e = −G ˆ
e = −G ˆ
e = −G eˆs2
s2 cos  cos 
2 s2 2 s2 2 s2
s2 s2
Since eˆs1 = −eˆs2  dFg = dFg ,1 + dFg ,2 = 0
 Fg =  dFg = 0  Fg = 0 at an internal point 𝑑𝑟′

Note:
s 𝑠2 𝑚 𝑠12 𝑑𝛺
Angle  = ; 𝛼 𝑑𝛺
r 𝑑𝛺 𝑠1
𝛼
r → radius of the circle, 𝑠12 𝑑𝛺
𝑑𝑎1 =
𝛼 cos𝛼
s → arc length
S
Solid Angle = 2
;
r
r → radius of the sphere,
S → sphere segment area
Examples
I. Gravitation near Earth's surface
Mm Mm GM
Fg = G ; r = R  Fg = G = ma g  a g =
r2 R2 R2
However, a scale that weights an object actually shows the magnitude
of the normal force applied by the scale on the object.
𝑚
At the Equator, for example
FN = mg
v2 𝜔
Fg − FN = m = mR 2 𝑀
R 𝑅
 mag − mg = mR 2  g = ag − R 2 at the Equator.

2
R = 6.37  106 m;  = s −1  R 2 = 0.034m / s 2 9.8m / s 2
24  60  60
II. Gravitation inside the Earth
4
M = r  R3
3
4 3 r3
M ' = r r = M 3 𝑚
3 R
𝑟
M 'm Mm 𝑅
Fg = −G 2 r = −G 3 r rˆ = −kr rˆ
ˆ
r R
GMm
 Simple Harmonic Motion k = 𝑀
R3
k GM 2 R3
 = = T = = 2
m R 3
 GM
Gravitation potential
Conservative force: F = −U
2 2 2 U ˆj U + kˆ U )  (idx ˆ )
  F  dr =  (−U )  dr = −  (iˆ + ˆ + ˆjdy + kdz
1 1 1 x y z
2 U U U 2
= − ( dx + dy + dz ) = −  dU = −[U (r2 ) −U (r1 )] = U (r1 ) − U (r2 )
1 x y z 1

r0
Let U (r0 ) = 0  U (r ) =  F  dr
r

For the Earth's gravitational force on a particle of mass m

located at a distance r from the center of the Earth:
 GMm  GMm
Let U () = 0  U (r ) =  (− 2
) rˆ ' dr ' = −  2
dr '
r r' r r'
1 1 1 GMm
= −GMm[− ]r = GMm( − ) = −
r'  r r
1 GMm
Note: K + U = mv 2 − = 0 The object escapes from the Earth's graviation.
2 R
2GM
v= Escape Speed
R
Kepler's Laws
 d 2r
 Newton's 2nd law F = ma = m 2 d 2r GM
dt  = − rˆ
 2 2
 Newton's law of gravitation F = −G Mm rˆ dt r
 r2 𝑦
In polar coordinates
−iˆ sin  + ˆj cos  = 𝜃መ 𝑟=
Ƹ iˆ cos + ˆj sin 
r = rrˆ = r (iˆ cos  + ˆj sin  ) 𝑚
𝑟
dr dr ˆ d ˆ d 𝜃
 = (i cos  + ˆj sin  ) + r (−iˆ sin  + j cos  ) 𝑥
dt dt dt dt 𝑀
= rrˆ + rˆ
d 2r d 2r ˆ dr d ˆ d
 2 = 2 (i cos  + ˆj sin  ) + (−iˆ sin  + j cos  )
dt dt dt dt dt
dr d ˆ d
+ (−iˆ sin  + j cos  )
dt dt dt
d  d 2
 d  d 2

+ r[−iˆ cos  ( ) 2 − iˆ sin  2 − ˆj sin  ( ) 2 + ˆj cos  2 ]
dt dt dt dt
= rrˆ + 2rˆ − r 2 rˆ + rˆ = (r − r 2 )rˆ + (2r + r )ˆ
ˆ GM
 (r − r )rˆ + (2r + r ) = − 2 rˆ
2

r
 GM
 r − r 2
= −
 r2
2r + r = 0
dr
[Note:l = r  p = r  m = rrˆ  m(rrˆ + rˆ) = (r 2 m )rˆ  ˆ;
dt
Mm dl
 net = r  F = rrˆ  (−G 2 rˆ) = 0  =  net = 0  l = r 2 m is a constant.]
r dt
GM l 2 GM l2 GM
r − r = − 2  r − r ( 2 ) = − 2  r = 2 3 − 2
2

r mr r mr r
1 du
Let r =  dr = −u −2 du = − 2
u u
d m
Also l = mr 2 = mr 2  d t = 2 d
dt ul
 du du
2 d( ) d( ) 2 2

dr
=−
l du d r
 2 =−
l d = − l d = − l
u 2 d u
dt m d dt m dt m m d m 2 d 2
u 2l
l2 GM
Therefore r = 2 3 − 2 can be written as
mr r
l 2 2 d 2u l 2 3 d 2
u GMm 2
− 2u = u − GMu 2
 2 +u =
m d 2
m 2
d l2
 u = uc + u p
where u p is any function that satisfies the equation
d 2u
and uc is the general solution of + u = 0.
d 2

GMm 2
up = 2
is apparently a solution.
l
d 2 uc 
To solve + u = 0, try u = e   = i
d 2 c c

i − i i − i GMm 2
 uc = C1e + C2 e  u = C1e + C2e +
l2
 1 i − i GMm 2
 = C1e + C2 e +
r l2
1
Note: is real for all  .
r
1 GMm 2
1) When  = 0, = (C1 + C2 ) + 2
.  C1 + C2 is real
r l
 Im[C1 ] + Im [C2 ]=0  Im [C2 ]= − Im[C1 ]
1 GMm 2
2)When  = , = i (C1 − C2 ) + 2
.  C1 − C2 is imaginary
2 r l
 Re[C1 ] − Re [C 2 ]=0  Re [C 2 ]= Re[C1 ]
Let C1 = Cei  C2 = Ce − i
2 2
1 GMm GMm
 = C1ei + C2 e − i + 2
= Ce i ( + )
+ Ce − i ( + )
+
r l l2
GMm 2 GMm 2 2Cl 2
= 2C cos( +  ) + 2
= 2
[1 + 2
cos( +  )]
l l GMm
We can select an x-axis such that  = 0
2Cl 2 1 GMm 2 2Cl 2 GMm 2
let e = 2
 = 2
[1 + 2
cos( +  )] = 2
(1 + e cos  )
GMm r l GMm l
1 GMm 2
and rp = r ( = 0).  = 2
(1 + e)
rp l
rp 1 + e cos  1 1 + e cos 
 =  =
r (1 + e) r rp (1 + e)
Recall that x = r cos  and y = r sin  , the above equation can be written as
x
1+ e
1 x2 + y 2
=  x 2 + y 2 = rp (1 + e) − ex
x +y
2 2 rp (1 + e)
 (1 − e 2 ) x 2 + 2erp (1 + e) x + y 2 = rp 2 (1 + e) 2
2erp (1 + e)
y 2
r 2
(1 + e ) 2

 x2 + x+ =
p

(1 − e )
2
(1 − e )
2
(1 − e 2 )

p (1 + e)
2 2
   erp 
2 2
2erp
er y r
x + x+  + = +
2 p

(1 − e)  (1 − e )  (1 − e 2
) (1 − e )  (1 − e ) 
 rp 2 − rp 2 e 2
2
 erp  y2 e 2 rp 2 rp 2
 x +  + = + =
 (1 − e)  (1 − e )
2
(1 − e) 2
(1 − e) 2
(1 − e) 2
2
 erp 
 x + (1 − e) 
  y2
 2
+ 2
=1
 rp  rp 𝑦
  (1 − e )
2

 1 − e  (1 − e ) 2
𝑚
rp 𝑏
𝑟
Let a = and b = a 1 − e 2
𝜃
1− e 𝑥
( x + ea ) 2 y 2 𝑎 𝑒𝑎 𝑀
 2
+ 2 =1
a b
(Elliptical Orbit)
Kepler's firt law: The law of orbits
x2 y 2
Note: If e = 0  2 + 2 = 1 (Circular Orbit)
a a
 dr
Recall = rrˆ + rˆ.
dt 𝑦
The area swept by r during time interval dt is
1 1 1 2 𝑣𝑑𝑡
Ԧ 𝑚
ˆ ˆ ˆ
dA = r  vdt = rr  (rr + r ) dt = r  dt
2 2 2 𝑑𝐴
dA 1 2
 = r 𝑟Ԧ
dt 2 𝜃 𝑥
Recall that l = r 2 m is a constant. Therefore,
𝑀
dA l
= is a constant.
dt 2 m
Kepler's second law: The law of area
The area of an ellipse is  ab and recall that b = a 1 − e 2
 ab  ab 2m ab 2m a 2 1 − e 2
T = = = =
dA l l l
dt 2m
1 GMm 2 l2
Recall that = (1 + e cos  )  r =
r l 2
GMm 2 (1 + e cos  )
l2 1 1 l2 2
2a = r  =0 +r  = = ( + ) = ( )
GMm 1 + e 1 − e GMm 1 − e
2 2 2

2
l
 1 − e2 = 𝑦
aGMm 2
l2 𝑚
4m  a 2 2 4

aGMm = 2 4  2 𝑏
𝑟
T =2
a 3
𝜃
l2 GM 𝑥
T 2 4 2 𝑎 𝑒𝑎 𝑀
 3 =
a GM
Kepler's third law: The law of period
Satellites: Orbits and Energy
GMm 1 2
Potential energy for gravitation: U = − ; Kinetic energy: mv
r 2
Let r = rp at  = 0 and r = ra at  =  .
ra
Note rp + ra = 2a; l = rp mv p = ra mva  v p = va ;
rp
1 GMm 1 GMm 1 ra 2 2 GMm 1 GMm
E = mv p −
2
= mva −
2
 m 2 va − = mva 2 −
2 rp 2 ra 2 rp rp 2 ra
 GM GM  2 r 2
rp GM rp
 va =  − = 2GM =
p
 2
2

 rp ra  ra − rp 2
ra (ra + rp ) a ra
2
𝑦
ra 2 GM ra 𝑟𝑎
 v p = 2 va =
2
𝑣𝑝
rp a rp 𝑏
1 GMm 1 GMm rp GMm 𝑥
E = mva − 2
= − 𝑣𝑎
𝑎 𝑒𝑎 𝑀
2 ra 2 a ra ra
𝑟𝑝
rp − 2a rp − (rp + ra ) GMm GMm
= GMm = GMm =− E=−
2ara 2ara 2a 2a
Einstein and Gravitation

Principle of Equivalence: Gravitation and acceleration are

equivalent.

Newton: Masses → Gravitational force

Einstein: Masses →Curvature of spacetime → Gravitation

Chapter 14 Fluids

Fluid: A substance that flow (liquids, gases)

• Cannot withstand a shearing stress (no force tangential to its surface)
• Can exert a force perpendicular to its surface
dF dm
Pressure P= Density r =
dA dV
Ideal fluid in motion
• Steady flow (laminar flow): time-independent velocity everywhere
• Incompressible flow: constant and uniform density
• Non-viscous flow: no drag force
• Irrotational flow: no whirlpool
Consider a volume element dV = dxdydz located at a point (x, y, z ) inside a fluid.
By Newton's 2nd law, we have 𝑧


 dvx
 −[ P ( x + dx , y , z ) − P ( x , y , z )]dydz = r dxdydz 𝑑𝑦
 dt
 dv y 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑥
 −[ P ( x , y + dy , z ) − P ( x , y , z )]dzdx = r dxdydz r = ( x, y , z )
 dt
𝑦
−[ P( x, y, z + dz ) − P( x, y, z )]dxdy − r dxdydzg

 dv
= r dxdydz z 𝑥
 dt
 P dvx  P dvx
−
 x dydz = r dydz −
 x = r
dt dt
 
 P dv y  P dv y
 − dzdx = r dxdz  − =r
 y dt  y dt
 P dvz  P dvz
 − dxdy − r dxdyg = r dxdy  − − r g = r
 z dt  z dt
  P dvx dx
 − x dx = r dt dx = r dt dvx =r vx dvx

 P dv y dy
 − dy = r dy = r dv y = r v y dv y
 y dt dt
 P dz
 − dz = r dvz +r gdz = r vz dvz + r gdz
 z dt
P P P
 − dP = −( dx + dy + dz ) = r vx dvx + r v y dv y + r vz dvz + r gdz
x y z
2 2 2 2 2
 −  dP =  r vx dvx +  r v y dv y +  r vz dvz +  r gdz
1 1 1 1 1

1 1
 P1 − P2 = r (vx ,2 + v y ,2 + vz ,2 ) − r (vx ,12 + v y ,12 + vz ,12 ) + r g ( z2 − z1 )
2 2 2

2 2
1 1
 P1 − P2 = r v2 2 − r v12 + r g ( z2 − z1 )
2 2
1 1
 P1 + r v12 + r gz1 = P2 + r v2 2 + r gz2
2 2
1
 P + r v 2 + r gz = a constant (Bernoullis Equation)
2
 1 2
P+ r v + r gz = a constant (Bernoullis Equation) 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑃
2 0
𝑧0
For a fluid at rest: v = 0  P + r gz = a constant ℎ
𝜌
Examples: 𝑃 𝑧
1. A tank of water open to the atmosphere
P + r gz = P0 + r gz0 where P0 is the atmospheric pressure and z0 is the water level.
 P = P0 + r g ( z0 − z ) = P0 + r gh , h is the depth underwater.
2. Pascal's principle: A change in th pressure applied to an
𝑚
enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted undiminished to 𝑃ext
𝜌 ℎ
every portion of the fluid and to the wall of its container.
𝑃
P = Pext + r gh 𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑜
Application: Hydraulic Lever 𝐴𝑖 𝐴𝑜
Fi Fo A
P = =  Fo = Fi o  Fi ;
Ai Ao Ai Oil
Ai Ao Ai
Incompressibility: V = Ai di = Ao d o  d o = di  W = Fo d o = ( Fi )( di ) = Fi di
Ao Ai Ao
3. Archimedes' principle
P1 + r gz1 = P2 + r gz2  P2 − P1 = r g ( z1 − z2 )
dA1  cos 1 = dA2  cos  2 = dA
dFb = ( P2 dA2 ) cos  2 − ( PdA
1
 
1 ) cos 1 = ( P2 − P1 ) dA = r g ( z1 − z 2 ) dA = r gdV

Fb =  dFb =  r gdV = r g  dV = rVg

V V V

The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
Note: Floating  Fb = Fg
Apparent weight in a fluid  weight app = weight − Fb
𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑧=0
𝑃1
dA1
𝜃1 𝑧1
𝜌 𝑑𝐴′
𝑑𝑉
𝑉
𝜃2
dA2 𝑧2
𝑃2
Equation of Continuity
𝑙 𝑙
Current density J = r v
𝐴 𝑚 𝐴 𝑚
m l m
(Note: for a uniform flow, r v = = )
Al t At 𝑡=0 𝑡=𝑡
Consider a volume V enclosed by a closed surface S
The outgoing mass from V through S per unit time is  S
J  dS .
d r
The decrease of mass in V per unit time is −
dt V
r dV = − V t
dV

r 𝐽Ԧ
Conservation of mass   J  dS = −  dV
S V t dS = dSnˆ
By divergence theorem  S
J  dS =    JdV ,
V
𝑉
𝑆
r r
we have    JdV = −  dV    J + = 0 (Equation of Continuity)
V V t t
Example:
r
= 0   J  dS = − r v1 A1 + r v2 A2 = 0 𝐴1 𝐴2
t S 𝑣1 𝑣2
 A1v1 = A2 v2
Note:
  
 = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
x y z
ˆ  ˆ  ˆ   ˆ J x J y J z
  J = i
 x y z 
( ˆ
+ j + k   iJ x + jJ y + kJ z = ˆ ) x
+
y
+
z
J x ( x + dx, y, z ) − J x ( x, y, z ) J y ( x, y + dy, z ) − J y ( x, y, z )
= +
dx dy
J ( x, y, z + dz ) − J z ( x, y, z )
+ z
dz
{[ J x ( x + dx, y, z ) − J x ( x, y, z )]dydz +[ J y ( x, y + dy, z ) − J y ( x, y, z )]dzdx
=
(outgoing flux in the x-diection) (outgoing flux in the y-diection)
1 𝑧
+[ J z ( x, y, z + dz ) − J z ( x, y, z )]dxdy}
dxdydz
𝑑𝑦
(outgoing flux in the y-diection) 𝐽𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧൯ 𝑑𝑉 𝐽𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦, 𝑧൯
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
   J (divergence of J ) r = ( x, y , z )
→ outgoing flux of J per unit volume 𝑦
𝑥
Chapter 15 Oscillations

1. Simple Harmonic Motion

• Pendulum

2. Damped Simple Harmonic Motion

3. Forced Oscillations
Simple Harmoinic Motion

k
m v0 Initial State (x (0), p(0)) = ( x0 ,mv0 )
Force Fnet = −kx
0 x
x0
d dx d 2x d 2x d 2x k
Newton's 2nd Law: Fext = ma = m ( ) = m 2  m 2 = −kx  2 + x = 0
dt dt dt dt dt m
k d 2x
Let  =
2
, we have 2 +  2 x = 0 (a second-order linear differential equation)
m dt
Note:
The solutions of a second-order linear homogeneous differential equation
d 2 f ( x ) df ( x )
a 2
+b +cf(x)=0
dx dx
form a 2 dimentional linear space (set of functions).
Any linear combination a1 f1 ( x ) + a2 f 2 ( x ) of solutions f1 ( x ) and f 2 ( x ) is also a solution.
If f1 ( x ) and f 2 ( x ) are linearly independent solutions, then the general solution is given by
f ( x ) = a1 f1 ( x ) + a2 f 2 ( x ), where a1 and a2 are arbitrary constants.
To find two independent solutions, try x (t ) = e t .
d 2 t 2 t d t 2 t 2 t 2 t
2
e +  e = 0   e +  e = 0   e +  e =0
dt dt
  2 +  2 = 0   = i
 We have two indepent solutions x1 (t ) = eit , x2 (t ) = e − it
And the general solution is x(t)=c1eit + c 2e − it
dx
 v (t ) = = ic1eit − ic 2e − it
dt
Initial conditions x (0) = x0 , v(0) = v0 Note:
 c1 + c2 = x0 ei = cos  + i sin 
v0 v0 x0 / 2
c1 − c2 = = −i let cos = ,
i  x0 2
v 2
+ 02
x0 v0 x0 2 v0 2 − 1 v0 4 4
 c1 = − i = + 2 exp[−i tan ( )]
2 2 4 4 x0 v0 / 2
sin  =
x0 v x02
v 2
v x0 2 v0 2
c2 = +i 0 = + 0 2 exp[i tan −1 ( 0 )] + 2
2 2 4 4 x0 4 4
 x0 2 v0 2 v x 2
v 2
v
x(t)= + 2 exp[−i tan −1 ( 0 )]eit + 0 + 0 2 exp[i tan −1 ( 0 )]e − it
4 4 x0 4 4 x0
x0 2 v0 2  −1 v0 −1 v0 
= + 2 exp[i (t − tan ( ))] + exp[ − i(t − tan ( ))]
4 4  x0 x0 
v0 2 v0
= x0 + 2 cos[t − tan (
2
)] −1

 x0
x0 2 v0 2 −1 v0 it x0 2 v0 2 v
v(t ) = i + 2 exp[−i tan ( )]e − i + 2 exp[i tan −1 ( 0 )]e −it
4 4 x0 4 4 x0
v0 2 v0
= − x0 2 + sin[t − tan −1 ( )]
2 x0


d x2
  x(t )=xm cos(t +  )
Fnet = m 2 = −kx  
dt   v(t )= −  xm sin(t +  )
x(0) = x0 ; v(0) = v0   2
 where  = k , x = x 2 + v0 ,  = − tan −1 ( v0 )
 m
m 0
2 x0
Note:
k 2 m
1.  = T = = 2
m  k
dU
2. F = −kx  If F is aconservative force then F = −
dx
dU 1 2
 kx =  dU = kxdx   dU =  kxdx  U ( x ) = kx + C
dx 2
1 1
Let U (0) = 0  U ( x) = kx 2 = kxm2 cos 2 (t +  )
2 2
1 1 1 k 1
K = mv 2 = m 2 xm2 sin 2 (t +  ) = m xm2 sin 2 (t +  ) = kxm2 sin 2 (t +  )
2 2 2 m 2
1 1 1
 E = K + U = kxm2 cos 2 (t +  ) + kxm2 sin 2 (t +  ) = kxm2
2 2 2
Pendulum
Newton's 2nd Law  net = I ℎ 𝜃
Torque  = r  F COM

 net = −hmg sin  = I 𝜃

(Note:  is in the direction pertaining to the decreasing  )

mg
hmg hmg   3 5
hmg
 =− sin  = − ( − + + )−  (for samll  )
I I 3! 5! I
Note:

1 d n f ( x)
1. Taylor's series f ( x) =  n
( x − x0 ) n

n =0 n ! dx x= x 0

3 5
f ( x) → sin  ; x →  ; x0 →  0 = 0  sin  =  − + +
3! 5!
2. How small is small enough for  such that sin    ?
3
3! = 2
 0.005( = 10), 0.01( = 15), 0.02( = 20)
 3!
 hmg d 2 hmg
 =−   2 =− 
I dt I
analogous to


 x(t )=xm cos(t +  )

2
d x k
2
= − x  v(t )= −  xm sin(t +  )
dt m  2
 where  = k v −1 v0
, xm = x0 + 2 ,  = − tan (
2 0
)
 m  x0


  (t )= m cos(t +  )
d
2
hmg 
 2 =−    (t )= −  m sin(t +  )
dt I 
 where  = hmg  2
−1 0
,  m =  0 + 2 ,  = − tan (
2 0
)
 I  0
2 I
Note: T = = 2 (Physical pendulum, small amplitude)
 hmg
Simple pendulum
I = mL2 𝜃
𝐿
h=L
mL2 L
 T = 2 =2
Lmg g
mg
(Simple pendulum, small amplitude)
Damped Simple Harmoinic Motion

k b
m v Initial State (x(0), p(0)) = ( x0 ,mv0 )
Force Fnet = −kx − bv
x
0 x
d 2x dx d 2 x b dx k
Newton's 2nd Law: m 2 = −kx − b  2 + + x=0
dt dt dt m dt m
k b d 2x dx
Let  =
2
and 2 = , we have 2 + 2  + 2x = 0
m m dt dt
To find two independent solutions, try x(t ) = e t .
d 2 t d t 2 t 2 t t 2 t
e + 2  e +  e = 0   e + 2  e +  e =0
dt 2 dt
−2   4  2 − 4 2
  + 2  +  = 0   =
2 2
= −   i  2 −  2 (if    )
2
 We have two indepent solutions x1 (t ) = e −  t +i 2 − 2 t
, x2 (t ) = e −  t −i 2 − 2 t

Let   =  2 −  2 . The general solution is x(t)=c1e −  t +i t + c 2 e −  t −i t

dx
 v(t ) = = (−  + i )c1e −  t +i t + (−  − i )c 2 e −  t −i t
dt
Initial conditions x(0) = x0 , v(0) = v0 Note:
 c1 + c2 = x0 ; ei = cos  + i sin 
(−  + i )c1 + (−  − i )c 2 = v0 x0 / 2
let cos = ,
x0 v +  x0 x0 (v0 +  x0 )
2 2
 c1 = −i 0 +
2 2  4 4 2
x0 2 (v0 +  x0 ) 2 −1 v0 +  x0
(v0 +  x0 ) / 2 
= + exp[−i tan ( )] sin  =
4 4  2
x0  x0 2 (v0 +  x0 ) 2
+
x0 v +  x0 4 4 2
c2 = +i 0
2 2 
x0 2 (v0 +  x0 ) 2 −1 v0 +  x0
= + exp[i tan ( )]
4 4  2
x0 
 x0 2 (v0 +  x0 ) 2 −1 v0 +  x0 −  t + i t
x(t)= + exp[ −i tan ( )]e
4 4 2 x0 
x0 2 (v0 +  x0 ) 2 −1 v0 +  x0 −  t − i t
+ + exp[i tan ( )]e
4 4 2 x0 
(v +  x ) 2
v +  x0
= x0 2 + 0 2 0 e −  t cos[ t − tan −1 ( 0 )]
 x0 
x(t )=xm e −  t cos( t +  ) ,
k (v0 +  x0 ) 2 −1 v0 +  x0

where  =  −  ;  =
2

; xm = x0 +
2 2

;  = − tan ( )
m  2
x0 
Note: I. Compare to undamped SHM
2
k v v
x(t )=xm cos(t +  ), where  = , xm = x0 2 + 02 ,  = − tan −1 ( 0 )
m  x0
II. 1. Amplitude xm e −  t decreases exponentially with time.
2 2
2.   =  2 −  2    T  = T =
 
Forced Oscillations
F0 cos d t
k b
m v Initial State (x(0), p(0)) = ( x0 ,mv0 )
Force Fnet = −kx − bv + F0 cos d t
x
0 x
d 2x dx d 2 x b dx k F
Newton's 2nd Law: m 2 = −kx − b + F0 cos d t  2 + + x = 0 cos d t
dt dt dt m dt m m
k b F0 d 2x dx
Let  =
2
, 2 = and A = , we have 2 + 2  +  2 x = A cos d t
m m m dt dt
The general solution x(t ) = x c (t ) + x p (t )
x p (t ) (particular solution) is any solution of the nonhomogeneous equation.
d 2x dx
x c (t ) (complementary function) is the general solution of 2 + 2  + 2x = 0
dt dt
 xc (t ) = c1e −  t +i t + c2e −  t −i t where   =  2 −  2 .
To find a particular solution x p (t ), try x p (t ) = D cos(d t −  ) = Re[ Dei (d t − ) ]
d2 i (d t − ) d
2
Re[ De ] + 2  Re[ Dei (d t − ) ] +  2 Re[ Dei (d t − ) ] = A cos d t = Re[ Aeid t ]
dt dt
 d2 d
 Re[ 2 Dei (d t − ) + 2  Dei (d t − ) +  2 Dei (d t − ) ] = Re[ Aeid t ]
dt dt
Apparently, the above equation can be automatically satisfied if
d2 i (d t − ) d i (d t − ) i (d t − ) id t
2
De + 2  De +  2
De = Ae .
dt dt
 −d2 Dei (d t − ) + i 2d  Dei (d t − ) +  2 Dei (d t − ) = Aeid t
 −d2 De − i + i 2d  De − i +  2 De − i = A
 −d2 D(cos  − i sin  ) + i 2d  D(cos  − i sin  ) +  2 D(cos  − i sin  ) = A
−d2 D cos  + 2d  D sin  +  2 D cos  = A  ( 2 − d2 ) D cos  + 2d  D sin  = A
 2 
 d D sin  + 2d  D cos  −  D sin  = 0 −( − d ) D sin  + 2d  D cos  = 0
2 2 2

 2d    2 − d2 2d 

  = tan  2 −1
2 
 cos  = ; sin  =
  −  d  ( 2 − d2 ) 2 + (2d  ) 2 ( 2 − d2 ) 2 + (2d  ) 2
A A
D= =
( 2 − d2 ) cos  + 2d  sin  ( 2 − d2 ) 2 (2d  ) 2
+
( −  ) + (2d  )
2 2 2
d
2
( 2 − d2 ) 2 + (2d  ) 2
A A
= =
( 2 − d2 ) 2 + (2d  ) 2 ( 2 − d2 ) 2 + 4d2  2
 A
We have x p (t ) = cos(d t −  )
( −  ) + 4 
2 2 2
d
2
d
2

A
and x(t ) = x c (t ) + x p (t ) = c1e −  t +i t + c2e −  t −i t + cos(d t −  )
( −  ) + 4 
2 2 2
d
2
d
2

dx Ad
v(t ) = = (−  + i )c1e −  t +i t + (−  − i )c 2e −  t −i t − sin(d t −  )
dt ( − d ) + 4d 
2 2 2 2 2

( 2 − d2 ) A
initial conditions x(0) = x0  c1 + c2 + 2 = x0
( − d2 ) 2 + 4d2  2
2d2  A
v(0) = v0  (−  + i )c1 + (−  − i )c 2 + 2 = v0
( − d ) + 4d 
2 2 2 2

( 2 − d2 ) A 2d2  A
Let x0 = x0 − 2 and v0 = v0 − 2
( − d ) + 4d 
2 2 2 2
( − d2 ) 2 + 4d2  2
 c1 + c2 = x0 ; (−  + i )c1 + (−  − i )c 2 = v0
A
 x(t )=xm e −  t cos( t +  ) + cos(d t −  ), where   =  2 −  2 ;
( 2 − d2 ) 2 + 4d2  2
(v0 +  x0 ) 2 −1 v0 +  x0 −1  2d   F0
xm = x0 + 2
;   = − tan ( );  = tan   ; and A =
 2 x0    − d 
2 2
m
 A
x(t )=xm e −  t cos( t +  ) + cos(d t −  )
( −  ) + 4 
2 2 2
d
2
d
2

1
when t , the transient term xm e −  t cos( t +  ) is negligible. (damped out with time)

A
 x(t )  cos(d t −  ) at large t.
( −  ) + 4 
2 2 2
d
2
d
2

A
 D(d ) =
( 2 − d2 ) 2 + 4d2  2
dD(d )
To find the maximum amplitude, =0
d d
1 A
− 3
[ −4 d ( 2
−  2
d ) + 8  2
d ] = 0
2
[( 2 − d2 ) 2 + 4d2  2 ] 2
A{−2d [d2 − ( 2 − 2  2 )]}
 3
= 0  d =  2 − 2 2 = R (resonance frequency)
[( 2 − d2 ) 2 + 4d2  ] 2 2

Note: 1. When the frequency d of the applied periodical force is  2 − 2  2 ,

the oscillations have maximum amplitude.
2. If there is no damping, b = 0   = 0  R = 
Chapter 16 Waves I.

1. Mechanical waves (transverse, longitudinal)

• governed by Newton’s laws
• exist only within a material medium

2. Electromagnetic waves

3. Matter waves
 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)

dm =  dx

x x + dx 𝑥

For a taut and transversely waved string of linear density  and tension  in the x-direction,
the x-component of the tension is  , 
 y ( x, t )
y ( x, t )   The y -component of the tension is 
and the slope of the string is . x
x 
Consider an infinitesimal section dx of mass dm =  dx.
The net force on dm has an x-component equal to zero
y ( x, t ) y ( x, t )
and y -component  − .
x x = x + dx x x= x

y ( x, t ) y ( x, t )  2 y ( x, t )  2 y ( x, t )
By Newton's 2nd law,  − = dm =  dx
x x = x + dx x x= x t 2 t 2
y ( x, t ) y ( x, t )
 −
x x = x + dx x  2 y ( x, t )  2 y ( x, t )   2 y ( x, t )
 x= x
=  − = 0 (wave equation)
dx t 2 x 2  t 2
On the other hand, consider a sinusoidal wave function y ( x, t ) = ym sin( kx − t )
ym : Amplitude; (kx − t ) : Phase; k : wave number;  : angular frequency
Note:
2 2
1. y ( x + n , t ) = y ( x, t ), n = 0,1, 2,  =  (wavelength)
k k
2 2
2. y ( x, t + n ) = y ( x, t ), n = 0,1, 2,  = T (period)
 
dx 
3. For any phase  = kx0 − t0 , if k ( x0 + dx) −  (t0 + dt ) =   = = v (phase velocity)
dt k
 2 y ( x, t )  2 y ( x, t )  2 y ( x , t ) 1  2 y ( x, t )
4. = − k y ( x, t ) and
2
= − y ( x, t ) 
2
− 2 =0
x 2 t 2 x 2 v t 2
5. Apparently, y ( x, t ) = ym sin(kx − t ) is a solution for the wave equation
 2 y ( x, t )   2 y ( x, t )  
− = 0 if = .
x 2
 t 2
k 

 The phase velocity for a sinusoidal traveling wave on a string is v = .

6. Let y1 ( x, t ) = ym ,1 sin(k1 x − 1t ); y2 ( x, t ) = ym,2 sin(k2 x − 2t ).
1 2
  2 y ( x, t )   2 y ( x, t )
If = = , then y1 , y2 , and c1 y1 + c2 y2 all satisfy − = 0.
k1 k2  x 2
 t 2
Energy Transport
Consider a sinusoidal traveling wave function y ( x, t ) = ym sin(kx − t )

At any fixed point x0 , y ( x0 , t ) = ym sin( kx0 − t ) = − ym sin(t − kx0 ) = ym cos(t − kx0 + )
2
 a string element at x0 of mass dm =  dx undergoes a simple harmonic motion.
Note: In a sinusoidal traveling wave, the string is arranged to exert a spring-like force on the
k
string element dm with a spring constant  2 dm (recall  = in the spring force motion.)
m
1 1
 The mechanical energy of the string element dm is dE = (dm) 2 ym2 = (  dx) 2 ym2
2 2
1
(recall E = K + U = kxm2 in the spring force motion.)
2
dx
As the wave propagates, such energy is transmitted at a velocity v = to the
dt
positive x-direction.
dE 1 dx 2 2 1
 Power P = =   ym =  v 2 ym2
dt 2 dt 2
  2 y ( x, t ) 1  2 y ( x, t )
Principle of Superposition for Waves; Consider − 2 =0
x 2 v t 2
(For mechanical waves, the above equation implies that y ( x, t ) satisfies Newton's 2nd Law.)
 2 y1 ( x, t ) 1  2 y1 ( x, t )  2 y2 ( x , t ) 1  2 y 2 ( x, t )
If − 2 = 0 and − 2 =0
x 2 v t 2 x 2 v t 2
2 1 2
then 2 [ y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t )] − 2 2 [ y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t )] = 0.
x v t
(i.e. The resultant wave y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t ) is also allowed by Newton's 2nd Law.)
Example I. Interference of waves
y1 ( x, t ) = ym sin(kx − t ); y2 ( x, t ) = ym sin(kx − t +  );  : phase shift
y ( x, t ) = y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t ) = ym sin(kx − t ) + ym sin(kx − t +  )
   
= ym sin[(kx − t + ) − ] + ym sin[(kx − t + ) + ]
2 2 2 2
   
= ym [sin(kx − t + ) cos − sin cos( kx − t + )
2 2 2 2
     
+ sin(kx − t + ) cos + sin cos( kx − t + )] = (2 ym cos ) sin( kx − t + )
2 2 2 2 2 2

(i)  =0  y ( x, t ) = 2 ym sin( kx − t + ) fully constructive.
2
(ii)  =   y ( x, t ) = 0 fully destructive. (iii) 0< <  intermediate interference.
Example II. Standing waves
 
y1 ( x, t ) = ym sin(kx − t ); y2 ( x, t ) = ym sin(kx + t ); v1 = , v2 = − , v2 = −v1
k k
y ( x, t ) = y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t ) = ym sin(kx − t ) + ym sin(kx + t )
= ym [sin kx cos t − sin t cos kx + sin kx cos t + sin t cos kx] = (2 ym sin kx) cos t
n 
(i) kx = n , n = 0,1, 2  y ( x, t ) = 0  x = = n , n = 0,1, 2 (the nodes)
k 2
1
(ii) kx = (n + ) , n = 0,1, 2  y ( x, t ) = 2 ym cos t
2
1
(n + )
x= 2 =(n + 1 )  , n = 0,1, 2 (the antinodes).
k 2 2 Hard reflection
Note: Standing waves by reflection a node at the boundary
For a string, there is a node on each fixed point of the string.
   
L = x2 − x1 = n2 − n1 = (n2 − n1 ) =n
2 2 2 2
2L
 allowed wavelengths are n = , n = 1, 2,3 Soft reflection
n an antinode at the boundary
v v
 allowed frequencies are f n = = n , n = 1, 2,3 (resonant frequencies)
 2L
n : harmonic number → nth harmonic. The string resonate at these frequencies.
 Phasor
𝑦
𝑦𝑚 Phasor: A vector with a magnitude equal to
𝜔
the amplitude ym of the wave and
𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
rotates around an origin with angular
speed equal to the anglar frequency 
of the wave.

y = ym sin( kx − t )


Application: Summation of two waves of the same  (and k = )
v
y1 ( x, t ) = ym ,1 sin(kx − t ); y2 ( x, t ) = ym,2 sin( kx − t +  )
 y ( x, t ) = y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t ) = ym sin( kx − t +  )
Given ym ,1 , ym ,2 and  , use the phasor method 𝜔
ym
to calculate ym and  . ym ,2

Cosine law
 ym ,1
ym2 ,1 + ym2 ,2 − ym2 ym2 + ym2 ,1 − ym2 ,2 kx − t
cos( −  ) = ; cos  =
2 ym ,1 ym ,2 2 ym ym ,1
 Chapter 17 Waves II.
Sound waves: longitudinal mechanical waves

𝐴 𝐴

𝑥 x + dx 𝑥 + 𝑠(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑠(𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑡)

original Waved

A body of air is waved in the x-direction with a longitudinal displacement function s ( x, t )

such that the original position x of any point of the air is moved to x + s ( x, t )
Consider an air element of cross sectional area A originally located between x and x + dx.
The original volume of the air element is Adx.
The waved volume of the air element is
s ( x, t )
A{[(x + dx) + s ( x + dx, t )] − [ x + s ( x, t )]} = Adx + A[ s ( x + dx, t ) − s ( x, t )] = Adx + A dx.
x
s ( x, t )
A dx
s ( x, t ) x s ( x, t )
The increase of volume A dx leads to a decrease of pressure B =B .
x Adx x
V
(Recall P = − B , where P is the pressure and B is the bulk modulus.)
V
The difference between pressure on the left and that on the right results in a net external force
s ( x, t ) s ( x, t )  2 s ( x, t )
on the air element. Fnet = A( B −B ) = AB dx
x x = x + dx x x= x  x 2

 2 s ( x, t )
Noting that the acceleration of the air element is in the x-direction.
t 2
 2 s ( x, t )  2 s ( x, t )
 By Newton's 2nd Law AB dx = r Adx
x 2
t 2
 2 s ( x, t ) r  2 s ( x, t )
− = 0 (wave equation)
x 2
B t 2

Consider the traveling sinusoidal function s ( x, t ) = sm cos(kx − t ).

 2 s ( x, t )  2 s ( x, t )
= − s k 2
cos( kx −  t ); = − s  2
cos(kx − t )
x t
2 m 2 m

 2 s ( x, t ) 1  2 s ( x, t ) 
 = , where v = .
x 2
v 2
t 2
k
 B
 s ( x, t ) = sm cos(kx − t ) is a solution to the sound wave equation if =v= .
k r
s ( x, t ) 
Note: P = − B = Bsm k sin(kx − t ) = r v 2 sm sin(kx − t ) = ( r v ) sm sin(kx − t )
x v
 Interference
If L1 d and L2 d P
𝐿1
 Two waves travel in the same direction at P.
S1
Suppose S1 and S2 are in phase.
𝑑
At point P, path length difference L = L2 − L1 .
S2 𝐿2
L
 phase difference  = k L = 2

L
(i) = m = 0,1, 2   = 2m fully constructive interference

L 1 1 3 5
(ii) = m+ = , ,   = (2m + 1) fully destructive interference
 2 2 2 2
(iii) everything else  intermediate interference.
Similar to the sinusoidal string wave y ( x, t ) = ym sin(kx − t )
dE 1
in which dm =  dx and power P = =  v 2 ym2 ,
dt 2
for sinusoidal sound wave s( x, t ) = sm cos( kx − t )
dE 1
in which dm = r Adx the energy transport rate is P = = r Av 2 sm2 .
dt 2
P 1
The intensity of the wave is defined as I = = r v 2 sm2 .
A 2
Ps
For a point source, A = 4 r 2  I = .
4 r 2
The Decibel Scale
1
Deci-: ; -bel: Bell (Alexander Graham Bell)
10
I
Sound Level  = (10dB) log where I 0 = 10−12 W / m 2
I0
Note: If I = I 0   = 0
Examples: Hearing threshold 0dB, Rustle of leaves 10dB, Conversation 60dB
Rock concert 110dB, Pain threshold 120dB, Jet engine 130dB
Sound of Music: Standing waves
Recall the standing waves on a string
y ( x, t ) = y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t ) = ym sin(kx − t ) + ym sin(kx + t ) = (2 ym sin kx) cos t
n  1 
(i) x = = n , n = 0,1, 2 (the nodes); (ii) x = =( n + ) , n = 0,1, 2 (the antinodes).
k 2 2 2
Standing waves by reflection
For a string, there is a node on each fixed point of the string.
   
L = x2 − x1 = n2 − n1 = (n2 − n1 ) =n
2 2 2 2
2L v v 
 n = , n = 1, 2,3 ; fn = =n , n = 1, 2,3 Note:v = (tunable)
n  2L 
For pipes: open ends  antinodes; closed ends  nodes
(a) Two open ends
1  1    2L v v
L = x2 − x1 = (n2 + ) − (n1 + ) = (n2 − n1 ) = n  n = ; fn = = n , n = 1, 2,3
2 2 2 2 2 2 n  2L
(b) One open end and one closed end
1     (2n + 1) 4L v (2n + 1)v
L = x2 − x1 = (n2 + ) − n1 = (n2 − n1 ) + =  n = ; fn = = ,
2 2 2 2 4 4 2n + 1  4L
B
Note: v = (not tunable) n = 1, 2,3
r
Beats
Consider two waves s1 ( x, t ) = sm cos( k1 x − 1t + 1 ); s2 ( x, t ) = sm cos(k2 x − 2t + 2 )
1 2 1 
Note: = = v, f1 = , f2 = 2
k1 k2 2 2
At point P where x = x0 ,
s ( x0 , t ) = s1 ( x0 , t ) + s2 ( x0 , t ) = sm [cos(k1 x0 + 1 − 1t ) + cos(k2 x0 + 2 − 2t )]
 +  −  +  −  +  −
Noting that cos +cos =cos( + ) + cos( − ) = cos cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
Let  = k1 x0 + 1 − 1t and  = k2 x0 + 2 − 2t
1 + 2 1 − 2
We have s ( x0 , t ) = sm [cos  + cos  ] = 2 sm cos(1 − t ) cos(2 − t ),
2 2
1 1
where 1 = (k1 x0 + 1 + k2 x0 + 2 ) and 2 = (k1 x0 + 1 − k2 x0 − 2 )
2 2
1 + 2
 + 2 f +f
 Oscillating function 2 sm cos(1 − 1 t ); f = 2 = 1 2
2 2 2
 − 2  − 2
Upper envelope 2 sm cos(2 − 1 t ) and lower envelope − 2 sm cos(2 − 1 t)
2 2
1 − 2
beat frequency fbeat = 2  2 = f1 − f 2
2
Doppler Effect
A source traveling with a velocity vS emits a wave of frequency f and
wave velocity v traveling on a stationery medium towards a detector
which is traveling with a velocity vD .
If n wavefronts are detected by the detector during a time interval t , the frequency
n
seen by the detector is f  = .
t
Let d be the distance between consecutive wavefronts on the medium.
v − vS
 d = (v − vS )T = .
f
The speed of the wavefronts with respect to the detector is vrel = v − vD .
Therefore, the number of wavefronts detected by the detector during t is
(v − vD )t (v − vD )t v − vD
n= = = f t
d v − vS v − vS
f
n v − vD
 f= = f
t v − vS
Supersonic Speeds, Shock waves.
v − vD
If vS = v  f  = f →
v − vS
When vS  v  shock wave.
vt v
sin  = = (Mach cone angle)
vS t vS

𝑣𝑆 𝑡 𝜃
𝑣𝑡
Mach cone
 2 s ( x, t ) 1  2 s ( x, t )
− 2 =0
x 2
v t 2

Separation of variables: s( x, t ) = X ( x)T (t )

d 2 X ( x) 1 d 2T (t )
substituted into the equation  T (t ) = 2 X ( x)
dx 2 v dt 2
d 2 X ( x) 1 d 2T (t ) d 2 X ( x) 1 d 2T (t )
T (t ) 2 2
X ( x) 2 2 2 2
 dx = v dt  dx = v d t
X ( x)T (t ) X ( x)T (t ) X ( x) T (t )
d 2 X ( x) 1 d 2T (t )
2 2 2
Note: dx is a function of x and v dt is a function of t.
X ( x) T (t )
For the equality to hold, both of them have to be the same constant (say − k 2 ).
 d 2 X ( x)
 dx 2  d 2
X ( x )  d 2
X ( x)
 = −k 2
 + k 2
X ( x ) = 0  + k 2
X ( x) = 0
 X ( x )  dx 2
 dx 2
 2
  2
  2
 1 d T (t )  d T (t )
+ k 2
v 2
T (t ) = 0  T (t ) +  2T (t ) = 0 (Let k 2 v 2 =  2 )
d
 v 2 dt 2  dt 2  dt 2
 T (t ) = −k
2


  X ( x) = c1eikx + c2e − ikx
 it − it
 T (t ) = c3 e + c4 e
i ( kx −t ) i ( kx +t ) − i ( kx −t ) − i ( kx +t ) 2
 s ( x, t ) = X ( x)T (t ) = A1e + A2e + A3e + A4e , where = v2
k2
1
Of special interest, if A1 = A3 = sm and A2 = A4 = 0, we have s ( x, t ) = sm cos(kx − t )
2
Chapter 37 Relativity

• Relativity: transforming measurements between reference

frames that move relative to each other.

• Special Relativity → Inertial reference frames, where

Newton’s laws are valid.

• General Relativity → Reference frames can undergo

gravitational acceleration
Galilean Transformation
  dx dx − vdt dx
u = = = − v = u x −v
 x = x − vt dx = dx − vdt  x dt  dt dt
 y = y  dy = dy 
   dy dy
     y
u  = = =uy
z = z 
 dz = dz  dt  dt
 t  = t  dt  = dt  dz  dz

 u z = dt  = dt = u z

 du x du x

 x dt  = dt = a x
a = 𝑦 𝑦′
 du x = du x  𝑣
  du y du y
 du y = du y  ay = = =ay 𝑥 𝑥′
 du  = du  dt  dt
 z z
 du z du z 𝑧 S 𝑧′ S’
a  =
 z dt  = = a z
 dt
Newton's laws are the same in both reference frames.  Galilean Invariance.
However, the Maxell's equations do not have Galilean invariance.
(c  c under Galilean transformation.)
To fix this problem → Lorentz Transformation (H. A. Lorentz)
Lorentz Transformation :
𝑦 𝑦′
 x =  ( x − vt )
 y = y  1
  = (Lorentz factor) 𝑣
  1−  2
𝑥′

z = z , where  𝑥
  v 𝑧
vx
 t  =  (t − )   = (Speed parameter) S 𝑧′ S’
c
 c 2

Maxell's equations are invariant under Lorentz transformation.

v
Note: If v c, then  0,  1, and 0.
c2
 x =  ( x − vt ) x − vt
 y = y

  z = z → Galilean Transformation

 t  =  (t − vx ) t
 c2
 x =  ( x − vt )  dx =  (dx − vdt )
 y = y  dy = dy
 
 z = z   dz  = dz 𝑦 𝑦′
 
 t  =  (t − vx ) dt  =  (dt − vdx ) 𝑣
 c2  c2 𝑥′
𝑥
 𝑧
 dx S 𝑧′ S’
 ( − v)
dx  (dx − vdt ) (u − v)
u x = = = dt = x
 dt   (dt − vdx ) v
dx
(1 −
vu x
)
 c2 (1 − 2 )dt c 2

 Note: If u x = c 
c
 (c − v ) (c − v )
 dy u x = = =c
 dy dy 1 dt 1 uy vc
(1 − 2 ) (1 − )
v

  uy = = = =
 dt  vdx  dx  (1 − vu x ) c c
 (dt − 2 ) v The speed of the light is

2
c dt
(1 − 2 ) c
 c the same in all reference frames!
 dz

u  = dz  = dz
=
1 dt =
1 uz
 z dt  vdx  dx  (1 − vu x )
  ( dt − ) v
c2 − dt ) c2
 (1
 c2
For events ( x1 , y1 , z1 , t1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 , t2 ),
 x = x − x = 2 dx =  ( 2 dx − v 2 dt ) =  (x − vt )
 dx =  (dx − vdt ) 
2 1 1 1 1
 dy = dy  2 2

  y  = y 
2 − y 1
 = 1 dy  = 1 dy = y
 dz  = dz  2 2
 z = z2 − z1 = 1 dz = 1 dz = z
   
dt  =  (dt − vdx
) 
 2
 t  = t  − t  = 2 dt  =  ( 2 dt − v 2 dx) =  (t − v x)
c
 2 1 1 1 c 2 1 c2
v
Simultaneity: t = 0 but x  0  t  =  ( − 2 x)  0
c
1
Time Dilation: If x = 0 and v  0,  =  1  t  = t  t
2
v
1− 2
c 𝑦 𝑦′
v
Length Contraction: t  = 0  t = 2 x 𝑣
c event1 event2
𝑥 𝑥′
v2 v2 1
 x =  (x − vt ) =  (x − 2 x) =  (1 − 2 )x = x  x 𝑧 S
c c  𝑧′ S’
e.g. The length measured by two events is stationary in S . Since it is moving in S , for x to
be the length the the two events have to be simultaneous.  t  has to be zero.
Einstein's Postulates
1. The relativity postulate: The law of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames.
2. The speed of light postulate: The speed of light in vacuum has the same value c
in all directions and in all inertial reference frames.
𝑦 𝑦′
A light source and a mirror is stationary in S’.
Event 1: a pulse of light leaves the light source. 𝑣
Event 2. the pulse is detected at the source. 𝑥 𝑥′
𝑧 S 𝑧′ S’
In S  Mirror

2D
The time interval between event 1 and event 2 is t  = . D
c
The two events occur at the same location, t0 = t  is called proper time. event1 event2

In S
Mirror Mirror Mirror
The time interval between event 1
1
1 D
2[ D + ( vt ) 2 ] 2
2
event1 event2
and event 2 is t = 2
c 𝑣𝛥𝑡
c2 v2 c2 t 
 ( − )(t ) = D = (t ) 2  t =
2 2
= t  = t0 (time dilation)
4 4 4 v 2
1−
c2
A rod is stationary in S. 𝑦 𝑦′ 𝑦 𝑦′
Event 1: The origin of S’ reaches the left
end of the rod. 𝑣 𝑣
event1 𝑥 𝑥′ event2𝑥 𝑥′
Event 2. The origin of S’ reaches the right S S
𝑧 S’ S’
end of the rod. 𝑧′ 𝑧 𝑧′

In S
The length of the rod is the distance between the two events x = vt.
The rod is stationary in S , x = L0 is called proper length.  vt = L0
In S 
The length of the rod L = vt .
Event 1 and event 2 occur at the same location.  t  is the proper time.
vt L0
From time dilation, we have t = t .  L = vt  = = (length contraction)
 
Doppler Effect for Light 𝑦 𝑦′

S: source, D: detector 𝑣
Event 1: The source S emits the first wavefront. 𝑥 𝑥′
Event 2: The source S emits the second wavefront.. 𝑧 S 𝐷
𝑧′
In S
1
The period is t.  the frequency is f =
t
Event 1 and event 2 occur at the same location.  t is the proper time.
In D
The time interval between event 1 and event 2 is t  = t. (time dilation)
During the time interval t , the first wavefront travels a distance ct  =  ct
towards the detector while the source travels a distance vt  =  vt away from
the detector.  The wavelength   =  (c + v) t.
c c 1 1 1− 
 f= = = = f

  (c + v)t 1+ 
(1 +  ) t
1
1−  2
Transverse Doppler Effect (A relativistic effect)

S: source, D: detector
𝑣 𝑃
Event 1: The source S emits the first wavefront. 𝑆
Event 2: The source S emits the second wavefront..
1𝑠𝑡 2𝑛𝑑
The source S travels in a trajectory perpendicular to PD. 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡
𝐷
In S
1
The period is t.  the frequency is f =
t
Event 1 and event 2 occur at the same location.  t is the proper time.
In D
The time interval between event 1 and event 2 is t  = t. (time dilation)
1 1
 f= = 1−  2 = f 1−  2
t t
 𝑦 𝑦′
(u − v) v2 uy
u x = x ; u y = 1− 2 𝑣
vu x c (1 − vu x ) 𝑥′
(1 − 2 ) 𝑥
c c2
𝑧 S 𝑧′ S’

Consider an elastic collision between two balls traveling with a speed

1
v towards each other in the x − direction in a stationary reference frame S
2
and u in the y -direction in their own reference frames S  and S , respectively.
𝑦′′

𝑣′/2 S’’
𝑥′′
u in S 
u in S  𝑦′
𝑦 (v '/ 2) 2 u v '2
1− = u 1 − in S
v2 c 2 1 − (v '/ 2)  0 4c 2
u 1− in S c2
4c 2
𝑣′/2
𝑥 𝑥′
S S’
 (−v / 2) − (v / 2) − v
Let − v = =
(v / 2)(−v / 2) v2
𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙2 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙2 [1 − ] [1 + ]
c2 4c 2
𝑣′/2 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙2 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙2
𝑣
v '2
u 1− 2
4c v '2
u 1− 2
4c
v2
u u u 1−
c2
𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙1 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙1
𝐼𝑛 𝑆 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙1
𝐼𝑛 𝑆’

Classical definition of momentum p = mv

1. In S
v2 v2 v2
For ball 1: p1, y = m(−u 1 − 2 ) − mu 1 − 2 = −2mu 1 − 2
4c 4c 4c
v2 v2 v2
For ball 2: p2, y = mu 1 − 2 − m(−u 1 − 2 ) = 2mu 1 − 2
4c 4c 4c
 p y = p1, y + p2, y = 0  p y is conserved.
However
1. In S 
For ball 1: p1, y = m( −u ) − mu = −2mu
v2 v2 v2
For ball 2: p2, y = mu 1 − 2 − m( −u 1 − 2 ) = 2mu 1 − 2
c c c
v2
 p y = p1, y + p2, y = −2mu + 2mu 1 − 2  0  p y is not conserved. (problematic!)
c
To conserve p y in S , re-define the momentum as p = f ( v )mv .
v2 2 v2
We have p1, y = −2 f (u )mu and p2, y = 2 f ( v + (1 − 2 )u )mu 1 − 2 .
2

c c
v2 2 v2
Let p1, y + p2, y = 0  −2 f (u )mu + 2 f ( v + (1 − 2 )u )mu 1 − 2 = 0
2

c c
v2 2 v2 v2
 f (u ) = f ( v + (1 − 2 )u ) 1 − 2  f (0) = f ( v ) 1 − 2
2

c c c
Let f (0) = 1 (i.e. p → mv when v → 0)
1
 f (v ) = =   p =  mv (relativistic momentum)
2
v
1−
c2
Note: dx → proper length; dt  → proper time 𝑦 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 1 𝑦′ 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 2
dx 𝑑𝑥 𝑣
v= (ordinary velocity)
dt 𝑚 𝑚 𝑥′ 𝑥
dx dx dx
= = = = v (proper velocity) 𝑧 S 𝑧′ S’
dt  dt /  dt
Relativistic Momentum p =  mv = m v = m (mass  proper velocity)
Relativistic Energy
p =  mv
dp dp d 1
F= [Note: F = = ( mv)  ma ]
dt dt dt v 2
1−
c2
xf x f dp p f dx pf vf pf vf
 W =  Fdx =  dx =  dp =  vdp =  d (vp ) −  pdv
xi xi dt pi dt pi vi pi vi

vf vf 1
= [v f p f − vi pi ] −   mvdv = [v f p f − vi pi ] −  mvdv
vi vi 2
v
1− 2
c
vf 2v vf 2 1
= [v f p f − vi pi ] − m  dv = [v f p f − vi pi ] − m  2 d (v 2 )
vi
v2 vi
v2
2 1− 2 2 1− 2
c c
v2 =v f 2
 v2   vf 2 vi 2 
= [v f p f − vi pi ] + mc  1 − 2 
2
= [v f p f − vi pi ] + mc  1 − 2 − 1 − 2 
2

 c  2 2
v = vi
 c c 

Let vi = 0 and v f = v  pi =  i mvi = 0 and p f = p =  mv,
v2 1
1 2 v
2
v2
we have W =  mv + mc ( − 1) =  mc ( 2 + 2 ) − mc =  mc ( 2 + 1 − 2 ) − mc 2
2 2 2 2

 c  c c
=  mc 2 − mc 2
W =  mc 2 − mc 2
Work-kinetic energy theorem W = K
Since vi = 0 , K = K  K =  mc 2 − mc 2
Define mass energy E0 = mc 2
If the potential energy U = 0, the total energy E = K + E0 =  mc 2 .  E =  mc 2
c2 2 4 c −v
2 2
1 v2 v2
E = m c =m c (
2 2 2 4 2 4
) = m c ( 2 2 ) = m c ( 2 2 + 2 2 ) = m c (1 + 2 2 )
2 4 2 4

v 2
c −v c −v c −v c −v
1− 2
c
v2 1
= m c +c m (
2 4 2 2
2
) = m 2 4
c + c 2 2 2
m v ( 2
) = m 2 c 4 + c 2 ( 2 m 2 v 2 ) = m 2 c 4 + c 2 p 2
v v
1− 2 1− 2
c c
 E 2 = c 2 p 2 + m2c 4
Note:

1 d n f ( x)
Recall Taylor's series f ( x) =  ( x − x0 ) n
n =0 n ! dx n x = x0

1 v2
= ; Let x → 2 , x0 → 0, we have
v 2 c
1− 2
c
1 v 2 − 12 −
1
= = (1 − 2 ) = (1 − x) 2
v2 c
1− 2
c
1 3
1 − 1 1 −
= [(1 − x) 2 ]x =0 ( x − 0) + [(− )(1 − x) 2 (−1)]x =0 ( x − 0)1
0

0! 1! 2
5
1 1 3 − 1 3 1 v2 3 v2 2
+ [(− )(− )(1 − x) 2 (−1)(−1)]x =0 ( x − 0) 2 + = 1 + x + x 2 + = 1+ 2
+ ( 2) +
2! 2 2 2 8 2c 8 c
 1 1 v2 3 v2 2
= = 1+ 2
+ ( 2) +
v 2 2c 8 c
1− 2
c
If v c, then
 1 v2 3 v2 2
 x =  ( x − vt ) = [1 + 2 c 2 + 8 ( c 2 ) + ]( x − vt ) x − vt

 y = y

 z = z
 vx 1 v2 3 v2 2 vx
 t  =  (t − 2 ) = [1 + + ( ) + ](t − ) t
 c 2
2c 8 c 2
c 2

1 v2 3 v2 2
p =  mv = [1 + + ( ) + ]mv mv
2 c2 8 c2
1 v2 3 v2 2 1 v2 1 2
K =  mc − mc = (1 +
2 2
+ ( ) + − 1) mc 2
mc 2
= mv .
2 c2 8 c2 2 c2 2
 Chapters 18-20 Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
Consider a system of a large number of particles:

Microscopic states or Microstates → (r1 , v1 , r2 , v2 rN , vN )

Calculating the dynamics of such systems is a formidable task.

 an alternative approach
Thermodynamics: a phenomenological theory directly drawn from experiments.
Macroscopic states or Macrostates → specified by a set of state variables or state parameters.
Note:
Equations of states and thermodynamic laws reduce the number of independent state variables.
A set of independent state variables can be selected to uniquely specify the macrostate.
Other state variables are treated as state functions of the selected independent state variables.

Example: Consider an ideal gas.

State variables → P, V , Eint , T , S (entropy), H (enthalpy), A(free energy), G (Gibbs Potential)
Equations of states: PV = nRT , H = Eint + PV , A = Eint − TS , G = A + PV
Thermodynamic laws: dEint = TdS − PdV ( in reversible processes); S → 0 as T → 0
State functions: Eint ( P, V ), T ( P, V ), S ( P, V ), H ( P, V ), A( P, V ), G( P ,V )
Statistical Mechanics:
Using probability to connect the macroscopic theory of thermodynamics
with microscopic mechanical theory.

In thermodynamics, a macroscopic physical quantity, temperature T ,

and a temperature-related energy term, heat Q are introduced.
Other temperature-related state functions are also defined.

Constant-volume gas thermometer

P
T = (273.16 K ) lim
gas → 0 P
3

.
Note: Temperature and Heat
P
Temperature scale: 1. Kelvin (K ) T = (273.16 K ) lim ;
gas → 0 P
3

2. Celsius (C ) TC =T − 273.15;

9
3. Fahrenheit ( F ) TF = TC + 32
5
Thermal Expansion
dL
=  dT ; L : length, dL : length increase due to temperature increase dT .
L
  : linear expansion coefficient.
dV
=  dT ; V : volume, dV : volume increase due to temperature increase dT .
V
  : volume expansion coefficient.
dV ( L + dL)3 − L3 L3 + 3L2 dL + 3L(dL) 2 + (dL)3 − L3 3L2 dL + O ((dL) 2 )
= 3
= 3
=
V L L L3
dL
=3   dT = 3 dT   = 3
L
Heat Q : energy transferred because of temperature difference
1 cal (calories) = 3.969 10−3 Btu (British thermal unit) = 4.1868 J
Heat Capacity C : Q = C T = C (T f − Ti )
C
Specific heat c : Q = cm(T f − Ti ), where m is the mass  c =
m
Molar specific heat: heat capacity per mole (6.02 1023 )
cV molar specific heat at constant volume (no work done)
cP molar specific heat at constant pressure (larger than cV )

to compensate energy outflow through work)
Heat of Transformation L: Q = Lm, Q → the heat required to transform the material
between physical states.
LV : heat of vaporization, LF : heat of fusion L
Heat Transfer Mechanism k
𝑇𝐻 Q 𝑇𝐶
1. Conduction
Consider a slab of solid material between a hot reservoir TH and a cold reservoir TC .
Q T −T
The conduction rate Pcond = = kA H C ;
t L
Q : heat transferred through the slab in time t ; A : area of the slab; L : thickness of the slab
L
k : thermal conductivity  thermal resistance R =
k
 L2 L1
k2 k1
𝑇𝐻 Q Q 𝑇𝐶
𝑇𝑋

TH − TX T − TC k L T + k2 L1TH
Pcond ,1 = Pcond ,2 = Pcond  k2 A = k1 A X  TX = 1 2 C
L2 L1 k1 L2 + k2 L1
A(TH − TC ) A(TH − TC )
Pcond = can be generalized to
L1 L2 Li
+
k1 k2
i k
i

2. Convection: Diffusion of hot particle into cold region of a fluid.

3. Radiation
Prad =  AT 4 ;  : Stefan-Boltzmann constant,  : emissivity (0~1, 1 for black body)
Pabs =  ATenv 4  Pnet = Pabs − Prad =  A(Tenv − T 4 )
4
Laws of Thermodynamics
1. The zeroth law of thermodynamics:
If bodies A and T are in thermal equilibrium and B and T are in thermal equilibrium,
then A and B are in thermal equilibrium.
2. The first law of thermodynamics:
dEint = dQ − dW (conservation of energy including heat)
dEint : internal energy increase of a system
dQ : heat supplied to the system
dW : work done by the system
Q : heat → energy transferred between a system and its environment
because of temperature difference between them.
Eint = Q − W
3. The second law of thermodynamics:
The increase of entropy of a closed system S  0 for all thermodynamic processes.
f f dQ
Entropy increase S = S f − Si =  dS =  (for reversible processes dQ = TdS )
i i T
4. The third law of thermodynamics:
S → 0 as T → 0.
 Thermodynamic transformations: changes of thermodynamic states (Macrostates).

Processes of thermodynamical transformations of special interest for a system of gas:

Note: dEint = dQ − dW
dW = Fdl = PAdl = PdV ( F = PA, dV = Adl ) for a system of gas.
dQ = TdS for a reversible process.
1. Adiabatic processes: dQ = 0  dEint = −dW = − PdV
f f

2. Isothermal processes: T is a constant  Q =  dQ = T  dS = T ( S f − Si ) = T S

i i

3. Constant-volume processes: dV = 0  dW = PdV = 0  dEint = dQ

 dEint = dQ = TdS (reversible processes)
f f
4. Constant-pressure processes: P is a constant  W =  dW =P  dV =P (V f − Vi )=PV
i i

5. Cyclical processes: Eint = 0  Q = W (e.g. engine or refrigerator cycles)

6. Free expansions: dQ = dW = dEint = 0
Ideal Gas: equation of states PV = nRT
Work done by an ideal gas
1. in an isothermal process (T is a constant)
1 1 1 Vf
P (V ) = nRT  dW = PdV = nRT dV  W =  nRT dV = nRT  ln V V = nRT ln
Vf Vf

V V Vi V i
Vi
Vf
W = nRT ln
Vi
2. in a constant-volume process (V is a constant  dV = 0)
dW = PdV = 0  W = 0
3. in a constant pressure process (P is a constant)
Vf Vf
W =  PdV = P  dV = P (V f − Vi )
Vi Vi

W = P (V f − Vi )
Ideal Gas: equation of states PV = nRT  VdP + PdV = nRdT
Note: It can be proven later from the kinetic theory of gases that Eint is a function
3 3
of T only (Eint = nRT  dEint = nRdT ). The increase of internal energy dEint
2 2
depends only on the increase of temperature dT .
For the molar specific heat at constant volume cV ,
 ( dQ )V = ncV dT
  dEint = ncV dT
constant volume  dV = 0  dEint = ( dQ )V − PdV = ( dQ )V
For the molar specific heat at constant pressure cP ,
( dQ ) P = ncP dT

 constant pressure  dP = 0  nRdT = VdP + PdV = PdV  dEint = n(cP − R )dT
 dE = ( dQ ) − PdV = nc dT − nRdT = n(c − R )dT
 int P P P

 cP = cV + R
3 3 5
dEint = ncV dT = nRdT  cV = R; cP = cV + R = R (for monoatomic gases)
2 2 2
Adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas
 adiabatic  dQ = 0  dEint = dQ − PdV = − PdV P
  ndT = − ( )dV
dEint = ncV dT cV
cP = cV + R VdP + PdV
recall   VdP + PdV = n(cP − cV )dT  ndT =
VdP + PdV = nRdT cP − cV
VdP + PdV PdV dP  cP  dV
 + = 0  cV VdP + (cV + cP − cV ) PdV = 0  +  =0
cP − cV cV P  cV  V
c dP dV
Let  = P  = −  ln P = − ln V + C   P = eC  exp(− ln V ) = C V −
cV P V
 PV  = a constant.
PV = nRT  PV  = PVV  −1 = nRTV  −1 = a constant  TV  −1 = a constant
 PV  = a constant
 For an adiabatic process   −1
TV = a constant
Entropy change from state (Vi , Ti ) to state (V f , T f ) for an ideal gas
Note: The entropy S is a state function S (V , T ).
Therefore S = S f − Si is independent of the process the transformation takes.
We can always select a reversible process where dQ = TdS for calculating S .
 nRT
 For an ideal gas, PV = nRT  P =
V

 nRT
 The 1st law of thermodynamics dE int = TdS − PdV = TdS − dV
 V
 Recall dEint = ncV dT


nRT dT dV f f dT f dV
 ncV dT = TdS − dV  dS = ncV + nR   dS =  ncV +  nR
V T V i i T i V
Tf Vf
 S = S f − Si = ncV ln + nR ln
Ti Vi
Example: A free expansion of an ideal gas from volume V to 3V .
For a free expansion, we have T f = Ti . We first calculate S for a reversible
T 3V
isothermal expansion from (V , T ) to (3V , T ). S = ncV ln + nR ln = nR ln 3
T V
S is a state function  S = nR ln 3 is also valid for the irreversible free expansion process.
 Engines and Refrigerators: Cyclical processes
A heat engine (engine): a device that extracts energy from its environment
in the form of heat and does useful work.
An ideal engine: all processes are reversible; no waste of energy due to friction,
and turbulence etc.
Carnot engine: an ideal engine with a cycle composed of two isothermal processes
and two adiabatic processes.
𝑃 Carnot cycle 𝑇
a →b→c→d →a 𝑄𝐻
𝑎 ab, cd : isothermal 𝑎 b𝑇
𝑄𝐻 𝐻
dT = 0  constant T
𝑇𝐻
b bc, da : adiabatic
W
𝑑 dQ = TdS = 0  dS = 0 𝑇𝐿
𝑑 𝑐
𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿 𝑐  constant S 𝑄𝐿
V 𝑆

QH QL TH
W = QH − QL ; S = S H +S L = − = 0 (for a cycle S = 0)  QH = QL  QL
TH TL TL
W QH − QL QL TL
Efficiency  = = = 1− = 1−  1 (there is no perfect engine →  = 1)
QH QH QH TH
A refrigerator: a device that use work to transfer heat from a low-temperature reservoir
to a high-temperature reservoir.
An ideal refrigerator: all processes are reversible; no waste of energy due to friction,
and turbulence etc.
Carnot refrigerator: an ideal refrigerator with a cycle composed of two isothermal processes
and two adiabatic processes.

𝑃 Carnot cycle 𝑇
a→d→c→b→a 𝑄𝐻
𝑎 ba, dc: isothermal 𝑎 b𝑇
𝑄𝐻 𝐻
dT = 0  constant T
𝑇𝐻
cb, ad : adiabatic
W b
𝑑 dQ = TdS = 0  dS = 0 𝑇𝐿
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐
𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿  constant S 𝑄𝐿
V 𝑆

QL QH QL QH
W = QH − QL ; S = S L +S H = − = 0 (for a cycle S = 0)  =
TL TH TL TH
QL QL QL TL
Coefficient of performance K = = = =
W QH − QL (TH / TL ) QL − QL TH − TL
Is there a perfect refrigerator that W = 0 ?
Consider an ideal refrigerator.  W = QH − QL
W = 0  QH = QL
S of the closed system (Hi-T reservoir+Lo-T reservoir+Working substance):
QH
Hi-T reservoir → 𝑇
TH
𝑄𝐻
QL 𝑎 b𝑇
Lo-T reservoir → − 𝐻
TL
Working substance → 0 (cyclical)
QH QL QH QL 𝑇𝐿
 S = − +0= − 𝑑
𝑄𝐿
𝑐
TH TL TH TL
𝑆
QL QL
Since QH = QL and TH  TL , we have S = − 0
TH TL
S  0 violates the 2nd law of thermodynamics
 No perfect refrigerators.
Can an engine X with efficiency  X greater than that of the Carnot engine  C exist?
Consider that engine X operates between high-temperature reservoir TH
and low-temperature reservoir TL .
WX
Presumably, engine X has to be an ideal engine.  WX = QH , X − QL , X and  X =
QH , X
Consider a Carnot refrigerator working between the same reservoirs TH and TL .
WC
 WC = QH ,C − QL ,C . We have  C = for its corresponding Carnot engine.
QH ,C
Now, couple engine X to the Carnot refrigerator such that WX is used to drive
the Carnot refrigerator.  WC = WX  QH ,C − QL ,C = QH , X − QL , X
 The net heat extracted by the combined device from TL , QL ,C − QL , X , is equal
to the net heat flowing into TH from the combined device, QH ,C − QH , X .
WX WC WC
If  X   C then =  .  QH ,C  QH , X  QL ,C − QL , X = QH ,C − QH , X  0
QH , X QH , X QH ,C
 The combined device is a perfect refrigerator that violate the 2nd law of thermodynamics.
 Engine X cannot exist. No real engine can have efficiency greater than that of a
Carnot engine working between the same TH and TL .
The kinetic theory of gases: To express macroscopic thermodynamic quantities in terms of
microscopic quantities of motion of molecules. 𝑦
Consider a cubic container of side length L filled with an ideal gas. L
𝑚 𝑣
L
𝑥
𝑧 L
For a molecule of mass m moving with a velocity of v = vx iˆ + v y ˆj + vz kˆ, the time interval
2L
between two consecutive collisions on a wall perpendicular to the x − axis is t = .
vx
The momentum transferred to the wall in one collision is px = 2m vx .
px mvx2
On average, the force exserted on the wall by that molecule is Fx = =
t L
Fx mvx2 mvx2
On average, the pressure exserted on the wall by that molecule is 2 = 3 =
L L V
m vx2
For a system of N ideal gas particles the pressure P = N
V
Noting that v 2 = vx2 + v y2 + vz2 = vx2 + v y2 + vz2 and, on average vx2 = v y2 = vz2
1 2 1 2
 vx2 = v = vrms , where rms stands for root-mean-square.
3 3
2 2
Nmvrms nMvrms
P= = , n : number of moles, M : melecular mass
3V 3V
2 2 2
nMvrms nMvrms Mvrms 3RT
P=  PV = = nRT  T =  vrms =
3V 3 3R M
1 2 1 3RT
The average transitional kinetic energy K avg . = mvrms = m
2 2 M
3 mRT 3 mN A kT 3
= = = kT
2 M 2 M 2
3 3 3
Eint = NK avg . = NkT = nN A kT = nRT
2 2 2
In summary:
2 2
nMvrms Mvrms 3
P= ;T= ; Eint = nRT
3V 3R 2
3RT
Also note vrms =
M
The mean free path: The average distance traversed by
a molecule between collisions.
𝑣Ԧ𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗.
average length of path traversed during t 𝑑 𝑑
mean free path  = path 2 2
average number of collisions in t
averaged length of path traversed during t  vrms t
number of collisions in t = number of molecules within the path of cross section  d 2
However, the target molecules are also moving. Therefore, the average relative velocity
vrel ,rms should be used to calculate the number of collisions in t.
N
number of collisions in t is [ d 2  (vrel ,rms t )] 
V
Noting that vrel ,rms = 2
vrel = (v proj . − vt arg et ) 2 = v 2proj . + vt2arg et − 2 v proj .  vt arg et

v 2proj . = vt2arg et = v 2 and v proj .  vt arg et = 0 for large N

vrel ,rms = 2 v 2 = 2vrms

vrms t V
= =
[ d 2  ( 2vrms t )] 
N 2 d 2 N
V
Statistical Mechanics
The equal a priori probability postulate : If a system is in a specific macrostate,
the system can be found with equal probability in any microstate consistent with
the given macroscopic conditions.
Consider a thermodynamic system of a total energy E and N particles distributed in a
finite region in the 6-dimensional ( r , p) space. Divide such a finite region into K equal
cells and distribute the N particles among these K cells.
N!
The number of ways to assign ni particles in the ith cell for i = 1, 2 , K is .
n1 !n2 ! nK !
By the equal a priori probability postulate, to find the most probable distribution is
N!
to maximize as a function of n1 , n2 , , and nK .
n1 !n2 ! nK !
N!
On the other hand, since ln is a monotonically increasing function, maximizing
n1 !n2 ! nK !
N!
is equivalent to maximizing ln( ), which can be largely simplified by using the
n1 !n2 ! nK !
Stirling's approximation ln ni!  ni ln ni − ni for large ni .
K K K
N!
 ln( ) = ln N !−  ln ni !  N ln N − N −  (ni ln ni − ni ) = N ln N −  ni ln ni
n1 !n2 ! nK ! i =1 i =1 i =1
 K K
N!
To maximize ln(
n1 !n2 ! nK !
) under the constraints n
i =1
i = N and n E
i =1
i i =E

we use the variational method with Lagrange multipliers  ,

K K
N!
 [ln( )] −  [ ( ni − N ) +  ( ni Ei − E )] = 0
n1 !n2 ! nK ! i =1 i =1
K K K
  ( N ln N −  ni ln ni ) −  [ ( ni − N ) +  ( ni Ei − E )] = 0
i =1 i =1 i =1
K K K
1
 − (ln ni + ni ) ni − (   ni +   Ei ni ) = 0
i =1 ni i =1 i =1
K
 − (ln ni + 1 +  +  Ei ) ni = 0
i =1

 ln ni + 1 +  +  Ei = 0  ln ni = −(1 +  ) −  Ei  ni = e − (1+ ) e −  Ei
Let A = e − (1+ )  ni = Ae −  Ei
The most probable distribution function f ( ri , pi )  e −  Ei
For a system of non-interacting particles of the same mass m in thermal equilibrium,
the f (ri , pi ) is homogeneous and therefore can be replaced by f (vi ).
1 2 
and Ei = K i = mvi  f (vi )  exp(− mvi2 )
2 2
Note that the distribution function depends on vi2 and is therefore isotropic.
Let the speed be continuous vi → v and include all pssible speed from 0 to .
  
To normalize f (v ) = C exp(− mv 2 )   f (v )(4 v 2 dv) =  f (v)dv = 1
2 0 0

 
 4 C  v 2 exp(− mv 2 )dv = 1 ; Note f (v) = 4 v 2 f (v )
0 2
v =
 
  erf (  m m 2 
v) v exp(− v )  
3
 2   m
 4 C  − 2
 = 1  4 C = 1  C =  
  m 
3
 m   m 
3
 2 
 4    4  
  2  v =0  2 
3 3
 m   2  m   2
 f (v ) =  
 exp( − mv ); f ( v ) = 4 v 2
  exp( − mv )
 2  2  2  2
3
3 1 1  m   2
Recall K avg . = kT  K avg . =  mv f (v)dv =  mv 
2 2

 exp( − mv )4 v 2
dv
2 2 2  2  2
0 0

3
 m   
= 2 m 
2
  v 4 exp(−
2
mv 2 )dv
 
0
 v =
 
3  3  erf (
m  2 
 m  
v ) v exp( − mv )(  mv 2
+ 3) 
= 2 m  2 − 2
  
 2    m 
5
 2 2
m 
 8   
  2  v =0
3
 m  3  3 3 1
= 2 m   = = kT   =
 2   m 
5
2 2 kT
8 
 2 
3 3
 m  1 2 1  N Am  2 1 1
 f (v) = 4 v 2   exp( − mv ) = 4   v exp(− N A mv
2
)
 2 kT  2 kT  2 N A kT  2 N A kT
3
 M  2 2 Mv 2
 f (v) = 4   v exp( − ) Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
 2 RT  2 RT
3 3 3
 m   2  m  1  m  E
Note: f (v ) =   exp(− mv )=   exp( − mv ) = 
2
 exp( − )
 2  2  2 kT  2kT  2 kT  kT
E
exp(− ) is known as the Boltzmann factor
kT
A statistical view of entropy
Consider a closed system divided into two subsystems. Let the two subsystems have
fixed volumes and are in thermal contact with each other but both of them are
isolated from the environment.
 Eint,1 + Eint,2 = Eint = a constant  Eint,2 = Eint − Eint,1
Since the two subsystems are independent of each other, the number of microstates
(multiplicity) of the closed system is the product of those of the two subsystems.
W1 ( Eint,1 )  W2 (Eint,2 )

𝐸int,1, 𝑉1 , 𝑇1 𝐸int,2, 𝑉2 , 𝑇2

𝑊1 𝑊2
𝑄
By the equal a priori probability postulate, W1  W2 is maximized at equilibrium.
d (W1  W2 ) dW1 dW2 dEint,2 dW1 dW2
= W2  + W1  = W2  − W1  =0
dEint,1 dEint,1 dEint,2 dEint,1 dEint,1 dEint,2
1 1
dW1 dW2
dW1 dW2 W W d [ln W1 ] d [ln W2 ]
 W2  = W1   1 = 2  =
dEint,1 dEint,2 dEint,1 dEint,2 dEint,1 dEint,2
dEint,1 dEint,2
 =
d [k ln W1 ] d [k ln W2 ]
dEint,1 T1dS1 − PdV dEint,2 T2 dS 2 − P2 dV2
Noting that dV1 = dV2 = 0  = 1 1
= T1 ; = = T2
dS1 dS1 dS 2 dS 2
 If k ln W1 = S1 and k ln W2 = S 2 then T1 = T2 (equilibrium in thermodynamics)
S = k ln W automatically equate equilibrium in statistical mechanics
with that in thermodynamics.

A general derivation of S = k ln W can be performed using Helmholtz theorem.