Computer Networks

🌐 1. Introduction to Computer Networks

● Computer Network:
Think of it like a road network where vehicles (data) travel between cities
(computers). The roads are wires, WiFi signals, fiber optics, etc.

● Distributed Systems:
Imagine a group project where work is divided — one friend makes the slides, another
writes the report, someone else speaks. Distributed systems = different computers doing
different parts of a bigger task.

● Classification of Networks:

1. PAN: Personal Area Network (like Bluetooth with your earphones)

2. LAN: Local Area Network (college WiFi)

3. MAN: Metropolitan Area Network (City-wide WiFi)

4. WAN: Wide Area Network (Internet)

● Layered Architecture (Preliminaries):

Like cooking a pizza:

1. Dough → 2. Sauce → 3. Toppings → 4. Cheese → 5. Bake.

Each step depends on the previous, but you don't see the dough once
the pizza is ready — similarly, network layers hide complexity from each
other.

🔌 2. Data Communication Components

● Representation of Data and Flow:
Sending data is like sending a message in a bottle — you encode your message (put
it in a bottle) and send it (throw it in the river).

● Connection Topologies:

○ Star: All friends meet at a coffee shop.

○ Ring: Pass the message in a circle.

○ Bus: Everyone talks to each other on the same group chat.

 ○ Mesh: Everyone can call everyone directly.

🔔 Memory Trick: Think "Coffee shop = Star" 🌟

● Protocols and Standards:

Think traffic rules — red light = stop, green light = go. Protocols = communication
rules, Standards = agreed rules across the world.

● OSI Model:
7 Layers =
(From bottom to top: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation,
Application)
🔔 Memory Trick: "Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away"

● Transmission Media:

○ Wired: Fiber optic cable = express highway.

○ Wireless: WiFi = airplanes flying in the sky.

🧩 3. Network Topology and Bandwidth

● LAN Types:

○ Wired LAN = Ethernet (your hostel's wired connection)

○ Wireless LAN = WiFi

○ Virtual LAN (VLAN) = Like creating mini-groups inside your WhatsApp —

separation inside a big network.

● Bandwidth Utilization Techniques:

○ Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Like different FM radio channels.

○ Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Each person gets to speak one by one —
time slots.

○ Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM): Using different colors of light on a fiber

cable.

● Spread Spectrum:
Instead of shouting your secret at once, you whisper it slowly and scatter it over time so
others can't easily catch it.
4. Data Link Layer and Medium Access Sublayer
● Error Detection/Correction:

○ Block Coding: Add a simple checksum.

○ Hamming Distance: The minimum number of single-bit changes to turn

one codeword into another. Think of how many spelling errors you
need to fix "hatt" → "hat".

● Protocols:

○ Stop and Wait: Send a parcel, wait for acknowledgment.

○ Go-back-N ARQ: Send multiple parcels but if one is broken, resend from that
point.

○ Selective Repeat ARQ: Only resend the missing parcel.

○ Sliding Window: Imagine sending 5 letters one after another without waiting for
each acknowledgment — sliding window moves forward as you get
confirmations.

● Multiple Access Protocols:

○ Pure ALOHA: Throw the ball anytime (might collide).

○ Slotted ALOHA: Only throw during your turn.

○ CSMA/CD: Listen before talking (Ethernet).

○ CSMA/CA: Shout "Is anyone speaking?" before talking (WiFi).

5. Network Layer
● Switching:
Like how trains switch tracks at a station to reach their destination.

● Logical Addressing:

○ IPv4: 192.168.1.1 (4 blocks)

 ○ IPv6: New version, longer addresses for future (because IPv4 is exhausted).

● Address Mapping:

○ ARP: "Who has this IP? Give me MAC address!"

○ RARP: "I have MAC! Tell me my IP!"

○ BOOTP: Bootstrapping — basic IP assignment.

○ DHCP: Dynamic assignment of IP addresses (plug and play internet).

● Routing:

○ Delivery: Sending data.

○ Forwarding: Finding the right path.

○ Unicast: Sending to one computer.

📦 6. Transport Layer
● Process-to-Process Communication:
Just like calling a friend inside a big building, not just reaching the building!

● Protocols:

○ UDP: "Fire and Forget" — no guarantee (like SMS).

○ TCP: Handshake and guaranteed delivery (like calling someone).

○ SCTP: Better handling of multiple streams at once.

● Congestion Control:
Like putting speed breakers when too many cars rush into a highway.

● Leaky Bucket Algorithm:

Imagine a bucket with a small hole — water (data) leaks at a fixed rate.

● Token Bucket Algorithm:

You can send burst data but only if you collected enough tokens.
🧠 7. Application Layer
● DNS: Like a phonebook — converts website name to IP.

● DDNS: Dynamic DNS — automatic updates.

● TELNET: Remote login (old-school remote control).

● EMAIL, FTP, WWW, HTTP:

○ Email: Digital letters.

○ FTP: Moving files (like Google Drive).

○ WWW: Collection of all websites.

○ HTTP: Protocol for web browsing.

● SNMP: Managing devices like routers.

● Bluetooth: Short-range wireless communication.

● Firewalls: Security guards at the network gate.

🔐 8. Network Security and Cryptography

● Electronic Mail, Directory Services:
Email = Gmail,
Directory services = like Yellow Pages — finding contact details of computers.

● Cryptography:
Like locking your letter in a secret box so only the intended receiver can open.

🚀 Quick Flash Memory Cheats:

● OSI: "Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away"

● Topology:
 ○ Coffee Shop → Star

○ Group Chat → Bus

○ Circle Game → Ring

○ Everyone Calling Everyone → Mesh

● Error Control:
Stop-and-Wait → Like sending couriers one at a time.

● Multiplexing:
Radio = FDM, Time-sharing = TDM, Fiber-optic colors = WDM