The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the relationship between its response or

deformation to an applied load or force. Important mechanical properties are strength,

hardness,ductility and stiffness.

-Tensile test

The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the relationship between its response or deformation to an applied load or force.
Important mechanical properties are strength, hardness,ductility and stiffness. During the test the specimen undergoes an
elongation at a constant rate; the istantaneous
applied load and the elongation of the specimen are monitored using
respectively a load cell and an extensometer.

-Compressive test

A compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile test, except that the force is compressive and the specimen
contracts along the
direction of the stress. By convention, a compressive force is taken to be
negative, which yields a negative stress. Furthermore, since l0 is greater than li compressive strains are necessarily also
negative.
Application of a shear stress γ (γ = tan θ) or torsional stress torsional angle ϕ
created by an applied torque

Elastic deformation
Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called elastic deformation
The greater the modulus, the stiffer the material, or the smaller the elastic strain that results from the application of a given
stress.
Elastic deformation is nonpermanent, which means that when the applied load is released, the piece returns to its original
shape.

The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of animposed stress.At relatively low levels,
stress and strain are proportional to each other through the relationship:

Poisson ratio
When a tensile stress is imposed on a specimen, a deformation (εz) in the direction of the applied load can be observed The
stress (σ z) originates an axial deformation +εz and lateral contractions in x and y directions (-εx and
–εy). If the stress is uniaxial and the material isotropic, then the two deformations (x and y) are equal. The ratio between the
lateral and longitudinal deformations is named Poisson ratio (coefficient, modulus)
For isotropic materials the Elastic modulus and the shear modulus are related one to the other by the Poisson ratio

For isotropic materials the Elastic modulus and the shear modulus are related one to the other by the Poisson ratio. For
isotropic materials the Elastic modulus and the shear modulus are related one to the other by the Poisson ratio
Some steels and other materials exhibit the tensile stress–strain behavior in which
the elastic–plastic transition is very well defined and occurs abruptly in what is
termed a yield point phenomenon. At the upper yield point, plastic deformation is
initiated with an actual decrease in stress. Continued deformation fluctuates slightly
about some constant stress value, termed the lower yield point; stress subsequently
rises with increasing strain. The yield strength is taken as the average
stress that is associated with the lower yield point
Plastic deformation
Materials loaded beyond the yield point either fracture without any further deformation (ceramics, glasses) or, before breaking,
undergo a non-reversible deformation, named plastic deformation. From an atomic perspective, plastic deformation
corresponds to the breaking of
bonds with original atom neighbors and then reforming bonds with new neighbors as large numbers of atoms or molecules
move
relative to one another; upon removal of the stress they do not return to their original positions.

Ductility
Ductility is another important mechanical property. It is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained
at fracture. A material that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle.

Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or percent reduction in area. The percent elongation %EL
is the percentage of plastic strain at fracture, or where lf is the fracture length and l0 is the original gauge length.
Most metals possess at least a moderate degree of ductility at room temperature; however, some become brittle as the
temperature is lowered

Ductility tells us how much a material can stretch or deform plastically before it breaks.

• If a material stretches a lot before breaking → it's ductile

• If it snaps suddenly with no stretching → it's brittle

! How do we measure ductility?

There are two common ways:

1. %EL – Percent Elongation

This tells you how much longer the material becomes before it breaks.

" Formula:

%EL=(lf−l0l0)×100%EL=(l0lf−l0)×100

Where:

• l0l0 = original length

• lflf = length after breaking
✅ Bigger %EL = more ductile

2. %RA – Percent Reduction in Area

This measures how much thinner the material becomes at the point where it breaks.

" Formula:
%RA=(A0−AfA0)×100%RA=(A0A0−Af)×100

Where:

• A0A0 = original cross-sectional area

• AfAf = area after fracture

$ Graph (left side):

• The red area shows plastic strain before fracture.

• Blue line = ductile material → stretches a lot
• Red line = brittle material → breaks suddenly

% Effect of temperature:

• On the right graph:

o Higher temperature = more ductility (lines stretch further)
o Lower temperature = more brittle

& Real-life examples:

Material Behavior
Gold, Copper Very ductile
Glass, Cast iron Brittle
Ductility indicates to a designer the degree to which a structure will deform plastically before fracture. Brittle materials are
approximately considered to be those having a fracture strain of less than about 5%.

Toughness is a mechanical term that is used in several contexts; loosely speaking, it is a measure of the ability of a material to
absorb energy up to fracture. For dynamic (high strain rate) loading conditions toughness is assessed by using an impact test.
For the static (low strain rate) situation, toughness may be ascertained from the results of a tensile stress–strain test. It is the
area under the σ–ε curve up to the point of fracture. Even though the brittle material has higher yield and tensile strengths, it
has a lower toughness than the ductile one, by
virtue of lack of ductility; this is deduced by comparing the areas ABC and AB’C’
-Energy to break a unit volume of material
-Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Różnica między stress a strain w prostych słowach:

Pojęcie Co to znaczy? Jednostka Przykład codzienny

Stress Naprężenie – ile siły działa na materiał Pascal (Pa) lub N/m² Jak mocno ciągniesz gumkę
Strain Odkształcenie – jak bardzo materiał się rozciąga Bez jednostki (procent lub ułamek) Jak bardzo gumka się wydłużyła
Łatwe porównanie:

Wyobraź sobie, że ciągniesz gumkę:

• Stress = siła, którą używasz (np. 10 N)

• Strain = ile % gumka się wydłużyła (np. 20%)

' Wzory:

1. Stress (σ) = siła / pole przekroju

σ=FAσ=AF

• FF – siła (N)
• AA – powierzchnia (m²)

2. Strain (ε) = zmiana długości / pierwotna długość

ε=ΔLL0ε=L0ΔL

• ΔLΔL – wydłużenie
• L0L0 – długość początkowa

Brittle fracture: elastic energy only

• The material stores energy like a spring (this is elastic energy).

• Then it snaps suddenly — no warning, no bending or stretching.
• All the energy is released at once, like glass shattering.

( Think of: A cold candy bar that snaps in half when you bend it — it doesn’t stretch at all.

& Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy

• First, it stores elastic energy (like a spring).

• Then it bends, stretches, and deforms permanently — this is plastic energy.
• Finally, it breaks — but it absorbs much more energy before doing so.

) Think of: Chewing gum — it stretches a long time, using energy, before it finally breaks.

* Key Difference:

Type of Fracture Material Behavior Energy Absorbed

Brittle Snaps quickly, no stretch Only elastic energy
Ductile Bends, stretches, then breaks Elastic + plastic energy

After yielding, the stress necessary to continue plastic deformation in metals

increases to a maximum, and then decreases to the eventual fractureThe tensile strength TS (σr) is the stress at the
maximum on the engineering
stress–strain curve
The deformation at rupture(εr) corresponds to the plastic deformation at the
fracture

Yielding to moment, w którym materiał:

 • przestaje zachowywać się jak sprężyna (elastycznie)
• i zaczyna się trwale odkształcać – czyli nie wraca już do pierwotnego kształtu.

On the same plot:

• Metals:
o Start with linear elastic region, then show yielding, plastic deformation, and finally fracture.
o Curve goes up, flattens, and extends → ductile.
• Ceramics:
o Very steep linear elastic region and then sudden fracture.
o No plastic deformation → brittle.
• Key Differences:

Property Metals Ceramics

Elastic region Moderate slope Steep slope (high stiffness)
Plastic region Present (ductile) Absent (brittle)
Fracture behavior Gradual Sudden
Toughness High Low

Lattice energy (po polsku: energia sieci krystalicznej) to ilość energii potrzebnej do rozdzielenia jednego mola kryształu jonowego na
jego jony w stanie gazowym. Wyobraź sobie, ż e masz kryształ soli (NaCl), gdzie jony Na⁺ i Cl⁻ są ś ciś le związane w regularnej sieci.
+ Lattice energy to ilość energii, jaką trzeba dostarczyć, żeby „rozbić” tę strukturę na oddzielne jony i całkowicie je od siebie
oddzielić .

Zależy od:

1. Ładunku jonów – im większy (np. Mg²⁺ vs Na⁺), tym większa energia sieciowa
2. Rozmiaru jonów – im mniejsze jony (czyli bliżej siebie), tym więcej energii potrzeba do ich rozdzielenia

, Im wyższa energia sieciowa:

• Tym silniejsze wiązania jonowe

• Tym wyższa temperatura topnienia
• Tym mniejsza rozpuszczalność w wodzie (czasem)
• Tym większa twardość i sztywność materiału

INCORRECT Statements (crossed X):

❌ "When ion size increases, lattice energy increases"

. Correct: When ion size increases, lattice energy decreases, because larger ions are farther apart.

❌ "Melting temperature decreases when valence increases"

. Correct: Higher valence → stronger ionic bond → higher melting point.

❌ "High bonding energy → high coefficient of thermal expansion"

. Correct: High bonding energy → LOW thermal expansion, because atoms vibrate less.

❌ "Strength of bonds decreases with increasing lattice energy"

. Correct: Higher lattice energy = stronger bonds, not weaker.

❌ "Metallic bonding stronger than ionic"

. Correct: Ionic bonding is typically stronger than metallic bonding.

✅ CORRECT Concepts:

✅ High bonding energy →

• High melting point ✅

• Low thermal expansion ✅
• High stiffness (Young's modulus) ✅
• Usually low electrical conductivity (especially for ceramics) ✅
• Siła wiązań atomowych lub cząsteczkowych w ciałach stałych:

Czy jest
Zdanie Wyjaśnienie
prawdziwe?
„Jest większa dla wiązań metalicznych niż jonowych” ❌ Nie Wiązania jonowe są zwykle silniejsze
„Jest większa w materiałach o wysokiej temperaturze
✅ Tak Wysoka temperatura topnienia = silne wiązania
topnienia”
„Maleje ze wzrostem energii sieciowej” ❌ Nie Większa energia sieciowa = silniejsze wiązanie
 Czy jest
Zdanie Wyjaśnienie
prawdziwe?
Wiązania kierunkowe (np. kowalencyjne) mogą być
„Jest mniejsza dla wiązań kierunkowych” ❌ Nie
bardzo silne

In polymeric materials:

✅ “Bonding between the atoms of molecules within the chains is primarily due to non-directional covalent bonds.”

✔ True – Atoms within polymer chains (like C–C or C–H) are held by strong covalent bonds, and while covalent bonds are generally
directional, polymers allow some flexibility due to rotation in single bonds.

❌ “Bonding in-between the chains is due to covalent bonds.”

❌ False – Between chains, the bonding is usually Van der Waals, hydrogen bonding, or dipole interactions — not covalent bonds.

❌ “Bonding between the atoms of molecules within the chains is particularly directional with a fixed angle between the bonds.”

❌ False – While covalent bonds are directional, flexibility in polymer chains allows for bond rotation, especially in thermoplastics. Fixed
angles apply more to crystalline covalent solids like diamond.

❌ “Bonding between the atoms of molecules within the chains is primarily due to Van der Waals bonds.”

❌ False – Van der Waals forces are between chains, not within them. Within = covalent bonds.

0 In materials with metallic bonding:

❌ “Electrical charge is transferred by the movement of entire atoms.”

❌ False – In metals, electrons, not atoms, are mobile. Charge is transferred by the movement of free (delocalized) electrons.

✅ “Atoms move past one another with relative ease when a force is applied, causing deformation.”

✔ True – This explains why metals are ductile. Atoms are held together by a “sea of electrons,” so they can slidewithout breaking the
structure.

❌ “Electrons are bonded by secondary Van der Waals bonds.”

❌ False – Metallic bonding is not due to Van der Waals forces. It involves a delocalized electron cloud.

❌ “Bonding is particularly directional.”

❌ False – Metallic bonding is non-directional, meaning the bond strength is the same in all directions.

In polymers:

• ✔ Bonding between the atoms of molecules within the chains is primarily due to non-directional covalent bonds.

In metals:

• ✔ Atoms move past one another with relative ease when a force is applied, causing deformation.

This part shows how different materials respond over time to constant stress or strain, commonly in viscoelastic materials.

(a) Strain response to constant stress (like pulling on a material and keeping the pull):
 Graph Type What happens Material Type
1. Ideal elastic Instant strain, no time delay Metals, ceramics
2. Viscous flow Strain keeps increasing like liquid Thermoplastics, glasses
3. Elastic + plastic Strain = elastic + permanent Metals after yield point
4. Viscoelastic Strain increases slowly over time Polymers like rubber
5. Creep Strain increases slowly under constant load Ceramics and metals at high temp

(b) Stress response to constant strain (material held stretched):

• Thermoplastics above Tg (glass transition temp)

• Stress decreases over time — this is stress relaxation, typical of soft polymers and rubbers.

1 Summary:

• Polymers: strong covalent bonds within chains, weak forces between.

• Metals: atoms slide easily, electrons move freely, bonding is non-directional.
• Viscoelastic materials show time-dependent deformation (rubbers, plastics).

Hardness

Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent or a scratch).
In the past a qualitative and somewhat arbitrary hardness indexing scheme was devised, termed the Mohs scale, which ranged
from 1 on the soft end for talc to 10 for diamond. Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed over the years in
which a small indenter is forced into the surface of a material to be tested, under controlled conditions of load and rate of
application. The depth or size of the resulting indentation is measured, which in turn is related to a hardness number; the softer
the material, the larger and deeper is the indentation, and the lower the hardness index number.
Measured hardnesses are only relative!!!

Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other mechanical test for several reasons:
1. They are simple and inexpensive; ordinarily no special specimen need be prepared, and the testing apparatus is relatively
inexpensive.
2. The test is nondestructive; the specimen is neither fractured nor excessively deformed; a small indentation is the only
deformation.
3. Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from hardness data, such as tensile strength
-Rockwell hardness test
-Brinnel hardness test
Test Brinella to metoda sprawdzenia twardości materiału poprzez wciśnięcie kulki w jego powierzchnię. Im mniejsze
wgniecenie, tym większa twardość.
-Knoop and vikcers hardness test
For each test a very small diamond indenter having pyramidal geometry is forced into the surface of the specimen. Applied
loads range between 1 and 1000 g. The resulting impression is observed under a microscope and measured

Proste pęknięcie (simple fracture) to sytuacja, gdy materiał pęka na dwie lub więcej części z powodu stałego lub powoli zmieniającego
się naprężenia.

Dzieje się to przy niskiej temperaturze (w porównaniu do temperatury topnienia materiału).

Wyróżniamy 4 główne typy pękania:

1. Pękanie kruche (brittle) – materiał pęka nagle, bez odkształcenia

2. Pękanie plastyczne (ductile) – materiał się rozciąga lub wygina zanim pęknie
3. Pełzanie (creep) – materiał pęka powoli pod stałym naprężeniem, zwykle w wysokiej temp.
4. Zmęczenie materiału (fatigue) – pękanie po wielu powtarzających się obciążeniach

Brittle fracture:
- Take place in the elastic area
-Typical of Ceramics (and at T not too high)
-Take place rapidly and spontaneously
Ductile fracture:
-Exhibits substantial plastic deformation
-Typical of metals (after yielding)
-Slow propagation of the crack, with high plastic deformation
Fatigue:
-Occur as consequence of the repeated application of a load with (limited) intensity
- Usually occurs for metals and plastics
Creep
-Occur as consequence of a plastic deformation determined by a constant load
applied at a given temperature (metals)
Variability in material properties

-Elastic modulus is material property

-Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
-Statistics
Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N

Physcial properties
-thermal
-electrical
-optical
-acoustic
Thermal property”: the behaviour of a material when heat is applied
-Heat capacity
• Thermal expansion
• Thermal conductivity
• Thermal stresses