UNIT-II

COMPUTER NETWORKS
A Computer Network is a system where two or more devices are linked together to share data,
resources and information.
These networks can range from simple setups, like connecting two devices in your home, to
massive global systems, like the Internet.
 Sharing devices such as printers and scanners: Multiple systems can access the same
hardware, reducing the need for duplicate devices and lowering costs.
 Sharing Data: Teams can work on shared documents, applications or systems, which
boosts efficiency.
 Communicating using web, email, video and instant messaging: Networks enable both
real-time and delayed communication. Users can access information, send messages,
participate in video calls and chat.
 Data management: Networks allow organizations to store data in a central or distributed
location, making it easier to manage, secure and back up critical information.
 Remote access : Users can log into computers, servers or cloud platforms from different
locations, supporting remote work and 24/7 access.

DATA LINK LAYER IN OSI MODEL

The data link layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI (Open System Interconnection)
network architecture model.
 Responsible for the node-to-node delivery of data within the same local network.
 Major role is to ensure error-free transmission of information.
 Also responsible for encoding, decoding, and organizing the outgoing and incoming data.
 Considered as the most complex layer of the OSI model as it hides all the underlying
complexities of the hardware from the other above layers.

1.APPLICATION LAYER
 The Application Layer of OSI (Open System Interconnection) model, is
the top layer in this model and takes care of network communication.
 The application layer provides the functionality to send and receive
data from users.
  It acts as the interface between the user and the application.
 The application provides services like file transmission, mail service,
and many more..

 Providing user interfaces:

It allows users to interact with applications and access network services like email, web
browsing, file transfer, etc.
 Defining communication protocols:
It uses protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, etc., to facilitate data exchange between
applications.
 Data representation and formatting:
It ensures data is presented in a format that the receiving application can understand and
process.
 Error handling and control:
It handles basic error detection and correction related to the communication process.
Examples of Application Layer Protocols:
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for accessing and transferring web pages.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between computers.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails.
 DNS (Domain Name System): Used for resolving domain names to IP addresses.
 TELNET: Used for remote access to a computer system.

2.PRESENTATION LAYER

 Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in the Open System Interconnection

(OSI) model.
 This layer is also known as Translation layer, as this layer serves as a data
translator for the network.
 The data which this layer receives from the Application Layer is extracted
and manipulated here as per the required format to transmit over the
network.
  The main responsibility of this layer is to provide or define the data format
and encryption.

 Data Translation: Converts data into a standardized format (e.g., EBCDIC to

ASCII).
 Data Compression: Reduces data size to optimize bandwidth and speed.
 Data Encryption/Decryption: Secures data during transmission (e.g.,
SSL/TLS).
 Syntax and Semantics: Ensures data is interpreted correctly across systems.
 Interoperability: Bridges differences in data formats between devices

3.SESSION LAYER
The Session Layer is the 5th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model
which plays an important role in controlling the dialogues (connections) between
computers.
This layer is responsible for setting up, coordinating, and terminating conversations,
exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It establishes,
manages, and terminates the connections between the local and remote applications.
 The Session Layer is responsible for establishing active communication sessions
between two devices.
 In the OSI model, the transport layer is not responsible for releasing a
connection. Instead, the session layer is responsible for that. However, in modern
TCP/IP networks, TCP already provides orderly closing of connections at the
transport layer.
 Dialogue Control is also implemented in the Session Layer of the OSI model but
in TCP/IP the dialogue control is implemented in the Application Layer.
 Session-layer services are commonly used in application environments that use
remote procedure calls (RPCs).
 Session Layer has synchronization and resynchronization techniques that ensure
reliable and orderly communication over networks, which is particularly
important in applications requiring high levels of data integrity and continuity.
1. Session Establishment : It establishes and manages sessions between
communicating parties that cab be connection-oriented or connectionless. It also
maps sessions to transport connections.
2. Communication Synchronization : It ensures reliable connectivity and recovery
by using synchronization bits and checkpoints in data stream.
3. Activity Management : It allow the user to divide data into logical units
called activities. An activity can be processed on its own and each activity is
independent of activities that come before and after it.
4. Dialog Management : It refers to deciding whose turn it is to talk. Some
applications uses a token mechanism for half-duplex mode, where only one
 party holds the token to transmit data while other supports full-duplex mode for
simultaneous data transmission.
5. Data Transfer : It manages data exchange between systems.
6. Resynchronization : In this, all the tokens are restored to the positions that were
set during synchronization

4.TRANSPORT LAYER
 The transport layer, or layer 4 of the OSI model, controls network traffic
between hosts and end systems to guarantee full data flows.
 It is positioned between the network and session layers in the OSI
paradigm. The data packets must be taken and sent to the appropriate
machine by the network layer.
 After that, the transport layer receives the packets, sorts them, and looks
for faults Subsequently, it directs them to the session layer of the
appropriate computer program.
1. Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)
 TCP is connection-oriented Protocol.
 TCP is reliable protocol.
 As TCP is connection-oriented protocol, so first the connection is established
between two ends and then data is transferred and then the connection is
terminated after all data being sent.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 UDP is not reliable protocol
 The protocol UDP is connectionless.
 When speed and size are more important than security and dependability, this
kind of protocol is employed.
 The data from the higher layer is supplemented with transport-level addresses,
checksum error control, and length information by UDP, an end-to-end transport
level protocol.
 A user datagram is the packet that the UDP protocol generates.
3. Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
 Many Internet applications use SCTP to perform transport layer duties, similar to
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
 On top of a connectionless packet network like IP, SCTP is a dependable
transport protocol that facilitates data transfer over the network in scenarios
involving one or more IP addresses.

5.DATA LINK LAYER

The data link layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI (Open System
Interconnection) network architecture model.
 Responsible for the node-to-node delivery of data within the same local network.
 Major role is to ensure error-free transmission of information.
 Also responsible for encoding, decoding, and organizing the outgoing and
incoming data.
 Considered as the most complex layer of the OSI model as it hides all the
underlying complexities of the hardware from the other above layers.
Sub-Layers of The Data Link Layer
The data link layer is further divided into two sub-layers, which are as follows:
Logical Link Control (LLC)
This sub layer of the data link layer deals with multiplexing, the flow of data among
applications and other services, and LLC is responsible for providing error messages
and acknowledgments as well.
Media Access Control (MAC)
. The data link layer receives the information in the form of packets from the
Network layer, it divides packets into frames and sends those frames bit-by-bit to the
underlying physical layer.
1.Switch
 A switch is a key device in the Data Link Layer.
 It uses MAC addresses to forward data frames to the correct device within a
network.
 Works in local area networks (LANs) to connect multiple devices.
2. Bridge
 A bridge connects two or more LANs, creating a single, unified network.
 Operates at the Data Link Layer by forwarding frames based on MAC
addresses.
 Used to reduce network traffic and segment a network.
3. Network Interface Card (NIC)
 A NIC is a hardware component in devices like computers and printers.
 Responsible for adding the MAC address to frames and ensuring proper
communication with the network.
 Operates at the Data Link Layer by preparing and sending frames over the
physical medium.
4. Wireless Access Point (WAP)
 A WAP allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network.
 Operates at the Data Link Layer by managing wireless MAC addresses.
 Uses protocols like Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) to communicate with devices.
5. Layer 2 Switches
 These are specialized switches that only operate at Layer 2, unlike multi-layer
switches.
 Responsible for frame forwarding using MAC address tables.

6.PHYSICAL LAYER
 The physical Layer is the bottom-most layer in the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) Model which is a physical and electrical
representation of the system.
 It consists of various network components such as power plugs, connectors,
receivers, cable types, etc.
 The physical layer sends data bits from one device(s) (like a computer) to
another device(s).

 Point-to-Point configuration: In Point-to-Point configuration, there is a line

(link) that is fully dedicated to carrying the data between two devices.
 Multi-Point configuration: In a Multi-Point configuration, there is a line
(link) through which multiple devices are connected.

DATA LINK LAYER DESIGN ISSUES

The data link layer is divided into two sub-layers :
1. Logical Link Control Sub-layer (LLC) -
Provides the logic for the data link, Thus it controls the synchronization, flow control, and error
checking functions of the data link layer. Functions are -

 (i) Error Recovery.

 (ii) It performs the flow control operations.
 (iii) User addressing.

2. Media Access Control Sub-layer (MAC) -

It is the second sub-layer of data-link layer. It controls the flow and multiplexing for
transmission medium. Transmission of data packets is controlled by this layer. This layer is
responsible for sending the data over the network interface card.
Functions are -

 (i) To perform the control of access to media.

 (ii) It performs the unique addressing to stations directly connected to LAN.
 (iii) Detection of errors.
Design issues with data link layer

 1.Services provided to the network layer -

The data link layer act as a service interface to the network layer.
 The principle service is transferring data from network layer on sending machine to the
network layer on destination machine. This transfer also takes place via DLL (Data link-
layer).
 It provides three types of services:
1. Unacknowledged and connectionless services.
2. Acknowledged and connectionless services.
3. Acknowledged and connection-oriented services
Unacknowledged and connectionless services.
 Here the sender machine sends the independent frames without any acknowledgement from the
sender.
 There is no logical connection established.
Acknowledged and connectionless services.
 There is no logical connection between sender and receiver established.
 Each frame is acknowledged by the receiver.
 If the frame didn’t reach the receiver in a specific time interval it has to be sent again.
 It is very useful in wireless systems.
Acknowledged and connection-oriented services
 A logical connection is established between sender and receiver before data is trimester.
 Each frame is numbered so the receiver can ensure all frames have arrived and exactly once.
 Frame synchronization -
The source machine sends data in the form of blocks called frames to the destination
machine.
o The starting and ending of each frame should be identified so that the frame can be
recognized by the destination machine.
 Flow control -
Flow control is done to prevent the flow of data frame at the receiver end.
o The source machine must not send data frames at a rate faster than the capacity of
destination machine to accept them.
 Error control -
Error control is done to prevent duplication of frames.
o The errors introduced during transmission from source to destination machines
must be detected and corrected at the destination machine.
(a) Virtual communication.
 (b) Actual communication.

ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION

Types of error:
1.Correction
2.Detection
Networks must be able to transfer data from one device to another with complete accuracy.
Data can be corrupted during transmission For reliable communication, errors must be
detected and corrected.
Error detection and correction are implemented either at the data link layer or the transport
layer of the OSI model

Types of Network Errors

1. Single-Bit Error
 This error occurs when the single bit (single binary digit) in the message is flipped during
the transmission and the received message at the destination side differs from the original
message by a single bit.
  For example, if a single 1(set bit) in the source message is flipped to 0 or a 0 is flipped to 1,
we can say that there is a Single-Bit Error in Transmission which is shown below:

2. Multiple-Bit Error
 This occurs when there is a deviation in multiple bits of the message during
its transfer from source to destination.
 The bits that are flipped need not be a continuous sequence of bits.
 Thus, a Multiple-Bit Error is found when any non-continuous sequence of bits
is flipped in the transmitted message.
 The example of this error is illustrated below:

3. Burst Error
 This is similar to the Multiple-Bits Error with just one difference the bits that are flipped
follow a continuous sequence in their bit representation.
 This error can occur due a physical damage to the disk which causes a change in the
consecutive bit sequence of the source message.
 An example of a Burst Error is demonstrated below:
Error Identification in Computer Network
1.Parity Check
 In this technique, the sender appends an extra parity bit to the message.
 If the total number of ones in the bit sequence is odd, 1 is added as a parity bit. And, if it is
even, 0 acts as a parity bit.
 During transmission or storage, if an error alters the number of bits, the parity bit will be
used to identify whether there is an error or not.
 This is illustrated as shown below:

2.Two-Dimensional Parity Check

 This is just a variation of the Single-Bit Parity Check in which the original
method is transformed into a matrix in which each column is associated with a
parity bit based on the number of occurrences of 1s.
 At the receiving end, if the message has been corrupted in some way, the
parity bit can identify that the message is corrupted due to some error.
 This is illustrated in the below example.
Checksum
 This method adds up all the bits and adds the sum to the message while transmitting. This
sum is called the checksum.
 The sender calculates the checksum before transmitting the data, and the recipient
recalculates it upon receiving the data.
 If the two checksum values do not match with each other, there is some error in the
network.
 However if they match, there is no error.
 An example of checksum is shown below:

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

 The CRC method is similar to the Checksum method with the difference that
this method deals with binary division instead of binary addition.
 In this method, the repeated or redundant sequence of bits in the source
message is identified.
 Then, it is added to the source message. Now, the source message will be
easily divisible by the binary number formed from redundant bits which is
called CRC Value.
 Thus, the source message is divided by the CRC value which gives the
divisor.
 Before the message is accepted, the receiver divides the bit sequence by the
CRC value.
 If the remainder is zero, there is no error. But, if the remainder after dividing
by the CRC value is not zero, it means that there is an error that needs to be
corrected.
 The CRC method is outlined below:
ERROR CORRECTION

 The errors are detected in the network, the deviated bits sequence needs to be
replaced with the right bit sequence so that the receiver can accept the data
and process it.
 This method is called Error Correction.
 We can correct the errors in the Network in two different ways which are
listed below:
 Forward Error Correction: In this Error Correction Scenario, the receiving end
is responsible for correcting the network error.
 There is no need for retransmission of the data from the sender’s side.
 Backward Error Correction: the sender is responsible for retransmitting the
data if errors are detected by the receiver.
 The receiver signals the sender to resend the corrupted data or the entire message
to ensure accurate delivery.
Hamming Code Error Correction
 In this method extra parity bits are appended to the message which are used
by the receiver to correct the single bit error and multiple bit error.
 Consider the below example to understand this method in a better way.
 Suppose the sender wants to transmit the message whose bit representation is
‘1011001.’ In this message:
 Total number of bits (d) = 7
 Total of redundant bits (r) = 4 (This is because the message has four 1’s in it)
 Thus, total bits (d+r) = 7 + 4 = 11
 Therefore we have R1, R2, R3, and R4 as redundant bits which will be
calculated according to the following rules:
 R1 includes all the positions whose binary representation has 1 in their least
significant bit. Thus, R1 covers positions 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11.
 R2 includes all the positions whose binary representation has 1 in the second
position from the least significant bit. Thus, R2 covers positions 2,3,6,7,10,11.
 R3 includes all the positions whose binary representation has 1 in the third
position from the least significant bit. Hence, R3 covers positions 4, 5, 6, 7.
 R4 includes all the positions whose binary representation has 1 in the fourth
position from the least significant bit due to which R4 covers positions 8,9,10,11.

ELEMENTARY DATA LINK PROTOCOL

Elementary Data Link protocols are classified into three categories, as given below −
 Protocol 1 − Unrestricted simplex protocol
 Protocol 2 − Simplex stop and wait protocol
 Protocol 3 − Simplex protocol for noisy channels.

1.Unrestricted Simplex Protocol

 Data transmitting is carried out in one direction only.
 The transmission (Tx) and receiving (Rx) are always ready and the processing time can be
ignored.
 In this protocol, infinite buffer space is available, and no errors are occurring that is no
damage frames and no lost frames.
2.Simplex Stop and Wait protocol
Step1 − The receiver send the acknowledgement frame back to the sender telling the sender that the last received frame
has been processed and passed to the host.
Step 2 − Permission to send the next frame is granted.
Step 3 − The sender after sending the sent frame has to wait for an acknowledge frame from the receiver before sending
another frame.
This protocol is called Simplex Stop and wait protocol, the sender sends one frame and waits for feedback from the
receiver. When the ACK arrives, the sender sends the next frame.

3.Simplex Protocol for Noisy Channel

 Data transfer is only in one direction, consider separate sender and receiver, finite processing
capacity and speed at the receiver, since it is a noisy channel, errors in data frames or
acknowledgement frames are expected.
 Every frame has a unique sequence number.
 After a frame has been transmitted, the timer is started for a finite time.
 Before the timer expires, if the acknowledgement is not received , the frame gets
retransmitted, when the acknowledgement gets corrupted or sent data frames gets damaged,
how long the sender should wait to transmit the next frame is infinite.
SLIDING WINDOW PROTOCOLS
 Sliding window protocols are data link layer protocols for reliable and sequential delivery of
data frames.
 The sliding window is also used in Transmission Control Protocol.
 In this protocol, multiple frames can be sent by a sender at a time before receiving an
acknowledgment from the receiver.
 The term sliding window refers to the imaginary boxes to hold frames. Sliding window
method is also known as windowing.
EXAMPLE:
 The sequence numbers are numbered as modulo-n.
 For example, if the sending window size is 4, then the sequence numbers will be 0, 1, 2, 3, 0,
1, 2, 3, 0, 1, and so on.
 The number of bits in the sequence number is 2 to generate the binary sequence 00, 01, 10,
11.
 The size of the receiving window is the maximum number of frames that the receiver can
accept at a time.
 It determines the maximum number of frames that the sender can send before receiving
acknowledgment.
Types of Sliding Window Protocols
The Sliding Window ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest) protocols are of two categories −

 Go – Back – N ARQ
o Go – Back – N ARQ provides for sending multiple frames before receiving the
acknowledgment for the first frame.
o It uses the concept of sliding window, and so is also called sliding window
protocol.
o The frames are sequentially numbered and a finite number of frames are sent.
o If the acknowledgment of a frame is not received within the time period, all
frames starting from that frame are retransmitted.

 Selective Repeat ARQ

o This protocol also provides for sending multiple frames before receiving the
acknowledgment for the first frame.
 o However, here only the erroneous or lost frames are retransmitted, while the good
frames are received and buffered.
The Medium access control sub layer
 The medium access control (MAC) is a sub-layer of the data link layer of
the open system interconnections (OSI) reference model for data
transmission.
 It is responsible for flow control and multiplexing for transmission medium.
 It controls the transmission of data packets via remotely shared channels.
 It sends data over the network interface card
 The Open System Interconnections (OSI) model is a layered networking
framework that conceptualizes how communications should be done
between heterogeneous systems.
 The data link layer is the second lowest layer. It is divided into two sub
layers ?
 The logical link control (LLC) sub-layer
 The medium access control (MAC) sub-layer

Functions of MAC Layer

 It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC and upper layers
of the OSI network.
 It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for
transmission via the physical medium.
  It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination station,
or groups of destination stations.
 It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame is to
be transmitted. It determines the channel access methods for transmission.
 It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case of
collisions.
 It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection
against transmission errors.
MULTIPLE ACESS PROTOCOL
 Multiple Access Protocols are methods used in computer networks to control
how data is transmitted when multiple devices are trying to communicate over
the same network.
 These protocols ensure that data packets are sent and received efficiently,
without collisions or interference.
 They help manage the network traffic so that all devices can share the
communication channel smoothly and effectively.
Who is Responsible for the Transmission of Data?
The Data Link Layer is responsible for the transmission of data between two nodes.
Its main functions are:
 Data Link Control
 Multiple Access Control

1.Data Link Control

The data link control is responsible for the reliable transmission of messages over
transmission channels by using techniques like framing, error control and flow
control
2.Multiple Access Control
 If there is a dedicated link between the sender and the receiver then data link
control layer is sufficient.
 however if there is no dedicated link present then multiple stations can access
the channel simultaneously.
1.Random Access Protocol
 In this, all stations have same superiority that is no station has more priority than another
station.
 Any station can send data depending on medium's state( idle or busy). It has two features:
 There is no fixed time for sending data
 There is no fixed sequence of stations sending data
2.CSMA
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access ensures fewer collisions as the station is
required to first sense the medium (for idle or busy) before transmitting data.
 If it is idle then it sends data, otherwise it waits till the channel becomes idle.
However there is still chance of collision in CSMA due to propagation delay.

3.CSMA Access Modes

 1-Persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data, otherwise it
continuously keeps on checking the medium for being idle and transmits
unconditionally(with 1 probability) as soon as the channel gets idle.
 Non-Persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data, otherwise
it checks the medium after a random amount of time (not continuously) and
transmits when found idle.
 P-Persistent: The node senses the medium, if idle it sends the data with p
probability.
 If the data is not transmitted ((1-p) probability) then it waits for some time and
checks the medium again, now if it is found idle then it send with p probability.
 This repeat continues until the frame is sent. It is used in Wifi and packet radio
systems.
 O-Persistent: Superiority of nodes is decided beforehand and transmission
occurs in that order.
 If the medium is idle, node waits for its time slot to send data.
4.CSMA/CD
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection. Stations can terminate
transmission of data if collision is detected.
 For more details refer - Efficiency of CSMA/CD.
5.CSMA/CA
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance.
 The process of collisions detection involves sender receiving
acknowledgement signals.
 If there is just one signal(its own) then the data is successfully sent but if there
are two signals(its own and the one with which it has collided) then it means a
collision has occurred.
 To distinguish between these two cases, collision must have a lot of impact on
received signal.
 However it is not so in wired networks, so CSMA/CA is used in this case.

Features of Multiple Access Protocols

 Contention-Based Access: Multiple access protocols are typically contention-
based, meaning that multiple devices compete for access to the communication
channel.
 This can lead to collisions if two or more devices transmit at the same time,
which can result in data loss and decreased network performance.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): CSMA is a widely used multiple
access protocol in which devices listen for carrier signals on the communication
channel before transmitting.
 If a carrier signal is detected, the device waits for a random amount of time
before attempting to transmit to reduce the likelihood of collisions.
 Collision Detection (CD): CD is a feature of some multiple access protocols that
allows devices to detect when a collision has occurred and take appropriate
action, such as backing off and retrying the transmission.
 Collision Avoidance (CA): CA is a feature of some multiple access protocols
that attempts to avoid collisions by assigning time slots to devices for
transmission.
 Token Passing: Token passing is a multiple access protocol in which devices
pass a special token between each other to gain access to the communication
channel.
 Devices can only transmit data when they hold the token, which ensures that only
one device can transmit at a time.
 Bandwidth Utilization: Multiple access protocols can affect the overall
bandwidth utilization of a network.
 For example, contention-based protocols may result in lower bandwidth
utilization due to collisions, while token passing protocols may result in higher
bandwidth utilization due to the controlled access to the communication channel.
ALOHA
It was designed for wireless LAN but is also applicable for shared medium. In this,
multiple stations can transmit data at the same time and can hence lead to collision
and data being garbled.

Pure ALOHA
 When a station sends data it waits for an acknowledgement.
 If the acknowledgement doesn't come within the allotted time then the station
waits for a random amount of time called back-off time (Tb) and re-sends the
data
Slotted ALOHA
 It is similar to pure aloha, except that we divide time into slots and sending of data is
allowed only at the beginning of these slots.
 If a station misses out the allowed time, it must wait for the next slot.
 This reduces the probability of collision.

Collision-Free Protocols
Pay constant overhead to achieve performance guarantee
Good when network load is high
 Bit-map Protocol
 Binary Countdown
 Limited Contention Protocols
 The Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol

 1.Bit-map Protocol:
Bit map protocol is collision free Protocol. In bitmap protocol method, each contention
period consists of exactly N slots.
 If any station has to send frame, then it transmits a 1 bit in the corresponding slot. For
example, if station 2 has a frame to send, it transmits a 1 bit to the 2 nd slot.
 In general, Station 1 Announce the fact that it has a frame questions by inserting a 1 bit into
slot 1.
 In this way, each station has complete knowledge of which station wishes to transmit.
There will never be any collisions because everyone agrees on who goes next.
 Protocols like this in which the desire to transmit is broadcasting for the actual transmission
are called Reservation Protocols.

 2.Binary Countdown:
Binary countdown protocol is used to overcome the overhead 1 bit per binary station.
 In binary countdown, binary station addresses are used.
 A station wanting to use the channel broadcast its address as binary bit string starting with
the high order bit.
 All addresses are assumed of the same length.
 If these stations 0001, 1001, 1100, 1011 all are trying to seize the channel for
transmission.
 All the station at first broadcast their most significant address bit that is 0, 1, 1, 1
respectively

3. Limited Contention Protocols:

 Collision based protocols (pure and slotted ALOHA, CSMA/CD) are good when the network
load is low.
 Collision free protocols (bitmap, binary Countdown) are good when load is high.
 How about combining their advantages :
1. Behave like the ALOHA scheme under light load
2. Behave like the bitmap scheme under heavy load.
4. Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol:
 partition the group of station and limit the contention for each slot.
 Under light load, everyone can try for each slot like aloha
 Under heavy load, only a group can try for each slot

EXAMPLE:
 Treat every stations as the leaf of a binary tree first slot (after successful
transmission), all stations can try to get the slot(under the root node).
 Else, in case of conflict, only nodes under a sub-tree get to try for the next one.
(depth first search)

Slot-0 : C*, E*, F*, H* (all nodes under node 0 can try which are going to send),
conflict
Slot-1 : C* (all nodes under node 1 can try}, C sends
Slot-2 : E*, F*, H*(all nodes under node 2 can try}, conflict
Slot-3 : E*, F* (all nodes under node 5 can try to send), conflict
Slot-4 : E* (all nodes under E can try), E sends
Slot-5 : F* (all nodes under F can try), F sends
Slot-6 : H* (all nodes under node 6 can try to send), H sends.
Wireless LAN Protocols
 Wireless LANs refer to LANs (Local Area Networks) that use high
frequency radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices.
 It can be conceived as a set of laptops and other wireless devices
communicating by radio signals.
 Users connected by WLANs can move around within the area of network
coverage.
  Most WLANs are based upon the standard IEEE 802.11 or WiFi.

 Each station in a Wireless LAN has a wireless network interface controller.

 A station can be of two categories −
 Wireless Access Point (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access points. The
APs are wired together using fiber or copper wires, through the distribution
system.
 Client − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smart phones
etc.
 They are around tens of metres within the range of an AP.

Types of WLAN Protocols

IEEE 802.11 or WiFi has a number of variations, the main among which are −
 802.11a Protocol− This protocol supports very high transmission speeds of
54Mbps.
 It has a high frequency of 5GHz range, due to which signals have difficulty
in penetrating walls and other obstructions.
 It employs Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
 802.11b Protocol − This protocol operates within the frequency range of
2.4GHz and supports 11Mbps speed.
 It facilitates path sharing and is less vulnerable to obstructions.
 It uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA) with Ethernet protocol.
 802.11g Protocol − This protocol combines the features of 802.11a and
802.11b protocols.
 It supports both the frequency ranges 5GHz (as in 802.11a standard) and
2.4GHz (as in 802.11b standard). Owing to its dual features, 802.11g is
 backward compatible with 802.11b devices. 802.11g provides high speeds,
varying signal range.
 802.11n Protocol − Popularly known as Wireless N, this is an upgraded
version of 802.11g. It provides very high bandwidth up to 600Mbps and
provides signal coverage.
 It uses Multiple Input/Multiple Output (MIMO), having multiple antennas at
both the transmitter end and receiver ends.
 In case of signal obstructions, alternative routes are used. However, the
implementation is highly expensive.

Ethernet
 Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined under
IEEE standards 802.3.
 The reason behind its wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to
understand, implement, and maintain, and allows low-cost network
implementation.
 Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of the topologies that are
allowed.
 Ethernet generally uses a bus topology. Ethernet operates in two layers
of the OSI model, the physical layer and the data link layer. For
Ethernet, the protocol data unit is a frame since we mainly deal with
DLLs.
 In order to handle collisions, the Access control mechanism used
in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.

Broadband wireless
 Wireless LANs(WLANs),often known as wi-fi are local area
networks that use radio waves to connect devices enabling wireless
internet access within a limited area like a home , office, or campus.
 WLANs connect devices within a Local networks While broadband
delivers internet service to a location.

1.functions

2.scope

3.standard

4.Connections
 5.Technologys

 protocol stack, physical-layer radio transmission techniques, the

mac sub layer protocol the frame structure.
 Informally the technology is called wimax (worldwide
interoperability for microwave access).
 We will use the terms 802.16 and wimax interchangeably. the
first 802.16 standard was approved

BLUETOOTH
 All manner of consumer electronic devices now use Bluetooth from
mobile phones and laptops to headsets, printers, keyboards, mice,
Game boxes, watches, music players, navigation units, and more.
 The Bluetooth protocols let these devices find and connect to each
other, an act called pairing, and securely transfer data.
 Most network protocols just provide channels between
communicating entities and let application designers.

 Short Range: Typically operates within 10 meters (33 feet), with some
devices reaching up to 100 meters.
 Low Power Consumption: Ideal for portable and battery-operated devices.
 Secure Communication: Uses encryption and authentication to safeguard
data.
 Versatile Applications: Supports audio streaming, file transfers, device
control, and more.
 he four types of access to the cloud are public, private, hybrid, and
community:
(a) Public Cloud:
 The public cloud makes it possible for anybody to access systems and
services.
 Because of its openness, the public cloud may be less secure.
 The public cloud is one in which cloud infrastructure services are made
available through the internet to the public or large industrial groups.
 The infrastructure in this cloud model is owned by the company that delivers
the cloud service, not by the consumer.
Example: Microsoft Azure, Google App Engine
(b) Private Cloud:
 A private cloud is one in which cloud infrastructure is set aside for a
single organization's exclusive use.
 Organizations, third parties, or a mixture of both own, manage and
operate it.
 In this architecture, the cloud infrastructure is provisioned on the
organization's premises but hosted in a third-party data center..
Example: E-bay
(c) Hybrid Cloud:
 Hybrid cloud, as the name implies, is a blend of different cloud models,
such as public cloud, private cloud, and community cloud.
 This model utilizes all the models that are a component of it. As a
result, it will combine scalability, economic efficiency, and data
security into a single model.
 The complexity of creating such a storage solution is a downside of this
strategy.
(d) Community Cloud:
 The community cloud model distributes cloud infrastructure among numerous
organizations to support a specific community with shared issues.
 Cloud infrastructure is delivered on-premises or at a third-party data center in
this manner

RFID
 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a form of wireless
communication that incorporates the use of electromagnetic or electrostatic
 coupling in the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to
uniquely identify an object or person.
 It uses radio frequency to search, identify, track, and communicate with
items and people.
 RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) is a technology that uses
electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to
objects.

 Low Frequency (LF, 125-134 kHz): Used for short-range applications (up to 10 cm). Common
in animal tracking and access control.
 High Frequency (HF, 13.56 MHz): Medium range (up to 1 meter) and commonly used in
smart cards, ticketing, and library systems.
 Ultra-High Frequency (UHF, 860-960 MHz): Longer range (up to 12 meters) and used in
inventory management, supply chain, and logistics.
 Microwave Frequency (2.45 GHz): Used for very specific applications with ranges similar to
UHF but with higher data transfer rates.

DATA LINK LAYER SWITCHING

 Data link layer switching is a crucial process in computer networks that enables
efficient data transmission within a local area network (LAN) or between
interconnected LANs.
 It operates at the second layer of the OSI model, the data link layer, and utilizes
devices like bridges and switches to forward data frames based on their
destination MAC addresses.
Here's a breakdown of data link layer switching:

1. Data Link Layer Basics:

 The data link layer is responsible for framing data, which involves encapsulating data packets
into frames with source and destination MAC addresses.
 It also handles error detection and correction within a frame and manages access to the physical
medium.
2. Switching Devices:
 Bridges: Connect multiple LANs, allowing them to appear as a single network.
 Switches: Provide more sophisticated switching capabilities within a LAN, forwarding frames
based on MAC address tables.
 3. How Switching Works:
 MAC Address Learning:
Switches learn the MAC addresses of devices connected to their ports by examining the source
MAC address of incoming frames.
 Frame Forwarding:
When a frame arrives at a switch, it consults its MAC address table to determine the
appropriate port for forwarding the frame to the destination.
 Collision Avoidance:
Modern switches operate in full-duplex mode, allowing simultaneous transmission and
reception, minimizing collisions.
 Broadcast Domain Segmentation:
Switches can be configured with VLANs (Virtual LANs) to divide a broadcast domain, further
enhancing network performance and security.

4. Benefits of Data Link Layer Switching:

 Increased Network Performance:
By forwarding frames only to the intended recipient, switching reduces unnecessary traffic and
improves network speed.
 Reduced Congestion:
Full-duplex operation and MAC address learning minimize collisions and network congestion.
 Network Segmentation:
VLANs enable logical segmentation of the network, improving security and manageability.
 Simplified Management:
Switches are generally plug-and-play devices, requiring minimal configuration.
5. Key Concepts:
 MAC Address:
A unique identifier assigned to network interfaces, used for addressing at the data link layer.
 Frame:
A data unit at the data link layer, containing addressing information and data payload.
 VLAN:
 A logical network created by grouping devices together, regardless of their physical location.
 Full-duplex:
A communication mode that allows simultaneous transmission and reception.
 Broadcast Domain:
A network segment where broadcast traffic is transmitted to all connected devices.