Introduction to the Design Process

Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET)

Definition of Design

• Engineering design is the process of devising a system,

component, or process to meet desired needs.
• It is a decision-making process (often iterative), in which the
engineering sciences and mathematics are applied to convert
resources optimally to meet a stated objective.
• Among the fundamental elements of the design process are the
establishment of objectives and criteria, synthesis, analysis,
construction, testing and evaluation.

Introduction to the Design Process 1

Joseph Shigley (Mechanical Engineering Design)
Definition of Design

• Mechanical design means the design of components and

systems of a mechanical nature—machines, products, structures,
devices and instruments.
• For the most part mechanical design uses mathematics,
materials, and the engineering-mechanics sciences.
• Additionally, it uses engineering graphics and the ability to
communicate verbally to clearly express your ideas.
• Mechanical engineering design includes all mechanical design,
but it is a broader study because it includes all the disciplines of
mechanical engineering, such as the thermal fluids and heat
transfer sciences too.
• Aside from the fundamental sciences which are required, the
first studies in mechanical engineering design are in mechanical
design, and that is the approach taken in this course.

Introduction to the Design Process 2

 Steps of the Design Process

1. Recognize the Need

• The first step is to establish the ultimate purpose of the project.

Often, this is in the form of a general statement of the client’s
dissatisfaction with a current situation.
• example – “There is too much damage to bumpers in low-speed
collisions.”
• This is a general statement that does not comment on the design
approach to the problem. It does not say that the bumper should
be stronger or more flexible.
• Recognition and phrasing of the need are often very creative acts
because the need may only be a sensing that something is not
right. For this reason, sensitive people are generally more
creative.
• example – the need to do something about a food packaging
machine may be indicated by the noise level, variation in
package weights, or by slight but perceptible variations in the
quality of the packaging.

Introduction to the Design Process 3

2. Problem Definition Recognize the Need

• This is one of the most critical

steps of the design process. Problem Definition

• There is an iteration between the

definition of the problem and the recognition of need. Often the
true problem is not what it first seems.
• The problem definition is more specific than recognizing the
need. For instance, if the need is for cleaner air, the problem
might be that of reducing the dust discharge from power-plant
stacks, or reducing the quantity of irritants from automotive
exhausts, or means for quickly extinguishing forest fires.
• The problem definition must include all the specifications for
the thing that is to be designed. Anything which limits the
designer’s freedom of choice is a specification.
• It is imperative to write a formal problem statement which
expresses what the design is to accomplish
include:
objectives and goals
(musts, must nots; wants, don't wants)
constraints
criteria used to evaluate the design

• Example: Mobile Vehicle

Design a vehicle which can maneuver in an indoor
environment. The vehicle will be operated via remote control
and must be able to:

Introduction to the Design Process 4

 1) Travel up to a speed of 7 ft/sec on a flat, horizontal, dry,
bare concrete surface.
2) Climb 5” high stairs at speeds up to 2 ft/sec.
3) Carry a payload of at least 20 lbs.
4) Fit through doorways.
5) Cross obstacles up to 20" high and up to 24" across
within 20 seconds.
6) Climb a slope of up to 30 degrees and cross side slopes
up to 20 degrees.
7) Rotate with zero turning radius.
8) Travel in any direction.
9) Total vehicle weight should be less than 275 lbs.

• Design considerations (in no particular order)

strength cost flexibility

reliability safety control
thermal properties weight stiffness
corrosion life surface finish
wear noise lubrication
friction styling maintenance
ergonomics shape volume
utility size liability
manufacturability speed feedrate
ectetera
Note: Design considerations in bold might be pertinent
to the design project in EML2322L.

Introduction to the Design Process 5

3. Gathering of Information Recognize the Need
• Often, either no information is
easily found, or there is an
abundance of information Problem Definition

• Never-ending process for the

best design engineers Gathering of Information
• Info sources:
textbooks
trade journals & magazines
technical reports from government sponsored R&D
company catalogs, web pages and technical personnel
handbooks
company reports
patents
people

• Problems in gathering information:

LAZINESS
Where to find it?
How to get it?
How accurate & credible is the information?
How should the information be interpreted for my needs?
When do I have enough information?
What decisions result from the information?
PLAGIARISM (integrity = giving others credit for their ideas)

Introduction to the Design Process 6

4. Concept Generation Recognize the Need
• This is the most creative part of
the design process.
Problem Definition
• Store ideas in a design notebook.
• Some approaches to concept
Gathering of Information
generation:
- adaptation
a solution of a Concept Generation
problem in one field
is applied to a similar problem in another field
(wine press → printing press → pistol grip)
- analogy
obstacle avoidance similar to potential fields

- area thinking
improve an existing product by concentrating on
one of its important characteristics (cost,
performance, function, appearance, safety, etc.)
- brainstorming
group of people who are familiar with the general
nature of the problem;
everyone says what comes to mind
rules: (1) no judgements; (2) the more
unconventional the better; (3) the more ideas the
better
- involvement
visualize yourself as being part of the mechanism

Introduction to the Design Process 7

 - functional synthesis
divide the system into subunits
describe each subunit by a complete list of
functional requirements
list all the ways the functional requirements of each
subunit can be realized
study all combinations of partial solutions
Can Opener
Part Function Realization

Subunit 1 1. Separate metal 1. Shearing

2. Tearing
3. Fatigue
4. Melting
5. Drawing thin
6. Chemical erosion
Subunit 2 1. Apply power 1. Hand
2. Electric motor
3. Hot wire
4. Hydraulic motor
5. Flame
6. Chemical reaction
7. Mechanical vibration
8. Laser
2. Position 1. Bring can to opener
2. Bring opener to can
3. Have opener built on can

Introduction to the Design Process 8

 - try inversion
try reversing the ordering of things; i.e. an
inversion is produced with an electric motor by
holding the rotor stationary and permitting the field
windings to rotate
- change the normal position and character of things
if it operates horizontally, try operating it vertically.
If it’s round, try making it square. For example,
doors hinged at top or bottom, a horizontal drill
press, etc.
- talk it over
If the designer has followed these suggestions thus
far, he/she is now quite familiar with the problem.
Many solutions have been found but none are quite
satisfying. Having worked to this point, the
designer’s mind is in a receptive condition and will
instantly recognize a solution. The problem is to
bridge a gap between two groups of ideas—to make
an association of ideas. It is generally conceded
that this association occurs by pure chance. This
event is most likely to occur when the problem is
being discussed with another person or group of
persons.

Introduction to the Design Process 9

 Recognize the Need

5. Concept Selection
• form decision matrix to unbiasedly Problem Definition
evaluate different ideas based on a
weighted set of objectives the
design team decides are important Gathering of Information
for the solving the problem

Concept Generation

Concept Selection

Introduction to the Design Process 10

 Decision matrix for the design of a crane hook

CRANE HOOK Welded Plates Riveted Plates Cast Hook

Weighting
Objective Parameter Mag. Score Value Mag. Score Value Mag. Score Value
Factor
Material Cost 0.10 $ 2500 8.8 0.9 2500 8.8 0.9 2200 10.0 1.0
Manufacturing Cost 0.20 $ 1500 8.0 1.6 1200 10.0 2.0 2400 5.0 1.0
Manufacturing Time 0.10 hours 40 6.3 0.6 25 10.0 1.0 50 5.0 0.5
Durability 0.15 experience great 10 1.5 good 8 1.2 good 8 1.2
Reliability 0.30 experience good 8 2.4 great 10 3.0 okay 6 1.8
Repairability 0.15 experience good 8 1.2 great 10 1.5 fair 4 0.6
Overall value 8.2 9.6 6.1

Qualitative Score Assignments:

great 10
good 8
okay 6
fair 4
poor 2

CRANE PHOTO CLICK HERE FOR THE SAME EXAMPLE WITH

CRANE HOOK PHOTO PRINTABLE (AS OPPOSED TO DIGITAL) COMMENTS
BAD DAY AT WORK FOR CRANE OPERATOR PHOTO

Introduction to the Design Process 11

6. Communication of the Design
Recognize the Need

• The purpose of the design is to

satisfy the needs of the client. Problem Definition
• Designer must provide oral
presentations and written design
reports. Gathering of Information
• Continuous communication is
important in order to avoid
surprises. Concept Generation

• Many great designs and inventions

have been lost simply because the
Concept Selection
originator was unable or unwilling
to explain his/her accomplishments
to others.
Communication
• There are only 3 forms of
communication available to us: written, oral and graphical.
The successful engineer will be technically competent and
versatile in all three. Competency only comes from practice.
• Ability in writing can be acquired by writing letters, reports,
memos, and papers. It doesn’t matter whether the articles are
published or reviewed—the practice is the important thing.
Ability in speaking can be obtained in educational, fraternal,
civic, church and professional activities. To acquire drawing
ability, pencil sketching should be employed to illustrate
every idea possible. CAD work should complement this,
not replace it.
• Importance of sketches, drawings, visual aids, computer
graphics and models in the communications process.

Introduction to the Design Process 12

7. Detailed Design and Analysis

Recognize the Need

• The principal goal of your
engineering studies is to enable
you to create mathematical
Problem Definition
models which accurately simulate
the real physical world.
• All real physical systems are Gathering of Information
complex. Creating a
mathematical model of the system
means we are simplifying the Concept Generation
system to the point that it can be
analyzed. The terms rigid body
and concentrated force are Concept Selection
examples. The rule in making
such assumptions, is that, in
creating the model, the model Communication
must be meaningful—i.e. a good
and appropriate model given the
design constraints involved. Detailed Design and Analysis
• The nature of the problem, its
economics, the computational facilities available and the
ability and working time of the engineer, all play a key role in
the formulation of the model.
• The designer’s time investment typically increases
exponentially with regard to model accuracy.

Introduction to the Design Process 13

8. Prototype Development and Testing
Recognize the Need

• Initial exposure in EML2322 lab

and design project. Problem Definition

9. Manufacturing Gathering of Information

• Initial exposure in EML4321

course. Concept Generation

10. Life Cycle Maintenance Concept Selection

• Learned from experience and

Communication
industry standards.

Detailed Design and Analysis

Prototype and Testing

Manufacturing

Life Cycle Maintenance

Introduction to the Design Process 14

SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCE AND GAUGING

INTRODUCTION:
It is well known fact that no two things in the nature can be identical, they may be found to be
closely similar. This is true of production of component parts in engineering also. We know that
every process is a combination of three elements, man, machine and material. A change in any
one of these will constitute a change in the process. All these elements are subjected to inherent
and characteristic variations.
Generally, in engineering, any component manufactured is required to fit or to match with some
other component.
If a machine is under control, i.e. no assignable causes of variation exist, and then the resultant
frequency distribution of dimension produced will be roughly in the form of normal curve, i.e.
99.7% parts will be within ±3 limits of means setting

The value of  depends upon the machine used to produce a component. If value of  has
to be used reduced, then precision machines have to be used produces the component having less
variation in dimensions. It is thus important to note that the cost of production keeps on
increasing tremendously for very precise tolerance as shown in above fig, as the tolerance
approaches zero, the task of achieving it becomes enormous and finally impossible .in general,
tolerance vs. fabrication cost is hyperbolic curve.

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

 LIMITS:
The maximum and minimum permissible sizes within which the actual size of a component lies
are called limits.
 Limits are fixed with reference to the basic size of that dimension.
 Upper limit (The high limit) for that dimension is the largest size permitted and the low
limit is the smallest size permitted for that dimension.

TERMINOLOGY
The terminology used in fits and tolerances is shown in Fig below. The important terms are

Basic size: It is the exact theoretical size arrived at by design. It is also called nominal size.
Actual size: The size of a part as may be found by measurement.
Maximum limit of size: The greater of the two limits of size.
Minimum limit of size: The smaller of the two limits of size.
Allowance: It is an intentional difference between maximum material limits of mating parts. It is
a minimum clearance or maximum interference between mating parts.
Deviation: The algebraic difference between a size (actual, maximum, etc.) and the
corresponding basic size.
Actual deviation: The algebraic difference between the actual size and the corresponding basic
size.
Upper deviation: The algebraic difference between the maximum limit of size and the
corresponding basic size.

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

Upper deviation of hole = ES (& art Superior)

Upper deviation of shaft = es
Lower deviation: The algebraic difference between the minimum limit of size and the
corresponding basic size.
Lower deviation of hole = El (Ecart Inferior)
Lower deviation of shaft = ei
Upper deviation Lower deviation + Tolerance
Zero line: It is the line of zero deviation and represents the basic size.
Tolerance zone: It is the zone bounded by the two limits of size of the parts and defined by its
magnitude, i.e. tolerance and by its position in relation to the zero line.
Fundamental deviation: That one of the two deviations which is conveniently chosen to define
the position of the tolerance zone in relation to zero line, as shown in fig below.

Fig: Disposition of fundamental deviation and tolerance zone with respect to the zero line
Basic shaft: A shaft whose upper deviation is zero.
Basic hole: A hole whose, lower deviation of zero.
Clearance: It is the positive difference between the hole size and the shaft size.
Maximum clearance: The positive difference between the maximum size of a hole and the
minimum size of a shaft.
Minimum clearance: The positive difference between the minimum size of a hole and the
maximum size of a shaft.

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

 FITS
When two parts are to be assembled, the relation resulting from the difference between their
sizes before assembly is called a fit. A fit may be defined as the degree of tightness and
looseness between two mating parts.

(i) Clearance Fit:

This means there is a gap between the two mating parts. Let’s see the following schematic
representation of clearance fit. The diameter of the shaft is smaller than the diameter of the hole.
There is a clearance between the shaft and the hole. Hence the shaft can easily slide into the hole.

Figure: Clearance fit

In clearance fit the difference between the maximum size of the hole and the minimum size of
the shaft is known as the Maximum clearance and the difference between the minimum size of
the hole and the maximum size of the shaft is known as the Minimum clearance.
Clearance fit can be sub-classified as follows:
Loose Fit: It is used between those mating parts where no precision is required. It provides
minimum allowance and is used on loose pulleys, agricultural machineries etc.

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

Running Fit: For a running fit, the dimension of shaft should be smaller enough to maintain a
film of oil for lubrication. It is used in bearing pair etc. An allowance 0.025 mm per 25 mm of
diameter of boring may be used.
Slide Fit or Medium Fit: It is used on those mating parts where great precision is required. It
provides medium allowance and is used in tool slides, slide valve, automobile parts, etc.
EXAMPLE:
Question: A spindle slides freely in a bush. The basic size of the fit is 50 x10– 3 mm. If the
tolerances quoted are 0 +62 for the holes and -80 +180 for the shaft, find the upper limit and
lower limit of the shaft and the minimum clearance.
Solution: Tolerances are given in units of one thousandth of millimeter, so the upper limit of the
hole will be 50.062 mm and lower limit for the hole is the same as the basic size of 50.000 mm.
The shaft upper limit will be (50.000 – 0.080) x 10– 3 = 49.92x10– 3 m
The shaft lower limit will be (50.000 – 0.180) x 10– 3 = 49.82x10– 3 m
The minimum clearance or allowance is (50.000 – 49.920) 10– 3 = 8x10– 3 mm

(ii) Interference Fit:

There is no gap between the faces and there will be an intersecting of material will occur. In the
following schematic representation of the Interference fit. The diameter of the shaft is larger than
the hole diameter. There will be the intersection of two mating components will be occurred.
Hence the shaft will need additional force to fit into the hole.

Figure: Interference Fit

In Interference fit the difference between the maximum size of the shaft and the minimum size of
the hole is known as the Maximum Interference and the difference between the minimum size
of the shaft and the maximum size of the hole is known as the Minimum Interference.

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

The interference fit can be sub-classified as follows:

Shrink Fit or Heavy Force Fit: It refers to maximum negative allowance. In assembly of the
hole and the shaft, the hole is expanded by heating and then rapidly cooled in its position. It is
used in fitting of rims etc.
Medium Force Fit: These fits have medium negative allowance. Considerable pressure is
required to assemble the hole and the shaft. It is used in car wheels, armature of dynamos etc.
Tight Fit or Press Fit: One part can be assembled into the other with a hand hammer or by light
pressure. A slight negative allowance exists between two mating parts (more than wringing fit).
It gives a semi-permanent fit and is used on a keyed pulley and shaft, rocker arm, etc.
EXAMPLE
A dowel pin is required to be inserted in a base. For this application H 7 fit for hole and a p 6 fit
for the shaft are chosen. The tolerance quoted is 0 +25 for the hole and 26 +42 for the shaft. Find
the upper and lower limits of the hole and also dowel pin, and the maximum interference
between dowel pin and the hole. The basic size of the fit is 50x10– 3 m.
Solution:
The upper limit for the hole will be (50.000 + 0.025) x 10– 3 = 50.025x10– 3m
The lower limit for the hole will be (50.000 + 0) 50.000 x 10– 3 = 50x10– 3 m
The upper limit for dowel pin will be (50.000 + 0.042) x 10– 3 = 50.042x10– 3 m
The lower limit for dowel pin will be (50.000 + 0.026) x10– 3 = 50.026 x 10– 3 mm
The maximum interference between dowel pin and the hole is
(50.042 – 50.000) x 10– 3 = 0.042x 10– 3 m = 42x10– 6 m

(iii) Transition Fit:

Transition fit is neither loose nor tight as like clearance fit and interference fit. The tolerance
zones of the shaft and the hole will be overlapped between the interference and clearance fits.
See the following schematic representation of the transition fit.

Figure: Transition Fit

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

Transition fit can be sub-classified as follows:

Push Fit: It refers to zero allowance and a light pressure (10 cating dowels, pins, etc.) is required
in assembling the hole and the shaft. The moving parts show least vibration with this type of fit.
It is also known as snug fit.
Force Fit or Shrink Fit: A force fit is used when the two mating parts are to be rigidly fixed so
that one cannot move without the other. It either requires high pressure to force the shaft into the
hole or the hole to be expanded by heating. It is used in railway wheels, etc.
Wringing Fit: A slight negative allowance exists between two mating parts in wringing fit. It
requires pressure to force the shaft into the hole and gives a light assembly. It is used in fixing
keys, pins, etc.

EXAMPLE:
For a particular application, an H 7 fit has been selected for the hole and a K 6 fit for the shaft.
The tolerance quoted are 0 +25 for the hole and 12 +18 for the shaft. Find the upper limit and
lower limit for the hole and also for bush. The basic size of fit is 50x10– 3 m.
Solution:
The upper limit for the hole will be (50.000 + 0.025) x 10– 3 = 50.025x10– 3 m
The lower limit for the hole will be (50.000 + 0)  10– 3 = 50.000x10– 3 m
The upper limit for the bush will be (50.000 + 0.018) x 10– 3 = 50.018x10– 3 m
The lower limit for the bush will be (50.000 + 0.002) x 10– 3 = 50.002 x 10– 3m

SYSTEMS OF FITS:
A fit system is the systems of standard allowance to suit specific range of basic size. If these
standard allowances are selected properly and assigned in mating parts ensures specific classes
of fit.
There are two systems of fit for obtaining clearance, interference or transition fit. These are:
1. Hole basis system
2. Shaft basis system

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

1. Hole Basis System:

In the hole basis system, the size of the hole is kept constant and shaft sizes are varied to obtain
various types of fits. In this system, lower deviation of hole is zero, i.e. the low limit of hole is
same as basic size. The high limit of the hole and the two limits of size for the shaft are then
varied to give desired type of fit. The hole basis system is commonly used because it is more
convenient to make correct holes of fixed sizes, since the standard drills, taps, reamers and
branches etc. are available for producing holes and their sizes are not adjustable. On the other
hand, size of the shaft produced by turning, grinding, etc. can be very easily varied.

Fig: Hole basis system

2. Shaft Basis System:
In the shaft basis system, the size of the shaft is kept constant and different fits are obtained by
varying the size of the hole. Shaft basis system is used when the ground bars or drawn bars are
readily available. These bars do not require further machining and fits are obtained by varying
the sizes of the hole. In this system, the upper deviation (fundamental deviation) of shaft is zero,
i.e. the high limit of the shaft is same as basic size and the various fits are obtained by varying
the low limit of shaft and both the limits of the hole.

Fig: Shaft Basis System

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HOLE BASIS & SHAFT BASIS SYSTEM:

BASIS SYSTEM SHAFT SYSTEM
1. Size of hole whose lower deviation is zero 1. Size of shaft whose upper deviation is zero
(H.hole) is assumed as the basic size. (h-shaft) assumed as basic size.
2. Limits on the hole are kept constant and 2. Limits on the shaft are kept constant and
those of shafts are varied to obtain desired those of holes are varied to have necessary fit.
type of fit.
3. Hole basis system is preferred in mass 3. This system is not suitable for mass
production because it is convenient and less production because it is inconvenient time
costly to make a hole of correct size due to consuming and costly to make a hole of any
availability of standard drills reamers. size w.r to field shaft size so as to obtain
required fit.
4. It is much more easy to vary the shaft sizes 4. It is rather difficult to vary the hole sizes
according to the fit required. according to the fit required.
5. It required less amount of capital and 5. It needs large amount of capital and storage
storage space for roofs needed to produce space for large numbers of tools required to
shaft of different sizes. produce holes of different sizes.
6. Changing of shafts can be easily and 6. Being internal measurement gauging of
conveniently done with suitable gap Gauges holes can’t be easily and conveniently done.

TOLERANCES:
Tolerance is a permissible limit and variation in dimensions or in physical parameters. It
is possible to achieve dimensions and physical parameter exactly but it is very time consuming
and economically unjustified or costly. It is quite often not necessary to achieve exact
dimensions, in such functions or cases some permissible variation or tolerance is given.
The permissible variation in size or dimension is tolerance. The difference between the
upper limit (high limit) and the lower limit of a dimension represents the margin for variation to
workmanship, and is called a tolerance zone.

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

Tolerance can also be defined as the amount by which the job is allowed to go away from
accuracy and perfectness without causing any functional trouble, when assembled with its
mating part and put into actual service.

Fig: Tolerance
There are two ways of writing tolerances:
(a) Unilateral tolerance
(b) Bilateral tolerance.

Unilateral Tolerance:
In this system, the dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on one side of the basic size, i.e.
tolerance lies only on one side of the basic size either above or below it (As shown in fig).

Fig: unilateral Tolerance

Unilateral system is preferred in interchangeable manufacture, especially when precision fits are
required, because
(a) it is easy and simple to determine deviations,
(b) another advantage of this system is that „Go‟ Gauge ends can be standardized as the holes of
different tolerance grades have the same lower limit and all the shafts have same upper limit, and
(c) This form of tolerance greatly assists the operator, when machining of mating parts. The
operator machines to the upper limit of shaft (lower limit for hole) knowing full well that he still
has some margin left for machining before the parts are rejected.

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

Bilateral Tolerance:
In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both the sides of the basic size, i.e.
the limits of tolerance lie on either side of the basic size, but may not be necessarily equally
disposing about it.

Fig: Bilateral Tolerance

In this system, it is not possible to retain the same fit when tolerance is varied and the basic size
of one or both of the mating parts are to be varied. This system is used in mass production when
machine setting is done for the basic size.
EXAMPLE
A 50 mm diameter shaft is made to rotate in the bush. The tolerances for both shaft and bush are
0.050 mm. determine the dimension of the shaft and bush to give a maximum clearance of 0.075
mm with the hole basis system.
Solution: In the hole basis system, lower deviation of hole is zero, therefore low limit of hole =
50 mm.
High limit of hole = Low limit + Tolerance
= 50.00 + 0.050
= 50.050 mm = 50.050 x 10– 3 m
High limit of shaft = Low limit of hole – Allowance
= 50.00 – 0.075
= 49.925 mm = 49.925 x 10– 3 m
Low limit of the shaft = High limit – Tolerance
= 49.925 – 0.050
= 49.875 mm = 49.875 x 10– 3 m
The dimension of the system is shown in Figure

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

Fig: Shaft with Bush

GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCES
Geometric means geometric forms such as a plane, cylinder, square, etc. Geometrical
features are: flatness, straightness, squareness etc. Geometrical tolerances refer to the shape of
the surfaces (tolerance of form) as well as the relative location of one feature to another
(tolerance of position). These tolerances are specified by special symbols (refer Tables 1 and 2).

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

Geometrical tolerances are specified for geometrical features, in addition to linear

tolerances. Data about the tolerances on the shape and location of surfaces are indicated on
drawings in a rectangular box divided into two or three parts. For example “Lack parallelism
between two surfaces is within 0.1 mm” can be written as

Examples of geometrical tolerances are given below :

Parallelism (Figure (a))
It indicates the requirement, “Surface A is parallel to opposite face within 0.1 mm”.
Straightness (Figure (b))

It indicates the requirement, “Straight within 0.02 mm”.

Squareness (Figure (c))
It indicates the requirement, “Square within 0.03 mm total”.
Flatness (Figure (d))

It indicates the requirement, “Flat within 0.002 mm total”.

Roundness (Figure (e))

It indicates the requirement, “Taper round within 0.01 mm”.

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SYSTEM OF LIMITS, FITS, TOLERANCES AND GAUGING

GAUGES:
Limit Gauges:
Two sets of limit gauges are necessary for checking the size of various parts. There are two
gauges: Go limit gauge, and Not Go limit gauge.
1. Go Limit: The Go limit applied to that of the two limits of size corresponds to the maximum
material condition, i.e. (1) an upper limit of a shaft, and (ii) the lower limit of a hole. This is
checked by the Go gauge.
2. Not Go Limit: The Not Go limit applied to that of the two limits of size corresponds to the
minimum material condition, i.e. (1) lower limit of a shaft, and (ii) the upper limit of a hole. This
is checked by the Not Go gauge.
The types are:
1. Plug Gauge
3. Snap Gauge
4. Ring Gauge
1. Plug Gauge:
A plug gauge is a cylindrical type of gauge, used to check the accuracy of holes. The plug gauge
checks whether the whole diameter is within specified tolerance or not. The ‘Go’ plug gauge is
the size of the low limit of the hole while the ‘Not-Go’ plug gauge corresponds to the high limit
of the hole.

Fig: Types of Plug gauges

It should engage the hole to be checked without using pressure and should be able to stand in the
hole without falling.

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Snap Gauge:
A snap gauge is a U-Shaped frame having jaws, used to check the accuracy of shafts and male
members. The snap gauge checks whether the shaft diameter is within specified tolerances or
not.
The ‘Go’ snap gauge is the size of the high (maximum) limit of the shaft while the ‘Not-Go’
snap gauge corresponds to the low (minimum) limit of the shaft.

Fig: Types of Snap gauges

Ring Gauge:
A ring gauge is in the form of a ring, used to check the shafts and male members. The “Go’ and
‘Not Go’ members may be separate or in a single ring. The opening or hole in the Go gauge is
larger than that in the Not-Go gauge.

A ring gauge with both members combined in one ring is shown in figure (a):

Fig: Plain ring gauge

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PROPERTIES OF GAUGE MATERIAL:

The material for limit gauges should meet most of the following requirements:
(i) Optimal Hardness:
This is primary and most important property of gauge material. It is concerned with high
durability, resistance to wear, and resistance to damage in use.
(ii) Stability of Dimensions:
The material should have high stability of dimensions to preserve size and form.
(iii) Proper Workability:
Proper workability, especially in manufacturing processes like grinding and polishing, to obtain
required accuracy.
(iv) Wear and Corrosion Resistance:
The material should have high resistance to mechanical wear and corrosion.
(v) Low Coefficient of Linear Expansion:
The material should have low coefficient of linear expansion to avoid temperature and heating
effect.
(vi) Uniformity of Structure:
The structure of gauge material should be uniform for better accuracy.

TAYLOR’S PRINCIPLE OF GAUGE DESIGN

The Taylor’s Principle of gauge design gives two statements which are discussed here:

Statement 1:
The “Go” gauge should always be so designed that it will cover the maximum metal condition
(MMC), whereas a “NOT-GO” gauge will cover the minimum (least) metal condition (LMC) of
a feature, whether external or internal.

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Statement 2:
The “Go” gauge should always be so designed that it will cover as many dimensions as possible
in a single operation, whereas the “NOT-GO” gauge will cover only one dimension.
Means a Go plug gauge should have a full circular section and be of full length of the hole being
checked as in shown figure 2:

OR
i.e. According to Taylor’s principle, the GO gauge should be made for maximum material
limit and it has to incorporate as many dimensions as possible to inspect in one pass and
NO-GO gauge can be made for minimum material limit and separate NO GO gauge should
be made for each separate dimension.
Example:

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